Unit 2

In Statistics, the basis of all statistical calculations or interpretation lies in the collection of
data. There are numerous methods of data collection. Both are suitable in different cases
and the knowledge of these methods is important to understand when to apply which
method.

These two methods are the Census method and Sampling method.

Census Sampling

Census method is the method of statistical enumeration where all members of the
population are studied. A population refers to the set of all observations under concern. For
example, if you want to carry out a survey to find out student’s feedback about the facilities
of your school, all the students of your school would form a part of the ‘population’ for your
study.

At a more realistic level, a country wants to maintain information and records about all
households. It can collect this information by surveying all households in the country using
the census method.

In our country, the Government conducts the Census of India every ten years. The Census
appropriates information from households regarding their incomes, the earning members,
the total number of children, members of the family, etc. This method must take into
account all the units. It cannot leave out anyone in collecting data. Once collected, the
Census of India reveals demographic information such as birth rates, death rates, total
population, population growth rate of our country, etc. The last census was conducted in
the year 2011, and due in 2021.

Sampling Method

Like we have studied, the population contains units with some similar characteristics on the
basis of which they are grouped together for the study. In the case of the Census of India,
for example, the common characteristic was that all units are Indian nationals. But it is not
always practical to collect information from all the units of the population.

It is a time-consuming and costly method. Thus, an easy way out would be to collect
information from some representative group from the population and then make
observations accordingly.

This representative group which contains some units from the whole
population is called the sample

SAMPLE DESIGN
 A sample design is the framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the selection of
a survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well.

In a broad context, survey researchers are interested in obtaining some type of information
through a survey for some population, or universe, of interest. One must define a sampling
frame that represents the population of interest, from which a sample is to be drawn. The
sampling frame may be identical to the population, or it may be only part of it and is
therefore subject to some under coverage, or it may have an indirect relationship to the
population.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points:

 Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set
of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe
the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples
of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.

 Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.

 Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is
not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative
of the population as possible.

 Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also
an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
 Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population. There may also be important sub-groups in the population about
whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design
we would accept.

 Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
 Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact,
this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample
designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one
for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.The first most important step in selecting a sample
is to determine the population. Once the population is identified, a sample must be
selected. A good sample is one which is:

 Small in size.
 It provides adequate information about the whole population.
 It takes less time to collect and is less costly.

In the case of our previous example, you could choose students from your class to be
the representative sample out of the population (all students in the school). However, there
must be some rationale behind choosing the sample. If you think your class comprises a set
of students who will give unbiased opinions/feedback or if you think your class contains
students from different backgrounds and their responses would be relevant to your student,
you must choose them as your sample. Otherwise, it is ideal to choose another sample
which might be more relevant.

Again, realistically, the government wants estimates on the average income of the Indian
household. It is difficult and time-consuming to study all households. The government can
simply choose, say, 50 households from each state of the country and calculate the average
of that to arrive at an estimate. This estimate is not necessarily the actual figure that would
be arrived at if all units of the population underwent study. But, it approximately gives an
idea of what the figure might look like.

Different

Census Sample Survey

Definition A statistical method that studies A statistical method that studies

all the units or members of a only a representative group of the
 population, and not all its
population.
members.
Calculation Total/Complete Partial
Time
It is a time-consuming process. It is a quicker process.
involved
Cost It is a relatively inexpensive
It is a costly method.
involved method.
The results obtained are The results are relatively
accurate as each member is inaccurate due to leaving out of
Accuracy
surveyed. So, there is a items from the sample. The
negligible error. resulting error is large.
Reliability Highly reliable Low reliability
The smaller the sample size, the
Error Not present
larger the error.
This method is suited for This method is suited for
Relevance
heterogeneous data. homogeneous data.
Types of Samples

Types Of Sampling Design

Probability sampling (Representative samples)

Probability samples are selected in such a way as to be representative of the

population. They provide the most valid or credible results because they reflect the
characteristics of the population from which they are selected (e.g., residents of a
particular community, students at an elementary school, etc.). There are two types of
probability samples: random and stratified.

Random sample

The term random has a very precise meaning. Each individual in the population of
interest has an equal likelihood of selection. This is a very strict meaning — you can’t
just collect responses on the street and have a random sample.

The assumption of an equal chance of selection means that sources such as a

telephone book or voter registration lists are not adequate for providing a random
sample of a community. In both these cases there will be a number of residents
whose names are not listed. Telephone surveys get around this problem by random-
digit dialling — but that assumes that everyone in the population has a telephone.
The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in the selection of the
sample. Any variation between the sample characteristics and the population
characteristics is only a matter of chance.

Stratified sample

A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the population. Before sampling, the

population is divided into characteristics of importance for the research. For
example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc. Then the population
is randomly sampled within each category or stratum. If 38% of the population is
college-educated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-
educated population.

Stratified samples are as good as or better than random samples, but they require
fairly detailed advance knowledge of the population characteristics, and therefore are
more difficult to construct.

Non-probability samples (Non-representative samples)

As they are not truly representative, non-probability samples are less desirable than
probability samples. However, a researcher may not be able to obtain a random or
stratified sample, or it may be too expensive. A researcher may not care about
generalizing to a larger population. The validity of non-probability samples can be
increased by trying to approximate random selection, and by eliminating as many
sources of bias as possible.

Quota sample

The defining characteristic of a quota sample is that the researcher deliberately sets
the proportions of levels or strata within the sample. This is generally done to insure
the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. The proportions may or may
not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population. The researcher
sets a quota, independent of population characteristics.

Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions

towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because
there are not many in that state). To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set
a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be
representative of the actual proportions in the population. This may limit generalizing
to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are
represented in the survey.

Purposive sample

A purposive sample is a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is

constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a
specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be
possible to specify the population — they would not all be known, and access will be
difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing
whoever is available.

Convenience sample

A convenience sample is a matter of taking what you can get. It is an accidental

sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the
correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being
selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.

Non-probability samples are limited with regard to generalization. Because they do

not truly represent a population, we cannot make valid inferences about the larger
group from which they are drawn. Validity can be increased by approximating
random selection as much as possible, and making every attempt to avoid
introducing bias into sample selection.

Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are
chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be considered
as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection.

The most important requirement of probability sampling is that everyone in your population
has a known and an equal chance of getting selected. For example, if you have a population
of 100 people every person would have odds of 1 in 100 for getting selected. Probability
sampling gives you the best chance to create a sample that is truly representative of the
population.

Probability sampling uses statistical theory to select randomly, a small group of people
(sample) from an existing large population and then predict that all their responses together
will match the overall population.

Probability Sampling Example

Let us take an example to understand this sampling technique. The population of the US
alone is 330 million, it is practically impossible to send a survey to every individual to gather
information but you can use probability sampling to get data which is as good even if it is
collected from a smaller population.

For example, consider hypothetically an organization has 500,000 employees sitting at

different geographic locations. The organization wishes to make certain amendment in its
human resource policy, but before they roll out the change they wish to know if the
employees will be happy with the change or not. However, it’s a tedious task to reach out to
all 500,000 employees. This is where probability sampling comes handy. A sample from the
larger population i.e from 500,000 employees can be chosen. This sample will represent the
population. A survey now can be deployed to the sample.
 From the responses received, management will now be able to know whether employees in
that organization are happy or not about the amendment.

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sample

Simple random sampling as the name suggests is a completely random method of

selecting the sample. This sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the
individuals (sample) and then randomly choosing from those numbers through an
automated process. Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that are
included in the sample.

There are two ways in which the samples are chosen in this method of sampling:
Lottery system and using number generating software/ random number table. This
sampling technique usually works around large population and has its fair share of
advantages and disadvantages.

Simple Random Sample Advantages

Ease of use represents the biggest advantage of simple random sampling. Unlike
more complicated sampling methods such as stratified random sampling and
probability sampling, no need exists to divide the population into sub-populations or
take any other additional steps before selecting members of the population at
random.

A simple random sample is meant to be an unbiased representation of a group. It is

considered a fair way to select a sample from a larger population, since every
member of the population has an equal chance of getting selected.

Simple Random Sample Disadvantages

A sampling error can occur with a simple random sample if the sample does not end
up accurately reflecting the population it is supposed to represent. For example, in
our simple random sample of 25 employees, it would be possible to draw 25 men
even if the population consisted of 125 women and 125 men. For this reason, simple
random sampling is more commonly used when the researcher knows little about the
population. If the researcher knew more, it would be better to use a different
sampling technique, such as stratified random sampling, which helps to account for
the differences within the population, such as age, race or gender. Other
disadvantages include the fact that for sampling from large populations, the process
can be time consuming and costly compared to other methods.

2. Systematic Sample

Systematic Sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the
sample. For example, you can choose every 5th person to be in the sample.
Systematic sampling is an extended implementation of the same old probability
 technique in which each member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a
sample. There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be
selected using this sampling technique.

Risks Associated With Systematic Sampling

One risk that statisticians must consider when conducting systematic sampling
involves how the list used with the sampling interval is organized. If the population
placed on the list is organized in a cyclical pattern that matches the sampling
interval, the selected sample may be biased. For example, a company’s human
resources department wants to pick a sample of employees and ask how they feel
about company policies. Employees are grouped in teams of 20, with each team
headed by a manager. If the list used to pick the sample size is organized with teams
clustered together, the statistician risks picking only managers (or no managers at
all) depending on the sampling interval.

3. Stratified Random Sample

Stratified Random sampling involves a method where a larger population can be

divided into smaller groups that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire
population together. While sampling these groups can be organized and then draw a
sample from each group separately.

A common method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity and similar ways.
Splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple random
sampling to choose members from groups.

Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all
groups get equal opportunity to be selected using simple probability. This sampling
method is also called “random quota sampling.

Advantages of Stratified Random Sampling

The main advantage of stratified random sampling is that it captures key population
characteristics in the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling
produces characteristics in the sample that are proportional to the overall population.
Stratified random sampling works well for populations with a variety of attributes but
is otherwise ineffective if subgroups cannot be formed.

Stratification gives a smaller error in estimation and greater precision than the simple
random sampling method. The greater the differences between the strata, the
greater the gain in precision.

4. Area Sampling

Area sampling is a method of sampling used when no complete frame of reference is

available. The total area under investigation is divided into small sub-areas which are
 sampled at random or according to a restricted process (stratification of sampling).
Each of the chosen sub-areas is then fully inspected and enumerated, and may form
the basis for further sampling if desired.

Application of Area sampling

The basic idea of area sampling is both simple and powerful. It enjoys wide usage in
situations where very high quality data are wanted but for which no list of universe
items exists. For instance, many governmental agencies (e.g. Bureau of Labor
Statistics) use area sampling.

However, the practical execution of a large scale area sample is highly complex.
Typically an area sampling is conducted in multiple stages, with successively smaller
area clusters being sub-sampled at each stage.

Example: A national sample of households is often constructed in a series of steps

like this:

(i) Create geographic strata, each consisting of a group of counties in more or less
close proximity. Fifty or more such strata, containing all of the roughly 3,000 US
counties, are commonly used.

(ii) Within each geographic stratum, choose a probability sample of one or more
counties (or groups of counties such as metropolitan areas).

(iii) Within each sample county (or group of counties), choose a probability sample of
places (cities, towns, etc).

(iv) Within each sample place, select a probability sample of area segments (blocks
in cities, area with identifiable boundaries in other places, etc)

(v) Finally, within sample segments choose a probability sample of households.

5. Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a way to randomly select participants when they are

geographically spread out. For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants
from the entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of
everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and
randomly selects from within those boundaries.

Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample

consists of more than a few elements, for example, city, family, university etc. The
clusters are then selected by dividing the greater population into various smaller
sections.
 Cluster Sampling: Steps

Some steps and tips to use cluster sampling for market research, are:-

 Sample: Decide the target audience and also the size of the sample.
 Create and evaluate sampling frames: Create a sampling frame by using either an
existing frame or creating a new one for the target audience. Evaluate frames on the
basis of coverage and clustering and make adjustments accordingly. These groups
will be varied considering the population which can be exclusive and comprehensive.
Members of a sample are selected individually.
 Determine groups: Determine the number of groups by including the same average
members in each group. Make sure each of these groups are distinct from one
another.
 Select clusters: Choose clusters randomly for sampling.
 Geographic segmentation: Geographic segmentation is the most commonly used
cluster sample.
 Sub-types: Cluster sampling is bifurcated into one-stage and multi-stage subtypes
on the basis of the number of steps followed by researchers to form clusters.

Cluster Sampling Methods with Examples

There are two ways to classify cluster sampling. The first way is based on the
number of stages followed to obtain the cluster sample and the second way is the
representation of the groups in the entire cluster.

The first classification is the most used in cluster sampling. In most cases, sampling
by clusters happens over multiple stages. A stage is considered to be the steps
taken to get to a desired sample and cluster sampling is divided into single-stage,
two-stage, and multiple stages.

(I) Single Stage Cluster Sampling: As the name suggests, sampling will be done
just once. An example of Single Stage Cluster Sampling –An NGO wants to create a
sample of girls across 5 neighbouring towns to provide education. Using single-stage
cluster sampling, the NGO can randomly select towns (clusters) to form a sample
and extend help to the girls deprived of education in those towns.

(II) Two-Stage Cluster Sampling: A sample created using two-stages is always

better than a sample created using a single stage because more filtered elements
can be selected which can lead to improved results from the sample. In two-stage
cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the elements of a cluster, only a handful of
members are selected from each cluster by implementing systematic or simple
random sampling. An example of Two-Stage Cluster Sampling –A business owner is
inclined towards exploring the statistical performance of her plants which are spread
across various parts of the U.S. Considering the number of plants, number of
employees per plant and work done from each plant, single-stage sampling would be
time and cost consuming. This is when she decides to conduct two-stage sampling.
The owner creates samples of employees belonging to different plants to form
clusters and then divides it into the size or operation status of the plant. A two-level
cluster sampling was formed on which other clustering techniques like simple
random sampling were applied to proceed with the calculations.

(III) Multiple Stage Cluster Sampling: For effective research to be conducted

across multiple geographies, one needs to form complicated clusters that can be
achieved only using multiple-stage cluster sampling technique. Steps of listing and
sampling will be used in this sampling method. An example of Multiple Stage Cluster
Sampling –Geographic cluster sampling is one of the most extensively implemented
cluster sampling technique. If an organization intends to conduct a survey to analyze
the performance of smartphones across Germany. They can divide the entire
country’s population into cities (clusters) and further select cities with the highest
population and also filter those using mobile devices.

Cluster Sampling Advantages

There are multiple advantages of using cluster sampling, they are:-

(I) Consumes less time and cost: Sampling of geographically divided groups
require less work, time and cost. It’s a highly economical method to observe clusters
instead of randomly doing it throughout a particular region by allocating a limited
number of resources to those selected clusters.

(II) Convenient access: Large samples can be chosen with this sampling technique
and that’ll increase accessibility to various clusters.

(III) Least loss in accuracy of data: Since there can be large samples in each
cluster, loss of accuracy in information per individual can be compensated.

(IV) Ease of implementation: Since cluster sampling facilitates information from

various areas and groups, it can be easily implemented in practical situations in
comparison to other probability sampling methods such as simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, and stratified sampling or non-probability sampling methods
such as convenience sampling.

In comparison to simple random sampling, cluster sampling can be effective in

deciding the characteristics of a group such as population and it can also be
implemented without having a sampling frame for all the elements for the entire
population.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples

based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
 In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of participating
in the study unlike probability sampling, where each member of the population has a known
chance of being selected.

Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey (a survey
that is deployed to a smaller sample compared to pre-determined sample size). Non-
probability sampling is used in studies where it is not possible to draw random probability
sampling due to time or cost considerations.

Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method, this sampling method depends heavily
on the expertise of the researchers. Non-probability sampling is carried out by methods of
observation and is widely used in qualitative research.

Advantages of non-probability sampling

(i) Non-probability sampling is a more conducive and practical method for researchers
deploying survey in the real world. Although statisticians prefer probability sampling because
it yields data in the form of numbers. However, if done correctly, non-probability sampling
can yield similar if not the same quality of results.

(ii) Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-effective as
compared to probability sampling because sample is known to researcher, they are motivated
to respond quickly as compared to people who are randomly selected.

Disadvantages of non-probability sampling

(i) In non-probability sampling, researcher needs to think through potential reasons for
biases. It is important to have a sample that represents closely the population.

(ii) While choosing a sample in non-probability sampling, researchers need to be careful

about recruits distorting data. At the end of the day, research is carried out to obtain
meaningful insights and useful data.

When to use non-probability sampling?

 This type of sampling is used to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic exists in a

population.
 This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at conducting qualitative
research, pilot studies or exploratory research.
 Non-probability sampling is used when researchers have limited time to conduct researcher
or have budget constraints.
 Non-probability sampling is conducted to observe if a particular issue needs in-depth
analysis.

1. JUDGMENT OR PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

 In judgmental sampling, the samples are selected based purely on researcher’s
knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those who he
feels are a right fit (with respect to attributes and representation of a population) to
participate in research study.

This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling
technique is that the results can be influenced by the preconceived notions of a
researcher. Thus, there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in this research
technique.

For example, this type of sampling method can be used in pilot studies.

2. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are

selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to
researcher. These samples are selected only because they are easy to recruit and
researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the entire population.

Ideally, in research, it is good to test sample that represents the population. But, in
some research, the population is too large to test and consider the entire population.
This is one of the reasons, why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is
the most common non-probability sampling technique, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.

An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to

researcher. Researcher can send the survey to students and they would act as
sample in this situation.

3. Quota Sampling

Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and
female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization.
These 500 employees are known as population. In order to understand better about
a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population. Further,
researcher is interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota
sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.

For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected
should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which means there
should be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely, the groups or strata is
selected using quota sampling.

4. Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily
available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the
researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size sample.

For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from
subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective
sample to carry out the study.