Research Methods For Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy. ISBN 0853698805, 978-0853698807
Research Methods For Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy. ISBN 0853698805, 978-0853698807
Research Methods For Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy. ISBN 0853698805, 978-0853698807
Visit the link below to download the full version of this book:
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Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
Chapter No. 16 Dated: 27/9/2010 At Time: 10:39:37
Books in the Pharmacy Business Administration Series have been prepared for
use in university level graduate and professional level courses, as well as for
continuing education and self-study uses. The series includes books covering
the major subject areas taught in Social and Administrative Pharmacy,
Pharmacy Administration, and Pharmacy MBA programs.
World-class authors with well-regarded expertise in the various respective
areas have been selected and the book outlines as well as the books themselves
have been reviewed by a number of other experts in the field. The result of this
effort is a new integrated and coordinated series of books that is up to date in
methodology, research findings, terminology, and contemporary trends and
practices.
This is one book in that series of about 12 subjects in total. It is intended
that each of the books will be revised at least every 5 years. Although the
books were intended for the North American market, they are just as relevant
in other areas.
Research Methods
for Pharmaceutical
Practice and Policy
Edited by
Rajender R Aparasu MPharm, PhD
Professor and Division Head of Pharmacy Administration and Public Health,
College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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Dedication
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
About the editor xix
Contributors xxi
2 Conceptualizing research 17
CM Brown
Introduction 17
Definition of concepts and constructs 18
Theory in healthcare research 18
Common theoretical models in healthcare utilization and outcomes 21
Importance of using a theoretical framework in pharmaceutical
practice and policy research 29
Types of variables in pharmaceutical practice and policy research 30
Scientific relationships in pharmaceutical practice and policy research 32
Connecting theory and variables in pharmaceutical practice and policy 33
Summary and conclusions 34
Review questions/topics 35
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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viii | Contents
3 Operationalizing research 37
KM Kamal
Introduction 37
Steps in operationalization 38
Research problems 38
Research questions 41
Hypothesis 45
Operationalization 48
Summary and conclusions 51
Review questions 52
5 Experimental designs 71
KA Lawson
Introduction 71
Causal relationships 72
Experimental research 72
Types of experiments 75
Validity considerations in experimental research 76
Types of experimental designs 81
Other experimental design considerations 86
Strengths and limitations of experimental designs 87
Summary and conclusions 87
Review questions/topics 88
6 Nonexperimental research 89
ML Johnson
Introduction 89
Role of nonexperimental research 90
Types of nonexperimental research 92
Bias and confounding in nonexperimental studies 96
Analytic methods to adjust for confounding factors 100
A look at advanced techniques 101
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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Contents | ix
x | Contents
Contents | xi
Index 299
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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Preface
In recent years, pharmaceutical practice and policy research has gained prom-
inence due to the increasing visibility of pharmacists, pharmaceuticals, phar-
macist services, and pharmacy systems in the healthcare system. Providers,
patients, payers, and policy makers are concerned about cost, access, and
quality of pharmaceutical care. There is increasing pressure on pharmacists
and pharmacy systems to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and safety of
pharmaceuticals and pharmacist services. This requires evidence-based prac-
tices and policies rooted in sound scientific principles to achieve the desired
healthcare goals.
Scientific innovations have played a prominent role in the growth of the
pharmaceutical market. Pharmaceutical firms have traditionally funded
basic and applied research on pharmaceuticals. Federal agencies such as the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Agency for Healthcare Research
and Quality (AHRQ) have strongly supported safety and effectiveness studies
for pharmaceutical products. These funding mechanisms have led to extensive
growth in the pharmaceutical product knowledge base in terms of safety and
effectiveness. It is not only vital to have a scientific knowledge base but also
important to incorporate the existing knowledge into current practices and
policies. This is often referred to as evidence-based practice and policy.
Increasingly evidence-based medicine has become synonymous with quality
of health. Several nonfederal agencies, such as the Joint Commission and
National Committee for Quality Assurance, have developed process measures
of quality from these proven practices. The AHRQ (2008) has funded several
centers across the nation to generate and promote evidence-based practices
and the emphasis on their implementation continues to increase.
Recently, researchers and practitioners are focusing on comparative effec-
tiveness to improve efficient use of pharmaceutical products. The goal of the
comparative research is to provide information to decision makers at
both individual and population levels (Institute of Medicine 2009). The com-
parative effectiveness research has come to the forefront due to limited com-
parative data on safety and effectiveness. The efficacy data derived from
placebo-controlled clinical trials are designed for the drug approval process.
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xiv | Preface
Preface | xv
xvi | Preface
of the book can be delivered in one semester. Each chapter builds on the
previous chapters to logically progress from conceptualization to implemen-
tation of research studies. Additional reading and a project/proposal can
improve the critical thinking skills of the students and also provide a mech-
anism to implement the research techniques. The online resources and chapter
references can be used to supplement the content. In addition, recent journal
articles relevant to the chapter can be useful in strengthening the conceptual
and practical understanding of principles and techniques of conducting phar-
maceutical practice and policy research. This book can also be an excellent
resource for pharmacy students in professional programs, undergraduate
students in pharmaceutical sciences, and pharmacists in residencies and fel-
lowships, while also providing a useful tool to pharmacy practitioners and
researchers.
I would really appreciate feedback from students and faculty for future
editions. All knowledge is considered as work in progress including the con-
tents of this book.
References
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2008). Evidence-based Practice Centers:
Synthesizing scientific evidence to improve quality and effectiveness in health care.
Overview. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Online (updated
November 10, 2008). Available at www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epc (accessed October 14, 2009).
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2009). Centers for Education & Research on
Therapeutics (CERTs). Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Online
(updated March 6, 2009). Available at www.certs.hhs.gov (accessed October 14, 2009).
Institute of Medicine (2009). Initial national priorities for comparative effectiveness research.
Washington, DC: National Academies Pr.
Wells KB, Strum R (1996). Informing the policy process: from efficacy to effectiveness data on
pharmacotherapy. J Consulting Clin Psychol 64: 638–45.
Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy
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Acknowledgments
Contributors
Betsey Jackson, MS
President, Health Data Services Corporation, Carlisle, MA, USA
xxii | Contributors
1
Scientific approach to
pharmaceutical practice
and policy research
Rajender R Aparasu
Chapter objectives
* To define pharmaceutical practice and policy research
* To introduce the knowledge base and stakeholders in
pharmaceutical policy research
* To describe the guiding principles for scientific inquiries
* To discuss the stages of pharmaceutical practice and policy
research
Introduction
Pharmaceuticals and pharmacist services are integral parts of healthcare
delivery, and pharmacists and pharmacy systems play a critical role in current
healthcare. Pharmaceutical practice and policy research is an applied field of
research that deals with issues impacting pharmaceuticals, pharmacists, and
pharmacy systems. It has evolved over the decades consistent with changes in
healthcare delivery in general and the evolution of pharmaceutical care in
specific. Applied research methodologies in health services research have also
been instrumental in the growth of pharmaceutical practice and policy
research. Pharmaceutical practice and policy research helps in the growth
of the applied scientific knowledge base to aid decisions relevant to patients,
providers, payers, and policy makers. It also helps to improve the practice of
pharmacy and promote the profession. With increasing complexities of deliv-
ering pharmaceutical care, research has become the cornerstone in safe and
effective delivery of pharmaceutical care.