Notes Psy CHP 07

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CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES

NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS

A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting
and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its
members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.

Groups have the following salient characteristics :

• A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to
the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and
gives the group its unique identity.

• A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either
working towards a given goal, or away from certain threats facing the group.

• A collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e. what one is doing may have
consequences for others. Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket team drops an important catch
during a match — this will have consequence for the entire team.

• Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association also influence each
other. • A gathering of individuals who interact with one another either directly or indirectly.

• A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms. This
means that the group members perform the same functions every time the group meets and the
group members adhere to group norms. Norms tell us how we ought to behave in the group
and specify the behaviours expected from group members.

Groups can be differentiated from other collections of people. For example, a crowd is also a
collection of people who may be present at a place/situation by chance. Suppose you are going
on the road and an accident takes place. Soon a large number of people tend to collect. This is
an example of a crowd. There is neither any structure nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd.
Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and there is no interdependence among members.

Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills and are
committed to a common goal or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for their activities.
In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through the coordinated efforts of the members.
The main differences between groups and teams are:

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• In groups, performance is dependent on contributions of individual members. In teams, both
individual contributions and teamwork matter.

• In groups, the leader or whoever is heading the group holds responsibility for the work.
However in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves responsible.

An audience is also a collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose, may be
to watch a cricket match or a movie. Audiences are generally passive but sometimes they go
into a frenzy and become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite sense of purpose. There is
polarisation in attention, and actions of persons are in a common direction. Mob behaviour is
characterised by homogeneity of thought and behaviour as well as impulsivity.

Why Do People Join Groups?

• Security : When we are alone, we feel insecure. Groups reduce this insecurity. Being with
people gives a sense of comfort, and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less
vulnerable to threats.

• Status : When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others, we feel
recognised and experience a sense of power. Suppose your school wins in an inter - institutional
debate competition, you feel proud and think that you are better than others.

• Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity.
Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept.

• Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s social and
psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention, love, and
power through a group. • Goal achievement : Groups help in achieving such goals which
cannot be attained individually. There is power in the majority.

• Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge and


information and thus broadens our view. As individuals, we may not have all the required
information. Groups supplement this information and knowledge.

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GROUP FORMATION

Basic to group formation is some contact and some form of interaction between people. This
interaction is facilitated by the following conditions:

• Proximity : Just think about your group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were
not living in the same colony, or going to the same school, or may be playing in the same
playground? Probably your answer would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions with the same set of
individuals give us a chance to know them, and their interests and attitudes. Common interests,
attitudes, and background are important determinants of your liking for your group members.

• Similarity : Being exposed to someone over a period of time makes us assess our similarities
and paves the way for formation of groups. Why do we like people who are similar?
Psychologists have given several explanations for this. One explanation is that people prefer
consistency and like relationships that are consistent. When two people are similar, there is
consistency and they start liking each other. For example, you like playing football and another
person in your class also loves playing football; there is a matching of your interests. There are
higher chances that you may become friends. Another explanation given by psychologists is
that when we meet similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and values, we feel
we are right and thus we start liking them. Suppose you are of the opinion that too much
watching of television is not good, because it shows too much violence. You meet someone
who also has similar views. This validates your opinion, and you start liking the person who
was instrumental in validating your opinion.

• Common motives and goals : When people have common motives or goals, they get together
and form a group which may facilitate their goal attainment. Suppose you want to teach
children in a slum area who are unable to go to school. You cannot do this alone because you
have your own studies and homework. You, therefore, form a group of like-minded friends and
start teaching these children. So you have been able to achieve what you could not have done
alone.

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STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION

Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five developmental sequences. These are:
forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

• When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group, the goal,
and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in.
There is excitement as well as apprehensions. This stage is called the forming stage.

• Often, after this stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming.
In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the target of the group is to be
achieved, who is to control the group and its resources, and who is to perform what task. When
this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops and a clear
vision as to how to achieve the group goal.

• The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming. Group members by this
time develop norms related to group behaviour. This leads to development of a positive group
identity.

• The fourth stage is performing. By this time, the structure of the group has evolved and is
accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some
groups, this may be the last stage of group development.

• However, for some groups, for example, in the case of an organising committee for a school
function, there may be another stage known as adjourning stage. In this stage, once the
function is over, the group may be disbanded.

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ELEMENTS OF GROUP STRUCTURE

Four important elements of group structure are :

• Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to
fulfil. Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context. You
have the role of a son or a daughter and with this role, there are certain role expectations, i.e.
including the behaviour expected of someone in a particular role. As a daughter or a son, you
are expected to respect elders, listen to them, and be responsible towards your studies.

• Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and
enforced by group members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your
family, there are norms that guide the behaviour of family members. These norms represent
shared ways of viewing the world.

• Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others. This relative
position or status may be either ascribed (given may be because of one’s seniority) or achieved
(the person has achieved status because of expertise or hard work). By being members of the
group, we enjoy the status associated with that group. All of us, therefore, strive to be members
of such groups which are high in status or are viewed favourably by others. Even within a
group, different members have different prestige and status. For example, the captain of a
cricket team has a higher status compared to the other members, although all are equally
important for the team’s success.

• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members. As


the group becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act as a social unit,
and less like isolated individuals. Members of a highly cohesive group have a greater desire to
remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to low cohesive groups. Cohesiveness
refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness to the group. It is difficult
to leave a cohesive group or to gain membership of a group which is highly cohesive. Extreme
cohesiveness however, may sometimes not be in a group’s interest. Psychologists have
identified the phenomenon of groupthink which is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness.

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TYPE OF GROUPS

Primary and Secondary Groups

A major difference between primary and secondary groups is that primary groups are pre-
existing formations which are usually given to the individual whereas secondary groups are
those which the individual joins by choice. Thus, family, caste, and religion are primary groups
whereas membership of a political party is an example of a secondary group. In a primary
group, there is a face-to-face interaction, members have close physical proximity, and they
share warm emotional bonds. Primary groups are central to individual’s functioning and have
a very major role in developing values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of
development.

In contrast, secondary groups are those where relationships among members are more
impersonal, indirect, and less frequent. In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable,
i.e. members do not have the option to choose its membership as compared to secondary groups
where it is easy to leave and join another group.

Formal and Informal Groups

The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an office organisation.
The roles to be performed by group members are stated in an explicit manner. The formal and
informal groups differ on the basis of structure. The formation of formal groups is based on
some specific rules or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of norms which
help in establishing order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the
formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close relationship among
members.

In group and Out Group

The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group. For
ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used.
By using the words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has been
found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably,
and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often
perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members.

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INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Social Loafing

Social facilitation research suggests that presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate
individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This
enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. What would happen if
efforts of an individual in a group are pooled so that you look at the performance of the group
as a whole? Do you know what often happens? It has been found that individuals work less
hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to
as ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a
collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An
example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to identify how
much force each member of the team has been exerting. Such situations give opportunities to
group members to relax and become a free rider.

GROUP POLARISATION

When groups take decisions, there is a fear that the phenomenon of groupthink may sometimes
occur. Groups show another tendency referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has been found that
groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Suppose there is an
employee who has been caught taking bribe or engaging in some other unethical act. Her/his
colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment s/he should be given. They may let her/him
go scot-free or decide to terminate her/his services instead of imposing a punishment which
may be commensurate with the unethical act s/he had engaged in. Whatever the initial position
in the group, this position becomes much stronger as a result of discussions in the group. This
strengthening of the group’s initial position as a result of group interaction and discussion is
referred to as group polarisation. This may sometimes have dangerous repercussions as groups
may take extreme positions, i.e. from very weak to very strong decisions.

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CO-OPERATION AND COMPETITION

Behaviours in most social situations are characterised by either ‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’.


When groups work together to achieve shared goals, we refer to it as cooperation. The rewards
in cooperative situations are group rewards and not individual rewards.

Social groups may have both competitive as well as cooperative goals. Competitive goals are
set in such a way that each individual can get her/his goal only if others do not attain their
goals. For example, you can come first in a competition only if others do not perform to such
a level that they can be judged as first. A cooperative goal, on the other hand, is one in which
each individual can attain the goal only if other members of the group also attain the goal.

Let us try to understand this from an example from athletics. In a hundred metres race between
six people, only one can be the winner. Success depends on individual performance. In a relay
race, victory depends on the collective performance of all members of a team. Deutsch
investigated cooperation and competition within groups. College students were assigned to
groups of five persons and were required to solve puzzles and problems. One set of groups,
referred to as the ‘cooperative group’, were told that they would be rewarded collectively for
their performance.

The other set of groups, labelled as ‘competitive group’ were told that there was a reward for
individual excellence. Results showed that in cooperative groups, there was more coordination,
there was acceptance for each other’s ideas, and members were more friendly than those in the
competitive group. The main concern of the members of the cooperative group was to see that
the group excels. Although competition between individuals within a group may result in
conflict and disharmony, competition between groups may increase within group cohesion and
solidarity.

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DETERMINANTS OF COOPERATION AND COMPETITION

(i) Reward structure : Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate or
compete will depend on the reward structure. Cooperative reward structure is one
in which there is promotive interdependence. Each is beneficiary of the reward and
reward is possible only if all contribute. A competitive reward structure is one in
which one can get a reward only if others do not get it.
(ii) Interpersonal communication : When there is good interpersonal communication,
then cooperation is the likely consequence. Communication facilitates interaction,
and discussion. As a result, group members can convince each other and learn about
each other.
(iii) Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that people feel obliged to return what they get.
Initial cooperation may encourage more cooperation. Competition may provoke
more competition. If someone helps, you feel like helping that person; on the other
hand, if someone refuses to help you when you need help, you would not like to
help that person also.

INTERGROUP CONFLICT: NATURE AND CAUSES

Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that others (individual
or group) have opposing interests, and both try to contradict each other. There is this intense
feeling of ‘we’ and ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). There is also a belief by both parties that
the other will protect only its own interests; their (the other side’s) interests will, therefore, not
be protected. There is not only opposition of each other, but they also try to exert power on
each other. Groups have been found to be more aggressive than individuals. This often leads
to escalation of conflict.

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Mentioned below are some of the major reasons for group conflicts.

• One major reason is lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This
kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results.

• Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a
group compare themselves with members of another group, and perceive that they do not have
what they desire to have, which the other group has. In other words, they feel that they are not
doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and
discontentment, which may trigger off conflict.

• Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other, and what it is
saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other. One
may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets
escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/his group.

• A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and actually violates
those norms because of a malevolent intent.

• Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict.

• Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts. As already mentioned earlier, feelings of
‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions.

• Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more
aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both
material resources, e.g. territory, and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem.

• Perceived inequity is another reason for conflict. Equity refers to distribution of rewards in
proportion to an individual’s contributions, if: But, if you contribute more and get less, you are
likely to feel irritated and exploited.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES

Introduction of superordinate goals : Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the section on


cooperation and competition, showed that by introducing superordinate goals, intergroup
conflict can be reduced. A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both
groups work cooperatively.

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Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and reactions
through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups differently in
society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning

Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict can also be reduced by increasing contacts between
the groups. This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral grounds through
community projects and events. The idea is to bring them together so that they become more
appreciative of each other’s stand. However, for contacts to be successful, they need to be
maintained, which means that they should be supported over a period of time.

Redrawing group boundaries : Another technique that has been suggested by some
psychologists is redrawing the group boundaries. This can be done by creating conditions
where groups boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging
to a common group.

Negotiations : Conflict can also be resolved through negotiations and third party
interventions. Warring groups can resolve conflict by trying to find mutually acceptable
solutions. This requires understanding and trust. Negotiation refers to reciprocal
communications so as to reach an agreement in situations in which there is a conflict.
Sometimes it is difficult to dissipate conflict through negotiations; at that time mediation and
arbitration by a third party is needed. Mediators help both parties to focus their discussions on
the relevant issues and reach a voluntary agreement. In arbitration, the third party has the
authority to give a decision after hearing both parties.

Structural solutions : Conflict can also be reduced by redistributing the societal resources
according to principles based on justice. Research on justice has identified several principles
of justice. Some of these are : equality (allocating equally to every one), need (allocating on
the basis of needs), and equity (allocating on the basis of contributions of members).

Respect for other group’s norms : In a pluralist society like India, it is necessary to respect
and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups. It has been noticed
that a number of communal riots between different groups have taken place because of such
insensitivity.

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QUESTION BANK

SHORT ANSWERS (2 MKS)


1) Distinguish between Teams and Groups.
2) Define crowd and audience.
3) Distinguish between primary groups and secondary groups.
4) Distinguish between In group and Out group.
5) Distinguish between Formal groups and Informal groups.

LONG ANSWERS (3 MKS)

1) What are some of the reasons why people join groups?


2) Write a short note on social loafing and social facilitation.
3) Write a short note on group polarisation
4) Explain the three determinants of Co-operation and Competition.

VERY LONG ANSWERS (4 MKS)

1) Define “group”. Describe any three Salient characteristics of groups


2) Explain Proximity and Similarity as factors facilitating group formation.
3) Explain the stages of group formation giving suitable examples
4) Which are the four elements of group structure? Explain any 2 in detail.
5) Explain the terms Cooperation and Competition and write down the difference between
the two giving examples.
6) Describe some major reasons for group conflicts.
7) Explain any four Conflict resolution strategies

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