INTERNSHIP AND INDUSTRIAL VISIT REPORT

submitted by

ARJUN .P. PREMAN

Register No: SPT15EE008

to

the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree

of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical And Electronics Engineering

Sreepathy Institute of Management and Technology
Vavanoor, Palakkad

JULY 2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES iii

1 INTERNSHIP REPORT 1

1.1 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP ON SIMULATION SOFTWARE AND

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 DESCRIPTION ON INTERNSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.2 FAMILIARIZATION OF ARDUINO BOARDS . . . . . . 2

1.1.3 INTRODUCTION TO PCB FABRICATION . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP AT KSEB-TMR DIVISION . . . . . . 6

1.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF TMR SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF TRANSFORMER . . 7

1.3 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP IN BASICS OF PLC SCADA . . . . 14

1.3.1 DESCRIPTION OF PLC SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.3.2 PROGRAMMING IN PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 INDUSTRIAL VISIT REPORT 20

2.1 REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL VISIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

i
 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Arduino UNO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Arduino NANO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Printed Circuit Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.4 Core with Yoke blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Core completed and yoke blades removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.6 HV Normal coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.7 HV Tap coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.8 Coil inserted on core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.9 Coil-core assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.10 LV Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.11 Vapour Phase Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.12 Repack and tanking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.13 tanking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.14 LV Connections inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.15 Completed construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.16 PLC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.17 AND Gate and Truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.18 AND Gate Realization using PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.19 OR Gate and Truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.20 OR Gate Realization using PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.21 NOT Gate and Truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

ii
1.22 NOT Gate Realization using PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.23 NAND Gate and Truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.24 NAND Gate Realization using PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.25 NOR Gate and Truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.26 NOR Gate Realization using PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Power Project . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2 Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Power Project . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3 Penstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.4 Hydroelectric turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.5 Draft tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.6 DAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

iii
 CHAPTER 1

INTERNSHIP REPORT

1.1 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP ON SIMULATION SOFTWARE

AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Branch /Semester /Admission : EEE /S3 /2015

Date of Internship : 25/07/2016 to 29/07/2016

Name of student : ARJUN .P. PREMAN

Place of Internship : SIMAT , VAVANNOOR

No. of days attended : 5 days

1.1.1 DESCRIPTION ON INTERNSHIP

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger

mechanical or electrical system, often with real time computing constraints. It is em-
bedded on a part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts.
Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. Modern embedded
systems are often based on micro controllers (ie, CPUS with integrated memory or pe-
ripheral inter faces). But ordinary microprocessors (using external chips for memory
and peripheral inter face circuits) are also common. A common STD class of dedicated
processors is the Digital Signal Processor (DSP). After giving basic ideas about embed-
ded system, micro processers and micro controllers. He explained about some sensors.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any
one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a
signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor location or transmitted
electronically over a network for reading or further processing.

Arduino is a hardware and software company, project, and user community that
designs and manufactures computer open source hard ware, open source software and
micro controller-based kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can
sense and control physical devices. The project is based on microcontroller board de-

1
signs, produced by several vendors, using various microcontrollers. These systems
provide sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that can interface to vari-
ous expansion boards (termed shields) and other circuits. The boards feature serial
communication interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models, for
loading programs from personal computers. For programming the microcontrollers,
the Arduino project provides an Integrated Development environment (IDE) based on
a programming language named Processing which also supports the language C and
C++.

1.1.2 FAMILIARIZATION OF ARDUINO BOARDS

1. ARDUINO UNO :

The Arduino UNO is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip

ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped
with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various
expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 Digital pins, 6 Analog
pins, and programmable with the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment)
via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the USB cable or by an external 9-volt
battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is also similar to the Ar-
duino Nano and Leonardo. Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can
be used as an input or output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() func-
tions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as recommended
operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-
50k ohm. A maximum of 40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin
to avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller.

Specifications :

• Operating Voltage: 5 Volts

• Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts

• Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

• Analog Input Pins: 6

• DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA

2
 Figure 1.1: Arduino UNO

• DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA

• Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

• SRAM: 2 KB

• EEPROM: 1 KB

2. ARDUINO NANO :

The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board based on

the ATmega328 (Arduino Nano 3.0) or ATmega168 (Arduino Nano 2.x). It has more or
less the same functionality of the Arduino Duemilanove, but in a different package. It
lacks only a DC power jack, and works with a Mini-B USB cable instead of a standard
one. The Nano was designed and is being produced by Gravitech.

Specifications :

• Operating Voltage: (logic level) 5 V

• Input Voltage: (recommended) 7-12 V

• Input Voltage: (limits) 6-20 V

• Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

3
 Figure 1.2: Arduino NANO

• Analog Input Pins: 8

• DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA

• Flash Memory: 16 KB (ATmega168) or 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 2 KB

used by bootloader

• SRAM: 1 KB (ATmega168) or 2 KB (ATmega328)

• EEPROM: 512 bytes (ATmega168) or 1 KB (ATmega328)

1.1.3 INTRODUCTION TO PCB FABRICATION

The printed circuit board (PCB) acts as the linchpin for almost all of todays modern
electronics. If the device needs to do some sort of computation-such as is the case even
with simple items like a digital clock-chances are there is a PCB inside of it. PCBs
bring electronics to life by routing electrical signals where they need to go to satisfy all
of the devices electronic requirements. For this to happen, PCBs are laid with a network
of paths outlined in the traces. It is these copper pathways that allow PCBs to direct
electrical currents around their surface.

4
STEPS IN PCB FABRICATION

• Designing the PCB

• Printing the PCB Design

• Printing the Copper for the Interior Layers

• Getting Rid of the Unneeded Copper

• Inspection and Layer Alignment

• Laminating the PCB Layers

• Drilling and PCB Plating

• Imaging and Plating the outer layer

• The Last Etching

• Applying the Solder Mask

• Finishing the PCB and Silkscreening

• Electrical Reliability Testing

• Cutting and Profiling

Figure 1.3: Printed Circuit Board

5
1.2 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP AT KSEB-TMR DIVISION

Branch /Semester /Admission : EEE /S5 /2015

Date of Internship : 11/07/2017 to 15/07/2017

Name of student : ARJUN .P. PREMAN

Place of Internship : KSEB-TMR DIVISION, SHORNUR

No. of days attended : 5 days

1.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF TMR SECTION

TMR DIVISION is the testing laboratory under the Government of Kerala. The
laboratory is situated in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. It provides testing and manufac-
tring services to KERALA STATE ELECTRICITY BOARD, primarily meter testing
and calibration facilities. The laboratory is NABL accredited and has various divisions
namely: Calibration, Electrical Testing, High Voltage Testing, Acoustic, Photometry.
The services provided include Calibration of Calibrators, Energy Meter, Ammeter-AC
DC, Watt meter, Frequency meter, Power factor meter, Earth Tester, Insulation Tester,
Phase Sequence Indicator, Multimeter, Harmonic Analyser, Transformer Oil Testing
H.V Test of wires, cables, conduits, insulators. Testing of current transformers, Test-
ing of potential transformers, Testing of CT/PT units, Testing of power and distribution
Transformers, All pre-commissioning tests for Transformer, Generator, Motors, Testing
of relays using primary and secondary injection, Testing of Isolators, Switches, MCB,
MCCB. Measurement of sound level, luminous intensity, Harmonics up to 50th Har-
monics with data logging Facility.

6
1.2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF TRANSFORMER

1. CORE FORMATION : Core cutting and stacking

Figure 1.4: Core with Yoke blades

Figure 1.5: Core completed and yoke blades removed

The magnetic core of the transformer is built up of cold rolled grain oriented
(CRGO) magnetic steel laminations. Hi-B grade and laser scribed lamination is used
to reduce the no load losses and noise. Laminations are cut at an angle of 45degree.
Core leg and yoke laminations are interleaved in mitred joints in order to facilitate the
passage of the magnetic flux, to avoid hot spots and to reduce no load losses and sound
level. Temporary bolt guides are used for stacking.

7
 2. COIL WINDING

Figure 1.6: HV Normal coil

Figure 1.7: HV Tap coil

The windings are designed to optimize dynamic, thermal, mechanical electrical

stresses depending upon the current voltage requirements. Depending on the specific
design criteria, spiral, cross over Helical, continuous disc, partly interleaved or fully in-
terleaved windings are used. Steel winding mandrels are used to ensure tight tolerances.
Axial and radial cooling ducts in and between sections of the windings allow the free
flow of oil around the conductor. Individual coils are dried and hydraulically pressed
to size in accordance with the calculated short circuit forces to obtain the design height
and to guarantee full short circuit resistance.

8
 3. COIL AND CORE ASSEMBLY

Figure 1.8: Coil inserted on core

Figure 1.9: Coil-core assembly

Exposed edges of core are bonded with low viscosity, high strength epoxy resin
which penetrates and bonds laminations. Prefabricated coil to clamp insulation is placed
on bottom clamps . Coils are lowered over the core and after top coil to clamp insula-
tion, the top core is inserted. Windings are clamped using external or internal tie rods
to provide additional support for axial forces. Leads and busbars are rigidly supported
to withstand forces from shipping short circuits. Assembly is moved on air cushions .

9
 4. LV BRAZING

Figure 1.10: LV Brazing

The brazing process begins with preparation of pieces to be joined, including

machining and cleaning of joint details, fixturing of the pieces to maintain orienta-
tion and desired joint clearance, and placement of braze filler material adjacent to the
joint. The joint areais then heated, either through the application of a localized heating
source or by heating the entire assembly (e.g., in a furnace). Upon reaching a temper-
ature sufficient to melt the filler metal, capillary forces draw the liquid metal into the
gap; subsequent cooling results in solidification of the filler metal and formation of the
brazed structure.

5. VAPOUR PHASE UNIT

Complete core and coil assembly is dried using a vapour phase cycle method
.Power factor water extraction are continually monitored. Kerosene is vaporized drawn
by vacuum into autoclave.Vapor phase drying is the method which applies vacuum but
the method of heating is not through air. In this method the carrier of heat is vapor of
low viscosity solvent like kerosene with a sufficiently high flash point instead of air.

10
 Figure 1.11: Vapour Phase Unit

the vapor is heated in a chamber by the use of electric heaters and is passed over the
core coil assembly kept inside for drying. The solvent vapors thus condense on the
drying mass and are collected back in form of liquid solvent which is recirculated in
the system. For this purpose the vapor phase drying systems have an evaporator and
condenser system in addition to the vacuum chamber and vacuum pulling equipments
such as vacuum pump, roots pump etc which are part of conventional vacuum system.
Thus the system in total consists of solvent heat conveyer system consisting of storage,
evaporation, condensation, filtration, solvent feedback and control arrangement.

6. REPACK AND TANKING

After vapour phase unit is re-packed and undergoes final hydraulic clamping .
Maximum exposure time to atmosphere is limited to under 16 hours.

11
 Figure 1.12: Repack and tanking

7. FINAL ASSEMBLY

Figure 1.13: tanking

Installation of conservator, radiators, pumps, fans, etc.

12
Figure 1.14: LV Connections inside

Figure 1.15: Completed construction

13
1.3 REPORT ON INTERNSHIP IN BASICS OF PLC SCADA

Branch /Semester /Admission : EEE /S7 /2015

Date of Internship : 21/07/2018 to 25/07/2018

Name of student : ARJUN .P. PREMAN

Place of Internship : LIVEWIRE, THRISSUR

No. of days attended : 5 days

1.3.1 DESCRIPTION OF PLC SCADA

PLC is Programmable Logic Controller. PLCs can range from small modular
devices with tens of inputs and outputs (I/O), in a housing integral with the processor,
to large rack-mounted modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O, and which are
often networked to other PLC and SCADA systems. They can be designed for multi-
ple arrangements of digital and analog I/O, extended temperature ranges, immunity to
electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine
operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. Many early
PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable of graph-
ical representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a series of
logic expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As
programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used
and because it was a familiar format used for electro-mechanical control panels. PLCs
solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the pro-
grammer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing of the logic
sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a control system archi-

tecture that uses computers, networked data communications and graphical user inter-
faces for high-level process supervisory management, but uses other peripheral devices
such as programmable logic controller (PLC) and discrete PID controllers to interface
with the process plant or machinery. The use of SCADA has been also considered
for management and operations of project-driven-process in construction. The oper-
ator interfaces that enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as

14
 Figure 1.16: PLC System

controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. How-
ever, the real-time control logic or controller calculations are performed by networked
modules that connect to the field sensors and actuators.

1.3.2 PROGRAMMING IN PLC

PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal com-

puter, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC.
The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-
volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of
relays.

The most basic function of a programmable controller is to emulate the functions

of electro-mechanical relays. Discrete inputs are given a unique address, and a PLC
instruction can test if the input state is on or off. In an electro-mechanical relay wiring
diagram, a group of contacts controlling one coil is called a RUNG of a LADDER
DIAGRAM, and this concept is also used to describe PLC logic. Some PLCs enforce a
strict left-to-right, top-to-bottom execution order for evaluating the rung logic. This is
different from electro-mechanical relay contacts, which in a sufficiently complex circuit
may either pass current left-to-right or right-to-left, depending on the configuration of
surrounding contacts. More advanced instructions of the PLC may be implemented as

15
functional blocks, which carry out some operation when enabled by a logical input and
which produce outputs to signal.

1. REALIZATION OF AND GATE USING PLC

Figure 1.17: AND Gate and Truth table

The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical conjunction-it
behaves according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results only if all
the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH (1). If none or not all inputs to the AND gate are
HIGH, a LOW output results.

Figure 1.18: AND Gate Realization using PLC

By connecting Normally Open / XIC contacts in series, AND gate can be imple-
mented. When both inputs are set to 1, then and then only output goes high.

2. REALIZATION OF OR GATE USING PLC

Figure 1.19: OR Gate and Truth table

The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical disjunction-it behaves

16
according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the
inputs to the gate are HIGH (1). If neither input is high, a LOW output (0) results.

Figure 1.20: OR Gate Realization using PLC

By connecting Normally Open / XIC contacts in parallel, OR Gate can be imple-

mented. When either input is set to high, output goes high.

3. REALIZATION OF NOT GATE USING PLC

Figure 1.21: NOT Gate and Truth table

Inverting NOT gates are single input devices which have an output level that is
normally at logic level 1 and goes LOW to a logic level 0 when its single input is at
logic level 1, in other words it inverts(complements) its input signal. By using just one

Figure 1.22: NOT Gate Realization using PLC

Normally Closed / XIO contact, NOT Logic Gate can be implemented. Inverted state
of input is obtained as an output.

17
 4. REALIZATION OF NAND GATE USING PLC

Figure 1.23: NAND Gate and Truth table

NAND gate (NOT-AND) is a logic gate which produces an output which is false
only if all its inputs are true; thus its output is complement to that of an AND gate. A
LOW (0) output results only if all the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1); if any input is
LOW (0), a HIGH (1) output results.

Figure 1.24: NAND Gate Realization using PLC

By connecting Normally Closed contacts in parallel to each other, NAND Gate can
be implemented. Or by simply inverting output of AND gate, NAND Gate can be
implemented.

5. REALIZATION OF NOR GATE USING PLC

Figure 1.25: NOR Gate and Truth table

18
 NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical NOR-it behaves according
to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate
are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results.

Figure 1.26: NOR Gate Realization using PLC

By connecting Normally Closed / XIO contacts in series, NOR Logic Gate can be
implemented. If both inputs are Reset to 0, output goes High otherwise remains in Low
state. Or by inverting output of a OR Gate, that is by using output of OR Gate as an
input of NOT Gate, NOR Gate can be implemented.

19
 CHAPTER 2

INDUSTRIAL VISIT REPORT

2.1 REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL VISIT

Branch / Semester/ Admission : EEE/ S4/ 2015

Date of IV : 24/02/2017

Staff accompanied : Prof. Sebin Sunny .P, Asst.Profeessor, EEE Dept. ,

Prof. Nimisha Ravi, Asst.Profeessor, EEE Dept.

Name of Student : ARJUN .P. PREMAN

No. of students in the class : 37

No. of students attended IV : 37

Place of IV : NERIAMANGALAM HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION

DESCRIPTION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION

Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Project is located in the Panamkutty Power House, at

Kallarkutty Pambla Road of Idukki in Kerala. It was commissioned in 1961. It has an
approved capacity of 77.65 MW. The Type of Project is Major, as the capacity is greater
than 25 Megawatt. The type of Powerhouse is Surface and the status of power plant is
Operational. The source of water for the generation of power is Mudriapuzha/Periyar.

The basin is west flowing rivers and the power plant is located in the Hydroelectric
Region of South India. The hydroelectric development type of power plant is Run
of River Pondage. The power station is owned by Kerala State Government and the
operating company is Kerala State Electricity Board. The Beneficiary State of the power
plant is Kerala. The power project is completed in 1963 and it started its operations from
the same year itself.

The total number of Turbines in the power plant is 4 and capacity per turbine is
3 turbines x 17.55 MW and 1 turbine x 25 MW. The type of Turbine used is Francis.

20
The Turbine maker is Charmilles Switzerland and Generator maker is Brown Boveri
Switzerland.

The Unit Size of power plant is 77.65 MW (3 units x 17.55 MW and 1 unit x 25
MW). So the total number of units is four. The Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Project
has 3 units and Neriamangalam Extension Scheme has 1 unit. All the four units are
commissioned. The first three units are commissioned in 27 -01-1961, 09-04-1961 and
11-05-1963 respectively with an installed capacity of 17.55 MW for each units and the
fourth unit is commissioned in 27-05- 2008 with an installed capacity of 25 MW.

Figure 2.1: Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Power Project

Figure 2.2: Neriamangalam Hydroelectric Power Project

21
 FAMILIARIZATION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION PARTS

1. PENSTOCK AND SPILLWAY

Penstock is a pipe between the surge tank and the prime-mover. The structural de-
sign of the penstock is same as for any other pipe expect it has to bear high pressure on
the inside surface during sudden decease in the load and increase in the load. Penstocks
are made of steel through reinforced concrete. Penstocks are usually equipped with the
head gates at the inlet which can be closed during the repair of the penstocks, A suffi-
cient water head should be provided above the penstock entrance in the forebay or surge
tank to avoid the formation of vortices which may carry air in to the penstock and re-
sulting in lower turbine blade efficiency. The function of spillway is to provide safety of
the dam. Spillway should have the capacity to discharge major floods without damage
to the dam and at the same time keeps the reservoir levels below some predetermined
maximum level.

Figure 2.3: Penstock

2. POWER HOUSE

A power house consists of two main parts, a sub-structure to support the hydraulic
and electrical equipment and a superstructure to house and protect this equipment. The
superstructure of most power plants is the buildings that house all the operating equip-
ment. The generating unit and the exciter is located in the ground floor. The turbines
which rotate on vertical axis are placed below the floor level while those rotating on a

22
horizontal axis are placed on the ground floor alongside of the generator.

3. PRIME MOVERS OR TURBINES AND DRAFT TUBES

The main function of prime movers or hydro turbines is to convert the kinetic en-
ergy of the water in to the mechanical energy to produce the electric power. The prime
movers which are in common use are pelton wheel, francis turbine and kaplan tur-
bines.The draft tube is a part of the reaction turbine. The draft tube is a diverging
discharge passage connecting the running with tailrace. It is shaped to decelerate the
flow with a minimum loss so that the remaining kinetic energy of the water coming out
of the runner is efficiently regained by converting into suction head., thereby increasing
the total pressure difference on the runner. This regain of kinetic energy of the water
coming out from the reaction turbine is the primary function of the draft tube. The re-
gain of static suction head in case where the runner is located above the tail water level
is the secondary purpose of the draft tube.

Figure 2.4: Hydroelectric turbine

4. SURGE TANK AND FOREBAY

The main function of surge tank is to reduce the water hammering effect. When
there is a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock which can be due sudden de-
crease in the load demand on the generator. When there is sudden decrease in the load,
the turbine gates admitting water to the turbine closes suddenly owing to the action of
the governor. This sudden rise in the pressure in the penstock will cause the positive

23
 Figure 2.5: Draft tube

water hammering effect. This may lead to burst of the penstock because of high pres-
sures. When there is sudden increase in the load, governor valves opens and accepts
more water to the turbine. This results in creation of vacuum in the penstock resulting
into the negative water hammering effect. Therefore the penstock should have to with-
stand both positive water hammering effect created due to close of governor valve and
negative water hammering effect due to opening of governor valve.In order to protect
the penstock from these water hammering effects, surge tank is used in hydroelectric
power station. A surge tank is introduced in the system between dam and the power
house nearest. Surge tank is a tank provided to absorb any water surges caused in the
penstock due to sudden loading and unloading of the generator. When the velocity of
the water in the penstock decreases due to closing of turbine valves, the water level in
the surge tank increases and fluctuating up and down till its motion is damped out by
the friction. Similarly when the water accelerates in the penstock, water is provided by
the surge tank for acceleration. Surge tank water level falls down and fluctuates up and
down absorbing the surges.

The function of forebay is to act as regulating reservoir temporarily storing water

when the load on the plant is reduced and to provide water for initial increment of an
increasing load while water in the canal is being accelerated. In many cases, the canal
itself is large enough to absorb the flow variations. In short, forebay is naturally pro-
vided for storage of water to absorb any flow variations if exist. This can be considered

24
as naturally provided surge tank as it does the function of the surge tank. The fore-
bay is always provided with some type of outlet structure to direct water to penstock
depending upon the local conditions.

5. DAM AND RESERVOIR

The function of dam is to increase the height of the water level (increase in the
potential energy) behind it which ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam
also helps in increasing the working head of the power plant. Dams are generally built
to provide necessary head to the power plant. The function or purpose of reservoir is to
store the water during rainy season and supply the same during dry season. This is in
simple, water storage area.

Figure 2.6: DAM

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