Subsonic – Basics

Longitudinal line = nose - tail

Chord line = leading edge of wing – trailing edge
Angle of attack = chord line – relative/undisturbed airflow
- difference between pitch attitude and flight path angle
- speed vector and longitudinal axis
Flight path angle is the angle between the horizon and the flight path (speed vector). Also
called climb or descent angle.
Pitch angle is the angle between the horizon and longitudinal axis of the aircraft, it is equal to
Flight path angle + Angle of attack.
Pitch angle = FPA + AoA
Bank angle is the angle between the lateral axis and the horizon.

Angle of incidence = chord line – longitudinal axis

- Constant
- Smaller at the wingtip -> washout -> helps to maintain stability in a stall -> reduced
AoI + AoA at the wingtip -> smoother airflow aboth -> ailerons at wingtips are more
effective
AoA is smaller at the wing tip than at the wing root -> daher wird at the wing tip auch
weniger lift generated -> stall passiert zuerst at the wing root
The wing angle of incidence usually varies from root to tip. This is called wing washout and
its purpose is... to ensure that stall occurs at the root first, maximising controllability.
Washout from the root to the tip is only a few degrees (zB 3) -> if the root is flying at 10
degrees AoA, the tip is flying at only 7 degrees AoA

Aspect ratio = wingspan/mean geometric chord (mittlere Flügeltiefe) -> lange Flügel =
high aspect ratio
Rectangular wing = span/chord
Swept or tapered = span^2/area

Aspect ratio of a tapered wing, is the ratio of...

wing span squared over gross wing area.
Wing area = wing span * chord
Mean geometric cord C = wing area (S) / wing span (b)
Lift is the: component of the total aerodynamic force, perpendicular (senkrecht) to the
undisturbed airflow.
Drag acts in the direction of the relative wind/airflow. Lift is Perpendicular to the relative
wind/airflow.
Continuity equation: Mass flow = A x p x v = constant
A- cross section area; p- air density; V- velocity
 Mass flow bleibt gleich, auch wenn sich zB Temperatur erhöht -> density decreases,
weshalb velocity sich erhöht
The relationship between pressure, density and absolute temperature of a given mass of air
can be expressed as follows:
p / (rho × T) = constant (p/rhoT = konstant)
Druck / (Dichte * Temparatur) = konstant
Stagnation Point = local velocity of the fluid is zero
Bernoulli equation: static pressure is highest when the velocity is zero and hence static
pressure is at its maximum value at stagnation points: in this case static pressure
equals stagnation pressure.

Wing taper ratio

= ratio between the wing tip chord and the wing root chord
A tapered wing means that the wing chord line gets shorter going from root to tip.
Any number less than 1 indicates that the wing is tapered.
THICKNESS/CHORD RATIO
The ratio of the maximum thickness of an aerofoil to the chord length expressed as a
percentage - usually between 10% and 12% of the chord
Consider an aerofoil section. The relative thickness is the ratio of...
maximum thickness to chord length.
Relative thickness (Höhe) of an aerofoil is expressed in -> % chord
Mean camber line
Connects the leading and trailing edge midway between the upper and lower surface of an
aerofoil
Static pressure -> acts in all directions
Total pressure = static + dynamic = stagnation pressure = pitot pressure
Dynamic pressure hängt ab von density und velocity (siehe Formel)
Increasing humidity decreases air density = this is the most signifcant for take-off and
landing performance -> water vapour has less density than dry air
Mach number = TAS / speed of sound
Coefficient of lift
- Ratio surface pressure / dynamic pressure
- Varies with AoA and camber and thickness to chord ratio (T/C)
- Thicker wings have a higher CoL max -> stalls at a higher angle
- Camber: higher Camber (Wölbung) = higher CoL + the whole CoL-graph is pushed
up -> cambered design accelerates the air more than symmetrical wings (higher
dynamic pressure / larger pressure differential) -> creates lift even when at zero AoA
(wenn es also noch in der Ebene ist beim take-off)
When I extend the flaps, I increase the Camber/Curvature of the wing (higher AoA + Cl –
higher Lift) -> I also get a larger surface area -> more Lift
Flaps and Cl + AoA
Trailing edge (TE) flaps increase the Lift coefficient max, but reduce the stalling angle
(genauso wie thicker camber).
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
- Chord line length varies from root to tip
- Average length = MAC
- Untwisted; same pitching moment and lift characteristics as the actual wing
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) for a given wing of any planform is...
the chord of an equivalent untwisted, rectangular wing with the same pitching moment and
lift characteristics as the actual wing.
Mean = Middle of the wing = The only location where there is no twist and the wing is
straight

It is usually located at approximately 33% of the semi-span from the wing root. The MAC is
often used to reference the location of the center of gravity. It is the primary reference for
longitudinal stability.
Center of Pressure
CoP = theoretical point on the chord line; through which the resultant of all forces (the total
reaction) is said to act = the sum of all moments there is zero

aerodynamic centre never changes

Centre of pressure changes with AOA
Stagnation point changes with AOA

AOA Increase - Stagnation Point goes DOWN - Centre of Pressure Goes FWD
AOA Decrease – Stagnation Point goes UP - Centre of Pressure Goes AFT
 Same direction
Straight and level flight -> L = W = m * g = ½ * p * v2 * S * Cl
Coefficient of lift (max) = von groß nach klein
1. Positively cambered with 12% thickness (highest Cl at the highest AoA)
2. negatively cambered with 12% thickness
3. Symmetrical with 12% thickness
4. Symmetrical with 6% thickness
Unterschied symmetrical / cambered im Graph
- Symmetrical camber geht durch den Graph-Ursprung
- Positively cambered hat bereits bei AoA (0) einen positiven Cl
- Negatively cambered (= Volumen großteils unterhalb der chord line) hat bei AoA (0) einen
negativen Cl (der Clmax ist hier aber trotzdem höher als bei symmetrical cambers)
Bsp, in denen sich Geschwindigkeit ändert und man neuen Cl berechnen muss
- Lift soll gleichbleiben, daher muss man Cl anpassen -> daher Lalt = Lneu
- Lalt = v1^2 * Cl1 (hat man beides) = v2 (hat man auch)^2 * Cl2 (unbekannte)
- Formel auf Cl2 umformen
Dynamic pressure = speed
Wing tip vortices
Slow, heavy, clean are the three major conditions generating stronger wing
vortices. Extending the flaps increases the coefficient of lift (CL), which means that for a
given speed, a lower angle of attack will be required, which reduces the wing tip vortices
strength.

“Stronger with a high aspect ratio” and “Not related to aspect ratio”. Incorrect. The
magnitude of the wingtip vortices is inversely proportional to aspect ratio

WING LOADING
The total aircraft weight supported per unit area of the wing; measured in Newtons per
square metre (N/m2).
Wing Loading = Aircraft Weight / wing area
Load Factor: (n) = Lift (L) / Weight (W)
Fuß in Meter umrechnen -> 1 m = 3,27 ft (Rule of thumb 1m/s=200ft/min)

In order to improve the stalling characteristics of an airplane, the wing's angle of incidence
was changed but within limits. What is likely to happen?
The wing section with a bigger angle of incidence will stall.
= The part of the wing with a bigger incidence will stall BEFORE the one with a smaller.
Which translates in: stall will happen at the root instead of the tip enhancing stability and
controllability.

Two-dimensional airflow around an aerofoil

The location of the wing centre of pressure (CP) forward or aft of the CG, influences the:
Pitching moment and consequently the direction of the stabiliser balancing force.
 CP behind CG induces a pitch down moment. CP infront of CG induces a pitch up
moment
 CP ist wie ein Faden, an dem das Flugzeug hängt -> Faden vorne -> nose up
Cambered airfoils: Center of pressure (fixed for symmetrical)
The centre of pressure is the point on the chord line of an aerofoil, where all the aerodynamic
forces are concentrated. The centre of pressure (CP) moves with changes in angle of attack.

To compensate for the pitching moments generated by the location of the CP, a balancing
force must be created by the tailplane (Höhenleitwerk).

Assuming no flow separation and no compressibility effects the location of the centre of
pressure of a symmetrical aerofoil section:

Is independent of AoA (keyword: symmetrical)

symmetrical airfoil - about 25% of chord line. INDEPENDENT of aoa

positively cambered airfoil - varies with aoa. increase aoa cp moves fwd. decrease aoa cp
moves aft. for a stall wing (there is a q on this somewhere btw) the cp moves fwd until clmax
reached and then moves aft.

also aerodynamic centre has nothing to do with aoa. it is a fixed point on the aircraft wing
where there is no change in pitch with changing alpha. however, it assumes no compressibility
and no separation for that to be true.

Minimum airspeed is determined by the maximum lift coefficient (CL for minimum
horizontal flight speed).

Bei Beispielen „straight and level flight“ = Lift bleibt gleich

- When speed is increased: Lift force bleibt gleich (obwohl v up); daher muss Cl
weniger werden -> nose down (smaller AoA) -> CoP moves aft

The aerodynamic centre of the wing is the point, where

the pitching moment coefficient does not vary with angle of attack.

AC/DC - Aerodynamic Centre Doesn't Change

What kind of drag will you find on a wing with no lift? Parasite (pressure/form, friction,
interference)

Wing-tip vortices are formed by the...

spanwise flow of higher pressure air from beneath the wing outward and upward into the
lower pressure air above the wing.

Skin friction drag is caused by the...

air’s viscosity producing shear forces within the boundary layer.

Größe speed relative airflow (V), stagnation point (V1), highest point upper camber (V2)
V1 = 0

V2 > V (rate of a increases with increasing AoA)

Two dimensional airflow -> form/pressure drag and skin friction drag

The Aerodynamic Centre (AC) is in front of the CoP.

Typically the CL/CD ratio is: maximum at an angle of attack of 4°.

max L/D 16*
max CL/CD 4*
AOA Decreases = flow & lift DECREASES
If indicated airspeed does not change, what remains constant?
Dynamic pressure
IAS: dynamic pressure
TAS: density
As angle of attack is increased on a conventional low speed aerofoil at low subsonic speeds,
flow separation normally starts on the:
Upper surface near the trailing edge
When they ask about flow separation they are not asking about the part where flow goes up or
down on the leading edge. But the part the boundary layer is too turbulent and the flow
separates from the airfoil.
The lift force, acting on an aerofoil: (no flow separation)
is mainly caused by reduced pressure on the upper surface.
The pressure distribution varies with the angle of attack - at a normal angle of attack CL is
greater than CD.
Where would you expect the forward stagnation point of an aerofoil to be during slow flight?
Lower surface
The lift- and drag forces, acting on an aerofoil: depend on the pressure distribution around the
aerofoil.
reduction in an aerofoil’s angle of attack results in the speed of the flow over the upper
surface to... decrease and the lifting ability of the aerofoil to decrease.
Increasing Cl (low – high)
1. Dünn, zero AoA
2. Dünn, AoA
3. Dick, zero AoA
4. Dick, AoA
Relevance to Cl: Camber > AoA
Originating point of the resultant force caused by pressure distribution around an airfoil =
Center of Pressure
Its direction forms a 90° angle with the relative airflow (APPEAL – 90° is lift)
Reducing risk for tail strike during take-off -> rotate at a slightly higher speed / reduce
rotation rate
Cause for undesired speed increase during Final Approach -> inadequate flap setting (not
enough)
The increased camber from flap deflection produces lift primarily on the rear portion of the
wing. This produces a nose-down pitching moment. Flaps produce greater lift and,
consequently, greater drag, permitting a steep descent angle without airspeed increase.
An aeroplane in straight and level flight is subjected to a strong vertical gust. The point on the
wing, where the instantaneous variation in wing lift effectively acts is known as the
Aerodynamic centre of the wing

CP is the point where LIFT ACTs and here we are talking about GUST, external force hitting
the wing, in the PIVOT POINT
Pilot control intput >>>>> Acft attitude change around CG
Aerodynamic intput >>>>> Acft attitude change around AC (25% chord symmetric)

Coefficients
Lift – Drag coefficients ratio – polar curve of an airfoil:

Best L/D ratio / best glide range speed

Point B is the point at which a tangent from the origin touches the polar curve = here the total
drag is minimum – the lift/drag ratio is maximum and the IAS in level flight is Vmd =
speed at which the longest glide distance will be achieved
The highest value of the CL/CD ratio of an aeroplane is obtained:
In the clean configuration (where drag is lowest – all flaps cause drag)
In straight and level flight, which sentence is correct regarding the CL/CD ratio?
It depends on the AoA
The Lift to Drag ratio (CL/CD) is a measure of how much lift an aircraft produces per unit of
drag. So an aircraft with a Lift to Drag ratio of 10/1 is producing 10 times more lift than it is
producing drag.
- Depends on the AoA
- Usually lift is higher than drag -> ratio usually over 1
Coefficient of drag
dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the resistance of an object whilst moving
through a fluid
Coefficient of lift is: A variable depending on dynamic pressure (= velocity) and the wing area
-> Lift-Formel nach Cl umformen
By fitting winglets to the wing tip, the strength of the wing tip vortices is reduced which in
turn reduces induced drag.
In straight and level flight at a speed of 1.8 Vs, the lift coefficient, expressed as a percentage
of its maximum CLMAX, would be:
L = v2 * Cl => Cl = 1 / 1.8^2 -> Lift Coefficient is 31 % of the coefficient at Vs

A light aircraft is flying straight and level at 110 kts and a CL of 0.42. Calculate the new CL, if
the pilot immediately pulls into a climb with a load factor of 2.2.
CLMAX = 1.1
Aircraft mass = 1300 kg
- Level flight: load factor = 1 (g)
- New n/Original n = New Cl/Original Cl
- New Cl = 0,42 * 2.2/1 = 0,92 = 92 %
Cl new = Cl old * n (new Load factor)
if actual lift coefficient is 0.42 and you increase load factor to 2.2 new CL must be way higher
which eliminates 0.5 and you are left with only one option
Lift is generated when:
the flow direction of a certain mass of air is changed = air direction change = air goes to
upper & lower airfoil = pressure difference = lift
Coefficient of lift = dimensionless number that gives the relationship between lift force per
unit wing area and dynamic pressure -> Cl = L/v2
What is/are the force(s) acting on a symmetrical aerofoil element when the upstream airflow
is parallel to the chord line?
Weight and (parasite) drag
- Airflow parallel to the chord line = zero degrees AoA -> Luft hat gleichen Weg über
und unter dem airfoil -> no pressure differential = no lift
Wing tip vortices -> are stronger in clean configuration (heavy, clean, slow)
Wing tip vortices increase if:
1) + AoA
2) + Weight
3) - Aspect Ratio
4) - V
5) clean configuration
Aspect Ratio = Cl^2 / Cdi
 Bei Bsp, wo Cl geändert wird, ist davon auszugehen -> ARold = ARnew
 Deswegen -> Cl^2 / Cdi (jeweils alt) = Cl^2 / Cdi (jeweils neu)
 Nach Cdi neu umformen

The coefficient of drag = ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure (Cd = D/v^2)

Three-dimensional airflow around an aeroplane

Induced drag increases
1) With decreasing speed
2) With increasing mass (because as aircraft get heavier, the wings have to produce more
lift -> Cl has to increase -> higher AoA -> stronger vortices)

 Higher AR = Lower induced drag

 Higher AoA = higher induced drag
 Higher weight = higher AoA = higher induced drag
 Higher speed = lower AoA = lower induced drag
 Winglets = lower induced drag.

The stronger the wingtip vortices, the greater the downwash behind the wing.

Entering ground effect reduces the effect of wingtip vortices, making the wing more efficient,
due to the reduced downwash (as the air cannot flow down as much due to the ground in the
way).

Induced drag coefficient:

- Proportional to the square of the lift coefficient

- Inversely proportional to speed
Unterschied Coefficient of Lift und spanwise lift distribution
Correct: An elliptical wing produces more lift closer to the root (more area per unit of
wing span)
The elliptical wing has an equal Cl along the wing. However, lift depends also on the surface
of the wing S. So, lift itself is not equally produced by the wing, as the surface S per unit of
wing span is not constant.
Lift force is predominant close to the root, but the LIFT COEFFICIENT is constant along the
span

The ratio of lift to drag is constant in the hole span (because when lift reduces, the drag also
reduces, thats why the coefficient stays the same).
The correct statement simply says that an elliptical wing produces more lift near the root, in
comparison with the rest of that same wing.
Planform = shape of wing when looked on from above
Lowest induced drag -> elliptical planform
The main factors affecting induced drag are wing planform, aspect ratio, speed, and
weight/lift.
The effect of planform is the principal factor affecting induced drag. The size of the wing tip
vortex is directly related to the length of the wing tip chord.
A rectangular planform wing produces a much larger vortex than the tapered section. This is
because the longer the tip chord, the greater the spillage of air from the lower surface onto the
upper surface, and the larger the wing tip vortex.
In aerodynamic terms, the elliptical planform wing is the most aerodynamically
efficient because the downwash remains constant across the complete wingspan, giving
minimal induced drag.
Lowest - Elliptical
Highest – Rectangular

External tip tanks on the wings -> parasite drag increases (more surface area in contact with
the air); induced drag decreases, the shape of the tip tanks help prevent the flow around the
tip - decreasing the vortices
 They act like winglets
Removing externals =
Parasite drag decreases .
Induced drag increases
Which statement is true regarding a reduction in induced drag?
Decreased upwash and decreased induced angle of attack.
An increase/decrease in downwash is preceded by a respective increase/decrease in upwash.
Upwash: Upwash refers to the upward movement of air ahead of the leading edge of an
airfoil. As the airfoil moves through the air, it deflects some of the incoming air upwards.

Downwash: Downwash is the downward deflection of air that occurs behind the trailing edge
of an airfoil. After the air passes over and under the wing, it is directed downward.

So they are directly connected -> upwash = tip vortices

The induced drag coefficient is inversely proportional to the aspect ratio of an aircraft.
This is because the tip vortices of a high aspect ratio wing affect a smaller proportion of the
wingspan. This leads to a decrease in downwash and therefore a smaller rearward vector of
the lift force.
Cdi=Cl^2/(AR*const)
Which of the following are means to reduce induced drag?
Increasing the aspect ratio and wing twist, adding winglets.
Induced drag is directly proportional to mass and inversely proportional to speed
When speed decreases, induced drag increases.
When mass decreases, induced drag decreases.
Flap extension at constant IAS whilst maintaining straight and level flight will increase the:
maximum lift coefficient (CLMAX) and the drag.
Flaps increase Cl and Cl max, but the question asks for what happens if we deploy flaps at a
constant IAS.
If we dploy flaps we will increase drag and that would slow us, so to mantain IAS we need to
decrease our AoA, our Cl would decrease. To sum up flaps will always increase our CLMAX
and our drag but not always increase our CL
flaps extending --> increase Drag, Cl Max and Lift
- But as we fly straight and level Lift must be constant. So to keep Lift contant with contant
IAS , we have to Decrease Cl

Rectangular wing -> upper surface of the wing has a component acting in the direction of the
wing root
Upper = root
Lower = tip
An increased aspect ratio results in a reduced wing drag coefficient.
At the highest value of the lift/drag ratio the total drag is lowest (4°) – optimum AoA
Polar diagram of Cl vs Cd

Flaps
Flaps increase our CLMAX and also increase drag, so the graph would move up and to the
right
"Landing Gear"
Landing Gear won't affect our lift, but they will increase drag, so the graph will move to the
right only, not downwards like we see in the Number 2.
"Lift dumpers"
Lift dumpers such as wing spoilers reduce lift (as per their name) by ruining the airflow over
the wing, and increase drag through this very same method, and by putting an obstruction in
the airflow. They would cause the graph to go down and to the right, which matches up with
Graph 2.
"Slats"
Slats allow an increase in the CLMAX as they allow for higher angles of attack to be flown, but
they do not increase drag by very much, so the graph would move upwards, with perhaps a
slight movement to the right near the top.
What happens to the graph? CL (-) & CD (+)
Which option causes reduction of lift and increases drag?
=> Lift dumpers (/ Spoilers) / speed brakes

INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT

CDI = CL2 / π * AR
Increasing the angle of attack increases CL. From the formula we can deduct that Induced
drag is directly proportional to CL squared.
So, increasing the angle of attack increases CL, which increases induced drag.
The induced drag decreases with airspeed (with a rate of 1/V²) and increases with angle of
attack and increasing weight.
Describe the airflow with regards to the induced drag...
From the bottom to the top via the tip
Induced drag will decrease if ahead of the wing the upwash...
decreases because induced (not: effective) angle of attack decreases
When you decrease your Induced AoA, the Upwash decreases, so your Induced Drag
decreases.
The image illustrates the same aeroplane flying at two different angles of attack (AOA), 2°
and 12°, and a simplified representation of the streamlines in the 3D airflow around the wing.
The pilot of the aeroplane reduces airspeed while increasing pitch from an AoA of 2° to an
AoA of 12° in order to maintain straight and level flight. At the end of the speed reduction, the
lift vector will have...
changed direction by a value greater than 10°, with the lift vector pointing more rearwards
because of a larger induced AOA.
Erklärung: When flying at higher angles of attack, more wingtip vortices, more induced
drag.
The angle of "tilt" of the effective lift vector is the same angle that our angle of attack changes
by (from actual AoA to effective AoA), and this angle of attack that we "lose" is called
the induced angle of attack. This is particularly useful knowledge for questions about ground
effect.

Now to look at this question. When the aircraft slows down and increases its angle of attack to
remain straight and level, the actual lift vector (90º to the relative airflow - so directly
upwards) must stay the same direction and magnitude, to counteract the weight of the
aircraft. The increase in AoA causes an increase in the strength of the wingtip vortices, and
therefore the upwash ahead of the wing, thus increasing the induced AoA (the angle of
attack that is lost). This means that the "effective lift vector" of the wings tilts back
somewhat and increases in magnitude (to keep the actual lift constant), creating more induced
drag. This "angle of tilt" (the induced AoA) is much less than the change in total AoA of 10º.
Using normal wings, it would be in the region of 3º change.
Therefore, the "effective lift vector" would tilt back by around 3º and increase in magnitude,
due to the larger induced AoA.

As an aeroplane slows down during the approach, the wing tip vortices and downwash will
vary in intensity. How does this affect the induced angle of attack? Induced angle of attack
will...
increase, especially near the wing tip.
High aspect ratio = decreasing induced drag and critical AoA
The fundamental difference between the aerodynamic characteristics of two and three-
dimensional flow is that, in a three-dimensional flow about a wing:
a spanwise component exists in addition to the chordwise speed component.
Spanwise = induced drag
The 3-dimensional streamline flow pattern adds the spanwise flow from the wing root towards
the wing tip.
The vortex strength is greatest for heavy aeroplanes at low airspeed and in the clean
configuration, which is just after rotation at take-off. Vortices only cease when the nose-wheel
touches down during landing ground run.
Behind a large aircraft the trailing vortices can extend as much as nine nautical miles.
To avoid this vortices, the best course of action is to start a climb.
In straight and level flight, the spanwise flow on an unswept wing is from the...
lower surface to the upper surface via the wing tip.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MnB6Lqr91Yc
What is the consequence of decreasing the wing's upwash?
Decrease induced drag since effective AoA increases.

In order to keep straight and level, if the airspeed increases, the EAF is (1) _____, the
effective AoA is (2) ______ and the induced drag is (3) ______
(1) shallower, (2) greater, (3) smaller

- if speed increases, you know that induced drag decreases. -> 2 options left
- if *induced* drag is lower, that means that *induced* AoA will be also lower. And induced
and effective AoA are always INVERSE to each other, therefore the effective AoA must be
greater. -> 1 option left

The greater the downwash, the greater the lift being generated by the aerofoil.
An aeroplane’s Lift/Drag (L/D) ratio is... a measure of its efficiency

Total Drag curve

The area to the left of the minimum drag is known as the speed instability area, where a
decrease in speed results in an increase in drag. This is due to the fact that the induced drag is
higher than the parasite drag.
Any change that increases parasite drag (dirty configuration such as extended
undercarriage) will move the total drag curve up and to the left, crossing the induced drag at
lower VMD. But, total drag will still be increased.
Parasite drag changes by a factor of V2
Induced drag changes by a factor of 1/V2
Induced drag coefficient changes by a factor of 1/V4
Parasite drag is made up of multiple different types of drag, which all... still act when the
wings produce no lift.
Dirt on airfram -> increased skin friction drag
Increased mass -> increased drag
Change from headwind to tailwind = in the unstable speed region = drag increases = airspeed
decreases
By lowering the trailing edge flaps... wing tip vortex decrease due to CP closer to wing
root. -> flaps = more pressure difference = CP moves to the wing root
With flaps extended, the aircraft generates four main vortices, weakening their overall effect
-> Wing tip Vortices divide in 4 (2 at each Wing Tip, 2 at each Flap edge)
When the flaps are retracted, the flap vortices go away and the two wingtip vortices become
stronger.
Thus, the wake turbulence of an aircraft is worst when it is heavy, slow and clean.
IAS - dynamic pressure – constant – what happens to the drag when altitude increases?
If dynamic pressure stay the same - drag also stay the same.
Imagine graph showing IAS (not TAS) + Drag -> so if IAS stays the same, so does drag
What is the behaviour of the total drag curve if mass increases? It moves…
Up and Right -> induced drag increases -> parasite drag remains unchanged -> the two
graphs meet more right
How does the Drag vs. TAS graph change as altitude increases? (Assumption: dynamic
pressure keeps constant)
Altitude increase = density decreases = TAS has to increase to keep the IAS (dynamic
pressure) constant = Graph moves to the right
 Graph bezieht sich auf eine bestimmte Altitude
If examples only use “speed” = grdsl TAS
An object has a drag of 785 N at sea level. Assuming ISA conditions and that the object is
travelling at the same speed, calculate the drag of the object at 6 000 ft.
Hier angenommen -> TAS = same; mit der selben speed werden weniger Teilchen verdrängt -
> daher nimmt IAS ab (oben weniger dynamic pressure) -> daher weniger drag
Sea level = 1013 hPa
1.000 ft = 27 (grob 30) hPa Abnahme -> 6 * 30 = ca. 180 hPa Abnahme
1013 – 180 = ca. 830 hPa -> 830/1013 = ca. 83% -> 0,83 * 785 = ca. 656 Newton
Which of the following creates induced drag on a wing?
Angle of Attack, weight
When deploying speedbrakes (DRAG), you can expect the minimum drag to (1) _____, the
minimum drag speed to (2)_____, and (3)_____ drag to increase.
(1) increase; (2) decrease; (3) parasite. -> Graphen aufzeichnen
Flaps, undercarriage and speed brakes -> increase parasite drag (induced drag stays the
same) -> therefore they increase the total drag -> graph goes up und ein bisschen nach links
-> deswegen: minimum drag: increases; vmd wird etwas kleiner und parasite drag increases
The effect of increasing parasite drag is to increase total drag at any IAS but to decrease the
speed VMD compared to the clean aircraft.
Fairing - A secondary structure added to any part to reduce its drag.
 fairing is often fitted around a fixed undercarriage leg to reduce form drag to an
acceptable level.
Which of the following factors will minimise the increase in form (pressure) drag?
An aerodynamically-shaped fairing.
If the aircraft's mass changes, the VMD (1)_____ and the induced drag (2)_____.
(1) varies (goes up); (2) varies (increases as well) -> Graph geht nach rechts oben
Which of the following is a cause of form drag on an object in high-speed airflow?
The pressure difference between the leading edge and trailing edge.
Form (pressure) drag results from the pressure at the leading edge of a body being greater
than the pressure at the trailing edge.
Non-stable region of CAS/drag graph – change in wind direction
reduction in air speed, which will cause an increase in total drag.
Vmd = total drag is minimum; lift/drag ratio is maximum; speed at which the longest
glide distance will be achieved and minimum descent angle
Vmp = between Vmd and Vs = value at which the minimum sink rate will occur; speed
that will attain the maximum endurance during a descent
Vs = stalling speed -> slowest
on the prop graph Vmp is the lowest point and Vmd (best angle) is the point where the
tangent touches the power curve
The speed for minimum sink rate, (I)_____ , is (II)_____ than the speed for minimum descent
angle.
(I) VMP, (II) lower
Which of the graphs correctly illustrates how power required changes with increasing
altitude?
Altitude increases = Density decreases = I need more power to increase my speed.
So,
Graph moves up (increased power), and to the right (increased TAS)

Ground effect
- The ground effect over an aeroplane is greater on a hotter day - convective
currents from a warm runway will add to the upward forces caused by the ground
effect, increasing the tendency of the aircraft to float beyond the touchdown point.
- The induced angle of attack and induced drag decrease.

Ground effect is effective from the ground to approximately half the aircraft’s wingspan
above ground. The effect is caused by the ground interrupting the wingtip vortices,
decreasing the downwash angle. Below the airfoil, a higher pressure than if an airfoil travels
at higher altitude is created, as the air below the airfoil is trapped in between the wing and
the ground. This means that the aircraft needs a lower angle of attack for a certain amount of
lift. This results in lower induced drag (decreasing induced angle of attack).

When an aircraft leaves ground effect, the upwash will (1) _____, the induced drag will (2)
_____, the AoA must (3) _____ to maintain the same lift force, and the force on the controls
will be (4) ______.
(1) increase; (2) increase; (3) increase; (4) the same

Aircraft entering ground effect:

 Downwash/Upwash decreases.
 The effective angle of attack increases.
 Increased lift during landing if the angle of attack remains constant.
 The induced angle of attack decreases.
 Induced drag decreases.

Aircraft leaving ground effect:

 Downwash/Upwash increases.
 The effective angle of attack decreases.
 Decreased lift during take-off if the angle of attack remains constant. (So the AoA
increases to maintain lift)
 The induced angle of attack increases.
 Induced drag increases.

Downwash angle: When entering ground effect, the proximity to the ground reduces the effect
of downwash, and therefore the induced drag. Meaning our downwash angle will reduce
when entering ground effect.

Which plane and situation experiences the least amount of lift reduction?
High wing on take-off

During the take-off phase of flight, as the aircraft leaves ground effect the wing tip vortices
rapidly grow in magnitude producing an increase in downwash behind the wing. This causes
a reduction in the lift produced at a given angle of attack and the associated rapid
increase in induced drag may prevent a successful take-off. The increased downwash
acting on the tailplane increases the download, resulting in a nose-up pitching moment.
When landing an aircraft at an airfield during a hot day, the increased temperature of the
runway will:
Add to the consequences of entering ground effect.
What happens to the induced angle of attack when entering ground effect, and where will this
change in angle be the greatest (wingtip or leading edge)?
The angle decreases; greater at the wingtip, as that is where the wingtip vortices effect the
most.
Which combination produces the least amount of induced drag?
Low wing at landing.
Any devices that reduce induced drag will cause ground effect to be less effective, as the
induced drag is already lowered. -> winglets
A low wing aircraft entering the ground effect during the landing phase will experience...
a nose-down pitching moment and tendency to float.
 Nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tail plane.
 Leaving ground effect: nose-up
For take-off, where downwash is least, use HALF wingspan multiplied my feets (x3.28).
For landing, where downwash is greatest, use DOUBLE wingspan multiplied by feets (x3.28)
What happens to a wing's critical angle of attack when it enters ground effect?
Decreases
For an aircraft with a wingspan of 20 m, at which of the following heights above a runway
would the highest induced drag be felt: 120 ft (highest)
An aeroplane in straight and level flight at 100 kt is subjected to a sudden disturbance in
speed. Assuming the angle of attack remains constant initially and the load factor reaches a
value of 1.44:
Load Factor = Lift / Weight (= 1)
Lift is propotional to V2 : L = CL × ½ rho × V2 × S
Therefore, n is proportional to V2 . An increase in "n" to 1.44 means lift has increased by a
factor of 1.44. Consequently, "V" must change by a factor of √1.44 = 1.2.
The speed has increased to: 100 x 1.2 = 120 kt (= an increase of 20 kt)
An aircraft decelerates from 1.4 VS to 1.05 VS. What is the percentage increase in the lift
coefficient (CL)?
1,4^2 * 1 (Cl old) = 1,05^2 * Cl new -> Cl new = 0,78 -> 78%
Oder:
1) Find the rate of change of speed:
Divide the new speed by the old speed
1.05 VS / 1.4 VS = 0.75
2) Change in CL = 1 / V2
1 / 0.752 = 1.78
In straight and level flight at a speed of 1.2 VS, the lift coefficient, expressed as a percentage
of its maximum CLMAX, would be:
Percentage of maximum CLMAX = 1 / VS^2 = 1 / 1.2^2 = 0.694 = 69%
An aircraft has a CL value of 1.22 at a speed of 1.1 VS. Determine the CL at a speed of 1.8
VS:

 New CL x (New Speed)2 = Old CL x (Old Speed)2

An aircraft decelerates from 1.4 VS to 1.05 VS. What is the percentage increase in the lift
coefficient (expressed as a percentage of CLMAX)?
CL expressed as a percentage of its CLMAX = 100 / V(2)

100 / 1.4(2) = 91
100 / 1.05(2) = 51

Difference = 40%

An aeroplane in straight and level flight at 100 kt is subjected to a sudden disturbance in

speed. Assuming the angle of attack remains constant initially and the load factor reaches a
value of 1.21:
Formula V new = √n x V old

V new = √1.21 x 100 kts

V new = 1.1 x 100 kts
V new = 110 kts

Speed will increase by 10 kts

For a given airplane that is travelling at 1.4 VA. When VA decreases to 1.1. By what % has
CL increased if the aircraft is to maintain straight and level flight?
1.4*1,4 * Cl old (1) = 1.1*1.1 * Cl new
Cl new = 1.62 -> 62 % increase

CLMAX augmentation
The main effect of leading-edge slats is to...
delay boundary layer separation and therefore decrease the stalling speed
(Geschwindigkeit, mit der man ins Trudeln kommt).
When deployed, the slat forms a slot which allows passage of air from the high pressure
region below the wing to the low pressure region above it. Kinetic Energy is added to the
airflow through the slot by the slat forming a convergent duct (Kanal).
When slats are deployed, the boundary layer is re-energized.
Flaps
Their main purpose is to increase the camber of the wing to increase the coefficient of lift for
a certain AoA. Their main contribution to the wing is extra lift. Whilst drag is also a side
effect, lift it more significant.
Increasing Cl/Cd ratio (low to higher): split, plain, slotted, fowler
A plain flap simply lowers the trailing edge of the wing, increasing camber.
A Fowler flap not only extends rearwards but also moves downward, resulting in an increased
wing surface area and an amplified camber. Complex to design and fit, but increase lift by a
large amount due to the increased wing area and camber. They provide a high L/D ratio, and
are often used in conjunction with multiple levels of slotted flaps on larger aircraft.
 Most effective flap system
A split flap solely lowers the underside of the wing while keeping the upper surface unaltered.
Increases drag heavily due to the open trailing edge.
Slotted flaps Lowering the slotted flaps creates a gap between the flap and the wing, allowing
higher pressure air from the lower surface to flow over the flap, revitalizing the boundary
layer. This postpones airflow separation on the upper surface of the flap. Slotted flaps
provide a greater increase in CLmax compared to plain or split flaps, while generating
less drag.
What will the extension of the leading-edge flaps result in?
A greater reduction of the stalling speed, compared to the reduction achieved by the
extension of the trailing-edge flaps.
During takeoff, a pilot unintentionally selects full flaps. Takeoff distance will be...
Increased
No flaps TakeOff = long Take off distance and steep good climb.
10 degrees flap Take Off = short Take off distance and shallow bad climb.
40 degrees flap Take Off = long Take Off distance (because it has TOO MUCH DRAG so the
aircraft can hardly accelerate) and it may no climb at all.
Erhöhung der Flaps von 0 auf 10° = viel mehr lift, etwas mehr drag
Erhöhung der Flaps von 10° auf 20°+ = nur mehr etwas mehr lift, viel mehr drag -> deshalb
nur zum Landen/abbremsen verwendet
When Fowler/slotted type trailing edge flaps are extended at a constant angle of attack, the
following changes will occur:
CL and CD increase.
Takeoff Run = the amount of runway an airplane uses to leave the runway
Takeoff Distance = the distance from 0 to the point at which the airplane can clear a 50 ft
obstacle
Going from no flaps to some flaps will decrease the TORR by a lot, and give a small
increase to the distance to reach screen height (lots of extra lift, a little extra drag). The overall
effect is a reduction in the TODR.
At some point, the drag penalty becomes the larger factor, and a further increase in flaps will
cause the distance to screen height to increase more than the TORR decreases. Therefore, at
higher flap settings and full flaps, the TODR increases again.

When the trailing-edge flaps are extended, the centre of pressure will move (1) _____,
producing a pitch (2) _____ moment.
(1) aft; (2) down
Lowering the flaps creates more lift, to maintain the attitude the AOA will decrease, that's
why CP moves aft
After take-off, the pilot monitoring retracts the flaps prematurely instead of the landing gear.
Which of the following speed limitations may be broken?
Vs
The use of flaps on take-off is to allow the aircraft to maintain flight at lower speeds,
therefore using less runway whilst accelerating. After take-off, the flaps just increase the
aircraft's drag, so reduce the climb capability of the aircraft. Therefore, quite early into the
take-off climb, the pilots will retract the flaps, in order to accelerate further and reduce drag.

If the flaps are retracted too early, the aircraft may not be flying fast enough to gain
sufficient lift with a clean wing, and the aircraft will therefore stall. If the flaps are retracted
too late, the aircraft may accelerate past the VFE for that flap setting (maximum speed with
flaps extended).

Vmo - max operating speed

Vfe - flaps extended
Vs - stall speed
Vle/ Vlo - landing gear extended/ landing gear operation
Slats do not increase CL for normal values of AoA, instead, they just delay the stalling AoA,
allowing for a higher CLMAX due to the higher critical AoA. (Graph geht einfach weiter ->
delayed stalling AoA)
LE flaps + Krueger Flaps -> increase Cl and Clmax -> Graph geht nach oben und rechts
Kreuger Flaps and Slats are often used in conjunction, with Kreuger Flaps being used on
the inboard section of an wing and slats being used outboard of the engine pylons, to promote
root stall tendency due to the Kreuger Flaps being less effective.
Extending flaps is like getting a NEW wing with new CL properties: overall CL changes.
Extending slats is just making the SAME wing better at keeping the boundary layer attached
longer.
highest positive contribution to CLMAX: slats from Retracted to Extended.
What happens following the deployment of leading edge devices, while the trailing edge flaps
remain retracted?
CLMAX is increased, that allows lower approach and landing speeds, but the nose-up
attitude will give the pilot a poorer view of the runway.
TE Flaps down - nose down
Slats down - nose up
CP moves forward with leading edge flaps = Nose up
CP moves backwards with trailing edge flaps = Nose down
The slot can give increases in CLMAX of the same magnitude as the trailing edge flap, but
whereas the trailing edge flap gives its CLMAX at slightly less than the normal stalling angle,
the slot requires a much increased angle of attack to give its CLMAX. In flight this means that
the aircraftwill have a very nose-up attitude at low speeds, and on the approach to land,
visibility of the landing area could be restricted.
If you compare the CL-AoA curves of LE flaps vs TE flaps you'll see that LE flaps increase
Crit_AoA, whilest TE flaps reduce it. Thus, a higher Crit_AoA means that you can effectively
fly slower at a higher AoA without stalling.
For Slats: CLmax will be higher and obtained at a Higher AOA than that of a clean wing
For TE flaps: CLmax will be higher and obtained at a Lower AOA than that of a clean wing
Modern jet transport aircraft often have a flap load relief system, which detects flap
overspeed, and can disengage the flap lock, allowing the airflow to push the flaps to a lower
setting, or some intermediate value, so that the flaps do not get damaged.
A deployed slat will:
Increase the boundary layer energy and increase the suction peak (pressure difference)
on the fixed part of the wing, so that the stall is postponed to higher angles of attack.
When slats are deployed the boundary layer is re-energised. If Kinetic Energy is added to
the boundary layer, boundary layer separation will be delayed to a much higher angle of
attack.
Without flaps: longer TOR, good climb gradient
With flaps: shorter TOR, poor climb gradient
Leading and trailing edge flaps, when compared to the clean wing:
I. Increase CLMAX, IV. Increase camber
The increase in lift comes mainly from the variation in effective camber that occurs when the
flaps are deflected.
With a reduced flap-setting, the aircraft will fly over the departure end of the runway at a
lower altitude compared to a higher flap setting (bis 10°), as it necessitates a longer take-off
run distance.
USE OF TRAILING EDGE FLAPS FOR TAKE-OFF: Since the required lift is obtained
at a lower airspeed, the take-off run is reduced.
Slat or flap asymmetry occurring after either extension or retraction, may have an effect on
controllability since:
slat asymmetry causes a yawing moment, whereas flap asymmetry causes a large rolling
moment.
To answer this question correctly, you have to assume the aircraft is in straight level flight or
at a low angle of attack. The function of the slat is to increase the CLmax, not the CL at all
angles of attack. This means that the slat will only create more lift (more CL) than the other
wing at high or critical angles of attack. In this case, the slat will not be effective, so the only
thing it does is create some drag. That's why it will create a yaw moment. On the other hand,
flaps will create lift at any angle of attack, so in this case, it will roll because it is always
creating lift, unlike the slat. I think the point of this question is to understand that the slat is
only effective at high angles of attack, while flaps are effective at any angle of attack.
From lowest to highest (increasing) cAoA:
1. Flaps decrease cAoA (higher drag - more prone to stall compared to plain wing but at a
lower speed)
2. Plain wing is a normal wing
3. Slats increase cAoA (by reenergizing the boundary layer, preventing separation)
The use of flaps allows an aircraft to produce (1) _____ lift at a (2) _____ speed, and with (3)
_____ drag.
(1) the same; (2) lower; (3) higher
- appeal. Condition missing in the question: straight + level flight
An aircraft only needs enough lift to counteract its own weight in normal operations (and a
little more in turns), so there is no need for more lift, only to fly slower, with the same amount
of lift.
Left slat not extending -> left wing may stall if speed decreases
How does the downwash angle change when an aircraft prepares for approach and extends
flaps? It typically...
Increases
 When flaps are extended, the aircraft can fly slower without stalling as the reduced
airflow over the wing is being forced downwards at a steeper angle, which means the
downwash angle increases, which means it still produces as much lift as the clean
wing at higher speeds. This downwash can have a strong effect on the airflow hitting
the horizontal stabiliser though, causing an increase pitch up moment on some aircraft.
Considering a symmetrical airfoil, how will the polar curve change when trailing edge devices
are deployed? And what impact will it have on CL/CD?
Graph goes right and up (more lift + drag); Cl/Cd decreases
Although the lift is the larger force, the proportional increase in the drag is greater, and so
the maximum lift/drag ratio decreases.
- the highest value of the L/D ratio is obtained in clean configuration at VMD.
Vortex generator
 transfers energy from the free airflow into the boundary layer -> thus increasing
its kinetic energy and retarding (verzögern) separation.
 To increase the kinetic energy of the boundary layer.

Which of the following are advantages associated with the use of vortex generators?
1. Increase in maximum CL/CD.
2. Decrease in form drag.
3. Delay in the separation of the boundary layer.
4. Increase in critical angle of attack.
Flap asymmetry
- The right wing has its flap down, but the left wing does not. That means the lift from
the right wing will be higher than the left wing, so a strong roll to the left will occur.
This will be accompanied by a yaw to the right, due to the increased drag on the right
wing, but with flap asymmetry, the roll is the dominant effect by far.

- causes a large rolling moment away from the extended flap and a strong yaw
towards the side of the extended flaps -> wenn nur der rechte flap extended ist
(downwards), ist rechts der lift höher und aircraft will roll to the left + yaw to the right
-> AoA will be decreased on the right side und increased on the left side (downgoing
wing) -> might lead to a spin on the left side
 - Therefore, to counteract this as pilots, we must roll towards the extended side,
and yaw away from the extended side.

- The difference in lift will cause a rolling moment, which must be opposed by the
ailerons, and the difference in drag will cause a yawing moment, which must be
opposed by the rudder.

- If right flap: 15 (higher lift -> goes up; rolling to the left), left flap: 5: I must do:
right aileron input (roll to the right) and opposite rudder (yaw to the left)
Slat asymmetry
- Right slat not extending -> right wing will stall on rotation
- flap asymmetry causes a large rolling moment at any speed whereas slat asymmetry
causes a large difference in CLMAX.
- The wing where the slats did not extend (right) will stall at a lower angle of attack
and higher airspeed than the left wing.

Adverse yaw
- Yawing to the other side of the roll -> in the direction of the wing with flaps extended
(downwards)
- Wing that produces more lift (downward aileron) also produces more (induced) drag
What happens when the trailing edge flaps are lowered to the fully extended position?
The wing CP moves aft and the L/D ratio decreases.
 With any flap extension, the increase in drag is always greater than the increase in lift.
The greater the extension the worse L/D ratio you get.
Retracting flaps -> Cl will decrease
Fowler flap -> only flap that increases wing area and is therefore the most effective flap
system
Considering the effect of wing downwash on the direction of the airflow approaching the
tailplane, when flaps are extended the tailplane’s negative angle of attack...
increases, increasing the tailplane’s effectiveness.
If the flaps are lowered, the downwash will increase. This increased downwash will result
in a higher angle of attack of the tailplane => increasing its effectiveness and producing a
greater lift and causing a nose-up pitching moment.
flaps extend —————> increase tailplane’s negative angle of attack + increasing
tailplane’s effectiveness.
flaps retracted ———> decrease tailplane’s negative angle of attack + decrease tailplane’s
effectiveness.
Extend:
Flaps = nose down
Slats = nose up
Extending the trailing edge flaps will:
- Decrease Critical Angle of Attack
- Decrease Aspect Ratio
- Decrease Lift to Drag ratio (bc of that extra drag)
- Degrade the minimum angle

on the other hand, they will increase:

- Lift
- Value of CLmax
- Effective Angle of Attack
- Downwash (more lift, more downwash)
Retracting flaps prematurely -> not enough speed/lift -> stall
Otherwise: less drag -> better climb
CP moves forward until the stall, then moves aft.
The slats on the left wing remain retracted. If the speed is decreased, what are the possible
consequences?
The left wing could stall when the trailing edge flaps are extended and speed decreases.
When the trailing edge flaps are extended, critical angle of attack is decreased. Consequently,
the wings are now closer to their critical AOA.
A decreased speed asks for a greater angle of attack. The left wing (slats retracted) may stall
when the flaps are extended.
A deployed slat will: Increase the boundary layer energy and increase the suction peak on
the fixed part of the wing, so that the stall is postponed to higher angles of attack.
What happens following the deployment of leading edge devices, while the trailing edge flaps
remain retracted?
CLMAX is increased, approach and landing speeds are decreased, but the nose-up
attitude will give the pilot a poorer view of the runway.
Leading edge devices increase lift at the leading-edge part of the wing, consequently, pitch up
moment is generated while lowering them, which may result in a poorer view of the runway.
Right flap: 15°, left flap: 5° - needed control inputs: right aileron input and opposite rudder
Scratches, dents and dirt lead to an earlier transition point and therefore a larger area of the
aircraft surface will be covered with turbulent airflow, meaning more drag. Ageing will
therefore increase the skin friction drag.
Ice -> The skin friction drag will increase and the boundary layer will have an earlier
separation, giving a reduced critical angle of attack.
Danger if not de-iced: Loss of control due to frozen deposits on the wings, which reduce
CLMAX.
The reduced CLMAX of the wing will give a higher stalling speed.
Susceptible to ice build-up -> parts with small radius (sharp wings), sharply bent, higher
curvature
icing tailplane => Nose down-pitching moment
Spoilers
- increase stall speed
- for a constant CL, increase the angle of attack
Think of spoilers as the opposite of flaps. If deploying flaps decreases the stall speed, then
deploying spoilers will increase the stall speed.

As for the AoA, in the graph given, in order to maintain a straight and level flight we need a
constant CL, therefore we must move horizontally as we deploy/retract spoilers. If we deploy
them, you can clearly see that the corresponding AoA for the same value of CL will be
greater.
Ice: increased stall speed; decreased critical AoA; decreased Clmax
Spoilers: increased stall speed; increased critical AoA (think of the graph); decreased
Clmax
Spoiler deployment -> lift decreases -> AoA has to increase -> critical AoA increases slightly
(complex); margin to stall reduces
Roll Spoilers operate asymmetrically in flight whenever the control wheel rotates, assisting
the ailerons in providing roll control, particularly at high airspeeds.

Flight Spoilers (speed brakes) operate symmetrically about the aircraft’s longitudinal axis
to increase drag, when it is required to decelerate quickly or to descend rapidly.

With increasing spoilers, both the angle of attack and stall speed increase.
How do roll spoilers assist the ailerons during turns?

By decreasing the lift on the downward-going wing; they also reduce the adverse aileron yaw.
Ailerons are the primary roll control surface on an aircraft, however, ailerons do present a few
issues that must be overcome.
- Ailerons produce adverse yaw, which is where the down-going aileron increases the
camber of the wing, and acts similar to a flap, increasing lift, as it is supposed to, but
also increasing drag.
- The up-going aileron reduces the wing camber, reducing drag. This causes an
unwanted yaw towards the upward-going wing during a bank.

When roll spoilers are extended, the part of the wing on which they are mounted:
experiences a reduction in lift, which generates the desired rolling moment. In addition
there is a local increase in drag, which suppresses adverse yaw.
A light aeroplane has flown in icing conditions and accumulated ice on the horizontal
stabiliser.
If the pilot does nothing to account for the ice, then during the landing flare, the aircraft might
suffer a tail stall and:
A nose-down pitch causing the nose wheel to contact the runway first.

The landing flare is initiated by the tailplane producing a nose up pitching moment. If the
tailplane stall, there will be a large decrease in nose up pitching moments, causing the nose to
drop => As a result, the nose wheel may touch the ground first leading to structural damage.

Speed brakes are usually made up of one or several panels:

Somewhere on the fuselage or wing which extends into the airstream to create a
turbulent airflow and increase parasite drag.
 Wrong: increasing induced drag