MM3&4 – Functions and Transformations Summary Notes
Contents
Part 1: Functions................................................................................................................................................ 2 Introduction to functions ............................................................................................................................... 2 Sums and products of functions and addition of ordinates........................................................................... 5 Composite functions ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Inverse functions ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Power functions ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Applications of functions.............................................................................................................................. 12
Part 2: Transformations .................................................................................................................................. 13
Types of transformations and applying them .............................................................................................. 13 Determining transformations ...................................................................................................................... 14 Inverse transformations and transformations with restricted domain ....................................................... 16
1 Part 1: Functions Introduction to functions A relation is a set of ordered pairs, each containing an x-value and a corresponding y-value.
A function is a type of relation where for each x-value there is only one corresponding y-value. This means that the relation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 can also be a function, since each x-value maps to only one y-value, but that the relation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 cannot be expressed as a function, since each x-value maps to more than one y-value.
A function is usually denoted as 𝑓(𝑥) =[rule in 𝑥]. This uses an “input-output” structure, where what we put into 𝑓(𝑥) gives us a corresponding output. So for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑓(2) = 4. If we go by the definition (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 (where 𝑓 denotes a function), then:
• The element 𝑦 is called “the image of 𝑥 under 𝑓”, or “the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥”. • The element 𝑥 is called “a pre-image of 𝑦”.
Every function has a domain and a range.
• The domain is the set of values for which the function is defined. In other words, it is the set of x- values we are allowed to put into the function. The domain of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓. • The range is the set of possible output values (i.e. y-values). The range of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓.
Sometimes the domain of a function is not explicitly stated. This does not mean that the function does not have a domain, but that it has an “implied domain” (also known as maximal domain). The implied domain is the largest subset within 𝑅 for which the function is defined. So for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, the implied domain is [0, ∞).
The most comprehensive definition for a function is that of the form 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌, 𝑓(𝑥) =[rule in 𝑥], where 𝑋 is the domain and 𝑌 is the codomain (the subset that contains the range, which in almost all cases is 𝑅). So 𝑓: [0, 4] → 𝑅, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 describes a function 𝑓 with domain [0, 4] and rule 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1.
2 Functions can be categorised in a number of ways.
Type Definition One-to-one A one-to-one function is one where each x-value maps to a different y-value, and each y- function value maps to a different x-value. That means the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is not one-to-one, as both 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −3 map to 𝑓(𝑥) = 9.
Whether a function is one-to-one can be determined graphically using the “horizontal
line test”. This is where we draw a horizontal line anywhere on the graph of the function, and if the line only intersects the graph once, the function is one-to-one. Many-to-one If a function is not one-to-one, then it must be many-to-one. This means that there is function more than one x-value that maps to a single y-value. Piecewise- A piecewise-defined function is one that is defined by multiple rules that each apply in a defined distinct subset of the domain. function
Odd function An odd function has the property 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥). This means that the graph of an odd function always remains unchanged when we rotate it about the origin by 180°. For instance, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 is an odd function.
Even function An even function has the property 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). This means that the graph of an even function is always symmetrical about the y-axis. For instance, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is an even function. 3 A function can be restricted. A restricted function is one with a reduced domain. So for the three functions below, we refer to 𝑔 and ℎ as restrictions of 𝑓.
4 Sums and products of functions and addition of ordinates Consider two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, where there is some overlapping between their domains.
• The sum of the functions, 𝑓 + 𝑔, is defined by (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).
• The product of the functions, 𝑓𝑔, is defined by (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).
The domain of both 𝑓 + 𝑔 and 𝑓𝑔 is the intersection of the domains of 𝑓 and 𝑔 (i.e. the values of 𝑥 for which both functions are defined).
The sum of functions rule is the underlying principle of a graph-sketching technique known as “addition of ordinates”, which we may use when sketching the graph of the sum of two functions.
There are a range of key points to consider when sketching 𝑦 = (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥).
In addition to these properties, the axis-intercepts of 𝑦 = (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) may also help us in working out a general idea of what the graph looks like, as well as the implied domain of 𝑦.
For example, below we have the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − √𝑥, with 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −√𝑥. We find that:
• The implied domain of 𝑦 is [0, ∞)
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 at 𝑥 = 0. • 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 and 𝑔(𝑥) < 0 for 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞) • By solving 𝑥 2 − √𝑥 = 0, we find that there is an x-intercept at (1, 0). Hence, the graph must first “drop down” from the origin, so that it can then resurface above the x-axis. • Substituting 𝑥 = 2 gives us 𝑦 = 4 − √2 . This helps us define the direction of the graph after going through its x-intercept.
5 Composite functions A composite function is a particular combination of two functions where one of the functions is the input of the other.
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions. The composite function of 𝑔 with 𝑓 is defined as 𝑔 𝑜 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), where 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔 𝑜 𝑓) = 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑓. It only exists when the range of 𝑓 is a subset of the domain of 𝑔.
When the condition 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑓 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑔 is not satisfied, we need to first restrict 𝑓 before creating the composite function. This is a process whereby we identify the domain of 𝑔(𝑥), and reduce the range of 𝑓(𝑥) into this domain. We then work out what the new domain of 𝑓(𝑥) will be for this new range we have just defined. This usually involves finding the endpoints and considering the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
6 Inverse functions Consider a function 𝑓, where 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥. The inverse of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 −1 , and is defined as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦. In other words, it is the original function with the 𝑥 and 𝑦 swapped. The domain of the inverse function is equal to the range of the original function, and the range of the inverse function is equal to the domain of the original function.
Inverse functions can only be found for one-to-one functions. This is because an equation can only continue to work after 𝑥 and 𝑦 are swapped if in the beginning there was only a single x-value that mapped to a single y-value.
In graphical terms, the inverse graph is the image of the original graph after a reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
7 8 Power functions A power function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑟 , where 𝑟 is a rational number.
Below is a summary of different types of power functions and their properties.
Type of function Properties
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • The function is a one-to-one odd function 𝑛 is an odd positive • The function is strictly increasing (i.e. positive gradient over the entire domain) integer • The graph has a similar shape to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 • The maximal domain is 𝑅 • The range is 𝑅 • 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(−1) = −1 • As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞. As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • The function is an even function
𝑛 is an even • The function is strictly increasing for 𝑥 ≥ 0, and strictly decreasing for 𝑥 ≤ 0 positive integer • The graph has a similar shape to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 • The maximal domain is 𝑅 • The range is [0, ∞) • 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(−1) = 1 • As 𝑥 → ±∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • The function is an odd function
𝑛 is an odd 1 • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 negative integer • The maximal domain is 𝑅 \ {0} • The range is 𝑅 \{0} • There is a horizontal asymptote with equation 𝑦 = 0 • There is a vertical asymptote with equation 𝑥 = 0
9 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • The function is an even function 𝑛 is an even 1 • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 negative integer • The maximal domain is 𝑅 \ {0} • The range is 𝑅 + • There is a horizontal asymptote with equation 𝑦 = 0 • There is a vertical asymptote with equation 𝑥 = 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • 1 The function is an odd function 1 𝑛 is an odd positive • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 integer • The maximal domain is 𝑅 • The range is 𝑅
1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑛 is an even • The maximal domain is [0, ∞] positive integer • The range is [0, ∞)
10 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −𝑛 , where • 1 The function is an odd function 1 𝑛 is an odd positive • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 integer • The maximal domain is 𝑅\ {0} • The range is 𝑅\ {0} • There are asymptotes 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0
1 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −𝑛 , where • The graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 , with only its top right half 𝑛 is an odd positive • The maximal domain is 𝑅 + integer • The range is 𝑅 + • There are asymptotes 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 0
𝑝 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑞 , where • The function is an even function is 𝑝 is even 𝑝 and 𝑞 are • The maximal domain is 𝑅 if 𝑞 is odd positive integers • The maximal domain is [0, ∞) if 𝑞 is even
11 Applications of functions Functions are often involved in real-life application problems.
12 Part 2: Transformations Types of transformations and applying them A transformation is a series of manipulations done to a graph that change its position in the plane, its orientation, its width or height, or even its shape. For instance, 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 is a transformation of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , through a reflection in the x-axis.
The Cartesian plane is represented by the set 𝑅 2 , which consists of all ordered pairs of real numbers. In this chapter we deal with a specific type of transformation – one in which each ordered pair in 𝑅 2 is mapped to a unique ordered pair. In other words, every ordered pair, which we denote as (𝑥, 𝑦), undergoes the change (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦, 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦). The result of a transformation is referred to as the “image”.
There are three main ways to transform a graph: translation, dilation and reflection. In the table below, we use 𝑥′ to denote the image, and 𝑥 to denote the original graph.
Transformation Definition Translation A translation or series of translations simply move the graph within the Cartesian plane. They do not do anything to its size or orientation.
• A translation of ℎ units in the positive direction of the x-axis (i.e. to the right) is denoted by 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 + ℎ. • A translation of 𝑘 units in the positive direction of the y-axis (i.e. downwards) is denoted by 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 + 𝑘. Dilation A dilation or series of dilations change the size of the graph (i.e. the stretch of its shape) by a certain proportion.
• A dilation of factor 𝑘 from the x-axis is denoted by 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑘𝑦.
• A dilation of factor 𝑘 from the y-axis is denoted by 𝑥 ′ = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦. Reflection A reflection “mirrors” the graph onto the other side of the Cartesian plane.
• A reflection in the x-axis is denoted by 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = −𝑦.
• A reflection in the y-axis is denoted by 𝑥 ′ = −𝑥, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦.
To carry out each of the transformations above, we rearrange the equations for 𝑥′ and 𝑦′ in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦, respectively. We then replace 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the equation of the original graph with those two equations. This will then give us the equation of the image.
When there is a series of transformations to go through, the order in which we apply them matters. In general, we should apply the transformations exactly how the question asks us to. So “a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis followed by a translation of 2 units to the right and 3 units downwards” means (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, 2𝑦) → (𝑥 + 2, 2𝑦 − 3).
13 Composition of transformations can also be notated in the following way:
Determining transformations Sometimes instead of applying a given set of transformations we are asked to work out the transformations that are needed to morph a graph into its image. This can be done as follows:
1. Let (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ) represent the image, and (𝑥, 𝑦) the original graph.
2. Rearrange the equation of the image in a way such that anything that can be grouped with 𝑦′ is sorted to one side, and anything that can be grouped with 𝑥′ is sorted to the other side. 3. Equate the side of the equation containing 𝑦′ with 𝑦, and the side containing 𝑥′ with 𝑥. This gives us two equations – one with 𝑥 ′ and 𝑥, and the other with 𝑦′ and 𝑦. 4. Rearrange the equations in terms of 𝑥′ and 𝑦’. 5. Write out the full series of transformations that need to be applied. Remember that dilation and reflection should always be first, and translations last.
14 𝑥+𝜋 For example, to find the series of transformations that will map the graph of 𝑦 = sin ( ) to the graph of 2 𝑦 = 2 sin(2𝑥) + 1:
Hence, the transformations are:
1 1. Dilation of factor from the y-axis. 4 2. Dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis. 𝜋 3. Translation to the right by units. 4 4. Translation upwards by 1 unit.
15 Inverse transformations and transformations with restricted domain Consider a transformation 𝑇. We can define the inverse of this transformation as 𝑇 −1 , with the rule 𝑇 −1 (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ) = (𝑥, 𝑦), provided that 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ). We also have:
When dealing with transformations of functions for which the domain is not 𝑅, we may sometimes also be interested in how the domain and range will be transformed in the process. We can find that out by simply applying the transformations to each value within the domain and the range.
For instance, if the domain is [0, 3] and the range is [−3, 1], and the transformation is “a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis and a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, followed by a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a translation of 3 units upwards”, then:
• The transformations can be expressed as 𝑥 ′ = 2𝑥 and 𝑦 ′ = −2𝑦 + 3
• The domain of the image is obtained through substituting the original domain into 𝑥 ′ = 2𝑥. This gives [0, 6]. • The range of the image is obtained through substituting the original range into 𝑦 ′ = −2𝑦 + 3. This gives [1, 9].
