MM3&4 – Polynomial, Exponential/Logarithmic and Circular

Functions Summary Notes

Contents

Part 1: Polynomial Functions ............................................................................................................................ 2

Introduction to polynomials, theorems, and finding roots ........................................................................... 2
Cubic and quartic functions ........................................................................................................................... 5
Solving polynomial inequalities...................................................................................................................... 8

Part 2: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ............................................................................................... 9

Exponential functions and 𝑒 𝑥 ........................................................................................................................ 9
Logarithms and logarithmic functions ......................................................................................................... 10
Solving exponential and logarithmic equations and inequations ................................................................ 12
Finding the rules of exponential and logarithmic graphs ............................................................................ 13
Inverses of exponential and logarithmic functions ...................................................................................... 14
Application of exponential functions: growth and decay ............................................................................ 15

Part 3: Circular Functions ................................................................................................................................ 16

Introduction to circular functions ................................................................................................................ 16
Complementary properties and the Pythagorean identity.......................................................................... 17
Solving trigonometric equations .................................................................................................................. 18
Graphs of circular functions ......................................................................................................................... 20
Addition of ordinates for circular functions ................................................................................................. 24
Applications of circular functions ................................................................................................................. 24

Appendix A: Solving Systems of Equations .................................................................................................... 26

Appendix B: Synthetic Division ....................................................................................................................... 28

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Part 1: Polynomial Functions
Introduction to polynomials, theorems, and finding roots
A polynomial is an expression containing positive integer powers of a variable. The general form of a
polynomial is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 , where:

• The largest power of 𝑥 is referred to as the “degree” of the polynomial. So linear expressions are
polynomials of degree 1, and quadratic expressions are polynomials of degree 2.
• The final term, 𝑎0 , is called the “constant term”.
• The numbers in front of each non-constant term are called the “coefficients”.

Polynomials are often expressed as functions, using the notation 𝑃(𝑥) =[rule in 𝑥].

It is very easy to add, subtract or multiply two polynomials. Division of polynomials, however, is more
complicated. There are three methods we can use for this: long division, short division, and synthetic
division (see appendix B).

Method Explanation
Long Long division of polynomials follows the same process as long division of numbers.
division

The process for long division is set out as follows:

1. Determine what you need to multiply the first term in the divisor by in order to
obtain the first term in the dividend. Write this as the first term in the quotient.
2. Multiply the divisor by the first term in the quotient. Write the result below the
dividend. If there is a power of 𝑥 that does not exist, write 0𝑥 𝑛 in its place. So do
not simply write 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥, write 2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥.
3. Subtract what is below the dividend from the dividend, and bring the next terms
down.
4. Repeat steps 1-3, but this time looking at the first term in the divisor and the first
term in the result obtained in step 3.
5. Repeat step 4 until there is only a constant left. This will be the remainder.

Long division is usually used for polynomials that will leave a remainder when divided.
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 Short Short division is a much faster process than long division. However, it can only be used
division when a polynomial is being divided by one of its factors. As such it is the preferred
method when we are finding the factors of a polynomial.

The idea behind short division is that we can easily determine the first and last terms of
the quotient by inspection. As such all we need to do is find the coefficients of the middle
terms. This is done by multiplying the divisor and the quotient, which we then equate
with the dividend, so that we can then compare coefficients.

When we just need to find the remainder of a polynomial division, we can use a shortcut method that is
derived from the “remainder theorem”. This is the theory that if 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by some linear factor 𝑥 − 𝑎
then the remainder is given by 𝑃(𝑎). So when 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 9 is divided by 𝑥 − 2, the
remainder will be 𝑃(2) = 1.

Finding the roots of a polynomial means to find the values of 𝑥 when 𝑃(𝑥) = 0. For a polynomial expressed
in factorised form, we can identify its roots straight away using the null factor law. So the roots of
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 2) are −1 and 2.

To do the same for polynomials in expanded form, we first have to factorise them. This process involves the
following steps:

1. Find one of the factors of the polynomial by “guessing” a solution to the equation 𝑃(𝑥) = 0. The
rational root theorem states that for a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 , the rational
𝑝
solutions to 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 are given by 𝑞 , where 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 , and 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 . If 𝑃(𝑎) = 0,
then 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor.
2. Divide the entire polynomial by that factor, and re-write the polynomial as product of the quotient
and the factor.
3. Factorise the quotient so that it is broken down into linear factors (unless it is irreducible).
4. Now that the polynomial is expressed entirely in terms of linear factors, its roots can be identified.
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4
Cubic and quartic functions
A cubic function is a polynomial function of degree 3. It is of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, where
𝑎 ≠ 0.

There are many types of cubic graphs, with a range of different “shapes”. These are shown below.

In most cases the cubic graph we deal with is either a basic cubic graph or a cubic graph with a maximum
point and a minimum point.

• A basic cubic graph is one with equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)3 + 𝑘. This is a graph with a
stationary point of inflection at (ℎ, 𝑘). If 𝑎 > 0, the graph goes from bottom left to top right. If
𝑎 < 0, the graph goes from bottom right to top left. The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑦 = −2(𝑥 + 1)3 + 3
are shown below.

• A cubic graph with a maximum point and a minimum point is one with an equation that can be
factorised entirely into linear factors. So 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3) and 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 2) fall
into this category. (See guide to sketching these graphs on page 6.)

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A quartic function is a polynomial function of degree 4, with equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒,
where 𝑎 ≠ 0.

There are two main types of quartic graphs:

• The basic quartic graph – this is any graph with equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)4 + 𝑘. It has a
turning point at (ℎ, 𝑘). It works in the same way as parabolas, the only difference being that the
graph is wider around the turning point than a parabola with the same turning point. For example,
below we have the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 .

• Other quartic graphs – these are graphs that have more than one stationary point. So 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 ,
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 2)2 , and 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)3 (𝑥 + 2) all fall into this category.

To sketch a cubic or quartic graph we first need to factorise its equation. From that we can then identify the
x-intercepts, and the nature of each x-intercept. There are three different types of x-intercepts:

1. If the factor is not repeated (i.e. taken to a power of 1), the graph passes through the corresponding
x-intercept.
2. If the factor has multiplicity of 2 (i.e. taken to a power of 2), the graph has a turning point at the
corresponding x-intercept.
3. If the factor has a multiplicity of 3 (i.e. taken to a power of 3), the graph has a stationary point of
inflection at the corresponding x-intercept.

We also need to take note of the direction of the graph.

• For a cubic graph with leading coefficient 𝑎, the graph goes from bottom left to top right if 𝑎 > 0, or
top left to bottom right if 𝑎 < 0.
• For a quartic graph with leading coefficient 𝑎, the graph goes from top left to top right if 𝑎 > 0, or
bottom left to bottom right if 𝑎 < 0.

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7
Solving polynomial inequalities
When solving a polynomial inequality, we can either draw a sign diagram or a rough sketch of the graph.

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Part 2: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Exponential functions and 𝒆𝒙
An exponential function is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥−ℎ + 𝑘, where 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 + \{1}.

The basic exponential function is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 . The graph of this function has a horizontal
asymptote given by 𝑥 = 0, and y-intercept (0, 1).

To sketch an exponential function defined by an equation of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥−ℎ + 𝑘:

1 𝑥
1. If 𝑎 is a fraction, then re-write it as a whole number. For instance, (2) can be rewritten as 2−𝑥 .
1
2. Express the equation as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎ℎ (𝑎±𝑥 ) + 𝑘.
3. The horizontal asymptote is given by 𝑦 = 𝑘.
4. Evaluate 𝑓(0) to obtain the y-intercept. Solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to obtain the x-intercept (if there is one).
5. If 𝑎 is raised to 𝑥, then the graph converges towards the asymptote on the left side. If 𝑎 is raised to
−𝑥, then the graph converges towards the asymptote on the right side.
6. Depending on where the y-intercept is, the graph either “goes up” or “goes down”.

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There is a special type of exponential function that is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . The letter 𝑒 is known as
1 𝑛
Euler’s number, and it is defined as 𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑛) ≈ 2.718281828.
𝑛→∞

Logarithms and logarithmic functions

A logarithm is the inverse operation of exponentiation. That means that if exponentiation involves raising a
positive number to a power, then a logarithm gives the power that a positive number must be raised to in
order to produce a given number. So if 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , then 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦, where 𝑦 > 0.

Since an exponential and a logarithm are inverses of each other, we have the following two properties:

• log 𝑎 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑥
𝑥
• 𝑎log𝑎(𝑎 ) = 𝑥.

We also have what is commonly referred to as “log laws”, of which there are five. They are:

• log(𝑚𝑛) = log 𝑚 + log 𝑛

𝑚
• log ( 𝑛 ) = log 𝑚 − log 𝑛
• log(𝑚𝑝 ) = 𝑝 log 𝑚
• log(𝑚−1 ) = − log 𝑚
• log(1) = 1, and log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1.

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A logarithmic function is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 log 𝑛 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐), where 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0.

The basic log graph, 𝑦 = log 𝑛 (𝑥), is shown below. It has a vertical asymptote with equation 𝑥 = 0, and x-
intercept (1, 0).

To sketch a logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 log 𝑛 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐):

1. Evaluate 𝑓(0) to obtain the y-intercept. Solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 to obtain the x-intercept, if there is one.
𝑐
2. The vertical asymptote is given by 𝑥 = − 𝑏 .
3. If 𝑎 > 0, then the graph converges towards the asymptote downwards. If 𝑎 < 0, then the graph
converges towards the asymptote upwards.
4. Depending on where the x-intercept is, the graph is either on the right side of the vertical
asymptote or the left side of the vertical asymptote.

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Solving exponential and logarithmic equations and inequations
Equation type Method for solving
𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏 𝑞 , where 𝑎 and Write both sides of the equation in terms of a common base. Simplify each side
𝑏 can be reduced to using index laws. This should result in an equation where the same number is
the same base, and 𝑝 raised to a power on both sides. We can then solve this by equating the powers.
and 𝑞 are expressions
in terms of 𝑥

When dealing with inequalities where the base is between 0 and 1, we need to
reverse the inequality sign when creating the new inequation that consists of
the two powers.

Exponential equation Find a common base between all the terms of the equation. Make a substitution
able to be written as a for that common base and its exponent. This will give us a quadratic equation,
quadratic equation which we can solve in terms of the substituted variable. The solutions can then
be converted back to find the solutions for the original variable.
When using this method we must make sure to eliminate solutions in terms of
the substituted variable which are 0 or negative. This is because a positive
number raised to any power can never be equal to a negative number.

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Log equation Simply the equation using log laws. Generally this means to combine everything
together inside a single log. Then rewrite the equation in exponential form and
solve.
When solving log equations we must make sure to eliminate any solution that
falls outside the domain of the equation (i.e. the values of 𝑥 the logs can take).

Finding the rules of exponential and logarithmic graphs

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Inverses of exponential and logarithmic functions

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Applications of exponential functions: growth and decay
Exponential functions are used to model phenomena of growth and decay.

Let 𝐴 be the quantity of something at time 𝑡. Then 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 , where 𝐴0 is the initial quantity and 𝑘 is the
rate constant.

• If 𝑘 > 0, then the model represents growth. This includes growth of cells, population growth, and
continuously compounded interest.
• If 𝑘 < 0, then the model represents decay. This includes radioactive decay and cooling of materials.

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Part 3: Circular Functions
Introduction to circular functions
Circular functions are those expressed in terms of trigonometric ratios – namely sine, cosine and tangent.
The name “circular” is a reference to the fact that all of those trigonometric ratios can be defined in terms
of the unit circle – a circle centred at the origin, with radius 1.

In the unit circle:

• Cosine is defined as the x-coordinate of the point where a triangle with its adjacent side on the x-
axis and a hypotenuse of 1 meets the unit circle. Sine is defined as the y-coordinate of that point.
Hence, the point can be defined as (cos 𝜃, sin 𝜃).
sin 𝜃
• Tangent is defined as the ratio of sine to cosine. So tan 𝜃 = cos 𝜃.
• The unit circle is split into four equal quadrants, with quadrant 1 being the top right part, and the
numbering going anticlockwise from there.
• Angles measured anticlockwise from the positive x-axis are positive. Angles measured clockwise
from the positive x-axis are negative.
• Sine is always positive in quadrants 1 and 2, as they are on the positive side of the y-axis. It is always
negative in quadrants 3 and 4, as they are on the negative side of the y-axis.
• Cosine is always positive in quadrants 1 and 4, as they are on the positive side of the x-axis. It is
always negative in quadrants 2 and 3, as they are on the negative side of the x-axis.
• Tangent is positive when sine and cosine are both positive or both negative. This means that
tangent is always positive in quadrants 1 and 3, and always negative in quadrants 2 and 4.

In circular functions angles are expressed in two ways: degrees and radians.

A radian is a form of measure that uses 𝜋, where 𝜋 radians is equivalent to 180 degrees. This means that a
full revolution (i.e. 360 degrees) would be 2𝜋.

To convert from degrees to radians, and vice versa:

𝜋
• Angle in degrees × 180 = angle in radians
180
• Angle in radians × = angle in degrees.
𝜋

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There are some circular functions that have exact values. These include those of 0°, 90°, 30°. 60°, and 45°.
The sine, cosine and tangent of those angles are summarised below.

These values are obtained based off the first quadrant of the unit circle, where everything is positive. When
they appear in one of the other quadrants they may remain positive or become negative, depending on the
7𝜋 1
sign of the trig ratio in that quadrant. So since sine is negative in quadrant 3, sin ( 6 ) = − 2 .

If the angle given is more than 360 degrees or 2𝜋, we need to divide it by 2𝜋 and obtain the remainder
which we can then use to determine the value of the trig ratio. This is because any multiple of 2𝜋 always
√3
leads us back to the same point (i.e. sin(2𝜋 + 𝑥) = sin 𝑥). So cos(750°) = cos(360° × 2 + 30°) = .
2

Complementary properties and the Pythagorean identity

We can express a sin function in terms of a cos function, and vice versa, using one of the complementary
properties below:
𝜋
• sin ( 2 − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
𝜋
• sin ( 2 + 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
𝜋
• cos (2 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
𝜋
• cos (2 − 𝜃) = −sin 𝜃.

The Pythagorean identity is given by cos2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1.

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Solving trigonometric equations
When solving a trigonometric equation with a restricted domain, there are usually multiple solutions we
have to obtain. For instance, the equation sin(𝑥) = 0, where 𝑥 ∈ [0, 2𝜋], has three solutions: 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋.

To solve a trigonometric equation, we can use the following steps:

1. Rearrange the equation for sin, cos, or tan.

2𝜋 𝜋
2. Find the period. The period for sin (𝑛𝑥) and cos (𝑛𝑥) is . The period for tan (𝑛𝜋) is 𝑛 .
𝑛
3. Find the angle(s) within the domain that satisfy the equation. Usually we need to find 2 angles for
sin and cos. We will only ever need to find 1 angle for tan.
4. Set the argument (the expression inside the sin/cos/tan function) equal to each angle obtained in
step 3. Solve the resulting equation(s) for 𝑥.
5. Add or subtract the period from each solution obtained in step 4 to find all solutions to the
equation. Note that the solutions obtained in step 4 may or may not be included in our final
solutions. If those solutions fall outside the domain then they must be eliminated.

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Graphs of circular functions
The basic sine and cosine graphs, 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, are shown below.

The general form for sine and cosine graphs is given by 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐,
respectively, where:

• The amplitude of the graph is given by |𝑎|

2𝜋
• The period of the graph is given by .
𝑛

When sketching sine and cosine graphs, we need to label all axis intercepts and turning points, as well as
the endpoints. The whole process is set out as follows:

1. The range of the graph is given by [−𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐].

2. Find all axis-intercepts.
3. Determine the x-coordinate of each maximum or minimum turning point. The turning points will
always be halfway between 2 adjacent x-intercepts. Once we have identified the x-position of one
turning point we can then identify the x-positions of all other turning points by continuously adding
or subtracting half of the period.
4. Determine the y-coordinate of the first turning point by substituting the corresponding x-value into
the equation. Once we have done that, we can then obtain the y-positions of all other turning
points, using the fact that max’s and min’s alternate.
5. Determine the coordinates of the endpoints.
6. Sketch the graph, labelling all relevant features.

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21
The basic tangent graph, 𝑦 = tan 𝑥, is shown below.

The general form for tan graphs is given by 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐, where:

• The range is 𝑅
𝜋
• The period is 𝑛
(2𝑘+1)𝜋 𝑏
• The vertical asymptotes have equations 𝑡 = − 𝑛 , where 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍.
2𝑛

When sketching tan graphs, we need to label all axis intercepts and asymptotes, as well as the endpoints.
The whole process is set out as follows:

1. Determine the direction of the graph. If 𝑎 and 𝑛 are both positive or negative, each graph goes from
bottom left to top right. If one is positive and the other negative, each graph goes from top left to
bottom right.
𝜋
2. Find the equation of 1 asymptote. We can do this by solving the equation 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏 = 2 for 𝑥.
3. Determine the equations of the other asymptotes by adding or subtracting the period from the
asymptote obtained in step 2.
4. Determine where the inflection points are. The x-position of an inflection point is always in the
middle of 2 adjacent asymptotes. The y-position is 0 unless the graph as a vertical translation.
5. Find all axis intercepts.
6. Sketch the graph, labelling all relevant features.

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23
Addition of ordinates for circular functions

Applications of circular functions

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25
Appendix A: Solving Systems of Equations
The number of solutions to a 2x2 systems of equations can be thought of as the number of intersections
between the two lines that respectively define those two equations. There are three ways to describe
intersections between two lines:

1. The lines intersect once (meaning there is a unique solution)

2. The lines coincide (meaning there are infinitely many solutions)

3. The lines are parallel (meaning there is no solution)

When determining the number of solutions to a 2x2 system of equations expressed in the form

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑒

𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓

we go through the following steps:

𝑎 𝑏
1. Determine whether 𝑎 and 𝑐 differ by a different scalar factor than 𝑏 and 𝑑 (i.e. 𝑐 ≠ 𝑑 ). If so, then
there is a unique solution.
2. If 𝑎 and 𝑐, 𝑏 and 𝑑, and 𝑒 and 𝑓 all differ by the same scalar factor, then there are infinitely many
solutions.
3. If 𝑎 and 𝑐 and 𝑏 and 𝑑 differ by the same scalar factor, but 𝑒 and 𝑓 differ by a different scalar factor,
then there is no solution.

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Appendix B: Synthetic Division
Synthetic division is a fast method for dividing two polynomials, one of which is linear. It is a process which
allows us to work with only the coefficients of the divisor and the constant of the linear dividend.

If we want to divide 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 by 𝑥 − 𝑘, we need to set up the following table:

The top line is where the coefficients are set out in order of highest power to lowest power. 𝑘 is written on
the left side, and the quotient + remainder line is at the bottom. The second line of the table is where we
will be writing the resultant expressions as we go through the division.

We start by bringing 𝑎 straight down to the quotient line. We then multiply it by 𝑘, and write the resultant
term 𝑘𝑎 in the second column of the second line. We add 𝑏 to 𝑘𝑎, forming 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑎 which we write in the
second column of the quotient line. We repeat the same process until all five columns of the quotient line
have been filled. The last column (the one below 𝑒) will contain the value of the remainder, while
everything before it will contain the coefficients (from 𝑥 3 to constant) of the quotient.

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