C Programming Tutorial

C PROGRAMMING TUTORIAL
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 Table of Contents
C Language Overview .............................................................. 1
Facts about C ............................................................................................... 1
Why to use C ? ............................................................................................. 2
C Programs .................................................................................................. 2
C Environment Setup ............................................................... 3
Text Editor ................................................................................................... 3
The C Compiler ............................................................................................ 3
Installation on Unix/Linux ............................................................................. 4
Installation on Mac OS .................................................................................. 4
Installation on Windows ............................................................................... 4
C Program Structure ................................................................ 5
C Hello World Example ................................................................................. 5
Compile & Execute C Program ....................................................................... 6
C Basic Syntax ......................................................................... 7
Tokens in C .................................................................................................. 7
Semicolons ; ................................................................................................ 7
Comments ................................................................................................... 8
Identifiers .................................................................................................... 8
Keywords .................................................................................................... 8
Whitespace in C ........................................................................................... 9
C Data Types ......................................................................... 10
Integer Types ............................................................................................. 10
Floating-Point Types ................................................................................... 11
The void Type ............................................................................................ 12
C Variables ............................................................................ 13
Variable Declaration in C ................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Variable Initialization in C ...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Lvalues and Rvalues in C ............................................................................. 15
C Constants and Literals ........................................................ 17
Integer literals............................................................................................ 17
Floating-point literals.................................................................................. 18
Character constants.................................................................................... 18

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String literals.............................................................................................. 19
Defining Constants ..................................................................................... 19
The #define Preprocessor ...................................................................... 19
The const Keyword ................................................................................. 20
C Storage Classes ................................................................. 22
The auto Storage Class ................................................................................ 22
The register Storage Class ........................................................................... 22
The static Storage Class............................................................................... 23
The extern Storage Class ............................................................................. 24
C Operators ........................................................................... 25
Arithmetic Operators .................................................................................. 25
Relational Operators................................................................................... 26
Logical Operators ....................................................................................... 28
Bitwise Operators....................................................................................... 29
Assignment Operators ................................................................................ 31
Misc Operators ↦ sizeof & ternary .............................................................. 33
Operators Precedence in C .......................................................................... 33
Decision Making in C.............................................................. 35
if statement ............................................................................................... 36
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 36
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 36
Example .................................................................................................. 36
if...else statement ...................................................................................... 37
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 37
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 38
Example .................................................................................................. 38
The if...else if...else Statement ..................................................................... 39
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 39
Example .................................................................................................. 39
Nested if statements .................................................................................. 40
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 40
Example .................................................................................................. 40
switch statement ....................................................................................... 41
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 41
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 42
Example .................................................................................................. 42
Nested switch statements ........................................................................... 43
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 43
Example .................................................................................................. 43

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The ? : Operator ......................................................................................... 44
C Loops.................................................................................. 45
while loop in C ........................................................................................... 46
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 46
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 46
Example .................................................................................................. 47
for loop in C ............................................................................................... 47
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 47
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 48
Example .................................................................................................. 48
do...while loop in C ..................................................................................... 49
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 49
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 50
Example .................................................................................................. 50
nested loops in C ........................................................................................ 51
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 51
Example .................................................................................................. 52
break statement in C .................................................................................. 53
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 53
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 53
Example .................................................................................................. 54
continue statement in C .............................................................................. 54
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 54
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 55
Example .................................................................................................. 55
goto statement in C .................................................................................... 56
Syntax ..................................................................................................... 56
Flow Diagram .......................................................................................... 56
Example .................................................................................................. 57
The Infinite Loop ........................................................................................ 57
C Functions ............................................................................ 59
Defining a Function .................................................................................... 59
Example .................................................................................................. 60
Function Declarations ................................................................................. 60
Calling a Function ....................................................................................... 60
Function Arguments ................................................................................... 61
Function call by value ............................................................................. 62
Function call by reference ....................................................................... 63
C Scope Rules ....................................................................... 65

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Local Variables ........................................................................................... 65
Global Variables ......................................................................................... 66
Formal Parameters ..................................................................................... 67
Initializing Local and Global Variables ........................................................... 67
C Arrays ................................................................................. 69
Declaring Arrays ......................................................................................... 69
Initializing Arrays ........................................................................................ 70
Accessing Array Elements ............................................................................ 70
Multi-dimensional Arrays ............................................................................ 71
Two-Dimensional Arrays ............................................................................. 71
Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays.............................................................. 72
Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements ................................................. 72
Passing Arrays as Function Arguments.......................................................... 73
Way-1 ...................................................................................................... 73
Way-2 ...................................................................................................... 74
Way-3....................................................................................................... 74
Example .................................................................................................. 74
Return array from function.......................................................................... 75
Pointer to an Array ..................................................................................... 77
C Pointers .............................................................................. 79
What Are Pointers? .................................................................................... 80
How to use Pointers? .................................................................................. 80
NULL Pointers in C ...................................................................................... 81
Pointer arithmetic ...................................................................................... 81
Incrementing a Pointer ............................................................................... 82
Decrementing a Pointer .............................................................................. 83
Pointer Comparisons .................................................................................. 83
Array of pointers ........................................................................................ 84
Pointer to Pointer....................................................................................... 86
Passing pointers to functions ....................................................................... 87
Return pointer from functions ..................................................................... 88
C Strings ................................................................................ 91
C Structures ........................................................................... 94
Defining a Structure.................................................................................... 94
Accessing Structure Members ..................................................................... 95
Structures as Function Arguments ............................................................... 96
Pointers to Structures ................................................................................. 97
C Unions .............................................................................. 100
Defining a Union ...................................................................................... 100

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Accessing Union Members ........................................................................ 101
Bit Fields .............................................................................. 103
Bit Field Declaration ................................................................................. 104
Typedef ................................................................................ 106
typedef vs #define .................................................................................... 107
Input & Output ...................................................................... 108
The Standard Files .................................................................................... 108
The getchar() & putchar() functions ........................................................... 108
The gets() & puts() functions ..................................................................... 109
The scanf() and printf() functions ............................................................... 110
File I/O ................................................................................. 111
Opening Files ........................................................................................... 111
Closing a File ............................................................................................ 112
Writing a File ........................................................................................... 112
Reading a File........................................................................................... 113
Binary I/O Functions ................................................................................. 114
Preprocessors ...................................................................... 115
Preprocessors Examples............................................................................ 115
Predefined Macros ................................................................................... 116
Preprocessor Operators ............................................................................ 117
Macro Continuation (\) .......................................................................... 117
Stringize (#) ........................................................................................... 117
Token Pasting (##)................................................................................ 118
The defined() Operator ......................................................................... 118
Parameterized Macros .............................................................................. 119
Header Files ......................................................................... 120
Include Syntax.......................................................................................... 120
Include Operation .................................................................................... 121
Once-Only Headers .................................................................................. 121
Computed Includes................................................................................... 122
Type Casting ........................................................................ 123
Integer Promotion .................................................................................... 124
Usual Arithmetic Conversion ..................................................................... 124
Error Handling ...................................................................... 126
The errno, perror() and strerror() ............................................................... 126
Divide by zero errors ................................................................................ 127
Program Exit Status .................................................................................. 128
Recursion ............................................................................. 129
Number Factorial ..................................................................................... 129

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Fibonacci Series ....................................................................................... 130
Variable Arguments .............................................................. 131
Memory Management .......................................................... 133
Allocating Memory Dynamically ................................................................. 133
Resizing and Releasing Memory ................................................................. 134
Command Line Arguments ................................................... 136

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 1
CHAPTER

C Language Overview
This chapter describes the basic details about C programming language, how it emerged,
what are strengths of C and why we should use C.

T he C programming language is a general-purpose, high-level language that was

originally developed by Dennis M. Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating system at Bell
Labs. C was originally first implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972.

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first publicly available
description of C, now known as the K&R standard.

The UNIX operating system, the C compiler, and essentially all UNIX applications programs
have been written in C. The C has now become a widely used professional language for
various reasons.

 Easy to learn

 Structured language

 It produces efficient programs.

 It can handle low-level activities.

 It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms.

Facts about C
 C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.

 C is a successor of B language, which was introduced around 1970.

 The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard Institute.
(ANSI).

 The UNIX OS was totally written in C by 1973.

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  Today, C is the most widely used and popular System Programming Language.

 Most of the state-of-the-art softwares have been implemented using C.

 Today's most ][popular Linux OS and RBDMS MySQL have been written in C.

Why to use C?
C was initially used for system development work, in particular the programs that make up
the operating system. C was adopted as a system development language because it
produces code that runs nearly as fast as code written in assembly language. Some
examples of the use of C might be:

 Operating Systems

 Language Compilers

 Assemblers

 Text Editors

 Print Spoolers

 Network Drivers

 Modern Programs

 Databases

 Language Interpreters

 Utilities

C Programs
A C program can vary from 3 lines to millions of lines and it should be written into one or
more text files with extension ".c"; for example, hello.c. You can use "vi", "vim" or any
other text editor to write your C program into a file.

This tutorial assumes that you know how to edit a text file and how to write source code
using any programming language.

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 2
CHAPTER

C Environment Setup
This section describes how to set up your system environment before you start doing your
programming using C language.
Before you start doing programming using C programming language, you need the following
two softwares available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and (b) The C Compiler.

Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include Windows Notepad,
OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.

Name and version of text editor can vary on different operating systems. For example,
Notepad will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on windows as well as Linux or
UNIX.

The files you create with your editor are called source files and contain program source
code. The source files for C programs are typically named with the extension “.c”.

Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place and you
have enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file, compile it and finally
execute it.

The C Compiler
The source code written in source file is the human readable source for your program. It
needs to be "compiled", to turn into machine language so that your CPU can actually
execute the program as per instructions given.

This C programming language compiler will be used to compile your source code into final
executable program. I assume you have basic knowledge about a programming language
compiler.

Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler, otherwise you can
have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have respective Operating Systems.

Following section guides you on how to install GNU C/C++ compiler on various OS. I'm
mentioning C/C++ together because GNU gcc compiler works for both C and C++
programming languages.

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Installation on UNIX/Linux
If you are using Linux or UNIX, then check whether GCC is installed on your system by
entering the following command from the command line:

$ gcc -v

If you have GNU compiler installed on your machine, then it should print a message
something as follows:

Using built-in specs.

Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix=/usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)

If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the detailed
instructions available athttp://gcc.gnu.org/install/

This tutorial has been written based on Linux and all the given examples have been
compiled on Cent OS flavor of Linux system.

Installation on Mac OS
If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the Xcode development
environment from Apple's web site and follow the simple installation instructions. Once you
have Xcode setup, you will be able to use GNU compiler for C/C++.

Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/.

Installation on Windows
To install GCC at Windows you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW, go to the MinGW
homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the MinGW download page. Download
the latest version of the MinGW installation program, which should be named MinGW-
<version>.exe.

While installing MinWG, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-g++, binutils, and
the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.

Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH environment variable, so
that you can specify these tools on the command line by their simple names.

When the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar, ranlib, dlltool, and
several other GNU tools from the Windows command line.

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 3
CHAPTER

C Program Structure
Let’s look into Hello World example using C Programming Language.

B efore we study basic building blocks of the C programming language, let us look a

bare minimum C program structure so that we can take it as a reference in upcoming

chapters.

C Hello World Example

A C program basically consists of the following parts:

 Preprocessor Commands

 Functions

 Variables

 Statements & Expressions

 Comments

Let us look at a simple code that would print the words "Hello World":

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
/* my first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;
}

Let us look various parts of the above program:

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1. The first line of the program #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command, which tells
a C compiler to include stdio.h file before going to actual compilation.

2. The next line int main() is the main function where program execution begins.

3. The next line /*...*/ will be ignored by the compiler and it has been put to add additional
comments in the program. So such lines are called comments in the program.

4. The next line printf(...) is another function available in C which causes the message
"Hello, World!" to be displayed on the screen.

5. The next line return 0; terminates main()function and returns the value 0.

Compile & Execute C Program

Let’s look at how to save the source code in a file, and how to compile and run it. Following
are the simple steps:

1. Open a text editor and add the above-mentioned code.

2. Save the file as hello.c

3. Open a command prompt and go to the directory where you saved the file.

4. Type gcc hello.c and press enter to compile your code.

5. If there are no errors in your code, the command prompt will take you to the next line and
would generate a.out executable file.

6. Now, type a.out to execute your program.

7. You will be able to see "Hello World" printed on the screen

$ gcc hello.c
$ ./a.out
Hello, World!

Make sure that gcc compiler is in your path and that you are running it in the directory
containing source file hello.c.

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 4
CHAPTER

C Basic Syntax
This chapter will give details about all the basic syntax about C programming language
including tokens, keywords, identifiers, etc.

Y ou have seen a basic structure of C program, so it will be easy to understand other

basic building blocks of the C programming language.

Tokens in C
A C program consists of various tokens and a token is either a keyword, an identifier, a
constant, a string literal, or a symbol. For example, the following C statement consists of
five tokens:

printf("Hello, World! \n");

The individual tokens are:

printf
(
"Hello, World! \n"
)
;

Semicolons ;
In C program, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual statement
must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one logical entity.

For example, following are two different statements:

printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;

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Comments
Comments are like helping text in your C program and they are ignored by the compiler.
They start with /* and terminates with the characters */ as shown below:

/* my first program in C */

You cannot have comments within comments and they do not occur within a string or
character literals.

Identifiers
A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-defined
item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _ followed by zero
or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9).

C does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers. C is a case
sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are two different
identifiers in C. Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers:

mohd zara abc move_name a_123

myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal

Keywords
The following list shows the reserved words in C. These reserved words may not be used as
constant or variable or any other identifier names.

auto else Long switch

break enum register typedef

case extern return union

char float short unsigned

const for signed void

continue goto sizeof volatile

default if static while

do int struct _packed

double

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Whitespace in C
A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line, and a
C compiler totally ignores it.

Whitespace is the term used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters and
comments. Whitespace separates one part of a statement from another and enables the
compiler to identify where one element in a statement, such as int, ends and the next
element begins. Therefore, in the following statement:

int age;

There must be at least one whitespace character (usually a space) between int and age for
the compiler to be able to distinguish them. On the other hand, in the following statement:

fruit = apples + oranges; // get the total fruit

No whitespace characters are necessary between fruit and =, or between = and apples,
although you are free to include some if you wish for readability purpose.

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 5
CHAPTER

C Data Types

I n the C programming language, data types refer to an extensive system used for

declaring variables or functions of different types. The type of a variable determines how
much space it occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

The types in C can be classified as follows:

S.N. Types and Description

Basic Types:
1 They are arithmetic types and consists of the two types: (a) integer types and (b) floating-
point types.

Enumerated types:
2 They are again arithmetic types and they are used to define variables that can only be
assigned certain discrete integer values throughout the program.

The type void:

3
The type specifier void indicates that no value is available.

Derived types:
4 They include (a) Pointer types, (b) Array types, (c) Structure types, (d) Union types and
(e) Function types.

The array types and structure types are referred to collectively as the aggregate types. The
type of a function specifies the type of the function's return value. We will see basic types
in the following section, whereas, other types will be covered in the upcoming chapters.

Integer Types
Following table gives you details about standard integer types with its storage sizes and
value ranges:

Type Storage size Value range

Char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

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 signed char 1 byte -128 to 127

Int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295

Short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65,535

Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

To get the exact size of a type or a variable on a particular platform, you can use
the sizeof operator. The expressions sizeof(type) yields the storage size of the object or
type in bytes. Following is an example to get the size of int type on any machine:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>

int main()
{
printf("Storage size for int : %d \n", sizeof(int));

return 0;
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result on
Linux:

Storage size for int : 4

Floating-Point Types
Following table gives you details about standard floating-point types with storage sizes and
value ranges and their precision:

Type Storage size Value range Precision

float 4 byte 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places

double 8 byte 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal places

long double 10 byte 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places

The header file float.h defines macros that allow you to use these values and other details
about the binary representation of real numbers in your programs. Following example will
print storage space taken by a float type and its range values:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h>

int main()

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 {
printf("Storage size for float : %d \n", sizeof(float));
printf("Minimum float positive value: %E\n", FLT_MIN );
printf("Maximum float positive value: %E\n", FLT_MAX );
printf("Precision value: %d\n", FLT_DIG );

return 0;
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result on
Linux:

Storage size for float : 4

Minimum float positive value: 1.175494E-38
Maximum float positive value: 3.402823E+38
Precision value: 6

The void Type

The void type specifies that no value is available. It is used in three kinds of situations:

S.N. Types and Description

Function returns as void

There are various functions in C which do not return value or you can say they return void.
1
A function with no return value has the return type as void. For example, void exit (int
status);

Function arguments as void

2 There are various functions in C which do not accept any parameter. A function with no
parameter can accept as a void. For example, int rand(void);

Pointers to void
A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object, but not its type. For example,
3
a memory allocation function void *malloc( size_t size ); returns a pointer to void which
can be casted to any data type.

The void type may not be understood to you at this point, so let us proceed and we will
cover these concepts in the upcoming chapters.

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 6
CHAPTER

C Variables

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can

manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of
the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the
set of operations that can be applied to the variable.

The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore character. It
must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase letters are distinct
because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic types explained in previous chapter, there
will be the following basic variable types:

Type Description

Char Typically a single octet(one byte). This is an integer type.

Int The most natural size of integer for the machine.

Float A single-precision floating point value.

Double A double-precision floating point value.

Void Represents the absence of type.

C programming language also allows to define various other types of variables, which we
will cover in subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array, Structure, Union, etc.
For this chapter, let us study only basic variable types.

Variable Definition in C:
A variable definition means to tell the compiler where and how much to create the storage for the
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and contains a list of one or more variables of
that type as follows:

type variable_list;

Here, type must be a valid C data type including char, w_char, int, float, double, bool or any user-
defined object, etc., and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated by
commas. Some valid declarations are shown here:

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int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

The line int i, j, k; both declares and defines the variables i, j and k; which instructs the compiler
to create variables named i, j and k of type int.

Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer consists of
an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows:

type variable_name = value;

Some examples are:

extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.

int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.

For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration are implicitly initialized
with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial value of all other variables is undefined.

Variable Declaration in C:
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is one variable existing with
the given type and name so that compiler proceed for further compilation without needing
complete detail about the variable. A variable declaration has its meaning at the time of
compilation only, compiler needs actual variable declaration at the time of linking of the program.

A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you define your variable in
one of the files, which will be available at the time of linking of the program. You will
use extern keyword to declare a variable at any place. Though you can declare a variable multiple
times in your C program but it can be defined only once in a file, a function or a block of code.

Example
Try the following example, where variables have been declared at the top, but they have been
defined and initialized inside the main function:

#include <stdio.h>

// Variable definition:
extern int a, b;
extern int c;
extern float f;

int main ()
{
// Variable definition:
int a, b;
int c;
float f;

// actual initialization
a =10;

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 b =20;
c = a + b;

printf("value of c : %d \n", c);

f = 70.0/3.0;
printf("value of f : %f \n", f);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of c : 30
value of f : 23.333334

Same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a function name at the time of its
declaration and its actual definition can be given anywhere else. For example:

// function declaration
int func();

int main()
{
// function call
int i = func();
}
// function definition
int func()
{
return 0;
}

Lvalues and Rvalues in C

There are two kinds of expressions in C:

1. lvalue: An expression that is an lvalue may appear as either the left-hand or right-hand
side of an assignment.

2. rvalue: An expression that is an rvalue may appear on the right- but not left-hand side
of an assignment.

Variables are lvalues and so may appear on the left-hand side of an assignment. Numeric
literals are rvalues and so may not be assigned and cannot appear on the left-hand side.
Following is a valid statement:

int g = 20;

But following is not a valid statement and would generate compile-time error:

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10 = 20;

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 7
CHAPTER

C Constants and Literals

T he constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter during its

execution. These fixed values are also called literals.

Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating
constant, a character constant, or a string literal. There are also enumeration
constants as well.

The constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be
modified after their definition.

Integer literals
An integer literal can be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. A prefix specifies the
base or radix: 0x or 0X for hexadecimal, 0 for octal, and nothing for decimal.

An integer literal can also have a suffix that is a combination of U and L, for unsigned and
long, respectively. The suffix can be uppercase or lowercase and can be in any order.

Here are some examples of integer literals:

212 /* Legal */
215u /* Legal */
0xFeeL /* Legal */
078 /* Illegal: 8 is not an octal digit */
032UU /* Illegal: cannot repeat a suffix */

Following are other examples of various types of Integer literals:

85 /* decimal */
0213 /* octal */
0x4b /* hexadecimal */
30 /* int */
30u /* unsigned int */
30l /* long */
30ul /* unsigned long */

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Floating-point literals
A floating-point literal has an integer part, a decimal point, a fractional part, and an
exponent part. You can represent floating point literals either in decimal form or
exponential form.

While representing using decimal form, you must include the decimal point, the exponent,
or both and while representing using exponential form, you must include the integer part,
the fractional part, or both. The signed exponent is introduced by e or E.

Here are some examples of floating-point literals:

3.14159 /* Legal */
314159E-5L /* Legal */
510E /* Illegal: incomplete exponent */
210f /* Illegal: no decimal or exponent */
.e55 /* Illegal: missing integer or fraction */

Character constants
Character literals are enclosed in single quotes, e.g., 'x' and can be stored in a simple
variable of char type.

A character literal can be a plain character (e.g., 'x'), an escape sequence (e.g., '\t'), or a
universal character (e.g., '\u02C0').

There are certain characters in C when they are preceded by a backslash they will have
special meaning and they are used to represent like newline (\n) or tab (\t). Here, you
have a list of some of such escape sequence codes:

Escape
Meaning
sequence

\\ \ character

\' ' character

\" " character

\? ? character

\a Alert or bell

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal tab

\v Vertical tab

\ooo Octal number of one to three digits

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 \xhh . . . Hexadecimal number of one or more digits

Following is the example to show few escape sequence characters:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
printf("Hello\tWorld\n\n");

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Hello World

String literals
String literals or constants are enclosed in double quotes "". A string contains characters
that are similar to character literals: plain characters, escape sequences, and universal
characters.

You can break a long line into multiple lines using string literals and separating them using
whitespaces.

Here are some examples of string literals. All the three forms are identical strings.

"hello, dear"

"hello, \

dear"

"hello, " "d" "ear"

Defining Constants
There are two simple ways in C to define constants:

1. Using #define preprocessor.

2. Using const keyword.

The #define Preprocessor

Following is the form to use #define preprocessor to define a constant:

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 #define identifier value

Following example explains it in detail:

#include <stdio.h>

#define LENGTH 10
#define WIDTH 5
#define NEWLINE '\n'

int main()
{

int area;

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;

printf("value of area : %d", area);
printf("%c", NEWLINE);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of area : 50

The const Keyword

You can use const prefix to declare constants with a specific type as follows:

const type variable = value;

Following example explains it in detail:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
const int LENGTH = 10;
const int WIDTH = 5;
const char NEWLINE = '\n';
int area;

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;

printf("value of area : %d", area);
printf("%c", NEWLINE);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

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value of area : 50

Note that it is a good programming practice to define constants in CAPITALS.

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 8
CHAPTER

C Storage Classes

A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life-time of variables and/or functions

within a C Program. These specifiers precede the type that they modify. There are the following
storage classes, which can be used in a C Program

 auto

 register

 static

 extern

The auto Storage Class

The auto storage class is the default storage class for all local variables.

{
int mount;
auto int month;
}

The example above defines two variables with the same storage class, auto can only be
used within functions, i.e., local variables.

The register Storage Class

The register storage class is used to define local variables that should be stored in a
register instead of RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size equal to the
register size (usually one word) and can't have the unary '&' operator applied to it (as it
does not have a memory location).

{
register int miles;
}

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The register should only be used for variables that require quick access such as counters. It
should also be noted that defining 'register' does not mean that the variable will be stored
in a register. It means that it MIGHT be stored in a register depending on hardware and
implementation restrictions.

The static Storage Class

The static storage class instructs the compiler to keep a local variable in existence during
the life-time of the program instead of creating and destroying it each time it comes into
and goes out of scope. Therefore, making local variables static allows them to maintain
their values between function calls.

The static modifier may also be applied to global variables. When this is done, it causes
that variable's scope to be restricted to the file in which it is declared.

In C programming, when static is used on a class data member, it causes only one copy of
that member to be shared by all objects of its class.

#include <stdio.h>

/* function declaration */
void func(void);

static int count = 5; /* global variable */

main()
{
while(count--)
{
func();
}
return 0;
}
/* function definition */
void func( void )
{
static int i = 5; /* local static variable */
i++;

printf("i is %d and count is %d\n", i, count);

}

You may not understand this example at this time because I have used function and global
variables, which I have not explained so far. So for now, let us proceed even if you do not
understand it completely. When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the
following result:

i is 6 and count is 4
i is 7 and count is 3
i is 8 and count is 2
i is 9 and count is 1
i is 10 and count is 0

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The extern Storage Class
The extern storage class is used to give a reference of a global variable that is visible to
ALL the program files. When you use 'extern', the variable cannot be initialized as all it
does is point the variable name at a storage location that has been previously defined.

When you have multiple files and you define a global variable or function, which will be
used in other files also, then extern will be used in another file to give reference of defined
variable or function. Just for understanding, extern is used to declare a global variable or
function in another file.

The extern modifier is most commonly used when there are two or more files sharing the
same global variables or functions as explained below.

First File: main.c

#include <stdio.h>

int count ;
extern void write_extern();

main()
{
write_extern();
}

Second File: write.c

#include <stdio.h>

extern int count;

void write_extern(void)
{
count = 5;
printf("count is %d\n", count);
}

Here, extern keyword is being used to declare count in the second file where as it has its
definition in the first file, main.c. Now, compile these two files as follows:

$gcc main.c write.c

This will produce a.out executable program, when this program is executed, it produces
the following result:

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 9
CHAPTER

C Operators

A n operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical

manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides the following types of
operators:

 Arithmetic Operators

 Relational Operators

 Logical Operators

 Bitwise Operators

 Assignment Operators

 Misc Operators

This tutorial will explain the arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, assignment and other
operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators
Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

% Modulus Operator and remainder of after an integer division B % A will give 0

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 ++ Increments operator increases integer value by one A++ will give 11

-- Decrements operator decreases integer value by one A-- will give 9

Try the following example to understand all the arithmetic operators available in C
programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 21;
int b = 10;
int c ;

c = a + b;
printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a - b;
printf("Line 2 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a * b;
printf("Line 3 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a / b;
printf("Line 4 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a % b;
printf("Line 5 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a++;
printf("Line 6 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
c = a--;
printf("Line 7 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 11
Line 3 - Value of c is 210
Line 4 - Value of c is 2
Line 5 - Value of c is 1
Line 6 - Value of c is 21
Line 7 - Value of c is 22

Relational Operators
Following table shows all the relational operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

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 Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if
== (A == B) is not true.
yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if

!= (A != B) is true.
values are not equal then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the

> value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes (A > B) is not true.
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value

< (A < B) is true.
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or

>= equal to the value of right operand, if yes then condition (A >= B) is not true.
becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal

<= to the value of right operand, if yes then condition (A <= B) is true.
becomes true.

Try the following example to understand all the relational operators available in C
programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 21;
int b = 10;
int c ;

if( a == b )
{
printf("Line 1 - a is equal to b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 1 - a is not equal to b\n" );
}
if ( a < b )
{
printf("Line 2 - a is less than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 2 - a is not less than b\n" );
}
if ( a > b )
{
printf("Line 3 - a is greater than b\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - a is not greater than b\n" );
}
/* Lets change value of a and b */
a = 5;
b = 20;
if ( a <= b )

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 {
printf("Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b\n" );
}
if ( b >= a )
{
printf("Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b\n" );
}
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - a is not equal to b

Line 2 - a is not less than b
Line 3 - a is greater than b
Line 4 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 5 - b is either greater than or equal to b

Logical Operators
Following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then:

Operator Description Example

Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are non-zero,

&& (A && B) is false.
then condition becomes true.

Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands is non-

|| (A || B) is true.
zero, then condition becomes true.

Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the logical state

! of its operand. If a condition is true, then Logical NOT operator !(A && B) is true.
will make false.

Try the following example to understand all the logical operators available in C
programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 5;
int b = 20;
int c ;

if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 1 - Condition is true\n" );
}
if ( a || b )
{

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 printf("Line 2 - Condition is true\n" );
}
/* lets change the value of a and b */
a = 0;
b = 10;
if ( a && b )
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is true\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Line 3 - Condition is not true\n" );
}
if ( !(a && b) )
{
printf("Line 4 - Condition is true\n" );
}
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Condition is true

Line 2 - Condition is true
Line 3 - Condition is not true
Line 4 - Condition is true

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &, |,
and ^ are as follows:

P q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; now in binary format they will be as follows:

A = 0011 1100

B = 0000 1101

-----------------

A&B = 0000 1100

A|B = 0011 1101

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A^B = 0011 0001

~A = 1100 0011

The Bitwise operators supported by C language are listed in the following table. Assume
variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13, then:

Operator Description Example

Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the

& (A & B) will give 12, which is 0000 1100
result if it exists in both operands.

Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it

| (A | B) will give 61, which is 0011 1101
exists in either operand.

Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it

^ (A ^ B) will give 49, which is 0011 0001
is set in one operand but not both.

Binary Ones Complement Operator is

~ (~A ) will give -60, which is 1100 0011
unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits.

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left

operands value is moved left by the
<< A << 2 will give 240, which is 1111 0000
number of bits specified by the right
operand.

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left

operands value is moved right by the
>> A >> 2 will give 15, which is 0000 1111
number of bits specified by the right
operand.

Try the following example to understand all the bitwise operators available in C
programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{

unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */

unsigned int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0;

c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */

printf("Line 1 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
printf("Line 2 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
printf("Line 3 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */

printf("Line 4 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */

printf("Line 5 - Value of c is %d\n", c );

c = a >> 2; /* 15 = 0000 1111 */

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 printf("Line 6 - Value of c is %d\n", c );
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Value of c is 12
Line 2 - Value of c is 61
Line 3 - Value of c is 49
Line 4 - Value of c is -61
Line 5 - Value of c is 240
Line 6 - Value of c is 15

Assignment Operators
There are following assignment operators supported by C language:

Operator Description Example

Simple assignment operator, Assigns values C = A + B will assign value of A +

=
from right side operands to left side operand B into C

Add AND assignment operator, It adds right

+= operand to the left operand and assign the result C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
to left operand

Subtract AND assignment operator, It subtracts

-= right operand from the left operand and assign C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
the result to left operand

Multiply AND assignment operator, It multiplies

*= right operand with the left operand and assign C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
the result to left operand

Divide AND assignment operator, It divides left

/= operand with the right operand and assign the C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A
result to left operand

Modulus AND assignment operator, It takes

%= modulus using two operands and assign the C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
result to left operand

<<= Left shift AND assignment operator C <<= 2 is same as C = C << 2

>>= Right shift AND assignment operator C >>= 2 is same as C = C >> 2

&= Bitwise AND assignment operator C &= 2 is same as C = C & 2

^= bitwise exclusive OR and assignment operator C ^= 2 is same as C = C ^ 2

|= bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator C |= 2 is same as C = C | 2

Try the following example to understand all the assignment operators available in C
programming language:

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 #include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 21;
int c ;

c = a;
printf("Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c += a;
printf("Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c -= a;
printf("Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c *= a;
printf("Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c /= a;
printf("Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c = 200;
c %= a;
printf("Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c <<= 2;
printf("Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c >>= 2;
printf("Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c &= 2;
printf("Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c ^= 2;
printf("Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

c |= 2;
printf("Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = %d\n", c );

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - = Operator Example, Value of c = 21

Line 2 - += Operator Example, Value of c = 42
Line 3 - -= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
Line 4 - *= Operator Example, Value of c = 441
Line 5 - /= Operator Example, Value of c = 21
Line 6 - %= Operator Example, Value of c = 11
Line 7 - <<= Operator Example, Value of c = 44
Line 8 - >>= Operator Example, Value of c = 11

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 Line 9 - &= Operator Example, Value of c = 2
Line 10 - ^= Operator Example, Value of c = 0
Line 11 - |= Operator Example, Value of c = 2

Misc Operators ↦sizeof & ternary

There are few other important operators including sizeof and ? : supported by C Language.

Operator Description Example

sizeof(a), where a is integer,

sizeof() Returns the size of an variable.
will return 4.

&a; will give actual address of

& Returns the address of an variable.
the variable.

* Pointer to a variable. *a; will pointer to a variable.

If Condition is true ? Then

?: Conditional Expression
value X : Otherwise value Y

Operators Precedence in C
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This affects how
an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for
example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition operator.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the
lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be
evaluated first.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

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 Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Try the following example to understand the operator precedence available in C

programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 20;
int b = 10;
int c = 15;
int d = 5;
int e;

e = (a + b) * c / d; // ( 30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of (a + b) * c / d is : %d\n", e );

e = ((a + b) * c) / d; // (30 * 15 ) / 5
printf("Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );

e = (a + b) * (c / d); // (30) * (15/5)

printf("Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : %d\n", e );

e = a + (b * c) / d; // 20 + (150/5)
printf("Value of a + (b * c) / d is : %d\n" , e );

return 0;
}

When you compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Value of (a + b) * c / d is : 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is : 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is : 90
Value of a + (b * c) / d is : 50

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 CHAPTER

10
Decision Making in C

D ecision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more

conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements

to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to
be executed if the condition is determined to be false.

Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of the
programming languages:

C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true, and if it is
either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value. C programming language provides
following types of decision making statements.

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if statement
An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more statements.

Syntax
The syntax of an if statement in C programming language is:

if(boolean_expression)
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */
}

If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the if
statement will be executed. If boolean expression evaluates to false, then the first set of
code after the end of the if statement (after the closing curly brace) will be executed.

C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true and if it is
either zero or null then it is assumed as false value.

Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

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 /* check the boolean condition using if statement */
if( a < 20 )
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */
printf("a is less than 20\n" );
}
printf("value of a is : %d\n", a);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

a is less than 20;

value of a is : 10

if...else statement
An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the
boolean expression is false.

Syntax
The syntax of an if...else statement in C programming language is:

if(boolean_expression)
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */
}
else
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean expression is false */
}

If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the if block of code will be executed,
otherwise else block of code will be executed.

C programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true and if it is
either zero or null then it is assumed as false value.

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Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;

/* check the boolean condition */

if( a < 20 )
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */
printf("a is less than 20\n" );
}
else
{
/* if condition is false then print the following */
printf("a is not less than 20\n" );
}
printf("value of a is : %d\n", a);

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

a is not less than 20;

value of a is : 100

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The if...else if...else Statement
An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is very
useful to test various conditions using single if...else if statement.

When using if , else if , else statements there are few points to keep in mind:

 An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after any else if's.

 An if can have zero to many else if's and they must come before the else.

 Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining else if's or else's will be tested.

Syntax
The syntax of an if...else if...else statement in C programming language is:

if(boolean_expression 1)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
}
else if( boolean_expression 2)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true */
}
else if( boolean_expression 3)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 3 is true */
}
else
{
/* executes when the none of the above condition is true */
}

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;

/* check the boolean condition */

if( a == 10 )
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */
printf("Value of a is 10\n" );
}
else if( a == 20 )
{
/* if else if condition is true */
printf("Value of a is 20\n" );

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 }
else if( a == 30 )
{
/* if else if condition is true */
printf("Value of a is 30\n" );
}
else
{
/* if none of the conditions is true */
printf("None of the values is matching\n" );
}
printf("Exact value of a is: %d\n", a );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

None of the values is matching

Exact value of a is: 100

Nested if statements
It is always legal in C programming to nest if-else statements, which means you can use
one if or else if statement inside another if or else if statement(s).

Syntax
The syntax for a nested if statement is as follows:

if( boolean_expression 1)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
if(boolean_expression 2)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 2 is true */
}
}

You can nest else if...else in the similar way as you have nested if statement.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;

/* check the boolean condition */

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 if( a == 100 )
{
/* if condition is true then check the following */
if( b == 200 )
{
/* if condition is true then print the following */
printf("Value of a is 100 and b is 200\n" );
}
}
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a );
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Value of a is 100 and b is 200

Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

switch statement
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each
value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each switch case.

Syntax
The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows:

switch(expression){
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break; /* optional */
case constant-expression :
statement(s);
break; /* optional */

/* you can have any number of case statements */

default : /* Optional */
statement(s);
}

The following rules apply to a switch statement:

 The expression used in a switch statement must have an integral or enumerated type,
or be of a class type in which the class has a single conversion function to an integral or
enumerated type.

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 You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is followed by
the value to be compared to and a colon.

 The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as the variable in the
switch, and it must be a constant or a literal.
 When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements following that
case will execute until a break statement is reached.
 When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow of control jumps
to the next line following the switch statement.
 Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of control will fall
through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.
 A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the end of
the switch. The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the cases
is true. No break is needed in the default case.

Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
char grade = 'B';

switch(grade)
{
case 'A' :

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 printf("Excellent!\n" );
break;
case 'B' :
case 'C' :
printf("Well done\n" );
break;
case 'D' :
printf("You passed\n" );
break;
case 'F' :
printf("Better try again\n" );
break;
default :
printf("Invalid grade\n" );
}
printf("Your grade is %c\n", grade );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Well done
Your grade is B

Nested switch statements

It is possible to have a switch as part of the statement sequence of an outer switch.
Even if the case constants of the inner and outer switch contain common values, no
conflicts will arise.

Syntax
The syntax for a nested switch statement is as follows:

switch(ch1) {
case 'A':
printf("This A is part of outer switch" );
switch(ch2) {
case 'A':
printf("This A is part of inner switch" );
break;
case 'B': /* case code */
}
break;
case 'B': /* case code */
}

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{

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 /* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;

switch(a) {
case 100:
printf("This is part of outer switch\n", a );
switch(b) {
case 200:
printf("This is part of inner switch\n", a );
}
}
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a );
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

This is part of outer switch

This is part of inner switch
Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

The ? : Operator
We have covered conditional operator ? : in previous chapter which can be used to
replace if...else statements. It has the following general form:

Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3;

Where Exp1, Exp2, and Exp3 are expressions. Notice the use and placement of the colon.

The value of a ? expression is determined like this: Exp1 is evaluated. If it is true, then
Exp2 is evaluated and becomes the value of the entire ? expression. If Exp1 is false, then
Exp3 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of the expression.

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 CHAPTER

11
C Loops

T here may be a situation, when you need to execute a block of code several number

of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a

function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on.

Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated
execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times

and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming
languages

C programming language provides the following types of loops to handle looping

requirements.

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while loop in C
A while loop statement in C programming language repeatedly executes a target
statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:

while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any nonzero value. The loop iterates
while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately
following the loop.

Flow Diagram

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Here, key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever run. When the condition is
tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after
the while loop will be executed.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

/* while loop execution */

while( a < 20 )
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

for loop in C
A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that
needs to execute a specific number of times.

Syntax
The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:

for ( init; condition; increment )

{

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 statement(s);
}

Here is the flow of control in a for loop:

1. The init step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to declare and
initialize any loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement here, as long
as a semicolon appears.

2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is
false, the body of the loop does not execute and flow of control jumps to the next
statement just after the for loop.

3. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to
the increment statement. This statement allows you to update any loop control
variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a semicolon appears after the
condition.

4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process
repeats itself (body of loop, then increment step, and then again condition). After the
condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.

Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()

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 {
/* for loop execution */
for( int a = 10; a < 20; a = a + 1 )
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

do...while loop in C
Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop,
the do...while loop in C programming language checks its condition at the bottom of the
loop.

A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a do...while loop is guaranteed to
execute at least one time.

Syntax
The syntax of a do...while loop in C programming language is:

do
{
statement(s);

}while( condition );

Notice that the conditional expression appears at the end of the loop, so the statement(s)
in the loop execute once before the condition is tested.

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If the condition is true, the flow of control jumps back up to do, and the statement(s) in
the loop execute again. This process repeats until the given condition becomes false.

Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

/* do loop execution */
do
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14

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 value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

nested loops in C
C programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following section
shows few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

for ( init; condition; increment )

{
for ( init; condition; increment )
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming language is as follows:

while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language is as

follows:

do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
}while( condition );

}while( condition );

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A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other type of
loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

Example
The following program uses a nested for loop to find the prime numbers from 2 to 100:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int i, j;

for(i=2; i<100; i++) {

for(j=2; j <= (i/j); j++)
if(!(i%j)) break; // if factor found, not prime
if(j > (i/j)) printf("%d is prime\n", i);
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

2 is prime
3 is prime
5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
23 is prime
29 is prime
31 is prime
37 is prime
41 is prime
43 is prime
47 is prime
53 is prime
59 is prime
61 is prime

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 67 is prime
71 is prime
73 is prime
79 is prime
83 is prime
89 is prime
97 is prime

break statement in C
The break statement in C programming language has the following two usages:

1. When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately
terminated and program control resumes at the next statement following the loop.

2. It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement (covered in the next chapter).

If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another loop), the break statement
will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after
the block.

Syntax
The syntax for a break statement in C is as follows:

break;

Flow Diagram

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Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

/* while loop execution */

while( a < 20 )
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;
if( a > 15)
{
/* terminate the loop using break statement */
break;
}
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15

continue statement in C
The continue statement in C programming language works somewhat like
the break statement. Instead of forcing termination, however, continue forces the next
iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between.

For the for loop, continue statement causes the conditional test and increment portions
of the loop to execute. For the while and do...while loops, continue statement causes
the program control passes to the conditional tests.

Syntax
The syntax for a continue statement in C is as follows:

continue;

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Flow Diagram

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

/* do loop execution */
do
{
if( a == 15)
{
/* skip the iteration */
a = a + 1;
continue;
}
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;

}while( a < 20 );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11

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 value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

goto statement in C
A goto statement in C programming language provides an unconditional jump from the
goto to a labeled statement in the same function.

NOTE: Use of goto statement is highly discouraged in any programming language because
it makes difficult to trace the control flow of a program, making the program hard to
understand and hard to modify. Any program that uses a goto can be rewritten so that it
doesn't need the goto.

Syntax
The syntax for a goto statement in C is as follows:

goto label;
..
.
label: statement;

Here label can be any plain text except C keyword and it can be set anywhere in the C
program above or below to goto statement.

Flow Diagram

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Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 10;

/* do loop execution */
LOOP:do
{
if( a == 15)
{
/* skip the iteration */
a = a + 1;
goto LOOP;
}
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a++;

}while( a < 20 );

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

The Infinite Loop

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop is
traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form the for
loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the conditional expression
empty.

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{

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 for( ; ; )
{
printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
}

return 0;
}

When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have an
initialization and increment expression, but C programmers more commonly use the for(;;)
construct to signify an infinite loop.

NOTE: You can terminate an infinite loop by pressing Ctrl + C keys.

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 CHAPTER

12
C Functions

F unction is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C program has at least

one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial programs can define additional
functions.

You can divide up your code into separate functions. How you divide up your code among
different functions is up to you, but logically the division usually is so each function
performs a specific task.

A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and
parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function.

The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your program can call. For
example, function strcat() to concatenate two strings, function memcpy() to copy one
memory location to another location and many more functions.

A function is known with various names like a method or a sub-routine or a procedure, etc.

Defining a Function
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:

return_type function_name( parameter list )

{
body of the function
}

A function definition in C programming language consists of a function header and

a function body. Here are all the parts of a function:

 Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the data type of the
value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired operations without
returning a value. In this case, the return_type is the keyword void.
 Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name and the
parameter list together constitute the function signature.
 Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked, you pass a
value to the parameter. This value is referred to as actual parameter or argument. The

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