Math 2420 – Discrete Mathematics

Lecture notes prepared by Dr.Leslie Meadows based on the text: Discrete Mathematics with Applications, 5th ed., Susanna Epp, Brooks/ Cole,
Cengage Learning

Chapter 2 – The Logic of Compound Statements

2.1 – Logical Form and Logical Equivalence
argument - a sequence of statements aimed at demonstrating the truth of an assertion.
conclusion - the assertion at the end of the sequence.
premises - the preceding statements.
Note: The truth of the statements is important, but in logic we are more concerned with the form of the
argument.

Identifying Logical Form

Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks below so that the argument (b) has the same form as argument (a).
Then represent the common form of the arguments using letters to stand for component sentences.
a. If all computer programs contain errors, then this program contains an error.
This program does not contain an error.
Therefore, it is not the case that all computer programs contain errors.
Note: (before attempting part b, let’s identify the form of part a)

b. If _________, then ___________.

2 is not odd.
Therefore, it is not the case that all prime numbers are odd.

Statements
Definition
A statement (or proposition) is a sentence that is true or false but not both.

Example: Indicate which of the following sentences are statements.

a. The author of the text for this course is Susanna Epp.
b. He is a computer science major.
c. The Labor Day holiday observance for GSU has been cancelled for the 2021
school year.
d. 3 x = 6
Compound Statements
Important Symbols/ Notation

negation (~)
• “~” denotes not
~p is read “not p”
conjunction ( ∧ )
• “ ∧ ” denotes and
p ∧ q is read “p and q”
disjunction ( ∨ )
• “ ∨ ” denotes or
p ∨ q is read “p or q”

Note: “p but q” means “p and q”

“neither p nor q” means “~p and ~q”

Example: These concepts look difficult but they are easy to understand.

Exercise 8(c): John is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise.

Note: Let ℎ = “John is healthy”, 𝑤𝑤 = “John is wealthy”, and 𝑠𝑠 = “John is wise”

Truth Values (and Tables)

Negation
If p is a statement variable, the negation of p is “not p” or “It is not the case that p “
and is denoted ~p.
It has the opposite truth value from p:
• if p is true, ~p is false;
• if p is false; ~p is true.

Truth Table for ~p

p ~p
 Conjunction
If p and q are statement variables, the conjunction of p and q is “p and q” or denoted
p ∧ q . It is true when, and only when, both p and q are true.
p ∧ q is false:
• if either p or q is false, or
• both are false
Truth Table for p ∧ q :
p q p∧q

Example: Write a truth table for the statement form: p ∧ ~ q

p q ~q p∧ ~ q

Disjunction
If p and q are statement variables, the disjunction of p and q is “ p or q“ or denoted
p ∨ q . It is true when, either p is true, or q is true, or both p and q are true.
It is false only when both p and q are false.

Truth Table for p ∨ q :

p q p∨q

Example: Write a truth table for the statement form: ~ p ∨ q

p q ~p ~ p∨q
Evaluating the Truth of More General Compound Statements

Definition
A statement form (or proposition form) is an expression made up of statement
variables (such as p, q and r) and logical connectives (such as ~, ∧ and ∨ ) that
becomes a statement when actual statements are substituted for the component statement
variables. The truth table for a given statement form displays the truth values that
correspond to all possible combinations of truth values for its component statement
variables

Example: Write a truth table for the statement form: (~ p ∨ q) ∨ ( p ∧ ~ q)

(At your desk)
Hint: What columns would it be beneficial/ necessary to show?

Statement for Exclusive Or

p or q but not both, i.e., ( p ∨ q )∧ ~ ( p ∧ q )

Truth Table for Exclusive Or ⊕

p q p∨q p∧q ~ ( p ∧ q) ( p ∨ q)∧ ~ ( p ∧ q)
p⊕q

Exercise 15:: Write a truth table for the statement form: p ∧ (~ q ∨ r )

Logical Equivalence

Definition
Two statement forms are called logically equivalent if and only if they have identical truth values for
each possible substitution of statements for their statement variables.The logical equivalence of
statement forms P and Q is denoted by writing P ≡ Q .
Two statement are called logically equivalent if, and only if, they have logically equivalent forms when
identical component statement variables are used to replace identical component statements.

Exercise 22:
Determine if the following statement forms are logically equivalent: p ∧ (q ∨ r ) and ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∧ r )

Exercise 17:
Determine if the following statement forms are logically equivalent: ~ ( p ∧ q ) and ~ p ∧ ~ q

De Morgan’s Laws
The negation of an and statement is logically equivalent to the or statement in which each
component is negated.
The negation of an or statement is logically equivalent to the and statement in which each
component is negated.

De Morgan’s laws: ~ ( p ∧ q) ≡~ p∨ ~ q ~ ( p ∨ q) ≡~ p ∧ ~ q

Exercise 26:
Use De Morgan’s Laws to write the negation for the following statement : Sam is an orange belt and
Kate is a red belt.

Exercise 33: (slightly altered)

Use De Morgan’s Laws to write the negation for the following statement : − 10 < x ≤ 2
Tautologies and Contradictions

Definition
A tautology is a statement form that is always true regardless of the truth values of the
individual statements substituted for its statement variables. A statement whose form is a
tautology is a tautological statement.
A contradiction is a statement form that is always false regardless of the truth values of
the individual statements substituted for its statement variables. A statement whose form is
a contradiction is a contradictory statement.

Exercise 43: Use a truth table to establish whether the statement form is a tautology or a contradiction:
(~ p ∨ q ) ∨ ( p ∧ ~ q )
Hint: You wrote the truth table at your desk for an earlier exercise.

Summary of Logical Equivalences

Theorem 2.1.1 Logical Equivalences
Given any statement variables p, q and r, a tautology t and a contradiction c, the following logical
equivalences hold:
1. Commutative laws: p∧q ≡ p∨q ≡
2. Associative laws: ( p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ ( p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡
3. Distributive laws: p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡
4. Identity laws: p∧t ≡ p∨c ≡
5. Negation laws: p ∨ ~ p ≡ p∧ ~ p ≡
6. Double negative law: ~ (~ p ) ≡
7. Idempotent laws: p∧ p≡ p p∨ p ≡ p
8. Universal bound laws: p ∨ t ≡ t p∧c ≡c
9. De Morgan’s laws: ~ ( p ∧ q) ≡~ p∨ ~ q ~ ( p ∨ q) ≡~ p ∧ ~ q
10. Absorption laws: p ∨ ( p ∧ q) ≡ p p ∧ ( p ∨ q) ≡ p
11. Negations of t and c: ~t≡c ~c≡t

Exercise 54 (p.38): Use Theorem 2.1.1 to verify the following logical equivalence. Supply a reason for
each step.
( p ∧ (~ (~ p ∨ q ))) ∨ ( p ∧ q ) ≡ p