Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces

Project by Vishwajeet Bhoite

Supervised by Dr. Tejas Kalelkar

Fall-2017

IISER Pune
Date: 20th August 2017
Contents

1 Curves 3
1.1 Parametrized Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Regular Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Orientation of a vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 The Local Theory of Curves Parametrized by Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Global Properties of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Regular Surfaces 7
2.1 Regular Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Differential Functions on Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 The Tangent Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 The First Fundamental Form; Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Orientation on Regular Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 The Geometry of the Gauss Map 14

3.1 Gauss Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 The Gauss Map in Local Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 The Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces 22

4.1 Isometries; Conformal Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 The Gauss Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Parallel Transport. Geodesics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4 The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem and its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1
 Introduction This is a report of semester long project on Differential Geometry of Curves and
Surfaces. This report closely follows the book by Manferdo P, Docarmo on Differential Geometry of
Curves and Surfaces. All the figures, examples and exercises in this report are from the same book.
This report covers first four chapters of the book. All the theorems studied during the project are
mentioned in this report.

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Chapter 1

Curves

1.1 Parametrized Curves

Definition 1.1.1. A parametrized differentiable curve is a differential map α : I → R3 of an
open interval I = (a, b) of the real line R to R3 .
Throughout this report we assume that a real function of real variable is differentiable (or smooth)
if it has, at all points, derivatives of all orders.
Definition 1.1.2. If α(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) t  I then the vector α0 (t) = (x0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t))  R3 is
called the tangent vector (or velocity vector) of the curve α at t. The image α(I) ⊂ R3 is called
the trace of α.
Example 1.1. α(t) = (a cos(t), a sin(t), bt) t  R has a trace in R3 a helix of pitch 2πb on the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = a2 .

Figure 1.1: Helix

1.2 Regular Curves

Definition 1.2.1. A parametrized differential curve α : I → R3 is said to be regular if α0 (t) 6= 0 for
all t  I.

3
Definition 1.2.2. The arc length of a regular parametrized curve α : I → R3 from a point t0 is

Zt
s(t) = |α0 (t)|dt.
t0

A curve is said to be parametrized by arc length if |α0 (t)| = 1. Given a curve α parameterized
by arc length s  (a, b), we may consider the curve β defined in (−b, −a) by β(−s) = α(s) which has
the same trace as the first one but is described in the opposite direction. The two curves are said to
differ by change of orientation.

1.3 Orientation of a vector space

Orientation is a geometric notion that in two dimensions allows one to say when a cycle goes around
clockwise or counterclockwise, and in three dimensions when a figure is left-handed or right-handed.
The orientation on a real vector space is the arbitrary choice of which ordered bases are ”positively”
oriented and which are ”negatively” oriented.
Two ordered bases e = {ei } and f = {fi }, i = 1, ..., n, of an n-dimensional vector space V have
the same orientation if the matrix of change of basis has a positive determinant. We denote this
relation by e ∼ f . This relation is an equivalence relation. The set of all ordered bases of V is thus
decomposed into 2 equivalence clases since the determinant of change of basis is either positive or
negative. Each of the equivalence classes determined is called an orientation of V . If V = R3 we call
the orientation corresponding to the ordered basis B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } the positive orientation of R3 , the
other one being the negative orientation.
The vector product of two vectors u, v  R3 is denoted by u ∧ v and their product is denoted by u · v.
We have following identities
1. d
dt (u(t) · v(t)) = u0 (t) · v(t) + u(t) · v 0 (t).

2. d
dt (u(t) ∧ v(t)) = u0 (t) ∧ v(t) + u(t) ∧ v 0 (t).

1.4 The Local Theory of Curves Parametrized by Arc Length

Definition 1.4.1. Let α : I → R3 be a curve parameterized by arc length s  I. The number
|α00 (s)| = k(s) is called the curvature of α at s.
Since the tangent vector has a unit length the curvature measures the rate of change of the angle
which neighbouring tangents make with the tangents at s. Curvature therefore gives the measure of
how rapidly the curve pulls away from the tangent line at s, is a neighbourhood of s.(see Fig 1.2).
Also, note that the curvature remains invariant under a change of orientation.

Figure 1.2: Curvature

Definition 1.4.2. At points where k(s) 6= 0, a unit vector n(s) in the direction α00 (s) is well defined
by the equation α00 (s) = k(s)n(s). α00 (s) is normal to α0 (s), because by differentiating α0 (s)·α0 (s) = 1

4
we obtain α00 (s) · α0 (s) = 0. Thus n(s) is normal to α0 (s) and is called the normal vector at s. The
plane determined by α0 (s) and n(s), is called the osculating plane at s.
At points where k(s) = 0, the osculating plane is not defined. The points s  I is a singular point
of order 0 if α0 (s) = 0 and the points where α00 (s) = 0 is called singular point of order 1. We shall
restrict ourselves to curves parameterized by arc length without singular points of order 1.
Notation: We shall denote t(s) = α0 (s) the unit tangent vector of α at s. Thus t0 (s) = k(s)n(s).
Definition 1.4.3. The unit vector b(s) = t(s) ∧ n(s) is normal to the osculating plane and is called
binormal vector at s.
Since b(s) is a unit vector, the length |b0 (s)| measures the rate of change of the neighbouring
osculating planes with the osculating plane at s; that is |b0 (s)| measures how rapidly the cuve pulls
away from the osculating plane at s, in a neighbourhood of s.
To compute b0 (s) we observe that, on the one hand, b0 (s) is normal to b(s) and that, on the other
hand,
b0 (s) = t0 (s) ∧ n(s) + t(s) ∧ n0 (s) = t(s) ∧ n0 (s);
that is, b0 (s) is parallel to t(s). It follows that b0 (s) is normal to n(s), and we write

b0 (s) = τ (s)n(s)

for some function τ (s).

Also note that since n = b ∧ t, we have

n0 (s) = b0 (s) ∧ t(s) + b(s) ∧ t0 (s) = −τ b − kt.

Definition 1.4.4. Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length s such that α00 (s) 6= 0,
s  I. The number τ (s) defined b0 (s) = τ (s)n(s) is called the torsion of α at s.
Definition 1.4.5. To each value of parameter s, we have associated three orthogonal vectors t(s), n(s), b(s).
The trihedron thus formed is referred to as the Fernet trihedron at s.
We have the following equations called the F renet f ormulas
1. t0 = kn
2. n0 = −kt − τ b
3. b0 = τ n.
Definition 1.4.6. The tb plane is called is called the rectifying plane, and the nb plane the normal
plane the lines which contain n(s) and b(s) and pass through α(s) are called the principal normal
and the binormal, respectively. The inverse R = 1/k of the curvature is called the radius of curvature
at s.
Theorem 1.4.1. Fundamental Theorem of Local theory of Curves Given differentiable func-
tions k(s) > 0 and τ (s), s  I, there exists a regular parametrized curve α : I → R3 such that s is the
arc length, k(s) is the curvature and τ (s) is the torsion of α. Moreover any other curve ᾱ, satisfying
the same conditions, differs from α by a rigid motion; that is there exists a orthognal linear map ρ of
R3 , with positive determinant, and a vector c such that ᾱ = ρ ◦ α + c.
We were able to only see the uniqueness part of the proof.

1.5 Global Properties of Plane Curves

Definition 1.5.1. A differentiable function on a closed interval [a, b] is the restriction of a differ-
entiable function defined on a open interval containing [a, b].
Definition 1.5.2. A closed plane curve is a regular parametrized curve α : [a, b] → R2 such
that α and all its derivatives agree on a and b. The curve is said to be simple if it has no further
intersections.

5
 The Isoperimetric Inequality
Remark. The isoperimetric problem is to determine a plane figure of the largest possible area whose
boundary has a specified length. The closely related Dido’s problem asks for a region of the maximal
area bounded by a straight line and a curvilinear arc whose endpoints belong to that line. It is named
after Dido, the legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. The solution to the isoperimetric prob-
lem is given by a circle and was known already in Ancient Greece. However, the first mathematically
rigorous proof of this fact was obtained only in the 19th century. Since then, many other proofs have
been found. The proof studied during this project was due to E. Schmidt(1939).
Theorem 1.5.1. Let C be a simple closed curve with length l, and let A be the area of the region
bounded by C. Then
l2 − 4πA ≥ 0,
and the equality holds if and only if C is a circle.
Definition 1.5.3. A regular plane curve α : [a, b] → R2 is convex if, for all t  [a, b], the trace α([a, b])
of α lies entirely on one side of the tangent line at t.

Figure 1.3: Convex and Non-Convex curves.

Definition 1.5.4. A vertex of a regular plane curve α : [a, b] → R2 is a point t  [a, b] where k 0 (t) = 0
The Four Vertex Theorem.
Remark. The four-vertex theorem states that the curvature function of a simple, closed, smooth plane
curve has at least four local extrema (specifically, at least two local maxima and at least two local
minima). The name of the theorem derives from the convention of calling an extreme point of the
curvature function a vertex. This theorem has many generalizations, including a version for space
curves where a vertex is defined as a point of vanishing torsion.
Theorem 1.5.2. A simple closed convex curve has at least four vertices.

6
Chapter 2

Regular Surfaces

In this chapter we first define regular surface in R3 and see some criteria to decide whether a given
subset of R3 is regular surface. Then we define the notion of differentiability of a map whose domain
is a Regular surface and we show that the usual notion of differential in R2 can be extended to such
a function. Later we introduce the first fundamental form, to treat metric questions on a regular
surface.

2.1 Regular Surfaces

Definition 2.1.1. A subset S of R3 is a regular surface if, for each p  S, there exists a neigh-
bourhood V in R3 and a map f : U → V ∩ S of an open set U ⊂ R2 onto V ∩ S ⊂ R3 such
that

1. f is differentiable.
2. f is homeomorphism.
3. (The regularity condition) For each q  U , the differential dfq : R2 → R3 is one-one. (cf. Def.
2)

Figure 2.1: parametrization.

The mapping f is called a parametrization or system of local coordinates in p the neigh-

bourhood V ∩ S of p in S is called a coordinate neighbourhood.
Definition 2.1.2. Let F : U ⊂ Rn → Rm be a differentiable map. To each p  U we associate a
linear map dFp : Rn → Rm which is called the differential of F at p and is defined as follows. Let
w  Rn and let α : (−, ) → U be a differential curve such that α(0) = p and α0 (0) = w. By the
chain rule the curve β = F ◦ α : (−, ) → Rm is also differentiable. Then

dFp (w) = β 0 (0)

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 Figure 2.2: Differential of F at p.

The matrix of the linear map dfq in Definition 1 is:

 ∂x ∂x

∂u ∂v
 ∂y ∂y 
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z
∂u ∂v

Condition 3 of Def.1 may be expressed by requiring the two coloumn vectors of the matrix to be
linearly independent.
Remark. Condition 1 is natural if we expect to do some differential geometry on S. The one-to-oneness
in condition 2 has a purpose in preventing self intersections in the regular surfaces. This is necessary
to define tangent plane at a point p  S(see Fig 2.3(a)). The continuity of inverse in condition 2
is necessary to define differentiable functions on a regular surface. Condition 3 will gaurantee the
existance of tangent plane at all points of S (seen Fig. 2-3(b)).

Figure 2.3: Some situations to be avoided in the definition of a regular surface.

Inverse Function Theorem

Theorem 2.1.1. Let F : U ⊂ Rn → Rn be a differentiable mapping and suppose that at p  U the
differential dFp : Rn → Rn is an isomorphism. Then there exists a neighbourhood V of p in U and a
neighbourhood W of F (p) in Rn such that F : V → W has a differentiable inverse F −1 : W → V.

The proof that the unit sphere is a Regular surface is detailed in [Doc], pg. 55, we instead will
see a couple of exercise problems. (cf.Example 1 below)
Ex. — Show that the cylinder S = {(x, y, z)  R3 ; x2 + y 2 = 1} is a regular surface?

Answer (Ex. ) — Let p = (x, y, z)  S, note that atleast one coordinate of p is not zero. Wlog,
assume
p x 6= 0. Also, assume x > 0, choose U = {(y, z)|−1 ≤ y ≤ 1}. Define f : U → R3 as, f (y, z) =
( 1 − y 2 , y, z). Choose V = {(x, y, z)| x ≥ 0}. The inverse of f is the projection map π23 . 1. We see
that f is differentiable since each of its components is differentiable. 2. f is homeomorphism since
the projection map is continous.
3.  y 
√ 2 0
 1−y
dfp (y, z) =  1

0
0 1
p
This matrix has full rank. For x < 0 we define f : U → R3 as, f (y, z) = (− 1 − y 2 , y, z).

8
Ex. — Is the closed unit disk and open unit disk in the xy − plane ⊂ R3 regular surface?

Answer (Ex. ) — The open unit disc is a regular surface. Choose V interior of open ball in R3 and
U to be open unit disk and f to be the identity map on U. While the closed unit disk is not a regular
surface since if we choose p to be a point on the boundary of the unit disk it will pose a problem as
follows:
If x is in the boundary of the closed disk, and V is a contractible open neighborhood of x, then
V − {x} is again contractible. As R2 − {pt} deformation retracts to S1 (which is not contractible),
U − {x} cannot be homeomorphic to R2 − {pt}, and therefore U is not homeomorphic to R2 .
We now see that some special subsets of R3 are regular surfaces.

Theorem 2.1.2. If f : U → R is a differentiable function in an open subset U of R2 , then the graph

of f is a regular surface.
Definition 2.1.3. Given a differentiable map F : U ⊂ Rn → Rm defined in an open subset U of
Rn we say that p  U is a critical point of F if the differential dFp : Rn → Rm is not a surjective
mapping. The image F (p)  Rm of a critical point is called a critical value of F . A point of Rm which
is not a critical value is called a regular value. Notice that any point a 6∈ F (U ) is trivially a regular
value of F .
Theorem 2.1.3. If f : U ⊂ R3 → R is a differentiable function and a  f (U ) is a regular value of
f , then f −1 (a) is a regular surface in R3 .

Example 2.1. The ellisoid

x2 y2 z2
+ + =1
a2 b2 c2
2 2 2
is a regular surface. In fact it is the set f −1 (0) where f (x, y, z) = xa2 + yb2 + zc2 − 1 is a differentiable
function and 0 is regular value of f . This example includes sphere as a particular case (a = b = c = 1).

The converse of the above theorem is not true which is illustrated in the following exercise problem.
Ex. — 1. Let f (x, y, z) = z 2 . Prove that 0 is not a regular value of f and yet f −1 (0) is a
regular surface.

Answer (Ex. ) — Note that f 0 (0, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0) but f −1 (0) = xy − plane

The following Theorem provides a local converse of Theorem 2.1.2.

Theorem 2.1.4. Let S ⊂ R3 be a regular surface and p  S. Then there exists a neighbourhood V of
p in S such that V is is graph of a differentiable function which has one of the following three forms:
z = f (x, y), y = g(y, z), x = h(y, z).
Theorem 2.1.5. Let p  S be a point of a regular surface S and let f : U ⊂ R2 → R3 be a map
p  f (U ) ⊂ S such that condition one of Def. 1 hold. Assume that f is one-one. Then f −1 is a
continous.

2.2 Differential Functions on Surfaces

In this section we will define what it means for a function f : S → R to be differentiable at a point p
of a regular surface S. A natural way to proceed is to choose a coordinates of p with coordinates u,
v, and say that f is differentiable at p if its expression in the coordinates u and v admits continous
partial derivatives of all orders. The same point of S can belong to various coordinate neighbourhoods
and the following theorem says that, it is possible to pass from one of the pairs of coordinates to the
other by means of differentiable transformations.

Theorem 2.2.1. (Change of parameters) Let p be a point on the regular surface S, and let
f : U ⊂ R2 → S, g : V ⊂ R2 → S be two parametrizations of S such that p  f (U ) ∩ g(V ) = W .
Then the change of coordinates h = f −1 ◦ g : g −1 (W ) → f −1 (W ) is a diffeomorphism; that is h is
differentiable and has a differentiable inverse h−1 .(Fig.2.4)
We now define differentiable functions on regular surface.

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 Figure 2.4: Change of parameters.

Definition 2.2.1. Let F : V ⊂ S → R be a map defined in an open subset V of a regular surface

S. Then F is said to be differentiable at p  V if, for some parametrization f : U ⊂ R2 → S with
p  f (U ) ⊂ V , the composition F ◦ f : U ⊂ R2 → R is differentiable at f −1 (p). F is said to be
differentiable in V if it is differentiable at all points of V .

By theorem 2.2.1 it immediately follows that the definition is independent of the choice of
parametrization f .
The definition of differentiability of a map can be easily extended to maps between surfaces. A
continous map F : V1 ⊂ S1 → S2 of an open set V1 of a regular surface S1 to a regular surface S2 is
said to be differentiable at p  V1 if, given parametrizations

f : U1 ⊂ R2 → S1 g : U2 ⊂ R2 → S2

with p  f (U ) and F (f (U1 )) ⊂ g(U2 ), the map

g −1 ◦ F ◦ f : U1 → U2

is differentiable at q = f −1 (p).

Figure 2.5: Differentiability of a function between surfaces.

Definition 2.2.2. Two regular surfaces S1 and S2 are diffeomorphic if there exists a differentiable
map F : S1 → S2 with a differentiable inverse F −1 : S2 → S1 .
Example 2.2. Let S1 and S2 be regular surfaces Assume that S1 ⊂ V ⊂ R3 , where V is open set
of R3 , and that F : V → R3 is a differentiable map such that F (S1 ) ⊂ S2 . then the restriction
F |S1 : S1 → S2 is a differentiable map.

Example 2.3. Let F : R3 → R3 be given by F (x, y, z) = (xa, yb, zc), where a, b and c are non zero
real numbers. F is clearly differentiable, and the restriction F |S2 is a differentiable map from the
sphere into an ellipsoid.

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Example 2.4. (Surface of Revolution). Let S ⊂ R3 be the set obtained by rotating plane curve C
about an axis in the plane which does not meet the curve: we shall take xz-plane as the plane of the
curve and the z-axis as the rotation axis. Let
x = f (v), z = g(v), a < v < b, f (v) > 0,
be the parametrization for C and denote by u the rotation angle about the z-axis. The curve C is
called the generating curve of S, and the z-axis is called the axis of rotation.

2.3 The Tangent Plane

The tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that ”just
touches” the curve at that point. Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a given point is the
plane that ”just touches” the surface at that point.
By a tangent vector at a point p of a regular surface S, we mean a tangent vector α0 (0) of the
differentiable parametrized curve α : (−, ) → S with α(0) = p.
Theorem 2.3.1. Let f : U ⊂ R2 → S be a parametrization of a regular surface S and let q  U . The
vector subspace of dimension 2,
dfq (R2 ) ⊂ R3
coincides with the tangent vectors to S at f (q).
Definition 2.3.1. The plane dfq (R2 ), in the above theorem is called the tangent plane at the point
f (q) = p to S and is denoted by Tp (S). From the above theorem it is also observed that the tangent
plane is independent of the parametrization
The choice of parametrization f determines a basis {fu (q) = ∂f /∂u, fv (q) = ∂f /∂v} of Tp (S),
called the basis associated to f .
Theorem 2.3.2. Let F : U ⊂ S1 → S2 be a differentiable map. To each p  S1 we associate a map
dFp : Tp (S1 ) → TF (p) (S2 ) which is called the differential of F at p and is defined as follows. Let
w  Tp (S1 ) and let α : (−, ) → U be a differential curve such that α(0) = p, α0 (0) = w. By the
chain rule the curve β = F ◦ α : (−, ) → S2 is also differentiable. Then
dFp (w) = β 0 (0).
The map dFp : Tp (S1 ) → Tp (S2 ) is linear.
The following theorem says that the inverse function theorem can be extended to differentiable
maps between surfaces. We say that a mapping f : U ⊂ S1 → S2 is a local diffeomorphism at p  U
if there exists a neighbourhood V ⊂ U of p such that F restricted to V is a diffeomorphism onto an
open set f (V ) ⊂ S2 .
Theorem 2.3.3. If S1 and S2 are regular surfaces and F : U ⊂ S1 → S2 is a differentiable mapping
of an open set U ⊂ S1 such that the differential dFp of F at p  U is an isomorphism, then F is a
local diffeomorphism at p.
The unit normal vector at a point q  f (U ) is given by the rule
fu ∧ fv
N (q) = (q),
|fu ∧ fv |
where f : U ⊂ R2 → S is a parametrization around p.
The angle of two intersecting surfaces at an point of intersection p is the angle of their tangent
plane at p.
We observe that the existance of tangent plane depends only on the existance and the continuity
of the first partial derivatives. The following example admits a tangent plane at each point but is not
sufficiently differentiable to satisfy the definition of regular surface.
Example 2.5. Consider the graph of the function z = (x2 + y 2 )1/3 , generated by rotating the curve
z = x4/3 about the z-axis. At the origin the graph admits the xy-plane as the tangent plane. However,
the partial derivative zxx does not exist at the origin, and the graph considered is not a regular surface
as defined above.

11
2.4 The First Fundamental Form; Area
The inner product of R3 induces on each tangent plane Tp (S) of a regular surface S an inner product,
to be denotedd by h, ip
Definition 2.4.1. The quadratic form Ip : Tp (S) → R given by

Ip (w) = hw, wip = |w|2 ≥ 0

is called the first fundamental form of a regular surface S ⊂ R3 at p  S.

The first fundamental form is expressed in the basis {fu , fv } associated with the parametrization
f (u, v) at p. Let w  Tp (S) is a tangent vector to the parametrized curve α(t) = f (u(t), v(t)),
t  (−, ), with p = α(0) = f (u0 , v0 ), we obtain

Ip (α0 (0)) = hα0 (0), α0 (0)ip = hfu u0 + fv v 0 , fu u0 + fv v 0 ip = E(u0 )2 + 2F u0 v 0 + G(v 0 )2 ,

where the values of three functions involved are computed for t = 0, and

E(u0 , v0 ) = hfu , fu ip ,

F (u0 , v0 ) = hfu , fv ip ,
G(u0 , v0 ) = hfv , fv ip ,
are the coefficients of the first fundamental form in the basis {fu , fv } of Tp (S)
Example 2.6. A coordinate system for a plane P ⊂ R3 passing through p = (x, y, z) and containing
the orthonormal vectors w1 = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), and w2 = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is given as follows:

f (u, v) = p0 + uw1 + vw2 , (u, v)  R2 .

here fu = w1 , fv = w2 ; since w1 and w2 are unit orthogonal vectors, the functions E, F, G are
constant and given by
E = 1, F = 0 G = 1.
In this trivial case, the first fundamental form is essentially the Pythagorean theorem on P ; i.e., the
square of length of the vector w which has coordinates a, b in the basis (fu , fv ) is equal to a2 + b2 .
Example 2.7. The right cylinder over the circle admits the parametrization f : U → R3 , where
f (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v), U = {(u, v)  R2 ; 0 < u < 2π, −∞ < v < ∞} fu = (− sin u, cos u, 0)

fv = (0, 0, 1) and therefore E = 1, F = 0, G = 1.

We now see how the first fundamental form is used to treat metric questions on a regular surface.
Let α : I → S be a parametrized curve then the arc length s is given by
Zt Zt p
0
s(t) = |α (t)|dt = I(α0 (t))dt.
t0 t0

12
 In particular, if α(t) = f (u(t), v(t)) is contained in a coordinate neighbourhood corresponding to
the parametrization f (u, v), we can compute the arc length of α between say 0 and t by

Zt p
s(t) = E(u0 )2 + 2F u0 v 0 + G(v 0 )2 dt.
t0

Another metric question that can be treated by the first fundamental form is the computation of
the area of a bounded region of a regular surface S. A (regular) domain of S is open and connected
subset of S such that its boundary is the image of a circle by a differentiable homeomorphism which
is regular (that is, its differential is non zero) except at finite number of points. A region of S is the
union of a domain with its boundary. A region of S ⊂ R3 is bounded if it is contained in some ball
of R3 .

Definition 2.4.2. Let R ⊂ S be a bounded region of a regular surface contained in a coordinate

neighbourhood of the parametrization f : U ⊂ R2 → S. The positive number
Z Z Z Z p
|fu ∧ fv |dudv = EG − F 2 dudv = A(R),
Q Q

where Q = f −1 (R), is called the area of R.

2.5 Orientation on Regular Surfaces.

Definition 2.5.1. A regular surface S is called orientable if it is possible to cover it with a family
of coordinate neighbourhoods in such a way that if a point p  S belongs to two neighbourhoods of
this family, then the change of coordinates has a positive Jacobian at p. The choice of such a family
is called an orientation of S and S, in this case, is called orientated. If such a choice is not possible,
the surface is called nonorientable.

Example 2.8. A surface which is graph of a differentiable function is an orientable.

Definition 2.5.2. A differentiable field of unit normal vectors on an open set U ⊂ S is a differ-
entiable map N : U → R3 which associates to each q  U a unit normal vector N (q)  R3 to S at
q.
Theorem 2.5.1. A regular surface S ⊂ R3 is orientable iff there exists a differentiable field of unit
normal vectors N : S → R3 on S.
Example 2.9. Mobius strip is non-orientable.
Theorem 2.5.2. If a regular surface is given by S = {(x, y, z)  R3 ; f (x, y, z) = a}, where f : U ⊂
R3 → R is a differentiable and a is a regular value of f , the S is orientable.

13
Chapter 3

The Geometry of the Gauss Map

Throughout this chapter S will denote regular orientable surface in which an orientation N has been
chosen. N is differentiable field of unit normal vectors on S.

3.1 Gauss Map

Definition 3.1.1. The map N : S → R3 takes its values on the unit sphere. The map N : S → S 2 ,
thus defined, is called the Gauss Map of S.
The differential dNp : Tp (S) → TN (p) (S 2 ) can be looked as a linear map on Tp (S) since Tp (S) and
TN (p) (S 2 ), are parallel planes.
Let α(t) be a parametrized curve on S with α(0) = p, we get a parametrized curve N ◦ α(t) = N (t)
in the sphere.The tangent vector N 0 (0) = dNp (α0 (0)) is a vector in Tp (S) and measures the rate of
change of the normal vector N , restricted to the curve α(t), at t = 0.

Figure 3.1: The Gauss map.

Figure 3.2: .

√
Example 3.1. For a plane P given by ax+by+cz+d = 0, the unit normal vector N = (a, b, c)/ a2 + b2 + c2
is a constant, and therefore dN = 0.
Example 3.2. Consider the unit sphere. If α(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) is a curve on S 2 . Choose
N = (x, y, z), and N restricted to α(t) is N (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) is vector function of t, and therefore
we have
dN (x0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)) = N 0 (t) = (x0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)).

14
 Figure 3.3: Plane dNp = 0.

Theorem 3.1.1. The differential dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) of a Gauss map is a self-adjoint linear map.
Definition 3.1.2. The quadratic form IIp , defined in Tp (S) by IIp (v) = −hdNp (v), vi is called the
second fundamental form of S at p.
Definition 3.1.3. Let C be a regular curve in S passing through p  S, k the curvature of C at p,
and cos θ = hn, N i, where n is the normal vector to C and N is the normal vector to S at p. the
number kn = k cos θ is called the normal curvature of C ⊂ S at p. In other words, kn is the
length of the projection of the vector kn over the normal to the surace at p.

Figure 3.4: Normal curvature of C at p.

Remark. The normal curvature is independent of the orientation of the curve but changes its sign
with the change in orientation of the surface.
Interpretation of second fundamental form IIp . Let C ⊂ S be parametrized by α(s), where
s is the arc length of C, and α(0) = p. Let N (s) be the restriction of the normal vector N to α(s),
we have hN (s), α0 (s)i = 0. Hence,

hN (s), α00 (s)i = −hN 0 (s), α0 (s)i.

Therefore,
IIp (α0 (0)) = hdNp (α0 (0)), α0 (0)i = −hN 0 (0), α0 (0)i = hN (0), α00 (0)i = hN, kni(p) = kn (p).
In other words the value of the second fundamental form IIp for a unit vector v  Tp (S) is equal
to the normal curvature of a regular curve passing through p and tangent to v.
Theorem 3.1.2. (Meusnier) All curves lying on surface S and having at a given point the same
tangent line have at this point the same normal curvatures.
Definition 3.1.4. Given a unit vector v  Tp (S), the intersection of S with the plane containing v
and N (p) is called the normal section of S at p along v. In a neighbourhood of p, a normal section
of S at p is a regular plane curve on S whose normal vector n at p is ±N (p) or zero; its cuvature is
therefore equal to absolute value of the normal curvature along v at p.

15
 Figure 3.5: Meusnier theorem: C and Cn have the same normal curvature at p along v.

Example 3.3. In the plane, all normal sections are straight lines; hence, all normal curvatures are
zero. Thus, the second fundamental form is identically zero at all points. That is dN = 0. In the
sphere S 2 , the normal sections through a point p  S 2 are circles with radius 1. Thus, all normal
curvatures are equal to 1, and the second fundamental form is IIp (v) = 1, for all p  S 2 and all
v  Tp (S) with |v| = 1.

Figure 3.6: Normal sections on a sphere.

In the cylinder, the normal sections at a point p vary from a circle perpendicular to the axis of
the cylinder to a straight line parallel to the axis of the cylinder, passing through a family of ellipses.
Thus, the normal curvatures varies from 1 to 0.
For each p, since dNp is a linear map there exists an orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 } of Tp (S) such that
dNp (e1 ) = −k1 e1 , dNp (e2 ) = −k2 e2 . Moreover, k1 and k2 (k1 ≥ k2 ) are the maximum and minimum
of the second fundamental form IIp restricted to the unit circle of Tp (S); that is, they are the extreme
values of the normal curvature at p.
Definition 3.1.5. The maximum normal curvature k1 and the minimum normal curvature k2 are

16
called the principal curvatures at p; the corresponding directions, that is, the directions given by
the eigenvectors e1 , e2 , are called principal directions at p.
In the plane and the sphere all directions at all points are principal directions.
Definition 3.1.6. If a regular connected curve C on S is such that for all p  C the tangent line of
C is the principal direction at p, then C is said to be a line of curvature of S.
Theorem 3.1.3. (Olinde Rodrigues) A necessary and sufficient condition for a connected regular
curve C on S to be a line of curvature of S is that

N 0 (t) = λ(t)α0 (t)

for any parametrization α(t) of C, where N (t) = N ◦ α(t) and λ(t) is a differentiable function of t.
In this case, −λ(t) is the (principal)curvature along α(t).
The knowledge of principal curvatures at p allows us to compute easily the normal curvature along
a given direction of Tp (S). In fact, let v  Tp (S) with |v| = 1. Let e1 and e2 form an orthonormal
basis of Tp (S), we have
v = e1 cos θ + e2 sin θ,
where θ is the angle from e1 to v in the orientation of Tp (S). The normal curvature kn along v is
given by
kn = IIp (v)
= −hdNp (v), vi
= he1 k1 cos θ + e2 k2 sin θ, e1 cos θ + e2 sin θi
= k1 cos2 θ + k2 sin2 θi
The last expression is known as the Euler f ormula.
Definition 3.1.7. Let p  S and let dNp : Tp (S) → Tp (S) be the differential of the Gauss map. The
determinant of dNp is the Gaussian curvature K of S at p. The negative of half of the trace of
dNp is called the mean curvature H of S at p.
In terms of the principal curvatures we can write
k1 + k2
K = k1 k2 , H= .
2
If we change the orientation of the surface, the determinant does not change; the trace, however,
changes sign.
Definition 3.1.8. A point of a surface S is called
1. Elliptic if det(dNp ) > 0.
2. Hyperbolic if det(dNp ) < 0.
3. Parabolic if det(dNp ) = 0, with dNp 6= 0.
4. Planar if dNp = 0.
We observe that the classification does not depend on the choice of the orientation.
The following table gives example of each type of point on a surface.

Point Gaussian Curvature Example

positive(the principal curvatures The point (0, 0, 0) of the
Elliptic
have same sign) paraboloid z = x2 + ky 2 , k > 0
negative(the principal curvatures The point (0, 0, 0) of the hyper-
Hyperbolic
have opposite sign) bolic paraboloid z = y 2 − x2
0(one of the principal curvature
Parabolic The points of cylinder
is non zero)
Planar 0(all principal curvatures are 0) The points of a plane

Definition 3.1.9. If at p  S, k1 = k2 then p is called an umbilical point of S.

17
Example 3.4. The planar points are umbilical points (k1 = k2 = 0), all the points on the sphere are
umbilical points.

The following theorem states that the only surfaces made up entirely of umbilical points are
essentially sphere and planes.
Theorem 3.1.4. If all the points of a connected surface S are umbilical points, then S is either
contained in a sphere or in a plane.

Definition 3.1.10. Let p be a point in S. An asymptotic direction of S at p is the direction of

Tp (S) for which the normal curvature is zero. An asymptotic curve of S is a regular connected
curve C ⊂ S such that for each p  C the tangent line of C at p is an asymptotic direction.
Example 3.5. At an elliptic point there are no asymptotic directions.

Geometric interpretation of asymptotic directions.

Definition 3.1.11 (Dupin indicatrix). Let p  S, the Dupin indicatrix at p is the set of vectors w
of Tp (S) such that IIp (w) = ±1.
Let w = ae1 +be2  Tp (S) where e1 and e2 are eigen vectors of dNp and {e1 , e2 } is the orthonormal
basis of Tp (S). Let ρ and θ be polar coordinates defined by w = ρv, with |v| = 1 and v = e1 cos θ +
e2 sin θ, if ρ 6= 0. By Euler’s formula,
±1 = IIp (w) = ρ2 IIp (v)
= k1 ρ2 cos2 θ + k2 ρ2 sin2 θ
= k1 a2 + k2 b2
Hence the Dupin indicatrix is the union of conics in Tp (S).

Point Dupin indicatrix Reason

Elliptic ellipse k1 and k2 have same sign
two hyperbolas with a common the principal curvatures have op-
Hyperbolic
pair of asymptotes posite signs
one of the principal curvatures is
Parabolic pair of parallel lines
zero

Figure 3.7: The Dupin Indicatrix.

Definition 3.1.12. Let p be a point on a surface S. Two nonzero vectors w1 , w2  Tp (S) are
conjugate if hdNp (w1 ), w2 i = hw1 , dNp (w2 )i = 0. Two directions r1 and r2 at p are conjugate if a
pair of nonzero vectors w1 , w2 parallel to r1 and r2 , respectively, are conjugates.
It follows that the principal directions are conjugate and that asymptotic directions are conjugates
to itself. Furthermore, at a nonplanar umbilic, every orthogonal pair of directions, is a pair of
conjugate directions, and at planar umbilic each direction is conjugate to any other direction.
Let p  S is not an umbilical point, and let {e1 , e2 } be the orthonormal basis of Tp (S) determined
by the eigenvectors of dNp . Let θ and φ be the angles that a pair of directions r1 and r2 make with
e1 then r1 and r2 are conjugates iff

k1 cos θ cos φ = −k2 sin θ sin φ.

18
3.2 The Gauss Map in Local Coordinates.
All parametrization considered in this section are considered to be compatible with the orientation.
Let h(u, v) be a parametrization at a point p  S of a surface S, and let α(t) = h(u(t), v(t)) be a
parametrized curve on S, with α(0) = p. We have α0 = hu u0 + hv v 0 and dN (α0 ) = Nu u0 + Nv v 0 , we
write
Nu = a11 hu + a21 hv ,
Nv = a12 hu + a22 hv ,
and therefore,  0    0
u a11 a12 u
dN =
v0 a21 a22 v0
The expression of second fundamental form in the basis {hu , hv } is given by

IIp (α0 ) = −hdN (α0 ), α0 i = −hNu u0 + Nv v 0 , hu u0 + hv v 0 i = e(u0 )2 + 2f u0 v 0 + g(v 0 )2 ,

where, since hN, hu i = hN, hv i = 0,

e = −hNu , hu i = hN, huu i, (3.2.1)

f = −hNv , hu i = hN, huv i = hN, hvu i = −hNu , hv i, (3.2.2)
g = −hNv , hv i = hN, hvv i, (3.2.3)

If E, F and G are the coefficients of the first fundamental form in the basis {hu , hv } we have:
f F − eG
a11 = (3.2.4)
EG − F 2
gF − f G
a12 = (3.2.5)
EG − F 2
eF − f E
a21 = (3.2.6)
EG − F 2
f F − gE
a22 = (3.2.7)
EG − F 2
The above relations are known as the equations of Weingarten.
Also upon calculations we get the following formulas,

eg − f 2
K = det(aij ) = . (3.2.8)
EG − F 2
1 eG − 2f F + gE
H= (3.2.9)
2 EG − F 2
p
k1 = H + H 2 − K (3.2.10)
p
k2 = H − H 2 − K. (3.2.11)

Example 3.6. The Gaussian curvature of the points of the torus covered by parametrization

h(u, v) = ((a + r cos u) cos v, (a + r cos u) sin v, r sin u), 0 < u, v < 2π,

is
cos u
K= .
r(a + r cos u)
From this expression, it follows that K = 0 along the parallels u = π/2 and u = 3π/2; the points os
such parallels are therefore parabolic poins. In the region of the torus given by π/2 < u < 3π/2, K is
negative; the points in this region are therefore hyperbolic points. In the region given by 0 < u < π/2
or 3π/2 < u < 2π, the curvature is positive and the points are elliptic points.(see fig below)
The following theorem gives information about the position of a surface in the neighbourhood of
an elliptic or an hyperbolic point, relative to the tangent plane at this point.

19
 Figure 3.8: The Dupin Indicatrix.

Figure 3.9: The surface lies on one side of the tan-

gent plane at the planar point (0, 0, 0). Figure 3.10: The surface lies on both sides of the
tangent plane in any neighbourhood of the planar
point (0, 0, 0).

Theorem 3.2.1. Let p  S be an elliptic point of the surface S. Then there exists a neighbourhood
V of p in S such that all points in V belong to same side of Tp (S). Let p  S be an hyperbolic point
of the surface S. Then in each neighbourhood of p there exists points of S in both sides of Tp (S).

No such statement can be made in the neighbourhood of planar and parabolic point. For instance
in the the surface of revolution obtained by rotating the curve z = y 4 about the z − axis the point
p = (0, 0, 0) has dNp = 0. and the surface lies on one side of tangent plane at p. On the other hand
the surface given by x = u, y = v z = u3 − 3v 2 u, the point (0, 0, 0) is a planar point. However, in
the neighbourhood of this point there are points in both sides of its tangent plane.
The expression of the second fundamental form in the local coordinates is useful for the study of
the asympotic and principal directions. Let C := α(t) = h(u(t), v(t)), t  I be a asymptotic curve in
the coordinate neighbourhood of the parametrization h. We have II(α0 (t)) = 0, for all t  I. So we
have
e(u0 )2 + 2f u0 v 0 + g(v 0 )2 = 0, t  I.
which says that, A necessary and sufficient condition for a parametrization in a neighbourhood
of a hyperbolic point (eg − f 2 < 0) to be such that the coordinate curves of the parametrization are
asymptotic curves is that e = g = 0.
Also we have seen that a necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a line of curvature is
that
dN (α0 (t) = λ(t)α0 (t)).
which is true if and only if

(v 0 )2 −u0 v 0 (u0 )2
E F G =0
e f g

20
 Using this fact we observe that a necessary and sufficient condition for the coordinate curves of
the parametrization to be the lines of curvature in the neighbourhood of a nonumbilical point is that
F = f = 0.
Example 3.7. (Surface of Revolution). Consider the surface of revolution parametrized by

h(u, v) = (ϕ(v) cos u, ϕ(v) sin u, ψ(v)),

0 < u < 2π, a < v < b, ϕ(v) 6= 0.

E = ϕ2 , F = 0, G = (ϕ0 )2 + (ψ 0 )2 = 1.
Since we are assuming that rotating curve is parametrized by arc length. The computations of the
coefficients of the second fundamental form yeilds

e = −ϕψ 0 , f = 0, g = ψ 0 ϕ00 − ψ 00 ϕ0 .

Since F = f = 0, we conclude that the parallels (v = constant.) and the meridians (u = constant.)
of a surface of revolution are the lines of curvature. Because

eg − f 2 −ψ 0 (ψ 0 ϕ00 − ψ 00 ϕ0 )
K= =
EG − F 2 ϕ

and ϕ is always positive, it follows that the parabolic points are given by either ψ 0 = 0 or ϕ0 ψ 00 −
ψ 0 ϕ00 = 0. A point which satisfies both conditions is a planar point, since these conditions imply that
e = f = g = 0. Furthur simplification gives

ϕ00
K=−
ϕ
The principal curvatures of a surface of revolution are given by

ψ0
k1 = − , k2 = ψ 0 ϕ00 − ϕ00 ψ 0 .
ϕ

Definition 3.2.1. Let S and S̄ be two orientated regular surfaces. Let ϕ : S → S̄ be a differentiable
map and assume that for some p  S, dϕp is nonsingular. We say that ϕ is orientation-preserving
at p if given a positive basis {w1 , w2 } in Tp (S), then {dϕp (w1 ), dϕp (w2 )} is a positive basis in Tϕ(p) (S̄).
If {dϕp (w1 ), dϕp (w2 )} is not a positive basis, we say ϕ is orientation-reversing st p.
Let N be a Gauss map and p  S be such that dNp is nonsingular. Since for a basis {w1 , w2 } in
Tp (S)
dNp (w1 ) ∧ dNp (w2 ) = det(dNp )(w1 ∧ w2 ) = Kw1 ∧ w2 ,
the Gauss map will be orientation-preserving at p  S if K(p) > 0 and orientation-reversing at p  S
if K(p) < 0.
Theorem 3.2.2. Let p be a point of a surface S such that the Gaussian curvature K(p) 6= 0, and let
V be a connected neighbourhood of p where K does not change sign. Then

A0
K(p) = lim ,
A→0 A

where A is the area of a region B ⊂ V containing p, A0 is the area of the image of B by the Gauss
map N : S → S 2 , and the limit is taken through a sequence of regions Bn that converges to p, in the
sense that any sphere around p contains all Bn , for n sufficienty large.

21
Chapter 4

The Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces

Many local properties of the surface can be expressed only in terms of the first fundamental form.
The study of such properties is called the intrinsic geometry of surfaces. The intrinsic geometry in
some sense is the geometry which two dimensional beings can recognize.

4.1 Isometries; Conformal Maps

In this section S and S 0 will denote regular surfaces.
Definition 4.1.1. A diffeomorphism ϕ : S → S 0 is an isometry if for all p  S and all pairs
w1 , w2  Tp (S) we have
hw1 , w2 ip = hdϕp (w1 ), dϕp (w2 )iϕ(p) .
The surfaces S and S 0 are then said to be isometric.
Lemma 4.1.1. A diffeomorphism ϕ is an isometry iff ϕ preserves the first fundamental form.
Proof. If ϕ is an isometry then clearly

Ip (w) = Iϕ(p) (dϕp (w)).

Conversely, if
Ip (w) = Iϕ(p) (dϕp (w)) f or all w  Tp (S),
then
2hw1 , w2 i = Ip (w1 + w2 ) − Ip (w1 ) − Ip (w2 )
= Iϕ(p) (dϕp (w1 + w2 )) − Iϕ(p) (dϕp (w1 )) − Iϕ(p) (dϕp (w2 )).
= 2hdϕp (w1 ), dϕp (w2 )i,
and hence ϕ is an isometry.
Definition 4.1.2. A map ϕ : V → S 0 of a neighbourhood V of p  S is an local isometry at p if
there exists a neighbourhood V 0 of ϕ(p)  S 0 such that ϕ : V → V 0 is an isometry. If there exists a
local isomtry into S 0 at every p  S, the surface S is said to be locally isometric to S 0 . S and S 0 are
said to locally isometric if S is locally isometric to S 0 and S 0 is locally isometric to S.
It is clear that if ϕ : S → S 0 is a diffeomorphism and a local isometry for every p  S, then ϕ
is an isometry globally. However two locally isometric surfaces need not be globally isometric. For
example cylinder is locally isometric to a plane but is not even homeomorphic to it.
Theorem 4.1.2. Assume the existence of parametrizations f : U → S and g : U → S 0 such that
E = E 0 , F = F 0 , G = G0 in U. Then the map ϕ = g ◦ f −1 : f (U ) → S 0 is a local isometry.
Ex. — Show that a diffeomorphism ϕ : S → S 0 is an isometry iff the arc length of any parametrized
curve in S is equal to arc length of the image curve by ϕ.

22
 Figure 4.1: .

Answer (Ex. ) — The only if part is immediate. To prove the ”if ” part, let p  S and v  Tp (S), v 6=
0. Consider a curve α : (− ∈, ∈) → S, with α0 (0) = v. We claim that |dϕp (α0 (0))| = |α0 (0)|. Otherwise,
say, |dϕp (α0 (0))| > |α0 (0)|, and in a neighbourhood J of 0 in (− ∈, ∈), we have |dϕp (α0 (t))| > |α0 (t)|.
This implies that the length of ϕ ◦ α(J) is greater that length of α(J), a contradiction.
Definition 4.1.3. A dif f eomorphism ϕ : S → S 0 is called a conformal map if for all p  S and all
v1 , v2  Tp (S) we have hdϕp (v1 ), dϕp (v2 )i = λ2 (p)hv1 , v2 ip , where λ2 is a nowhere-zero differentiable
function on S; the surface S and S 0 are then said to be conformal. A map ϕ : V → S 0 of a
neighbourhood V of p  S into S 0 is a locally conformal map at p if there exists a neighbourhood
V 0 of ϕ(p) such that ϕ : V → V 0 is a conformal map. If for each p  S, there exists a local conformal
map at p, the surface is said to be locally conformal to S 0 .
Theorem 4.1.3. Let f : U → S and g : U → S 0 be parametrization such that E = λ2 E 0 , F = λ2 F 0 ,
G = λ2 G0 in U, where λ2 is nowhere-zero differentiable function in U. Then the map ϕ = g ◦ f −1 :
f (U ) → S 0 is a local conformal map.
Theorem 4.1.4. Any two regular surfaces are locally conformal.

4.2 The Gauss Theorem

Let S be a regular oriented surface. Let f : U ⊂ R2 → S be a parametrization, to each point in f (U )
we attach a trihedron given by the vectors {fu , fv , N } and express the derivatives of these vectors in
the basis.

fuu = Γ111 fu + Γ211 fv + L1 N,

fuv = Γ112 fu + Γ212 fv + L2 N,
fvu = Γ121 fu + Γ221 fv + L̄2 N,
(4.2.1)
fvv = Γ122 fu + Γ222 fv + L3 N,
Nu = a11 fu + a21 fv ,
Nv = a12 fu + a22 fv .

The coefficients Γkij , i, j, k = 1, 2 are called the Christoffel symbols of S in the parametrization
f. Since fuv = f vu, we concllude that Γ112 = Γ121 and Γ212 = Γ221 ; that is, Christof f el symbols are
symmetric relative to lower indices. By taking the inner product of the first four relations in (1) with
N we obtain L1 = e, L2 = L̄2 = f, L3 = g, by taking the inner product of first four relations with fu
and fv , we obtain the system,
(
Γ111 E + Γ211 F = hfuu , fu i = 21 Eu ,
(4.2.2)
Γ111 F + Γ211 G = hfuu , fv i = Fu − 12 Ev ,

23
 (
Γ112 E + Γ212 G = hfuv , fu i = 21 Ev ,
(4.2.3)
Γ112 F + Γ212 G = hfuv , fv i = 21 Gu ,
(
Γ122 E + Γ222 F = hfuu , fu i = Fv − 21 Gu ,
(4.2.4)
Γ122 F + Γ222 G = hfuu , fu i = 12 Gv ,
From the above equations we infer that it is possible to compute the Christof f el symbols in
terms of the coefficients of the first fundamental form, E,F,G, and its derivatives which will imply
that All geometric concepts and properties expressed in terms of the Christoffel symbols are invariant
under isometries.

THEOREMA EGREGIUM
Theorem 4.2.1. (Gauss) The Gaussian curvature K of a surface is invariant by local isometries.

Remark. Theorema Egregium is Latin for Remarkable Theorem. The theorem is ”remarkable” be-
cause the starting definition of Gaussian curvature makes direct use of position of the surface in space.
So it is quite surprising that the result does not depend on its embedding in spite of all bending and
twisting deformations undergone.

4.3 Parallel Transport. Geodesics.

The term ”geodesic” comes from geodesy, the science of measuring the size and shape of Earth; in the
original sense, a geodesic was the shortest route between two points on the Earth’s surface, namely, a
segment of a great circle. A geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a ”straight line” to ”curved
spaces”

Definition 4.3.1. A vector field in an open set U ⊂ S of a regular surface S is a correspondence

w that assigns to each p  U a vector w(p)  Tp (S). The vector field w is differentiable at p if, for
some parametrization f (u, v) in p, the components a and b of w = afu + bfv in the basis {fu , fv } are
differentiable functions at p  U.
Definition 4.3.2. Let w be a differentiable vector field in an open set U ⊂ S and p  U. Let y  Tp (S).
Consider the parametrization curve
α : (− ∈, ∈) → U,
with α(0) = p and α0 (0) = y, and let w(t), t  (− ∈, ∈), be the restriction of the vector field w to the
curve α. The vector obtained by the normal projection of (dw/dt)(0) onto the plane Tp (S) is called
the covariant derivative at p of the vector field w relative to vector y. This covariant derivative is
denoted by (Dw/dt)(0).

Figure 4.2: The covariant derivative.

24
 The covariant differentiation is a concept of the intrinsic geometry and it does not depend on
choice of the curve α. Let f (u(t), v(t)) = α(t), and let w(t) = a(u(t), v(t))fu + b(u(t), v(t))fv . Then
we have
Dw
= (a0 + Γ111 au0 + Γ112 av 0 + Γ112 bu0 + Γ122 bv 0 )fu + (b0 + Γ211 au0 + Γ212 av 0 + Γ212 bu0 + Γ222 bv 0 )fv . (4.3.1)
dt
Notation [0, l] = I.
Definition 4.3.3. Let α : I → S be a parametrized curve in S. A vector field along α is a correspon-
dence that assigns to each t  I a vector w(t)  Tα(t) (S).

An example of a differentiable vector field along α is given by the field α0 (t) of the tangent vectors
of α.

Figure 4.3: The field of tangent vectors along a curve α.

Definition 4.3.4. A vector field w along a parametrized curve α : I → S is said to be parallel if

Dw/dt = 0 for every t  I.

Figure 4.4: In case of plane, the notion of parallel field reduces to constant field along the curve.

Theorem 4.3.1. Let w and v be parallel vector fields along α : I → S. Then hw(t), v(t)i is constant.
In particular, |w(t)| and |v(t)| are constant, and the angle between v(t) and w(t) is constant.

Theorem 4.3.2. Let α : I → S be a parametrized curve in S and let w0  Tα(t0 ) (S), t0  I. Then
there exists a unique parallel vector field w(t) along α(t), with w(t0 ) = w0 .

Definition 4.3.5. Let α : I → S be a parametrized curve in S and let w0  Tα(t0 ) (S), t0  I. Let w
be the parallel vector field along α, with w(t0 ) = w0 . The vector w(t1 ), t1  I, is called the parallel
transport of w0 along α at the point t1 .

25
 Figure 4.5: Parallel field on a sphere.

Definition 4.3.6. A nonconstant, parametrized curve γ : I → S is said to be geodesic at t  I if

the field of its tangent vectors γ 0 (t) is parallel along γ at t; that is,
Dγ 0 (t)
= 0;
dt
γ is a parametrized geodesic if it is geodesic for all t  I.
In other words, a regular connected curve C ⊂ S(k 6= 0) is a geodesic if and only if its principal
normal at each p  C is parallel to the normal to S at p.
Example 4.1. The great circles of sphere S 2 are geodesics.
Definition 4.3.7. Let w be a differentiable field of unit vectors along a parametrized curve α : I → S
on an oriented surface S. Since w(t), t  I, is a unit vector field, (dw/dt)(t) is normal to w(t), and
therefore
Dw
= λ(N ∧ w(t)).
dt
The real number λ = λ(t), denoted by [dw/dt], is called the algebraic value of the covariant
derivative of w at t.
Observe that the sign of [Dw/dt], depends on the orientation of S and that [DW/dt] = hdw/dt, N ∧
wi.
Definition 4.3.8. Let C be a orientated regular curve contained on a oriented surface S, and let
α(s) be a parametrization of C, in a neighbourhood of p  S, by the arc length s. The algebraic value
of the covariant derivative [Dα0 (s)/ds] = kg of α0 (s) at p is called the geodesic curvature of C at
p.
The geodesics which are regular curves are thus characterized as curves whose geodesic curvature
is zero. The absolute value of the geodesic curvature of C at p is the absolute value of the tangential
component of the vector α00 (s) = kn, where k is the curvature of C at p and n is the normal vector of
C at p. Since absolute value of the of the normal component of kn is normal curvature kn of C ⊂ S
at p, we have
k 2 = kg2 + kn2 .

26
 Figure 4.6: k 2 = kg2 + kn2 .

Remark. The geodesic curvature of C ⊂ S changes its sign with change in orientation of either C or
S.
Lemma 4.3.3. Let v and w be two differentiable vector fields along the curve α : I → S, with
dϕ
|w(t)| = |v(t)| = 1, t  I. Then [ Dw Dv
dt ] − [ dt ] = dt , where ϕ is one of the differentiable determinations
of angle from v to w.
If we take v(s) as parallel vector field along α(s). Then by taking w(s) = α0 (s), we obtain

Dα0 (s)
 
dϕ
kg (s) = = .
ds ds
In other words, the geodesic curvature is the rate of change of the angle that the tangent to the curve
makes with the parallel direction along the curve.
Theorem 4.3.4. Let f (u, v) be an orthogonal parametrization (that is F = 0) of a neighbourhood of
an orientated surface S, and w(t) be a differentiable field of unit vectors along the curve f (u(t), v(t)).
Then    
Dw 1 dv du dϕ
= √ Gu − Ev + ,
dt 2 EG dt dt dt
where ϕ(t) is the angle from fu to w(t) in the given orientation.
Theorem 4.3.5 (Liouville). Let α(s) be a parametrization by arc length of a neighbourhood of a
point p  S of a regular orientated curve C on S. Let f (u, v) be an orthogonal parametrization of S
in p and ϕ(s) be the angle that fu makes with α0 (s) in the given orientation. Then
dϕ
kg = (kg )1 cos ϕ + (kg )2 sin ϕ + ,
ds
where (kg )1 and (kg )2 are the geodesic curvatures of the coordinate curves v = const. and u = const.
respectively.
Theorem 4.3.6. Given a point p  S and a vector w  Tp (S), w 6= 0, there exist an ∈> 0 and a
unique parametrirized geodesic γ : (− ∈, ∈) → S such that γ(0) = p, γ 0 (0) = w.

4.4 The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem and its Applications

The Gauss–Bonnet theorem or Gauss–Bonnet formula in differential geometry is an important state-
ment about surfaces which connects their geometry (in the sense of curvature) to their topology (in
the sense of the Euler characteristic).
Definition 4.4.1. Let α : [0, l] → S be a continous map from the closed interval [0, l] into the regular
surface S. We say that α is a simple, closed, piecewise regular, parametrized curve if

27
 Figure 4.7: The sign of external angle. Figure 4.8: The sign of external angle in case of a
cusp.

1. α(0) = α(l)
2. t1 6= t2 , t1 , t2  [0, l), implies that α(t1 ) 6= α(t2 ).

3. There exists a subdivision

0 = t0 < t1 < · · · < tk < tk+1 = l
of [0, l] such that α is differentiable and regular in each [ti , ti+1 , ] i = 0, .., k.

The points α(ti ), i = 0, ..k, are called the vertices of α and the traces α([ti , ti+1 ]) are called the
regular arcs of α. For each vertex α(ti ) we define

lim α0 (t) = α0 (ti − 0) 6= 0 f or t < ti ,

t→ti

and
lim α0 (t) = α0 (ti + 0) 6= 0 f or t > ti .
t→ti

Assume now that S is orientated and let |θi |, 0 < |θi | ≤ π, be the smallest determination of
the angle from α0 (ti − 0) to α0 (ti + 0). If |θi | =6 π, we give θi the sign of the determinant (α0 (ti −
0
0), α (ti + 0), N ). The signed angle θi , −π < θi < π, is called the external angle at the vertex
α(ti ). In the case that the vertex α(ti ) is a cusp, that is, |θi | = π, we choose the sign of θi as
follows. By the condition of regularity, we can see that there exists a number ∈0 > 0 such that the
determinant (α0 (ti − ∈), α0 (ti + ∈), N ) does not change sign for all 0 <∈<∈0 . We give θi the sign of
this determinant. Let f : U ⊂ R2 → S be a parametrization compatiable with the orientation of S.
Assume further that U is homeomorphic to an open disc in the plane. Let α : [0, l] → f (U ) ⊂ S
be a simple closed, piecewise regular, parametrized curve, with vertices α(ti ) and external angles θi
i = 0, .., k. Let ϕi : [ti , ti+1 ] → R be differentiable functions which measure at each t  [ti , ti+1 ] the
positive angle from fu to α0 (t).
Theorem 4.4.1. (Theorem of Turning Tangents) With the above notation
k
X k
X
(ϕi (ti+1 ) − ϕi (ti )) + θi = ±2π,
i=0 i=0

where the sign plus or minus depends on the orientation of α.

Let S be an orientated surface. A region R ⊂ S(union of connected open set with its boundary)
is called a simple region if R is homeomorphic to a disk and the boundary δR of R is the trace of a
simple, closed, piecewise regular, parametrized curve α; I → S. We say that α is positively orientated
if for each α(t), belonging to regular arc, the positive orthogonal basis {α0 (t), h(t)} satisfies the
condition that h(t) ”points towards” R; more precisely, for any curve β; I → R with β(0) = α(t) and
β 0 (0) 6= α0 (t), we have that hβ 0 (0), h(t)i > 0.
Let f : U ⊂ R2 → S be a parametrization of S compatible with the orientation and let R ⊂ f (U )
be a bounded region of S. Let h be a differentiable function on S, then
Z Z p
h(u, v) EG − F 2 dudv
f −1 (R)

28
 Figure 4.9: A positively oriented boundary curve.

is calLed the integral of h over the region R, and we denote it by

Z Z
h dσ.
R

Theorem 4.4.2. (Local Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.) Let f : U → S be an orthogonal parametriza-

tion (that is, F = 0), of an orientated surface S, where U ⊂ R2 is homeomorphic to an open disk and
f is compatible with the orientation of S. Let R ⊂ f (U ) be a simple region of S and let α : I → S
be such that δR = α(I). Assume that α is positively oriented, parametrized by arc length s, and let
α(s0 ), ..., α(sk ) and θ0 , ..., θk be, respectively, the vertices and the external angles of α. Then
s
k Zi+1
X Z Z k
X
kg (s)ds + Kdσ + θi = 2π
i=0 s R i=0
i

where kg (s) is the geodesic curvature of the regular arcs of α and K is the Gaussian curvature of S.

Figure 4.10: a)Regular region b)non-regular region.

Definition 4.4.2. A region R ⊂ S is said to be regular if R is compact and its boundary δR is a

finite union of (simple) closed piecewise regular curves which do not intersect. For convenience, we
shall consider a compact surface as a regular region, the boundary of which is empty.
Definition 4.4.3. A simple region which has only three vertices with external angles αi 6= 0, i =
1, 2, 3, is called a triangle.
Definition 4.4.4. A triangulation of a regular region R ⊂ S is a finite family τ of triangles
Ti , i = 1, 2, ..., n such that
1. ∪ni=1 Ti = R

2. If Ti ∩ Tj 6= φ, then Ti ∩ Tj is either a common edge of Ti and Tj or a common vertex Ti and Tj .

29
 Given a triangulation τ of a regular region R ⊂ S of a surface S, we denote by F the number of
triangles(faces), by E the number of sides(edges), and by V the number of vertices of the triangulation.
The number
F −E+V =χ
is called the Euler-Poincaré characteristic of the triangulation.
Theorem 4.4.3. Every regular region of a regular surface admits a triangulation.
Theorem 4.4.4. Let S be an oriented surface and {fα }, α  A, a family of parametrization compatible
with the orientation of S. Let R ⊂ S be a regular region of S. Then there is a triangulation τ of
R such that every triangle T  τ is contained in some coordinate neighbourhood of the family {fα }.
Furthermore, if the boundary of every triangle of τ is positively oriented, adjacent triangles determine
opposite orientations in the common edge.
Theorem 4.4.5. If R ⊂ S is a regular region of a surface S, the Euler Poincaré characteristic does
not depend on the triangulation of R. It is denoted by χ(R).

Theorem 4.4.6. Let S ⊂ R3 be a compact connected surface; then one of the values 2, 0, −2, ..., −2n, ...
is assumed by the Euler-Poincaré characteristic χ(S). Furthermore, if S 0 ⊂ R3 is another compact
surface and χ(S) = χ(S 0 ), then S is homeomorphic to S 0 .
Definition 4.4.5. Let g be a differentiable function on S, the sum
k Z
X Z q
g(ui , vi ) Ei Gi − Fi2 duj dvj
j=1
f −1 (Ti )

does not depend on the triangulation τ or on the family {xj } of parametrizations of S. We denote it
by Z Z
g dσ.
R

Theorem 4.4.7 (Global Gauss-Bonnet Theorem). Let R ⊂ S be a regular region of an oriented

surface and let C1 , ..., Cn be the closed, simple, piecewise regular curves which form the boundary δR
of R. Suppose that each Ci is positively oriented and let θ1 , ..., θp be the set of all external angles of
the curves C1 , ..., Cn . Then
s
k Zi+1
X Z Z p
X
kg (s)ds + Kdσ + θi = 2πχ(R),
i=0 s R i=0
i

where s denotes the arc length of Ci , and the integral over Ci means the sum of integrals in every
regular arc of Ci .
Corollary 4.4.7.1. If R is a simple region of S, then
s
k Zi+1
X Z Z k
X
kg (s)ds + Kdσ + θi = 2π,
i=0 s R i=0
i

Since a compact surface can be considered as a region with empty boundary, we have
Corollary 4.4.7.2. Let S be a orientable compact surface; then
Z Z
Kdσ = 2πχ(S).
R

Applications of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem

1. A compact surface of positive curvature is homeomorphic to a sphere.

30
2. If T is a geodesic triangle in a oriented surface S. Let θ1 , θ2 , θ3 be the external angles of T and
let ϕ1 = π − θ1 , ϕ2 = π − θ2 , ϕ3 = π − θ3 be its interior angles. By Gauss-Bonnet theorem,
Z Z k
X
Kdσ + θi = 2π,
T i=0

Thus,
Z Z k
X
Kdσ = ϕi − π,
T i=0

3
P
It follows that the sum of interior angles, ϕ, of a geodesic triangle is
i=1

(a) Equal to π if K = 0.
(b) Greater than π if K > 0.
(c) Smaller than π if K < 0.

31
References

1. [Doc] MANFREDO P. DO CARMO. Differential Geometry Of Curves and Surfaces.

2. [Dif ] Victor Guillemin, Alan Pollack. Differential Topology.

32