NOTES-BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

 BREATHING
 It is the process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2
produced by the cells is called breathing, commonly known as
respiration.
Respiratory Organs and typesof respiration
1.Simple diffusion
• sponges, coelenterates, flatworms-exchange O2 with CO2 by simple diffusion
over their entire body surface.
2. Cuticle-Cutaneous respiration-Earthworms use their moist cuticle for
respiration.
3. Trachea
•Insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport atmospheric air
within the body
•Trachea transport atmospheric oxygen directly into tissue
4. Gills
•gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods and mollusks
•Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds and mammals
respire through lungs (pulmonary respiration) .
5. Lungs (Pulmonary respiration)
• Amphibia, Reptilia ,Aves, mammals respire by lungs
• Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin also.
Human Respiratory System
External nostril------Nasal passage---Nasal chamber---Pharynx--- Larynx------
glottis------trachea------Primary bronchi------secondary bronchi----Tertiary
bronchi---Bronchiole---Terminal bronchiole--- Alveolus
The tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles
are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings (C- shaped)
a- Conducting part
• The part of respiratory system starting with the external nostrils up to the
terminal bronchioles constitute the conducting part
The main function of the conducting part is to
 transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli
 clears it from foreign particles
 humidification of the air
 brings the air to body temperature
B-Respiratory Part/Exchange part
• The alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the
respiratory system.
• Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2and CO2 between blood and
atmospheric air.
C-Lungs
• The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs.
• The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-
tight chamber.
The thoracic chamber is formed
 dorsally by the vertebral column,
 ventrally by the sternum,
 laterally by the ribs and their intercostal muscle.
  on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm
Lungs are covered by a double layered pleura, with pleural fluid between
them.
• This fluid reduces friction on the lung-surface
. • The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic lining
• inner pleural membrane is in contact with the lung surface

Exchange of gas
• It take place at alveoli and tissues
• Alveoli is the primary site of exchange of gas
• O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion mainly based on
pressure/concentration gradient.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion
1.Solubility of the gases
2. The thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion
The solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2
3. Surface area of Diffusion membrane
• The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers namely,
• thin squamous epithelium of alveoli, • endothelium of alveolar capillaries
and •basement substance in between them.
• its total thickness is much less than a millimetre.
Steps in respiration
(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in
and CO2rich alveolar air is released out.
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(v) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of
CO2
Mechanism of respiration –The following parts take part in respiration
 Diaphragm-
 Ribs
 Intercostal muscle
 sternum
 Abdominal muscle
INSPIRATION
 External inter-costal muscles contracts.
 Ribs & sternum lift up. Volume in dorso-ventral axis increases.
 Thoracic volume increases. Thoracic pressure decreases.
 Lungs expand and Pulmonary volume increases.
 Intra-pulmonary pressure decreases.
 Air moves from outside into the lungs.
EXPIRATION
 Inter-costal muscles & diaphragm relax.
 Rib cage gets smaller as rib muscles relax Thorax regains its original
position.
 Diaphragm relaxes (moves up)
 Thoracic volume decreases.
 Pulmonary volume decreases. Air moves out.
On an average, a healthy human breathes 12- 16 times/minute. It is called
breathing rate.
The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated
by using a spirometer
We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration and expiration with
the help of additional muscles in the abdomen.
Respiratory Volume
• It includes
a)Tidal Volume
b)Inspiratory reserve volume c)Expiratory reserve volume d)Residual Volume
a)Tidal Volume (TV)
• Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration.
• It is approx. 500 mL., i.e., a healthy man can inspire or expire approximately
6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.( 500* 12/16(breathing rate)
b)Inspiratory reserve Volume (IRV)
• Additional volume of air, a person can inspire by a forcible inspiration.
• This averages 2500 mL to 3000 mL. air per minute.
c)Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
• Additional volume of air, a person can expire by a forcible expiration.
This averages 1000 mL to 1100 mL.
d)Residual Volume (RV)
• Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible expiration.
• This averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL
d)Respiratory Capacity
• It includes
a)Inspiratory capacity
b)Expiratory capacity
c)Functional residual capacity d)Vital capacity
e)Total lung capacity
By adding up a few respiratory volumes we can derive various pulmonary
capacities
a)Inspiratory Capacity (IC):
Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration.This includes
tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
IC =TV+IRV
b)Expiratory Capacity (EC):Total volume of air a person can expire after a
normal inspiration. This includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume
EC=TV+ERV
b)Expiratory Capacity (EC):Total volume of air a person can expire after a
normal inspiration. This includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume
EC=TV+ERV
c)Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume of air that will remain in the
lungs after a normal expiration. FRC=ERV+RV.
d)Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after
a forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV or the maximum volume of
air a person can breathe out after a forced inspiration.(TV+IRV+ERV)
e)Total Lung capacity (TLC): Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at
the end of a forced inspiration.This includes RV, ER , TV and IRV or vital
capacity + residual volume.(TV+IRV+ERV+RV)

PARTIAL PRESSURE
The amount of pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture of gas is the
partial pressure of that gas.It is represented as:
Partial pressure of oxygen-p O2
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide-p CO2

a) Transport of oxygen
 About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood. The
remaining 3 percent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the
plasma.
 Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the
RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
 In the alveoli, there is high pO2, lowpCO2, lesser H+ concentration and
lower temperature, the factors are allfavourable for the formation of
oxyhaemoglobin.
 In the tissues, low pO2, high pCO2 , high H+ concentration and higher
temperature exist, this conditions are favourable for dissociation of
oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin.
 Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of 4 molecules of O2.
 Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood delivers approximately 5ml of O2 to
the tissues.
Oxygen dissociation curve
A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the pO2 .
This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in
studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on

binding of O2 with haemoglobin.

b)Transport of CO2
 Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by
RBCs(carbaminohaemoglobin)
 70 per cent is carried as bicarbonate.
 About 7 per cent of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
i)In the form of carbamino- hemoglobin
 About 20-25 % CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-
haemoglobin.
 When pCO2 is high and pO2 is low as in the tissues, more binding of
carbon dioxide occurs
 when the pCO2 is low and pO2 is high as in the alveoli,dissociation of
CO2 from carbaminohaemoglobin takes place,
 i.e., CO2 which is bound to haemoglobin from the tissues is delivered at
the alveoli.
  Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2
to the alveoli.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
1. A specialised respiratory rhythm centre present in the medulla
region of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is primarily
responsible for respiratorty regulation.
2. Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called
pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the
respiratory rhythm centre.
3. A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre
which is highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions. Increase in
these substances can activate this centre, which in turn can signal
the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments in the
respiratory process by which these substances can be eliminated.
4. Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can
recognise changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and send
necessary signals to respiratory rhythm centre for remedial
actions.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1.Asthma-It is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of
bronchi and bronchioles.
2. Emphysema-It is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due
to which respiratory surface is decreased. One of the majorcauses of this is
cigarette smoking.
3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders:
In certain industries, Long exposure to certain substances can give rise to
inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus
causing serious lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear
protective masks.Eg: Silicosis and Asbestosis

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