Exp.

Title
No.

1 Study of steam generators (boiler) and turbines.

2 Load test on 4 stroke petrol engine.

3 Load test to find 4 stroke of a diesel engine.

4 Heat balance test on a four – stroke diesel engine.

5 Valve timing diagram for a four stroke diesel engine

7 Determination of flash point and fire point of various fuels.

8 Determination of cloud point and pour point of various fuels.

9 Actual B H P – Carbon Curve diagrams of a four – stroke diesel engine with electrical
loading
 EXP. NO.: 5

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

AIM:
To study the cut section of a given four stroke single cylinder, high speed diesel
engine mechanism and to draw the valve timing diagram.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Four stroke diesel engine test rig, 2. Measuring tape and 3. Chalk.
DESCRIPTION:
The four stroke engine has two valves namely Inlet valve and Exhaust valve. The cycle of
operation is completed in two revolutions of the crank shaft.
During suction stroke, only air is charged into the cylinder. Theoretically this stroke is executed
for 180° of crank shaft rotation. In actual practice the suction stroke starts before TDC and continues
few degrees of crank rotation after BDC. It inter connects the piston and crank shaft & transmit
the gas forces from the piston to the crank shaft.
Crank Shaft:
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion. The balancing
mass are provided on the crank shaft for static, dynamic balancing of the rotating system.
Piston Rings:
Fitted into the slots rounded the piston to provided a tight seal between the piston and
cylinder walls, thus preventing leakages of combustion gases.
Cam Shaft:
The cam shaft and its associated parts control the opening & closing of the 2 valves .
The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. The cam shaft is driven
by crank shaft then timing gear.
Fly Wheel:
In order to achieve a uniform torque and inertia in the form of a wheel is attached to
the o/p shaft and this wheel is called fly wheel.

2
Working of a Four Stroke Diesel Engine:
The actual cut section of four stroke diesel engine is shown in figure. The working cycle
of the engine is completed in 4 stroke and diesel oil is used as fuel there force is known as 4
stroke diesel engine . The following strokes are take place during the operation of engine.
Suction Stroke:
At the beginning of suction the piston is at TDC & readily to draw fresh air inside the
cycle . During this stroke inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed . As the piston moves
down wards fresh air enter thus the cylinder then the inlet valve due to the suction creates.
Compression Stroke:
During this stroke the inlet & exhaust valve are closed & the piston moves upward
and compressed the air in the cylinder. Due to compression the temperature of air will rise to
1000C, this temp is enough to ignite the fuel .
Expansion Stroke:
During this stroke inlet & exhaust valve are closed and the fuel nozzle opens just by
the beginning of the stroke. The combustion of fuel is continued at constant pressure. The
high pressure and temperature gases push the piston down towards BDC.
Exhaust Stroke:
During this stroke inlet valve remains closed and exhaust valve remains opened the
piston moves up and pushes the burnt gas.
Effects of Valve Timings:
In compression ignition engine the valve overlap at top dead center is often limited by
the piston to the cylinder heed clearance . Also the inlet valve has to closed, soon after BDC
the reduction in compression may cause . The exhaust valve opens before BDC. This ext oil
lights in the power stroke 40 to BDC rep only 12% of the engine stroke . It should also be
remembered that so after starting to open the valve may be 1% of fuel open after 10, 5% of
fully open & not fully open until 120 after starting to open, figure shows model - valve
timing diagram.
Test Rig Specifications:
Engine Type: Four Stroke High Speed Single Cylinder Vertical Diesel
Engine. Ignition : Compression Ignition .

3
PROCEDURE:
1. Determination of BDC and TDC:
The flywheel is rotated and when the piston reaches the top most position of the cylinder a mark
is made on the flywheel against a fixed reference mark. This shows the TDC on the flywheel and
diametrically opposite point is the BDC.
2. Identification of the Valves:
The valves can be identified as follows. The valve that is situated in the intake manifold is the inlet
valve and the other is the exhaust valve.
3. Correct Direction of Rotation:
The flywheel is rotated in an arbitrary direction. If the exhaust valve opens after nearly one revolution
of the flywheel after the closure of the inlet valve it is the correct direction of rotation.
4. Timing of valve opening and closing:
The flywheel is rotated in the correct direction of rotation. A bit of paper is introduced in the tappet
clearance. When the paper is just gripped, it is the opening of the valve and a mark is made on the
flywheel against the chosen reference mark. The rotation is continued until the paper just released. A
mark on the flywheel against the reference mark. This is the closing point of the valve. The arc lengths
for the various timings for the nearest dead center are measured on the flywheel.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Readings should be taking without parallax error
2. Observe carefully the valves are closed or in open
FORMULA USED:
The arc length of the respective points can be converted into angles using the
following formula & tabulated the valves.

where
L - Circumference of flywheel equal to 2r

r – Radius of the flywheel in ‘cm ‘

X – Arc length of the corresponds measure from TDC or BDC in cm.

Tabulation for Valve Timing Diagram:

4
 Arc Length (cm)
Sl. Name of the Before/After Average (X) Angle (θ)
A B C
No. Port TDC/BDC = (a+b+c)/3 Degree
(cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
Inlet Valve
1.
Opens
Inlet Valve
2.
Closes
Exhaust Valve
3.
Opens
Exhaust Valve
4.
Closes

RESULT:

Thus, the section of four stroke diesel engine was studied and the valve timing diagram
was drawn.

VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define the term thermal engineering.
Ans: Thermal engineering is the science that deals with the energy transfer to practical applications such
as energy transfer power generation, refrigeration, gas compression and its effect on the properties of
working substance.
2. What is meant by thermodynamic system? How do you classify it?
Ans: Thermodynamic system is defined as the any space or matter or group of matter where the energy
transfer or energy conversions are studied.
It may be classified into three types. 1. Open system, 2. Closed system and 3. Isolated system
3. What is meant by closed system? Give an example.
Ans: When a system has only heat and work transfer, but there is no mass transfer, it is called as closed
system.
Example: Piston and cylinder arrangement.
4. Define a open system, Give an example.
Ans: When a system has both mass and energy transfer it is called as open
system. Example: Air Compressor.
5. Differentiate closed and open system.
Closed System Open System
1. There is no mass transfer. Only 1. Mass transfer will take place, in addition

5
 heat and work will transfer. to the heat and work transfer.
2. System boundary is fixed one 2. System boundary may or may not
change.
3. Piston & cylinder arrangement, 3. Air compressor, boiler
Thermal power plant
6. Define an isolated system
Ans: Isolated system is not affected by surroundings. There is no heat, work and mass transfer take
place. In this system total energy remains constant. Example: Entire Universe
7. Define: Specific heat capacity at constant pressure.
Ans: It isdefined as the amount of heat energy required to raise or lower the temperature of unit mass of
the substance through one degree when the pressure kept constant. It is denoted by Cp.
8. Define: Specific heat capacity at constant volume.
Ans: it is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise or lower the temperature of unit mass of
the substance through one degree when volume kept constant.
9. What is meant by surroundings?
Ans: Any other matter outside the system boundary is called as surroundings.
10. What is boundary?
Ans: System and surroundings are separated by an imaginary line is called boundary.

VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS

1. What is the difference between valves and ports?

2. How does the opening and closing of ports happen in two stroke engines?
3. What is the use of transfer port?
4. Give reason for larger exhaust port diameter than the transfer port.
5. What do you mean by scavenging?
6. What is the pressure developed in crank case?
7. What are the problems associated with two stroke engines?
8. What are the advantages of two stroke engines?
9. How are two stroke engines lubricated? Give the name.
10. Define compression ratio. Give the range of compression ratio for petrol
and diesel engines.

6
 EXP. NO.: 9

ACTUAL BHP – CARBON CURVE DIAGRAMS OF A FOUR – STROKE

DIESEL ENGINE WITH ELECTRICAL LOADING
AIM
conduct a load test on four stroke diesel engine and draw the actual BHP -CARBON diagram of
Compression Ignition Engine using Data Acquisition Interface.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Four Stroke Diesel Engine with Electrical Loading, Data Acquisition System with
Computer and accessories.

ENGINE SPECIFICATION:
Engine : Kirloskar make, 4 stroke, single cylinder, vertical, water cooled,
hand cranking type diesel engine
Engine bore : 80 mm
Stroke : 110 mm
Engine power : 5 HP, 1500rpm, governor controlled.
Loading : Electrical Resistance Loading with maximum of 3.5
KW. Fuel measuring : Burette with 3-way cock.
PROCEDURE:
1. Crank the engine to hear the fuel injection creek sound and put the decompression lever down
and the engine starts. Care to be taken to remove the handle immediately on starting the engine.
2. Start the engine at no load condition and allow it to stabilize.
3. Note down the speed, fuel consumed, spring balance and manometer readings at no load condition.
4. Increase electrical load to the alternator and allow the engine to stabilize.
5. For each loading, the operating parameters of the Engine are automatically recorded with the help
of computerized Data Acquisition interface and performance curves are drawn.
7. It is preferred to take readings in the ascending order of loads.
CALCULATION:
1. Brake power (BP)

BP = (V x I)

Where V in Voltage and I in Amperes

7
2. Total fuel consumption (TFC)

Where “t” is the time for 10cc fuel from burette in seconds

3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC)

4. Willions line: The BP Vs TFC curve is drawn and produced to meet the negative BP axis
which gives friction power FP.
5. Indicted power IP = BP + FP in KW
6. Brake thermal efficiency (ηBT)

= 𝑖𝑛

7. Mechanical efficiency (ηmech)

= BP/IP x 100%

8. Indicated efficiency (ηIT)

9. Volumetric Efficiency (ηv):

Volumetric efficiency = /

L = Stroke length
A = Area of the piston, knowing the bore diameter the area may be
calculated. N = Speed in rpm.

where a - area of the orifice in m2

8
 where ρw - Density of water (1000
Kg/m3) ρa - Density of air (1.16
Kg/m3)
h1 & h2 - Manometer readings

GRAPHS:
Using computerized Data Acquisition interface, p - ɵ and p-V diagrams are drawn.
TABULATION - 1:
Speed Manometer readings
S. No Load
Time taken for 10cc ( rpm ) in cm
fuel consumption (t)
V I
in sec h1 h2
in Volts in Amperes

TABULATION - 2:

BP TFC SFC FP IP
S.No ηmech ηBT in % ηIT in % ηv in %
(KW) (Kg/hr) (Kg/KW hr) (KW) (KW)
in %

9
 VIVA QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. In otto cycle the compression ratio is to expansion ratio. Ans: Equal
2. In diesel engine, the compression ratio is than expansion ratio? Ans: Greater
3. What is meant by cutoff ratio?
Ans: Cutoff ratio is defined as the ratio of volume after the heat addition to before the heat addition. It is
denoted by the letter ‘p’
4. What are the assumptions made for air standard cycle.
Ans: 1. Air is the working substance, 2. Throughout the cycle, air behaves as a perfect gas and obeys all
the gas laws,
5. What is the difference between otto and Diesel cycle.
Otto is for petrol engine and diesel cycle for diesel engines
6. What is the other name given to otto cycle?
Ans: Constant volume cycle.
7. What is meant by air standard efficiency of the cycle?
Ans: It is defined as the ratio of work done by the cycle to the heat supplied to the cycle.
8. Define: Mean effective pressure of an I.C. engine.
Ans: Mean effective pressure is defined as the constant pressure acting on the piston during the working
stroke. It is also defined as the ratio of work done to the stroke volume or piston displacement volume.
9. What will be the effect of compression ratio on efficiency of the diesel cycle?
Ans: Efficiency increases with the increase in compression ratio and vice – versa.
10. What will be the effect of cut off ratio on efficiency of the diesel cycle.
Ans: Efficiency decreases with the increase of cut off ratio and vice – versa.

VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS

1. What is break power ?
2. Define speed performance test on a four-stroke single – Cylinder
diesel engine?
3. What is Air rate and A/F ratio in a four-stroke single – Cylinder diesel engine?
4. What is combustion phenomenon?
5. What is indicated power ?
6. Mention the simplified various assumptions used in fuel Air-cycle Analysis
7. Explain the significance of the fuel-Air cycle ?
8. What is the difference between Air – Standard cycle & Fuel – Air
cycle analysis?
9. Define carburetion?
10. What are the different Air – Fuel Mixture on which an Engine can
be operated?

10
 EXP. NO.: 4

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON A FOUR – STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

AIM
To conduct performance test on 4-Stroke diesel engine(Single cylinder) and to check the heat
balance of I.C engine.
APPARATUS / EQUIPMENTS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
High speed vertical diesel engine test rig., Measuring tape, Stop watch, Tachometer, Thermometer,
Dead weights and one litre jar.
ENGINE DETAILS
Type : Vertical
Bore : 87.5 mm
Sroke : 110 mm
Cooling : air cooling
Rated power : 5HP (3.8 KW)
Rated speed : 1500 rpm
Type of loading : Rope Brake Dynamometer.
FUEL SPECIFICATION:
Fuel : High Speed Diesel (hsd)
C.V : 46,000 KJ/kg
Density : 0.86 g/cc
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Specific heat of Exh. gas Cp = 1.005 KJ/kg k.
2.
Room temperature T1 = oC
MAX LOAD CALCULATION (WMAX)
Circumference of the brake drum (D)= m
Circumference of the rope (d) = m

PRECAUTION
1. The engine should not be started or stopped under load.

11
 2. The lubricating level should be ensured.
3. The engine cooling water supply should be ensured (if it is a water cooled engine).
PROCEDURE
1. First the rated speed of the engine is calculated.
2. The engine is started under no – load by hand cranking and the speed is adjusted to the rated value.
3. It is run under no – load condition for a few minutes so that the speed stabilizes at the rated value.
4. The time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption (t) is noted using the stop watch for on load condition.
5. The difference in water column in the manometer is noted .
6. The time taken for 1 lit of cooling water flow from the engine (t1) is noted down.
7. The inlet and outlet temperature of the cooling water from the engine (T2 & T3) are noted from
the digital temperature indicator.
8. The exhaust gas temperature before and after calorimeter (T4 & T5) are noted from the
digital temperature indicator.
9. The outlet temperature of the cooling water from the calorimeter (T6) is noted from the
digital temperature indicator.
10. Now the engine is loaded to one fourth the rated load and all the above observations are
recorded under steady state condition.
11. Similarly the above procedure is followed for various load conditions
12. The loads are removed gradually and the engine is stopped.
FORMULAE:
1.
Head Supplied (Qsup):
Input Power = Total Fuel Consumption X Caloric value of

fuel Qsup = (KJ/hr)

where
t – time taken to consume 10 cc fuel in sec
Cv – Calorific value of fuel (46,150 KJ/Kg)
2.
Useful output = Brake Power (QBP)

in KW

where
N – speed of the engine in rpm

12
 T – Torque = (W-S)*g*R in Nm
where W – Load in Kg, S – Spring balance reading
R – Radius of the brake drum in m
3.
Mass of cooling water (mc):

mc = in Kg/hr

where
t - time taken to collect 1 litre of water
4.
Head across orifice (Ha):

Ha = m of air

Where Hm – (h1-h2) in meter, ρw - Density of water in Kg/m3

ρa - Density of air in (1.24) Kg/m3
5.
Mass of air (ma):
m a = ρa * Kg/hr
6.
Mass of exhaust gas (mg):
mg = ma * TFC Kg/hr
7.
Total Quantity of heat energy input
(QI): QI = TFC *CV KJ/hr
8.
Quantity of heat energy converted in to Useful output (Brake Power QBP):
QBP = BP * 3600 KJ/hr
9.
Percentage of heat utilized:

NOTE: Substitute Brake Power in KJ/hr

10.
Heat absorbed by the cooling water (Qw)
Qw = mc Cpc (T3-T2) in KJ/hr
11.
Percentage of heat absorbed by the cooling water:

in %
12.
Heat absorbed by the Exhaust gases (Qg)
Qg = mg Cpg (T5-T4) in KJ/hr
13
13.
Percentage of heat absorbed by the Exhaust gases:
in %

where

mg – mass of exhaust gases in Kg/hr

Cpeg - Specific heat capacity of exhaust gas (1.005 KJ/Kg C)
T4 – Exhaust gas temperature before calorimeter in °C
T5 – Exhaust gas temperature after calorimeter in °C
14.
Unaccounted heat losses (Qun):
Qun = Qsup – (QBP+ Qw+ Qg)
15.
Percentage of unaccounted heat loss:
in %

14
 Load in Temperature Reading in Time
Kg °C taken
to Time taken
Time collect to collect 1
Sl. (W-S) taken for Speed 1 litre litre of
No x 9.81 10 cm fuel in of water from Manometer
. W S N consumpti rpm T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 water the Depression
on from calorimeter
the in sec HW = (H1 ~ H2 )
engine Cm
in sec

15
 TABULAR COLUMN: HEAT BALANCE SHEET

S B H TF mc ma mg QI QB % Qc % Qg % Qu % TO
L P a C P TAL
. Q Q Q Q
N BP c g u
O
K m Kg Kg Kg Kg KJ KJ % KJ % KJ % KJ % %
W /hr /hr /hr /hr /hr /hr /hr /hr /hr

RESULT:

Thus the heat balance sheet of a four stroke diesel engine is prepared and verified.

16
 VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. State the law of conservation of energy
Ans: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred from one form to another.
2. Define entropy of a pure substance.
Ans: Entropy is an important thermodynamic property, which increases with addition of heat and
decreases with its removal. Entropy is a function of temperature only. It is an unavailability of energy
during energy transfer.
3. Define an isentropic process.
Ans: Isentropic process is also called as reversible adiabatic process. It is a process which follows the
law of pVy = C is known as isentropic process. During this process entropy remains constant and no
heat enters or leaves the gas.
4. Explain the throttling process.
Ans: When a gas or vapour expands and flows through an aperture of small size, the process is called as
throttling process.
5. Work done in a free expansion process is Ans: Zero
6. Define free expansion process.
Ans: When a gas expands suddenly into a vacuum through a large orifice is known as free expansion
process.
7. Which property is constant during throttling? Ans: Enthalpy
8. If in the equation PVn = C, the value of n = then the process is called _
Ans: Constant Volume process
9. The polytropic index (n) is given by Ans: n = log (P2/P1)/ log (V1/V2)
10. Work transfer is equal to heat transfer in case of process. Ans: Isothermal process.

VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS

1. What is the significance of heat balance sheet?

2. How does useful work differ from actual work? For what kind of systems
are these two identical?
3. What are unaccounted losses?
4. Name four physical quantities that are conserved and two quantities that are
not conserved during a process
5. Express mathematically energy balance of control volume.
6. What is the second-law efficiency? How does it differ from the first-
law efficiency?
7. Can a system have a higher second-law efficiency than the first-law
efficiency during a process? Give examples.
8. What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a
control volume?
9. What is flow energy? Do fluids at rest possess any flow energy?
10. What are different efficiencies associated with IC engines?

17
 EXP. NO.:2
AIM:

LOAD TEST ON 4 STROKE PETROL ENGINE.

A rapid and adequate measurement of indicated powers multi – cylinders Can be

obtained by performing the Morse test which required no special instrumentation.
SPECIFICATION :
Manufacturer : Ambassador
Rate Power : 50 HP
Type Of Dynamometer : Hydraulic Dynamometer
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for the coolant supply and coolant rate.
2. Check for lube oil level in the engine crankcase.
3. Check the fuel level in the fuel tank.
4. Make sure that no load is acting on the dynamometer when the engine is started.
5. Supply the dynamometer coolant while loading the engine.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the engine at no load conditions, maintaining part load in the dynamometer slowly
2. release the clutch lever and adjust the throttle valve for one particular speed and note down it .
3. Coincide the reference point with the pointer in the dynamometer and note down the
Corresponding load from the load gauge.
4. Short circuit the first plug and releases it in the order to maintain same constant speed.
5. Coincide the reference point with the pointer in the dynamometer and note down the
Corresponding load from the load gauge.
6. Now engage the first plug and short circuit the second one.
7. If there is any variation in the speed adjust the load accordingly to maintain the Same speed.
8. Coincide the reference point with the pointer in the dynamometer and note down the
Corresponding load from the load gauge.
9. Similarly repeat the procedure for the third and fourth plug.
10. The readings are tabulated.
11. Using the available empirical relations the IP , FP and Mechanical Efficiency
of the engine is calculated .
18
TABULATION:

Cylinder Engine speed Load W Brake Power Indicated Power

Sl.No.
Condition in RPM in Kg (BP) (IP)

1 All BP =
cylinders IP =
are firing

2 First BP1 =
cylinder is IP1 =
cut-off
3 Second IP2 =
cylinder is BP2 =
cut-off
4 Third
cylinder is BP3 = IP3 =
cut-off
5 Fourth
cylinder is BP4 = IP4 =
cut-off
CALCULATIONS:
1. Total Brake Power (BP), when all Cylinders are firing.
HP

where N - speed in rpm

T = Torque = Brake Drum Radius X (W1 - W2) X g in N
2. Brake Power (BP1), when first Cylinder is cut-off.
HP

T1 = Torque = Brake Drum Radius X (W1 - W2) X g in N

where T1 - Torque when first Cylinder is cut-off
3. Brake Power (BP2), when second Cylinder is cut-off.
HP

T2 = Torque = Brake Drum Radius X (W1 - W2) X g in N

where T2 - Torque when second Cylinder is cut-off
4. Brake Power (BP3), when third Cylinder is cut-off.
HP

19
 T3 = Torque = Brake Drum Radius X (W1 - W2) X g in N
where T3 - Torque when third Cylinder is cut-off
5. Brake Power (BP4), when fourth Cylinder is cut-off.
HP

T4 = Torque = Brake Drum Radius X (W1 - W2) X g in N

where T4 - Torque when fourth Cylinder is cut-off
6. Indicated Power (IP1), when first Cylinder is not firing.

7. Indicated Power (IP2), when second Cylinder is not firing.

8. Indicated Power (IP3), when third Cylinder is not firing.

9. Indicated Power (IP4), when fourth Cylinder is not firing.

10. Total Indicated Power

11. Total frictional power

RESULT:
The total Indicated Power for the engine is .
The total Frictional Power for the engine is .
VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Write down the characteristic gas equation.
Ans: Characteristic gas equation is pV = mRT , Where p = pressure, V = Volume
R = Characteristic gas constant & T = Temperature.
2. What is meant by steady flow process?
Ans: During the process the rate of flow of mass and energy across the boundary remains constant, is
known as steady flow process.
3. What is the difference between steady flow and non – flow process?
Ans: During the steady flow process the rate of flow of mass and energy across the boundary remains
constant. In case of non – flow across the system and boundary.
4. State the Kelvin – Plank statement of second law of thermodynamics

20
Ans: Kelvin – Plank states that it is impossible to construct a heat engine working on cyclic process,
whose only purpose is to convert all the heat energy given to it into an equal amount of work.
5. State Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics.
Ans: It states that heat can flow from hot body to cold without any external aid but heat cannot flow
from cold body to hot body without any external aid.
6. State Carnot’s theorem.
Ans: No heat engine operating in a cyclic process between two fixed temperature, can be more efficient
than a reversible engine operating between the same temperature limits.
7. What are the Corollaries of Carnot theorem.
Ans: (i) In all the reversible engine operating between the two given thermal reservoirs with fixed
temperature, have the same efficiency.
(ii) The efficiency of any reversible heat engine operating between two reservoirs is independent of the
nature of the working fluid and depends only on the temperature of the reservoirs.
8. Define – PMM of second kind.
Ans: Perpetual motion machine of second kind draws heat continuously from single reservoir and
converts it into equivalent amount of work. Thus it gives 100% efficiency.
9. What is the difference between a heat pump and a refrigerator?
Ans: Heat pump is a device which operating in cyclic process, maintains the temperature of a hot body
at a temperature higher than the temperature of surroundings.
A refrigerator is a device which operating in a cyclic process, maintains the temperature of a cold body
at a temperature lower than the temperature of the surroundings.
10. What is meant by heat engine?
Ans: A heat engine is a device which is used to convert the thermal energy into mechanical energy.
VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS
1. How to start and stop the CI engine?
2. What is the purpose of a decompression lever?
3. How the speed of the engine is maintained constant at all loads?
4. What is the function of a governor in a constant speed engine? Where it is
normally located?
5. What is normal fuel injection pressure in a C I. engine?
6. What is the speed ratio between a cam shaft and a crank shaft?
7. What is the type of dynamometer employed?
8. Give reasons for valve timing greater than 180º?
9. What is the type of cooling employed?
10. How do you ensure the lubrication pump is effective?

21
 EXP. NO.: 3
LOAD TEST TO 4 STROKE ON A DIESEL ENGINE.
AIM
The experiment is conducted to evaluate engine friction by conducting retardation test on single
cylinder 4- stroke diesel engine.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Four stroke diesel engine with Hydraulic loading arrangement

TEST RIG SPECIFICATION:
Engine : Field marshal make.4 stroke Single cylinder ,vertical ,water
cooled , hand cranking type diesel engine
Engine : Bore: 114.3 mm
: Stroke : 139.7 mm
Engine power : 6 H.P. & 650 rpm ,governor controlled.
Loading device : Hydraulic dynamometer.
Load indication : With a torque arm and a spring balance.
Length of torque arm = 420mm
Fuel measuring device : Burette with a 3-way cock.
Air intake measuring device : Air tank with a Orifice plate of 30 mm diameter and manometer
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the fuel tank with diesel.

2. Open the 3 way cock; In this position the fuel flows from the tank to the engine filling the
burette. To remove air block in the hose, remove the hose from the engine and hold it vertically
up. Now connect the hose back to the engine and open the air bleed screw to allow the fuel to
freely flow through the screw. Tighten the screw. Put the decompression lever up.

3. Crank the engine to hear the fuel injection creek sound and put the decompression lever down
and the engine starts. Care to be take to remove the handle immediately on starting to the engine.

4. Allow required water for the Dynamometer. Adjust the load by adjusting the gate opening
through the gear arrangement provided in front of the dynamometer.

5. The clockwise rotation of the handle will reduce the load. Slightly shake the dynamometer
manually after adjusting the load to remove my friction in bearing & glands.

22
6. Note the spring balance reading.

7. Note the time for the fuel consumption from the burette by closing the 3 way cock for 10cc , fuel
flow.

8. Note the manometer reading.

11. Repeat the procedure for other loads.

12. It is preferred to take readings in the ascending order of loads.

13. For Retardation test: Under no load condition suddenly cut the fuel supply by putting the fuel
pump lever up, and simultaneously start the stop watch. The engine starts retarding and the rpm
reduces. When the engine speed is 200 rpm below the initial value, stop the stop watch and note the
time taken for retardation. Put the fuel pump lever down and the engine picks up speed and will run at
the rated rpm. Keep around 50% load on the engine and follow the procedure as detailed above and
note the retardation time for 200 rpm.

CALCULATION:

1. Brake power (BP)

Where T = Torque = Torque arm length x Spring balance reading in

N N - Speed of the engine in rpm

2. Total fuel consumption (TFC)

Where “t” is the time for 10cc fuel from burette in seconds
3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC)

4. Frictional Power (Retardation test)

a).
Load Torque on the arm (TL) = W X R X 9.81
Nm where W - Spring balance reading in N
R - Radius of the Brake drum in m

23
 b).
Frictional Load Torque (Tf)

where T = time for retardation with 50% load.

T0 = time for retardation without
load. c). Frictional Power (FP)

d). Indicated Power (IP)

IP = BP + FP in KW

5. Brake thermal efficiency (ηBT)

= 𝑖𝑛

6. Mechanical efficiency (ηmech)

= BP/IP x 100%

7. Indicated efficiency (ηIT)

8. Volumetric Efficiency (ηIT):

Volumetric efficiency = /

L = Stroke length
A = Area of the piston, knowing the bore diameter the area may be
calculated. N = Speed in rpm.

where a - area of the orifice in m2

where ρw - Density of water (1000

Kg/m3) ρa - Density of air (1.16
Kg/m3)
h1 & h2 - Manometer readings
24
Graphs:

25
 BP Vs TFC
BP Vs SFC
BP Vs B.Th. efficiency, I.T Efficiency & Volumetric Efficiency.
TABULATION

Load Time for 10cc

Manometer Retardation time 200
W fuel
In cm rpm
consumption
(Kg) (sec)

Brake B.Th. Mech. Indicated Volumetric

Power TFC SFC Frictional Indicated Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
in in in Power in Power in in in in In
KW Kg/hr Kg/Kwh KW KW % % % %

VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define the term COP?
Ans: Co-efficient of performance is defined as the ratio of heat extracted or rejected to work input.
Heat extracted or rejected
COP =
Work input
2. Write the expression for COP of a heat pump and a refrigerator?
Ans: COP of heat pump
Heat Supplied/Work input
COP HP =

26
 3. What is the relation between COPHP and COP ref?
Ans: COPHP = COPref +1
4. Why Carnot cycle cannot be realized in practical?
Ans: (i) In a Carnot cycle all the four process are reversible but in actual practice there is no process is
reversible.
5. Name two alternative methods by which the efficiency of a Carnot cycle can be increased.
Ans: (i) Efficiency can be increased as the higher temperature T2 increases. (ii) Efficiency can be
increased as the lower temperature T1 decreases.
6. Why a heat engine cannot have 100% efficiency?
Ans: For all the heat engines there will be a heat loss between system and surroundings. Therefore we
can’t convert all the heat input into useful work.
7. When will be the Carnot cycle efficiency is maximum?
Ans: Carnot cycle efficiency is maximum when the initial temperature is 0°K.
8. What are the processes involved in Carnot cycle.
Ans: Carnot cycle consist of i) Reversible isothermal compression, ii) isentropic compression, iii)
reversible isothermal expansion and iv) isentropic expansion
9. Write the expression for efficiency of the carnot cycle.
n= T2 – T1/T1
10. Define: Thermodynamic cycles.
Ans: Thermodynamic cycle is defined as the series of processes performed on the system, so that the
system attains to its original state.
VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS
1. When a car gets older will its compression ratio decrease? What about MEP?
2. What is the working principle of a tachometer?
3. What is indicated power?
4. What is brake power?
5. What is indicated mean effective pressure?
6. What is BMEP?
7. What is the relation between MEP and Swept volume?
8. What are different losses in IC engines?
9. How will you define mechanical efficiency of an engine define?
10. What is brake thermal efficiency?

27
 EXP. NO.: 7

DETERMINATION OF FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT OF VARIOUS FUELS

AIM:

To determine the flash and fire point of the given fuel/ Oil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Cleveland Open Cup apparatus. 2. Thermometer.

DESCRIPTION
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the fuel gives off enough vapours that ignite for a
moment, when a small flame is brought near to it. Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the
vapours of the oil burn continuously for at least 5 seconds when tiny flame is brought near to it. In most
cases fire points are 5˚C to 40 ˚C higher than the flash point. The flash and fire points are usually
determined by using Cleveland open cup apparatus.

PROCEDURE:

1. The fuel under examination is filled up to the mark in the oil cup and then heated by using electrical
heater.
2. Heat is applied so as raise the oil temperature by about 5˚C per minute.
3. At every 1˚C rise of temperature, flame is introduced for a moment by using matchbox.
4. The temperature at which a distinct flash is noted and the same is flash point.
5. The heating is continued thereafter and the test flame is applied as before.
6. When the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 seconds, the temperature reading is noted
and the same is fire point.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Name of the
Sl. No. Flash Point in ˚C Fire Point in ˚C
Oil/Fuel

28
 Schematic diagram of Cleveland Open cup apparatus

RESULT:
Thus the Flash and Fire point of the given oil / fuel is found out experimentally.
1. Flash Point .
2. Fire Point .

29
 VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define the term compression ratio.

Ans: Compression ratio is the ratio between total cylinder volume to clearance volume. It is denoted by
the letter ‘r’
2. What is the range of compression ratio for SI and diesel engine?
Ans: For petrol of SI engine 6 to 8 and For diesel engine 12 to 18.
3. Which cycle is more efficient for the same compression ratio and heat input, Otto cycle or
Diesel cycle? Ans: Otto cycle is more efficient than diesel cycle
4. Write the expression for efficiency of the otto cycle?
Ans:
1
Efficiency n =1 - ---------
(r)r-1
5. The efficiency of the diesel cycle approaches the otto cycle efficiency when the cut off ratio is
(Ans: reduced)
6. Which device is used to control the Air – fuel ratio in the petrol engine? (Ans: Carburettor)
7. Which device is used to control the Air fuel ratio in the diesel engine? (Ans: Injection nozzle)
8. The speed of a four stroke I.C. engine is 1500rpm. What will be the speed of the cam shaft?
Ans: 750 rpm.
9. All the four operations in two stroke engine are performed in number of revolution of
crank shaft. (Ans: one)
10. All the four operations in four stroke engine are performed in number of operations?
Ans: Two

VIVA QUESTIONS WITH OUT ANSWERS

1. What is meant by auto ignition temperature?

2. What is the difference between flash point and auto ignition temperature?
3. What is the difference between flash point and fire point?
4. What is the significance of fire and flash points?
5. What are the causes of incomplete combustion?
6. What is enthalpy of combustion? How does it differ from the enthalpy
of reaction?
7. What is enthalpy of formation? How does it differ from the enthalpy
of combustion?
8. What are the higher and the lower heating values of a fuel? How do they
differ? How is the heating value of a fuel related to the enthalpy of combustion
of that fuel?
9. What is the nature of enthalpy values for endothermic, exothermic
and equilibrium process?
10. Is there any relation between boiling point of a liquid with its flash point?

30
 EXP. NO.: 1
STUDY OF STEAM GENERATORS (BOILER) AND TURBINES.
BOILERS
1. INTRODUCTION:
Steam is mainly for power production and other heating purposes. Steam can be
classified as wet steam, dry steam and superheated steam. Wet steam is the steam that
contains some moisture and there is no moisture present in the dry steam. When dry
steam is heated to a higher temperature, the steam becomes superheated steam. Steam is
useful for running steam turbines in power stations, steam engines in railway locomotives
and in ships. Steam is useful for processing in textile, chemical and sugar industries.
A steam generator is a device used to boil water to create steam. Steam is often
fed into a turbine connected t an electrical generator. It can also be used on its own for
heating or industrial applications. The steam generators generating steam for process
heating are smaller in size and generator low pressure steam. However the steam
generators used for power generation are considerably large and generate high pressure
steam in very large quantities.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:
The steam boilers are classified as follows:
1. According to the flow of water and hot gases
a) Fire tube boilers or smoke tube boilers: In fire tube boilers, hot gases pass
through tubes which are surrounded with water. Eg. Cochran, Lancashire and
locomotive boilers.
b) Water tube boilers: In water tube boilers, the water circulates through, the tubes
and hot gases flow over the tubes. Eg. Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
2. According to the method of firing or location of furnace
a) Internally fired boilers: In an internally fired boiler, the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the boiler shell. Eg. Lancashire and locomotive boilers.
b) Externally fired boilers: In an externally fired boiler, the furnace is placed
outside and combustion takes place outside the boiler. Eg. Babcock and Wilcox
boiler.
3. According to method of water circulation
a) Natural circulation boilers: The water is circulation by natural convection
currents caused by the temperature difference. Eg. Lancashire boiler.
b) Forced circulation boilers: The water is circulation by a pump driven by a
motor. Eg. La-Mont boiler, velox boiler.
4. According to the pressure developed
a) Low pressure boilers: the pressure of steam produced is lower than 80bar. Eg.
Cochran, Lancashire boilers.
b) High pressure boilers: the pressure of steam produced is greater than 80bar. Eg.
. Babcock and Wilcox, Lamont boilers.
5. According to the axis of the shell

31
 a) Vertical boilers: The axis of the shell is vertical. Eg. Cochran boiler.
b) Horizontal boilers: The axis of the shell is horizontal. Eg. Locomotive boiler,
Lancashire boiler.
6. According to the use of the boiler
a) Stationary boilers: The boilers are at a fixed place and used for power
generation. Eg. Industrial boilers, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
b) Mobile boilers: The boilers move from one place to another to supply power. Eg.
Locomotive boiler.

3. LOW PRESSURE BOILERS

The boilers producing steam at a pressure of less than 80 bar are termed as low
pressure boiler. Fire tube boilers are generally preferred for low pressure steam
production. Eg. Cochran boiler, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.

Simple vertical boiler

A simple vertical is shown in fig.28.1. It is an internally fired low pressure

vertical fire tube boiler.

Description

32
 The boiler contains the following parts:

1. Cylindrical shell: The shell is steel plate in cylindrical form attached to the bottom of
the furnace. Greater portion of shell is filled with water and the remaining portion is
steam space.
2. Furnace (or) Firebox: Furnace is the place where combustion of coal takes place. A
great is provided at the bottom of the furnace on which fuel is bunt. An ashpit is provided
for collecting the ash.
3. Cross tubes: One or more cross tubes are laid across the furnace to increase the
heating area. They are placed slightly in inclined position to increase the circulation of
water.
4. Fire hole: It is provided in front side of the boiler above the grate to let out the
exhaust flue gases.
5. Hand holes: Hand holes are provided in the shell for cleaning the cross tubes.

Specification
1 Diameter of the shell 1.5 m

2 Height of the shell 2m

3 Working pressure 7 bar

Working

The fuel is fed into the grate through the fire hole and is burnt. The burnt out fuel
is collected as ash in the ash pit placed below the grate. The hot gases flows from the
furnace, passes around the cross tubes and heats the surrounding water. Water goes from
lower end of the cross tube and comes out from higher end by natural circulation due to
convection currents. Steam is produced and gets collected above the water, which is
tapped off through a suitable valve.

The following mountings are fitted in the boiler for the safety of boiler and
control of steam generation.
i) Pressure gauge - It indicates the pressure of steam generated inside the boiler.
ii) Water gauge -It indicates the level of water inside the boiler. It is also called
water level indicator.
iii) Safety valve – It prevents the increase of pressure of steam in the boiler above the
desired pressure.
iv) Stop valve – It regulates the supply of steam according to the requirements.

4. HIGH PRESSURE BOILER

33
 The boilers producing steam at a pressure of more than 80 bar are termed as high
pressure boilers. The high pressure boiler can deliver 40 to 1600 tonnes/hr of superheated
steam. Water tubes are generally preferred for high pressure boilers. Eg. Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, Lamont boiler, Benson boiler.
BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER
Babcock and Wilcox boiler is shown in fig.28.3. It is a horizontal, externally
fired, high pressure, water tube boiler.

Description
The various parts of the boiler are described below.
1. Shell (Steam and water drum) : The drum is horizontal in which half is filled up
with water and other half contains steam.
2. Water tubes: Number of water tubes are placed between the drum and the
furnace at an angle of 100 to 150. The water tubes are inclined to promote water
circulation.
3. Uptake header and down comer: The water tubes are connected to the drum by
short tubes at one end called uptake header and by long tubes at other end called
downcomer or down take header.
4. Furnace: A grate is placed below the furnace in which coal is fed through the fire
door.
5. Baffles: Baffles are provided to deflect the hot gases, and to utilize maximum
heat.
6. Super heater : The steam collected in the steam space of the drum is allowed to
enter into the super heater which is placed above the water tubes.

34
 7. Mud box: It is located at the bottom end of the down comer. The mud, clay
particles in the water are collected in the mud box and blown off by means of a
blow off cock.
8. Inspection doors: These are provided for cleaning and inspection of the boiler.

Specification
1. Diameter of the drum 2m
2. Length of the drum 8m
3. Working pressure 40 bar
4. Efficiency 80% Working
Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door and burnt. Combustion takes place
and the hot flue gases coming are get deflected by the baffles up and down. The gases
escapes through the chimney after providing maximum heating of water tubes.
The portion of water tubes which is just above the furnace get maximum heat
compared to other portions. So water in this portion rises due to decreased density and
passes into the drum through uptake header. Here the steam and water gets separated and
steam is collected in the upper part since being lighter.
The collected steam passes through the super heater, gets super heater and flows
out of the boiler. A damper fitted regulates the flue gas.
The boiler is fitted with the following mountings.
i) Pressure gauge and water gauge to check the pressure and water levels.
ii) Steam safety valve and steam stop valve to regulate the steam pressure and
steam supply.
iii) Blow off cock to remove the mud and sediments.

Salient features
1. Overall efficiency is higher.
2. All the components are easily accessible for inspection.
3. The boiler rests over a rigid structure so that it can expand or contract freely.
4. Inclined water tubes provide increased water circulation.
5. Draught loss is minimum.

LAMONT BOILER
La-Mont boiler is shown in fig.28.4. It is a water tube, forced circulation type
externally fired high pressure boiler.

35
Description
The various parts of the boiler are described below.
1. Feed pump: Feed pump supplies the water to the boiler through the economizer.
2. Economizer: Economizer is placed inside the boiler at the passage of the flue
gases to heat the feed water.
3. Steam separator drum: The drum is placed outside the boiler. The steam gets
collected above the water in the drum.
4. Circulating pump: The circulating pump is placed between the drum and the
distributing header. It supplies water under pressure to the distributing header
from the drum.
5. Evaporator: Evaporator is placed above the grate. Water from the distributing
header passes through the evaporator tubes.
6. Convection super heater : It is placed above the evaporator./ the steam from the
boiler drum passes through the convective super heater.
7. Air preheater : The preheater recover some of the heat escaping from the gases
which was not extracted by the economizer. It is placed above the economizer.

Specifications
 Capacity – 50 tonnes/hr.
 Steam pressure – 170 bar.
 Temperature – 5000C.

36
 Working
Feed water is pumped to the boiler drum by the feed pump through the
economizer. Economizer preheats the feed water by using the hot gases leaving the
boiler, thereby increasing the efficiency.
The circulating pump circulates the water from the drum under high pressure to
prevent the tubes from being overheated. The high pressure water flows through the
evaporator and a part of water is converted into steam by the hot gases from the
combustion chamber.
Air preheater supplies preheater air for economic combustion.
A mixture of steam and water enters the steam separator drum. Steam gets
separated and is in saturated condition. The saturated steam will corrode the turbine
blades if used. Hence it is superheated by passing through the convective super heater.
The temperature of the steam is raised and the turbine efficiency is improved.
Salient features
1. It can produce steam at very high pressure.
2. Air preheater and economizer increases the boiler efficiency.
3. Arrangement is compact.
4. Danger of overheating is reduced.
5. Forced circulation of water improves heat transfer rate.
6. The weight of the boiler is reduced as the separator drum is kept outside the boiler.

Disadvantages
1. The disadvantages of La-Mont boiler are the deposition of salt and
sediments on the inner surface of the water tubes.
2. The deposition reduces the heat transfer capacity and the efficiency.

BENSON BOILER
Benson boiler is shown in fig.28.5. It is a water tube high pressure boiler.
Steam bubbles are formed when steam is produced by a boiler. The presence of
steam bubbles greatly affects the heat transmission from flue gases to water. This
difficulty was overcome in Benson boiler by raising the boiler pressure to critical steam
pressure, since at critical pressure, both water and steam have the same density and no
bubbles will form.

37
Description
Benson boiler contains the following parts.
1. Feed pump: Feed pump supplies water to the economizer.
2. Economizer: Economizer is placed between the feed pump and convective
evaporator. The feed water gets heated in the economizer.
3. Radiant evaporator: It is situated close to the furnace. It is called radiant
evaporator because heat from the furnace is transferred to the tubes by radiation.
4. Convection evaporator: It is placed above the radiant evaporator. Saturated high
pressure steam is provided in this evaporator.
5. Convection super heater : convection super heater is placed above the
convection evaporator. Saturated steam is superheated here.
6. Steam outlet: A steam outlet is providing at the end of convection super heater
for steam supply.

Specification Capacity - 150 tonnes/hr; Steam pressure - 210 bar; Temperature -

0
650 C.
Working
In this type of boiler, heating, steam generation and super heating is done in a
single stage. The fuel is burnt on the grate and the hot flue gases flow over various
devices placed in the path. The feed water is circulated through the economizer tubes and
gets heated by the hot flue gases passing over. The heated water then flows into the
radiant evaporator and much of the water gets converted into steam by radiation process.
The remaining water is evaporated in the convection evaporator by absorbing heat from

38
 hot gases by convection. The saturated steam is passed through the convection super
heater, where the steam is superheated to a temperature of 650 0C. The superheated steam
is supplied to the turbine through the steam outlet.
Salient features
1. The boiler is very compact and less weight.
2. Transferring the parts of the boiler is easy as there is no separator drum.
3. The feed water entering at one end is discharged as superheated steam at the other end.
Hence this is a once through boiler.
4. Explosion hazards are not severe as it has very limited storage capacity of high
pressure steam.

Differences between low pressure and high pressure boilers

S.NO LOW PRESSURE BOILER HIGH PRESSURE BOILER
This boiler produces steam at a This boiler produces steam at a
1.
pressure less than 80 bar. pressure more than 80 bar.
Fire tube boilers are generally Water tube boilers are generally
2. preferred for low pressure steam preferred for high pressure steam
production. production.
Dry steam is produced in this type of Superheated steam is produced in this
3.
boiler. type of boiler.
4. Rate of steam production is low. Rate of steam production is high.
More risk of explosion due to high
Lesser risk of explosion. Eg.
pressure.
5. Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler,
Eg. Babcock and Wilcox boiler,
locomotive boiler.
Lamont boiler, Benson boiler.

STEAM TURBINES
INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam and converts it into useful mechanical work. It has completely
replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily because of its greater thermal
efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Also, because the turbine generates rotary
motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator-it doesn't
require a linkage mechanism to covert reciprocating to rotary motion. The steam, which
results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process
Steam turbines are made in a variety of size ranging from small 1 hp (0.75kW)
units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment
to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. To maximize
turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages. These
stage are characterized by how the energy is extract from them and are known as
‘‘impulse’’ or ‘‘reaction stage’’ although most are a combination of the two.

39
STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a prime mover which converts heat energy in the steam in to
mechanical work. The main parts of a steam turbine are nozzle, rotor and rotor blades.
Principle
The enthalpy of the steam is first converted into kinetic energy in nozzles. The
high velocity steam impinges on the curved blades and the direction of flow of steam is
changed. The inflow direction of steam exerts a force on the blades fixed on the rotor and
the rotor starts rotating producing power
Classification of steam turbines
Steam turbines are classified into two groups: Impulse turbine & Reaction turbine
Impulse turbine
In impulse turbines, the steam coming out at a very high velocity though the
nozzle impinges on the blades fixed on the periphery of the direction of steam flow
without changing its pressure. The resulting force causes the rotation of the turbines
shaft. Eg. De-lavel, Curtis, turbine, Rateav turbine.

Reaction turbine
In reaction turbine, the high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through the
nozzle. When the steam comes out through these nozzles, the velocity of steam increases
relative to the rotating disc. The resulting force of steam on nozzle gives the rotating to
the disc and the shaft. The shaft rotates in opposite direction of the steam jet. Eg.
Parson`s turbine.

40
SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE (DE- LAVAL TURBINE)
De-Laval turbine is a simple stage impulse turbine. It has one pair of fixed nozzles and
moving blades.
The steam from the boiler is sent through the nozzles where the steam gets expanded and
the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. The high velocity steam enters the
moving blades giving up some of the kinetic energy and hence the rotor rotates. The rotor
is connected to the output shaft. The single stage impulse turbine and the pressure-
velocity diagram are shown in fig.26.3.

In the pressure velocity diagram it is noted that when steam passes through the
nozzle, it expands and its velocity increases resulting in a pressure drop.
Limitations
i) De-Laval turbine in only suitable for low pressure steam.
ii) Since steam expands in one set of nozzles. The outlet velocity of steam is high
and rotor will rotates at a very high speed which is not suitable for practical purposes.

41
REACTION TURBINE (PARSON`S TURBINE)
Parson`s turbine is a reaction turbine. In this turbine both fixed blades and moving
blades acts as nozzles. Power is obtained by an impulsive force of the incoming steam
and reactive force of the outgoing steam.
This turbine consists of a rotor in which acts as nozzle. Here the velocity increases and
pressure decreases. The steam then enters the moving blades and the pressure decreases
further. The shape of the moving blades is so designed to have the reactive force.
The steam enters the next stage and here the steam pressure decreases and
velocity increases. Thus the steam expands both in fixed and moving blades and pressure
drop occurs continuously over both fixed moving blades.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES

S.NO. IMPULSE TURBINE REACTION TURBINE

It consists of nozzle and moving Steam passes over the blades with
1
blades. pressure and kinetic energy.

Steam expands completely in the Steam expands both in fixed and moving
2
nozzle blades.
Pressure drop occurs gradually and
Pressure drops in nozzle and
3 continuously in both fixed and moving
remains constant in moving blades
blades
Relative velocity of steam passing Relative velocity of steam increase in the
4 over the moving blades remains moving blades as there is continuous
constant as there is no pressure expansion of steam

42
 variation.

Blades are of symmetrical profile Blades are of aerofoil and non-

5
drop. symmetrical type.

The steam speed and the running is The steam speed and the running speed
6
less due to large pressure drop. are low due to small pressure drop.

Number of stage requires is less due Number of stage requires is more due to
7
to more pressure drop small pressure drop

8 Power developed is less Power developed is more

9 Occupies less space per power unit Occupies more space per power unit

10 Low efficiency Higher efficiency

43
EXP. NO.:
DATE:
PERFORMANCE TEST ON BOILER.
AIM
To conduct the performance test on steam boiler and to find out the evaporative capacity,
Equivalent Evaporation, Factor of Evaporation and Boiler efficiency.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Steam boiler with mountings and stop watch.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Boiler : REVOMAX, Three pass, Reversible flue, Coil type IBR approved
boiler. Model : RXA04
Capacity : 750 Kg/hr
Fuel : High Speed
Diesel Working Pressure : 15 bar.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fire the boiler using the main control panel board.
2. Run the boiler few min to get steady state.
3. Note the initial level of water in the boiler in the boiler through water level indicator.
4. Adjust the feed water flow, fuel flow and water level at constant level for a uniform flow rate
of steam at given pressure.
5. Measure the feed water flow in given time.
6. Conduct the test for different steam pressure.
7. Tabulate the readings.
FORMULAE:
1.
Evaporative capacity of the boiler (ms)

where Qw - Volume of water consumed = Area of tank X Change in level of water tank.
Area of the tank = m2
tw - time for consuming Qw m3of water in 's'

44
2.
Equivalent Evaporation (me):

where
ms - Mass of water evaporated in Kg/h
hs - Specific enthalpy of steam generated by the boiler = hf + x hfg
where hf - Specific enthalpy of saturated water at 'p' in KJ/Kg
hfg - Latent heat of evaporation at 'p' in KJ/Kg (hfg at 100⁰C = 2257 KJ/Kg)
x - Dryness fraction of steam at 'p'
hw - Specific enthalpy of water entering the boiler = hf at 'T" in KJ/Kg
3.
Factor of Evaporation (Fe):

=
4.
Boiler efficiency (ηb):

where C.V - Calorific value of fuel (43500

KJ/Kg) mf - Mass of fuel consumed / hour

where Qf = volume of fuel consumed = Fuel tank area X fall in fuel tank in 'm'
Fuel tank area = m2
tf - time for ' Qf' m3 of fuel consumption in
's' ρd - Density of fuel = 860 Kg/ m3

45
OBSERVATION
Sl. No. Steam Pressure Steam Temperature Time taken for 5 cm Time taken for 10 cm
fall of fuel fall of water
P T tf tw
bar ⁰C s s

TABULATION OF RESULTS
Steam Evaporative Equivalent Factor of
Boiler Efficiency
Pressure Capacity Evaporation Evaporation
Sl. No.
p ms me Fe ηb
bar Kg/h Kg/h %

RESULT
The performance test on the boiler has been conducted and various parameters are determined.

46
 VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. How boilers are classified?
(i) According to flow of water and gases (a) Fire tube boiler (b) Water tube boiler (ii)
According to pressure (a) Low pressure boiler (b) High Pressure (iii) According to method of
firing (a) Internally fired boiler (b) Externally fired boiler
2. List out the advantages of high pressure boiler.
(i) Heat energy per kg of steam is increased at high pressure (ii) Production rate of steam is
high. (iii) Superheated steam can be produced.
3. What are the various applications of steam boilers?
(i) Steam produced by the boiler is used for driving steam turbines for power generation (ii)
Steam is used in steam engine in railway locomotives. (iii) Steam boiler is also used in
industrial applications.
4. What is the purpose of an economizer in boilers?
The purpose of an economizer in a steam boiler is used to preheat the feed water from the
tank, before it enters the boiler. 2
5. What is the purpose of superheater in boiler?
A superheater is used to increase the temperature the steam to convert the dry steam into super heated
to steam. Superheated steam with high energy content is used to drive the turbine.
6. What is meant by forced circulation boiler?
In forced circulation boiler, water is circulated with high pressure by a pump driven by the motor.
Example: Lamont boiler.
7. What is the purpose of a man hole in the boiler?
A man hole is a provision for a skilled personnel to enter into the boiler shell for cleaning, inspecting
or for attending any repairs in the boiler.
8. What is meant by scaling in the boiler? What is its effect?
The impurities that are left behind when water is transformed into steam, forming a thin layer is called
scaling in the boiler. When the scaling is more around in a water tube boiler, it leads to poor heat
transfer.
9. At what pressure do the modern high pressure boilers produce steam?
Modern high pressure boilers produce steam at a pressure of 200 bar.
10. What is a grate in the boiler?
A grate is a part of the boiler over which solid fuel is burnt.

47
EX. NO.:
DATE:
PERFORMANCE TEST ON STEAM TURBINE
AIM
To conduct performance test on steam turbine and draw the various characteristics curves.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Steam turbine - Generator Test Rig.
2. Stop watch.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Boiler : REVOMAX, Three pass, Reversible flue, Coil type NIBR approved
Boiler. Model : RXA04
Capacity : 750 Kg/hr
Fuel : High Speed
Diesel Working Pressure : 15 bar.
DESCRIPTION:
Steam turbine

The machine is basically a single stage impulse wheel mounted on a shaft carried on ball bearings
and enclosed in a pressure tight casing. Metallic glands between wheel and bearings prevent escape
of steam. The runner is manufactured using Blades milled & fixed on the wheel. Blades have large
clearance at the sides of the wheel. The blade design being such that there is negligible end thrust.
blade inlet angle 24 degree and exit 27 degree. Number of Blades 105.

The turbine is coupled to electrical generator mounted on a common sturdy base. A resistance bank
loading provided to load the turbine. A panel with ammeter, Voltmeter, Pressure gauges provided to
measure the pressure drop across the turbine blades.
A pressure gauge is provided to note the inlet steam pressure and a compound gauge to note the exit
steam pressure from the turbine.
Separating and Throttling Calorimeter: -

The combined separating and throttling calorimeter to find the dryness fraction of steam consisting
of a steam separator unit with proper insulation gauge glass fittings and a nozzle to throttle the
steam. A pressure gauge at proper location. A shell and coil type condenser unit is provided. The
apparatus connected to the main steam line through valves.
Steam Condenser:

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Shell and tube type, steam flows through the shell and coolant water through the tubes. The tubes are
made of copper of 12mm ID and 15mm OD and the number of tubes 36 arranged in square pitch.
PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the boiler with proper feed water supply and diesel supply. Measure the feed water
quantity. Lit/sec. Since it is a once through boiler the quantity of steam produced is equal to
the quantity of steam produced.
2. Open the bye pass steam valve and run the boiler for few minutes to achieve the rated
pressure. Note the Boiler Pressure P and exhaust gas temperature inlet to the economizer T 1,
and out let flue gas temperature T2. Note water inlet and outlet temperature to the economizer
T3 and T4 respectively.
3. Note the fuel consumption.
4. Since the steam supply is from a once through Boiler the outlet quantity of steam can not be
adjusted and hence the fuel intake and the air flow rate will remain the same for a required
condition of steam.
5. Open the steam inlet valve for the Separating & Throttling calorimeter and note the mass of
steam separated (m) and the dry steam condensed (M) for a known interval of time.
6. Note the Pressure of steam in the Throttling calorimeter which approx. equal to the Boiler
pressure.
7. Slowly open the inlet steam valve to the Turbine and closing the bye pass valve check the
output voltage of the generator.
8. When the rated voltage is obtained slowly apply load in small steps to the generator using the
loading rheostat maintaining the Voltage constant ( Speed) by adjusting the bye pass valve.
9. Slowly increase the load and note the inlet and outlet pressure from the Turbine P 1 and P2
respectively.
10. Note the Ammeter and Voltmeter readings.
CALCULATION

A. DRYNESS FRACTION:

Seperating & Throttling calorimeter:

Sr. No. Mass of steam condensed Kg/sec Mass of steam separated Kg/sec
(M) (m)

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 X =M/M+m
B. BOILER TRIAL

The main object of conducting a test or a trial on an existing Steam Boiler is to determine the
efficiency and capacity of the Boiler. A complete heat account of the energy input and output
including various losses drawn up.
The following observation are taken during a test on a steam Boiler:

Calorific value of fuel: (Cv) KJ/Kg

Temp. of
Quantity the Temp. of
of fuel Feed water Steam Exhaust the Temp. of Temp. of
burnt/hr: supplied/hr: pressure: gas inlet to Exhaust economizer economizer
Sr.No. (m) (mw) P economizer gas outlet water inlet water
Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/Cm2 T1 from T3 ⁰C outlet
⁰C economizer T4 ⁰C
T2 ⁰C

Heat Balance sheet:

1. Heat input Q1 = m x Cv /3600 in KJ/hr

2. Heat to convert water to steam in the

Boiler Q2 = mw ( h – hw ) / 3600 in KJ/hr

where h = specific enthalpy of steam at Boiler pressure P and water temperature T4

= hf + X hfg

hw = specific enthalpy of water at Boiler pressure P and water temperature T4

Percentage of heat for producing steam = Q1/Q2 x 100 %

3. The economizer functions as a calorimeter. Hence

Heat to exhaust Q3 = ((T1 – Tatm) / ( T1 – T2)) X mw X ( T3 - T4 ) X 4.18

Percentage of Heat to exhaust = Q3/Q1 x 100%

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4. Unaccounted loss = 1 – ( 2 + 3 ) %

5. Boiler efficiency :

Actual evaporation (ma) = Mass of water evaporated mw / Mass of fuel consumed m

Efficiency of the Boiler = ma ( h – hw)/Cv x 100%

where h = specific enthalpy of steam = hf + X hfg at Boiler pressure P and
water temperature T4
hw = specific enthalpy of water at Boiler pressure P and water temperature T4

C. EFFICIENCY OF THE STEAM TURBINE :

Turbine Turbine Condensate

Voltmeter Ammeter
Inlet Outlet Flow rate
S.No reading reading
Pressure pressure Kg/sec
V A P1 Kg/cm2 P2 Mwc
Kg/cm2

1. Work done by the steam:

The process of steam expanding in the Turbine is steady flow Irreversible adiabatic, the Work
done by the steam is given by
W = h1 – h2.
where h1 = Enthalpy of steam at inlet condition of the Turbine = h1f + xh1fg and
h2 = Enthalpy of steam at outlet condition of the Turbine = h2f + xh2fg.
X is the dryness fraction of steam at inlet and outlet conditions.
NOTE: To find h1 & h2, locate point (1) at turbine inlet pressure & temperature on Molier
chart. Assuming isentropic expansion in the turbine, draw straight vertical line to meet turbine
outlet pressure line to get point (2).
From steam tables the values can be obtained for 1 kg of steam flow rate.
2. Input energy may be calculated for the steam flow rate Pi = (h1 – h2) X Mwc
3. The output power = V x A watts
4. The efficiency of the Turbine = Po/Pi x 100 %.

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PROCEDURE TO SHUT DOWN:
1. Take off the load gradually in small steps, opening the bye pass valve, as the turbine tends to
race up in the event of sudden complete off loading. Open all drains.

2. Occasionally the turbine rotating assembly can be rolled by means of rotating the coupling
by hand to check freeness.

3. Close the main stop valve.

4. For longer periods of Shut down it is desirable to introduce a thin oil film by spraying inside
the turbine housing.

RESULT:
The performance and energy balance test on boiler and steam turbine are conducted and
necessary curves were drawn.

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 EXPERIMENT-8

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To determine the cloud point and pour point of a given fuel
/ lubricant / oil using cloud and pour point apparatus

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Cloud and pour point
2. Digital temp thermometer SAMPLE REQUIRED: fuel oil THEORY:

CLOUD POINT: The temperature expressed to the nearest degree centigrade, at which a cloud or haze
appear when the oil is cooled under prescribed conditions.

POUR POINT: The lowest temp., expressed as a multiple of 3℃, at which the oil is observed to
flow when cooled & examined under prescribed conditions.

PROCEDURE:
CLOUD POINT:

1. Bring the sample to a temperature of at least 15 ℃ above the approximate cloud point and pour
point it into the jar to a height of 51 to 57 mm.
2. Close the jar with the cock so that the temp bulb rests on the centre of the bottom of the jar.
3. Fit the gasket on to the jar 25 mm from the bottom and insert the jar into gasket.
4. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical position in the bath so that not more than 25mm projects from
the cooling medium.
5. At each thermometer reading of one degree centigrade, remove the jar from the jacket quickly but
without disturbing the oil, inspect the material for cloud, and replace the jar, this complete operation shall
not take more than 3 sec.
6. If the sample does not show a cloud when it has been cooled 10 ℃ place the jar and jacket in another
bath maintained at a temp of -15 ℃ to -18 ℃.
7. If the sample does not show a cloud when it has been cooled to -7 ℃. Place the jar and jacket in
another bath maintained at a temp. Of -32 ℃ to -35 ℃.

8. When an inspection of the sample first reveals a distinct cloudiness or haze at the bottom of the jar,
record the reading of the thermometer as the cloud point after correcting the thermometer errors if
necessary.

53
POUR POINT:
1. The sample has cooled enough to allow the formation of the crystals.
2. Maintain the bath temp at -1 ℃ to 2 ℃.
3. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical position in the bath so that not more than 25mm projects from the
cooling medium.
4. Beginning at a temp 12 ℃ above the expected pour point, at each thermometer reading which is a
multiple of 3 ℃ remove the jar from the jacket carefully, and tilt it just enough to see whether the oil will
move and the replace it, this complete operation shall not take more than 3 sec.
5. As soon as the sample ceases to flow when the jar is titled, hold the jar in horizontal position for exactly 5
sec.
6. If the sample shows any movement replace the jar in the jacket and cool down the sample for another 3
℃. If the oil shows no movement during the 5 sec, record the reading of the thermometer.
7. Add 3 ℃ to the temp recorded above and corrected for thermometer errors if necessary, and note down
the result as the pour point.

OBSERVATIONS:

OIL CLOUD POUR POINT

POINT(℃) (℃)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The disc, the gasket, and jacket shall be kept clean and dry.
Don’t disturb the mass of sample nor don’t permit the thermometer to shift in the sample. Any disturbance
of the spongy network of crystals will lead to false results.
RESULTS:
For a given sample of oil, the cloud & pour points are and respectively

54