APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION: and Wave. Particle is that which has got a unique

Classical theories of physics: Mechanics position with finite boundary at a given instant of
(Newtonian, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian), time. Wave is that which exists over a wide range
Electromagnetic theory of light, classical statistical of space, i.e. at multiple numbers of points of space
thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, all put at a given time. These two notions are completely
together will form the classical theory of Physics. independent of each other in classical mechanics,
They were developed centuries ago and were but unfortunately, the above said experiments
widely accepted by the macroscopic world. Until revealed the particle nature of radiation (waves).
the beginning of twentieth century, there were no Strange! In photo electric effect, the light wave
challenges to these theories. In the last decade of behaves like a particle (photon) and collides with
nineteenth century, there were certain experimental atoms of metal surface taking away the electrons
evidences which were not explained by the above from the metal surface imparting some initial
said classical theories. Some of them are, kinetic energy to them. This clearly suggests that
1. Black body radiation the radiation is interacting with atoms of metal as
2. Photo electric effect if it is a particle rather than a wave. Same thing is
3. Compton effect shown by the Compton Effect in which an x – ray
4. Zeeman and stark effects radiation after falling on a rest electron imparts
5. Spin of charged particles (Stern – Gerlach some momentum to the electron. Hence Radiation
experiment) has Dual Nature! It is both particle as well as
6. Frank – Hertz experiment wave. But only one at a time, i.e. if we collimate
7. α – decay the light radiation coming from the metal surface,
and so on after exhibiting photo electric effect, on a narrow
Classical theories were successful in the slit it showed the diffraction effects indicating its
macroscopic world and they suddenly collapse dual nature. We cannot precisely say whether it is a
when applied to the microscopic atomic and sub particle or a wave, it has both natures, but are
atomic regimes. shown one at a time and both not simultaneously.
To tackle with the problem new frameworks With this idea that radiation has particle
have been developed by several scientists. These nature, Louis de Broglie came up with an argument
new ideas when put together developed the that why not the particles behave like waves. He
Quantum Mechanics. The word Quantum proposed that particles should behave like waves
suggests that the physical quantities in this new whose wavelength is governed by the combination
framework are Quantized, i.e. made into discrete of Max Planck’s hypothesis and the Einstein’s
pieces rather than continuum. As an example we mass energy equivalence. The reason for this
can take the currency in a country, it exists in some argument is that the radiation has particle nature so
multiples of a fundamental figure, Rupee, Dollar, it must have some sort of relation between its wave
Pound etc. Just like this the dynamical variables, properties and particle properties. Basically waves
namely velocity, momentum, energy etc, also will are characterized by their wavelength, frequency,
exist in some multiples of a fundamental quantity. amplitude etc. and the particle nature is
(Of course, the Quantum of velocity and the same characterized by the mass, velocity, momentum
of energy need not have the same quantum, they etc. There must be some connection between these
will obviously be different!) The first quantization two natures. From Planck’s theory, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and
was done by Planck in his radiation formula. from Einstein’s mass energy equivalence, 𝐸 =
Max Planck deliberately managed to get a 𝑚𝑐 2 . Combining both gives,
radiation formula for the black body radiation by ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
manipulating the old ideas that the energy emitted 𝑐
ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 2
or absorbed by a body is continuous with the new 𝜆
idea that the body under observation can exchange ℎ ℎ
𝜆= ⇒𝜆=
energy only in certain discrete amounts, known as 𝑚𝑐 𝑝
‘Quantum’ of energy. This was the beginning of Where, p represents the momentum associated
Quantum theory of radiation and is also known as with the photon with mass m having a frequency of
Old Quantum theory. ν, hence radiation is equivalent to a particle with
PARTICLE VERSUS WAVE: mass m and momentum p. Conversely, a particle
In classical mechanics, there are two with mass m and momentum p is equivalent to a
different, distinct entities of the universe, Particle
SATYANARAYANA V V VEDULA G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN 1
ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS
wave with wavelength 𝝀 given by the above strong the associated de Broglie wave in the given
relation. region of space at a given time. If the matter wave
What is this new wave attributed to the is strong (intense), then obviously the presence of
particle? Well, no one knows the answer! But it is the associated particle must also be strong. Thus
definitely not an electromagnetic wave because the 𝜓 2 tells us the probability of finding of that
electromagnetic waves are associated only with particle per unit volume and hence the word
charged particles where as these waves is Probability Density.
associated with every material particle irrespective Why probability and why not any precise
of charge. They are named as MATTER WAVES. answer for presence of particle? Present or Absent!
The existence of matter waves was experimentally UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
verified by the two classic experiments namely If we wish to measure a dynamical variable
G.P. Thomson experiment and Davisson – Germer say momentum or energy at a particular time
experiment. A beam of electrons accelerated precisely for a given particle, it is necessary to use
through some positive potential are allowed a radiation. This will alter or disturb the system
passing through a thin foil of metal and the under observation and hence the value which we
resulting pattern of electrons after the foil is have obtained for that dynamical variable is not
recorded on a photographic film. Surprisingly they accurate. For greater degree of accuracy we must
showed circular diffraction patterns on the screen use intense radiation on the system which in turn
suggesting that electrons are getting diffracted like changes the other parameters of the given system.
waves with a wavelength inversely proportional to Say, you wish to know the momentum of electron
the momentum of electron. inside an atom. You are using an electromagnetic
A wave is described by some mathematical radiation on the system for this measurement. This
function that varies either in space, in time or both. radiation will bring an unwanted change (error) in
Usually real waves, Electromagnetic waves or the measurement of position of electron. If
other longitudinal waves like sound waves are momentum is measured with high degree of
represented by some real functions in time and accuracy, there will be a huge error (uncertainty) in
space. They are measurable quantities. But the the measured value of position of electron at the
matter waves are not physically measurable. Hence same time. Hence position and momentum are
there must be a complex mathematical function in canonically conjugate variables, i.e. measurement
space and time that can describe this new matter of one brings errors in the other. There are three
wave! such canonically conjugate variables namely,
WAVE FUNCTION: 1. Position and linear momentum; x and px
The complex mathematical function in time 2. Angular displacement and angular
and space that describes the de Broglie matter momentum; θ and Jθ
wave associated with moving particles is named a 3. Energy and time; E and t
Wave function. HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
𝜓 = 𝜓𝑜 sin⁡ (𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡) It is impossible to measure any pair of canonically
ℎ
Where, 𝜓𝑜 is a complex mathematical function. conjugate variables with accuracy better than 4𝜋 . If
The real wave has some real amplitude the uncertainty in position is Δ𝑥 and its
whose square gives the intensity of the wave at a corresponding uncertainty in momentum is Δ𝑝𝑥 ,
given position and time. It is a physically then
measurable quantity. But the amplitude of this ℎ
matter wave is a complex function and cannot be Δ𝑥 × Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥
measured by any means. Then what is the use of 4𝜋
Similarly,
this wave function if it is not a measurable ℎ
quantity? Well, wave function is not an observable Δ𝜃 × Δ 𝐽𝜃 ≥
quantity and even we don’t know what physical 4𝜋
ℎ
quantity of wave it is describing. But the modulus Δ𝐸 × Δt ≥
4𝜋
square of this complex wave function gives us the Where, h is the Planck’s constant,
probability density of the particle. This can be ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
understood in the following way. If a real wave is Exercise 1: Using Heisenberg uncertainty
represented by 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin⁡ (𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡) will have an principle, prove that electrons do not exist inside
2
intensity given by 𝐴 , this intensity tells us how the nucleus. Use the same to prove that protons and
strongly the wave is present at a given position at a neutrons exist inside the nucleus.
given time. Just like this the 𝜓 2 will tell us how

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ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS
Exercise 2: Compute the de Broglie matter gram are measured to be the same, namely 300m/s
wavelength associated with the following: with an uncertainty of 0.01%. With what
1. Proton with kinetic energy 100 eV fundamental accuracy could we have located the
2. Electron accelerated through 50 Volt position of each, if the position is measured
3. Thermal neutrons at room temperature simultaneously with the speed in the same
4. A cricket ball moving at a speed of 10 m/s experiment?
Exercise 3: The speed of a bullet with mass 50g
and the speed of an electron with mass 9.1x10-28

POSTULATES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS: probability should not change. If it is discontinuous it

1. State of the system is described by a complex will give two different answers for probability at a
mathematical function known as wave function. It given point at a given time.
is treated as a vector in n – dimensional complex
vector space known as Hilbert space. The vector Function is
is denoted by |𝜓 . This state vector carries the 𝜓1 𝜓 discontinuous at x = xo.
entire information related to the given system, i.e. It has two different
its energy, momentum, velocity, position etc. 𝜓2 Values at x = xo.
2. Dynamical variables have associated Hermitian
operators. If we wish to measure the velocity,
momentum, energy etc. of a given system we x = xo
have to operate a suitable operator on the state
vector |𝜓 to obtain the Eigen values 𝜓 must be square integrable, means,
+∞
corresponding to that operator. If 𝑋 is an operator
corresponding to a dynamical variable X, the 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉 < ∞
−∞
value of X for the system is given by one of the 𝜓 must be Normalized, means,
Eigen values of the equation, +∞
𝑋|𝜓 = 𝑋|𝜓 𝜓 2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
−∞
Where, X represents the Eigen value of an operator 𝑋, This condition is known as Max Born’s probability
3. Expectation values or ensemble average values normalization condition which simply states that the
for the dynamical variables are given by total probability of finding a system is always unity.
𝑋 = 𝜓|𝑋|𝜓
4. The time evolution of the system is given by the SCHRÖDINGER TIME DEPENDENT WAVE
Schrödinger wave equation. EQUATION:
CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVE FUNCTION: Consider a system of arbitrary kind, it can be an
Wave function must satisfy the following criteria in
electron inside a given potential field or it can be
order to be a wave function. It must be a well behaved
mathematical function. many more particles that are under the action of a
1. 𝜓 must be finite force field generated by some potential V(x,y,z,).
2. 𝜓 must be single valued Suppose that the potential is only position
3. 𝜓 and its first order space derivatives must dependent but not time dependent. To deal with
exist and be continuous. this situation we must assume a complex
4. 𝜓 must be square integrable and normalized. mathematical function of space and time that
Why 𝜓 must obey the above conditions? Because, if represents the complex matter wave associated
𝜓 is not finite then the probability of finding of the with this above said system.
system in state 𝜓 will have a value infinity which is To simplify the problem let us deal it with
meaningless. only one space dimension, say x, and a time
𝜓 must be single valued because, it should give coordinate t. Assume the function to be of the
only one probability, but not many values, at a given form
time and position.
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
Single valued Multi valued Where,
𝜓 𝜓
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
This represents the de Broglie matter wavelength
x = xo
λ associated with a particle moving with
𝜓 must be continuous because from whichever momentum p.
direction you approach a point x = xo, the value for

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ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS
𝐸 𝑝2
𝜔= 𝐸𝜓 ≡ +𝑉 𝜓
ℏ 2𝑚
E is the total energy of the system and λ is the
𝑝2
complex matter wavelength associated with the 𝐸𝜓 ≡ 𝜓+𝑉𝜓
given system. ℏ = 2𝜋 × 6.62 × 10−34 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑚
Using equations (2) and (5),
𝑝 𝐸
∴ 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑡 𝜕 −ℏ2 𝜕 2
ℏ ℏ 𝑖ℏ 𝜓 ≡ 𝜓+𝑉𝜓
𝑖 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡
ℏ
Differentiate this expression twice with respect to 𝝏𝝍 −ℏ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
𝒊ℏ ≡ + 𝑽 𝝍 … … … … … (7)
space coordinate x, partially. 𝝏𝒕 𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐
𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 𝑖 Eq. (7) represents the Schrödinger time dependent
= 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 wave equation. In three dimensional case,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ℏ
𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑖 𝑖 𝜕2𝜓
= 𝑝 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 ≡ ∇2 𝜓
𝜕𝑥 ℏ ℏ 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 𝑖 𝑖 And
= 𝑝 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 𝑉 𝑥 ≡ 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ℏ ℏ
𝜕 2 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑖 2 𝑖 𝜕𝜓 −ℏ2 2
= 𝑝 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 𝑖ℏ ≡ ∇ 𝜓 + 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝜓 … … . . (8)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ ℏ 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚
𝜕 2 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑝2 𝑖 SCHRÖDINGER TIME INDEPENDENT
= − 2 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 WAVE EQUATION:
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ ℏ In the above case if the energy of the state does
𝜕 2 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑝2
= − 2 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 … … … … … … … … . (𝟏) not depend on time, then we can treat that
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ problem as time independent. Let us split the
2
𝜕
−ℏ2 2 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑝2 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 wave function into space part Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)and time
𝜕𝑥 part Φ 𝑡 , i.e.
𝜕2
𝑝2 ≡ −ℏ2 2 … … … … … (2) 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∙ Φ 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 The measurement of Energy operator 𝐸 on 𝜓
Eq. (2) represents the momentum squared
gives the energy Eigen value E as result. Hence,
operator.
𝜕 𝐸 𝜓 = 𝐸 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∙ Φ 𝑡 = 𝐸 Ψ ∙ Φ
𝑝 ≡ −𝑖ℏ … … … … (3) The left hand side of equation (7) can be replaced
𝜕𝑥 with above Eigen value equation,
Eq. (3) represents the momentum operator.
Differentiate once, partially, with respect to t. −ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝐸𝜓= +𝑉 𝜓
𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 𝑖 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
= 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 𝐸 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∙ Φ 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ℏ
𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑖 𝑖 −ℏ2 𝜕 2
= − 𝐸 𝜓𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝( 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 = + 𝑉 Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∙ Φ 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 ℏ ℏ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑖 −ℏ2 𝜕 2
= − 𝐸𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝐸Ψ∙Φ= +𝑉 Ψ∙Φ
𝜕𝑡 ℏ 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
ℏ 𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)
− = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) −ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝑖 𝜕𝑡 𝐸Ψ= +𝑉 Ψ
ℏ 𝜕𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
−𝑖 2 = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) Rearranging gives,
𝑖 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 2 Ψ 2𝑚
𝑖ℏ 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐸 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 … … … … … … … . (4) + 2 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0………….. 8
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ
𝜕 Eq. (8) represents Schrödinger time independent
𝐸 ≡ 𝑖ℏ … … … … … … . . (5)
𝜕𝑡 wave equation in one dimension.
Eq. (3) represents the energy operator. In three dimensions the same will be,
But we know that total energy E of the particle is 2𝑚
𝐸 ≡ 𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. ∇2 Ψ + 2 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0 … … … … . . 9
ℏ
𝑝2 For free particle, there will be only kinetic energy
𝐸 ≡ + 𝑉 … … … … … . (6) and no potential energy. Hence V = 0.
2𝑚
Operate this on 𝜓, 2𝑚𝐸
∇ 2 Ψ + ℏ2 Ψ = 0
Here 𝚿 represents purely the space part of wave function and it does not contain time part.

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ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS
𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 0 = 2𝐴𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐿
PARTICLE IN DEEP ONE DIMENSIONAL As A is not zero, for non – trivial solution,
POTENTIAL WELL: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐿 = 0 = sin 𝑛𝜋
Consider a particle with mass m and total energy 𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
E confined to a deep one dimensional potential 𝐿
well as shown in the figure below. With n taking all positive and negative integer
𝑉 = +∞ +∞
values including zero.
But physically, n = 0 solution does not make any
sense. If this is true then k will go to zero and
Rigid wall hence E will go to zero, a particle without energy.
Rigid wall This is really not of interest.
𝑛𝜋
𝜓 𝑥 = 2𝐴𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿
𝑥 = −∞ 𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐿 𝑥 = +∞ n = ±1, ±2, ±3…
When compared with the height (infinite) of the But still this wave function is still not complete
walls at x = 0 and at x = L, the potential energy because A is still unknown. Let us fix the value of
of the particle is negligible, say zero. V = 0, this A by using Max Born’s probability
The walls at x = 0 and at x = L are perfectly rigid normalization condition,
∞
extending up to positive and negative infinity on
the x – axis. 𝜓 𝑥 ∗ 𝜓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
We can apply the Schrödinger time independent −∞
wave equation in the region, x = 0 and at x = L; As the particle does not enter the regions x = - ∞
𝜕 2 𝜓 2𝑚 to x = 0 and x = 0 to x = + ∞, the wave function
+ 2 𝐸−𝑉 𝜓 =0 becomes zero in these regions to make the
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ
As V = 0, probability completely zero in these regions.
0 L
𝜕 2 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸 𝜓 𝑥 ∗ 𝜓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 0 𝜓 𝑥 ∗ 𝜓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +
+ 2 𝜓 =0 −∞
∞
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ 𝜓 𝑥 ∗ 𝜓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
Put, L
The first and Third parts of the above integral
2𝑚𝐸
= 𝑘2 evaluates to zero and hence,
ℏ2 L
𝜕2𝜓
2
+ 𝑘2𝜓 = 0 𝜓 𝑥 ∗ 𝜓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝜕𝑥
General solution to this differential equation will 0
be Where,
∗
𝑛𝜋
𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘𝑥) 𝜓 𝑥 = 2𝐴∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥
The complete solution can be obtained by using 𝐿
Is the complex conjugate of the wave function. It
boundary conditions on 𝜓 at x = 0 and at x = L. can be obtained by replacing the i 's with their
BOUNDARY CONDITION: negatives.
𝑖 ∗ = −𝑖
𝜓 Must vanish at x = 0 and at x = L as the particle L
does not enter the infinite potential energy zone. 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
At x = 0; 2𝐴∗ (−𝑖) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2𝐴𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿 𝐿
𝜓 𝑥 = 0 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘 ∙ 0 + 𝐵 exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘 ∙ 0) 0
L
0= 𝐴+𝐵 𝑛𝜋 2
Or 4 𝐴∗ 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
𝐵 = −𝐴 0
∴ 𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − 𝐴 exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘𝑥) L 𝑛𝜋
𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘𝑥) 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
2 𝐿
Multiply and divide by 2i, 4 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘𝑥) 0
𝜓 𝑥 = 2𝐴𝑖 L 𝑛𝜋
2𝑖 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1
2 𝐿
exp 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − exp⁡ (−𝑖𝑘𝑥) 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 =
2 4
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 0
2𝑖
𝜓 𝑥 = 2𝐴𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥
Similarly at x = L;

SATYANARAYANA V V VEDULA G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN 5

ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS
APPLIED PHYSICS R20 JNUTUK QUNATUM MECHANICS
L 𝐿
𝑛𝜋 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑥 − 2𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝑥 =
2 2
0 0
𝐿
=
2
L 𝑛𝜋
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐿 𝑥 1
2
∴ 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 =
2 4
0
𝐿 1 2
= 𝐴
2 4
1
∴𝐴=
2𝐿
1 𝑛𝜋
∴𝜓 𝑥 = 2 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2𝐿 𝐿
Eigen functions of particle in one dimensional box
are given by

2 𝑛𝜋
𝜓𝑛 𝑥 = ± 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
n = ±1, ±2, ±3…
Energy of the particle can be calculated by using
−ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓
𝐸𝜓 ≡ +𝑉𝜓
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
As the particle has no potential energy, V = 0;
−ℏ2 𝜕 2 2 𝑛𝜋
𝐸 𝜓𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝐿 𝐿

𝑛𝜋 2 ℏ2 2 𝑛𝜋
𝐸 𝜓𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿 2𝑚 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸 𝜓𝑛 𝑥 = 𝜓 𝑥
𝐿 2𝑚 𝑛
Hence the energies of the particle in a box are
quantized according to the above expression.
n 2 ℏ 2 π2
𝐸𝑛 =
2𝑚𝐿2
n = ±1, ±2, ±3…
The following graphs respectively represent the
energies, wave functions and probabilities of
particle in various states, i.e. ground state and
excited states.

SATYANARAYANA V V VEDULA G.V.P. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING FOR WOMEN 6

ASST. PROFESSOR, PHYSICS