EE 2010 Circuit Analysis

Module 17: Op-Amps: Resistive Elements Notes

These notes are drawn from Alexander and Sadiku, 2013, O’Malley, 2011, WikipediA, and other
sources. They are intended to offer a summary of topics to guide you in focused studies. You
should augment this handout with notes taken in class, reading textbook(s), and working additional
example problems.
Learning Objective: In this module, we introduce the Operational Amplifier or Op-Amp. We
quickly adopt the “ideal model” for an Op-Amp useful in analyzing a wide variety of Op-Amp
circuits.
Definition: An operational amplifier, or op-amp is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage am-
plifier with a differential input and a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically 100000 times larger than the potential difference between
its input terminals.
le80571_ch05_175-214.qxd 11/30/11 12:56 PM Page 177
Due to its extremely large open-loop gain ∼ 105 , when (almost exclusively) configured in one of
several negative feedback modes, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output
impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external components and have little depen-
dence on temperature coefficients or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself !
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of
5.2 Operational Amplifiers 177
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.

V+
7

Balance 1 8 No connection Inverting input 2 −

6 Output
Inverting input 2 7 V + Noninverting input 3 +

Noninverting input 3 6 Output

415
V− 4 5 Balance
V−
Offset Null
(a) (b)
Figure 5.2
A typical op amp: (a) pin configuration, (b) circuit symbol.

marked with minus (!) and plus (") to specify inverting and nonin-
i+ +
verting inputs, respectively. An input applied to the noninverting ter- i1 VCC
minal will appear with the same polarity at the output, while an input 7 io −
2
applied to the inverting terminal will appear inverted at the output. 6
3 +
As an active element, the op amp must be powered by a voltage 4
i2 VCC
supply as typically shown in Fig. 5.3. Although the power supplies are i−
−
often ignored in op amp circuit diagrams for the sake of simplicity, the
power supply currents must not be overlooked. By KCL, Figure 5.3
Powering the op amp.
io # i1 " i2 " i" " i! (5.1)
The equivalent circuit model of an op amp is shown in Fig. 5.4.
The output section consists of a voltage-controlled source in series with
the output resistance Ro. It is evident from Fig. 5.4 that the input resis-
tance Ri is the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the input termi- v1
nals, while the output resistance Ro is the Thevenin equivalent resistance
seen at the output. The differential input voltage vd is given by − Ro
1 vd Ri vo
vd # v2 ! v1 (5.2) + +
− Avd
where v1 is the voltage between the inverting terminal and ground and
v2 is the voltage between the noninverting terminal and ground. The v2
op amp senses the difference between the two inputs, multiplies it by
 1280px-OpAmpTransistorLevel_Colored_Labeled.svg.png (PN... https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/...

Operational Amplifiers 177

V+
7

Inverting input 2 −
6 Output
Noninverting input 3 +

415
V−
Offset Null
(b)

t symbol.

verting and nonin-

i+ +
noninverting ter- i1 VCC
ut, while an input 7 io −
2
d at the output. 6
3 +
ered by a voltage 4
i2 VCC
power supplies are i−
−
e of simplicity, the
KCL, Figure 5.3
Powering the op amp.
(5.1)
Equivalent Circuit:
hown in Fig. 5.4.
urce in series with
hat the input resis-
at the input termi- v1
uivalent resistance
ale80571_ch05_175-214.qxd 11/30/11 12:56 PM Page 178
is given by − R o
vd Ri vo
(5.2) + +
− Avd
al and ground and
and ground. The v2
s, multiplies it by 178 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers
ear at the output.
Figure 5.4 shows typical values of voltage gain A, input resistance Ri, output
The equivalent circuit of the nonideal
op amp. resistance Ro, and supply voltage VCC.
(5.3) The concept of feedback is crucial to our understanding of op amp
circuits. A negative feedback is achieved when the output is fed back
the gain of the op
o input. Table 5.1 So in
Sometimes, voltage gain is expressed
that v0 (dB),
decibels
= Av d = A(v
as discussed in 2
− v1 ).to the inverting terminal of the op amp. 5As Example 5.1 shows, when
With open-loop gain A ∼ 10 .
there is a feedback path from output to input, the ratio of the output
Chapter 14. voltage to the input voltage is called the closed-loop gain. As a result
A dB # 20 log10 A of the negative feedback, it can be shown that the closed-loop gain is
Input-output characteristics: almost insensitive to the open-loop gain A of the op amp. For this rea-
vo son, op amps are used in circuits with feedback paths.
Ideal values A practical limitation of the op amp is that the magnitude of its
1 of 1 11/3/19, 9:37 PM
$ output voltage cannot exceed |VCC |. In other words, the output voltage
$% Positive saturation is dependent on and is limited by the power supply voltage. Figure 5.5
VCC
0% illustrates that the op amp can operate in three modes, depending on
the differential input voltage vd :
0 vd
1. Positive saturation, vo ! VCC.
−VCC
Negative saturation 2. Linear region, "VCC # vo ! Avd # VCC.
3. Negative saturation, vo ! "VCC.
If we attempt to increase vd beyond the linear range, the op amp
Figure 5.5 becomes saturated and yields vo ! VCC or vo ! "VCC. Throughout
Op amp output voltage vo as a function of this book, we will assume that our op amps operate in the linear mode.
the differential input voltage vd. This means that the output voltage is restricted by
"VCC # vo # VCC (5.4)

Throughout this book, we assume that Although we shall always operate the op amp in the linear region, the
an op amp operates in the linear range. possibility of saturation must be borne in mind when one designs with
Keep in mind the voltage constraint on op amps, to avoid designing op amp circuits that will not work in the
the op amp in this mode. laboratory.
2

Example 5.1 A 741 op amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 2 $ 105, input resis-
 marked with minus (!) and plus (") to specify inverting and nonin-
laboratory.
verting inputs, respectively. An input applied to the noninverting ter- i+ +
i1 VCC
minal will appear with the same polarity at the output, while an input 7 io −
2
applied to the inverting terminal will appear inverted at the output. 6
3 +
As an active element, the op amp must be powered by a voltage 4
i2 VCC
supply as typically shown in Fig. 5.3. Although the power supplies are i−
−
often ignored in op amp circuit diagrams for the sake of simplicity, the
Non-ideal
A 741 power
op ampsupply an Op-Amp
has currents Model:
must notvoltage
open-loop be gain Find
overlooked. $v010due
ofBy2 KCL, 5 to resis-
, input vs , Figure
i.e., find
5.3 the transfer function
Powering the op amp.
( vv0s = ?) with
tance ofopen-loop
2 M%, andgain outputAioresistance
= ∗ 10
# i51 " i2 "of.i"50" %.
5
i! The op amp is (5.1)
used in
the circuit The
of Fig. 5.6(a). Find the closed-loop gain vo!vins. Fig.
equivalent circuit model of an op amp is shown
Determine
5.4.
currentThe
i when v ! 2
output section
s V.
consists of a voltage-controlled source in series with
the output resistance Ro. It is evident from Fig. 5.4 that the input resis-
tance Ri is the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen at the input termi- v1
nals, while the output resistance Ro is the Thevenin equivalent resistance
seen at the output. The differential 20 kΩ voltage vd is given by
input − Ro
vd Ri vo
vd # v2 ! v1 (5.2) +
kΩ i + Avd
−
where v10
1 iskΩ
the voltage
v1 between the inverting 50 Ω v and ground and
Ro =terminal
i o
v2 is the voltage between the noninverting terminal and ground. The v2
1 O
741 op amp senses the difference between the two inputs, i multiplies it by
−
O + the
vs gain
+ A, and causes vd theRresulting voltage
+ Av to appear at the output.
i = 2 MΩ
Thus,−the output vo is +given by − d
vo Figure 5.4
− The equivalent circuit of the nonideal
op amp.
vo # Avd # A(v2 ! v1) (5.3)

(b)
A is called the open-loop voltage gain because it is the gain of the op Sometimes, voltage gain is expressed
amp without any external feedback from output to input. Table 5.1 in decibels (dB), as discussed in
%%equivalent
iginal circuit, (b) the Example 5.1 Non−ideal Op−amp model
circuit. Chapter 14.
TABLE 5.1
clear all A dB # 20 log10 A

Typical
% Declare ranges symbolic
for op amp variables
parameters.
syms
Parameter v1 vs vo A Typical range Ideal values
% Nodegain,
Open-loop equations
A in105solve
to 108 function for$ ouput vo in terms of input vs
Input Ri = −vd
resistance,v0
% Note: 105 to 1013 % $%
Output resistance, Ro 10 to 100 % 0%
[vo,v1]
Supply voltage,=VCCsolve(v1/(2 *10^6)
5 to 24 V + (v1−vs)/10000 + (v1 − vo)/20000 == 0,...
(vo−v1)/20000 + (vo + A * v1)/50 == 0, vo, v1)
H = vo/vs
% Substitute A = 5*10^5
eval(subs(H, A, 5*10^5))
%

... which yields ...

vo = −(200*vs*(400*A − 1))/(40000*A + 120601)
v1 = (80200*vs)/(40000*A + 120601)
H = −(200*(400*A − 1))/(40000*A + 120601)
ans = −2

So that, more simply,

vo 20k
= −2 = −
vs 10k
... the negative of the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor.

3
Ideal Op Amp Model: An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics:
180 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers
1. Infinite open-loop gain, A

2. Infinite input resistance, Ri

An ideal op amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop
3. Zero output resistance, Ro = 0. input resistance, and zero output resistance.

with corollaries:
Although assuming an ideal op amp provides onl
1. Virtual open circuit: i0 = 0, i1 = 0 mate analysis, most modern amplifiers have such lar
input impedances that the approximate analysis is a goo
2. Virtual short circuit: vd = 0
stated otherwise, we will assume from now on that eve
ideal.
i1 = 0 For circuit analysis, the ideal op amp is illustrate
− which is derived from the nonideal model in Fig. 5.4. T
+ −
vd characteristics of the ideal op amp are:
i2 = 0
+ +
+ 1. The currents into both input terminals are zero:
v1 + vo
v 2 = v1
− − − i1 ! 0, i2 ! 0

Figure 5.8 This is due to infinite input resistance. An infin

Ideal op amp model. between the input terminals implies that an open circu
and current cannot enter the op amp. But the output
(Almost) Every ideal op-amp problem on the planet isnecessarily zero according
solved by writing to Eq.at (5.1).
a node equation the
inverting input. 2. The voltage across the input terminals is equal to ze
vd ! v2 " v1 ! 0
or

v1 ! v2
The two characteristics can be ex-
ploited by noting that for voltage cal- Thus, an ideal op amp has zero current into its t
culations the input port behaves as a minals and the voltage between the two input term
short circuit, while for current calcula- to zero. Equations (5.5) and (5.7) are extreme
tions the input port behaves as an and should be regarded as the key handles to anal
open circuit. circuits.

Example 5.2 Rework Practice Prob. 5.1 using the ideal op amp mode
4

i2 = 0 Solution:
v2 We may replace the op amp in Fig. 5.7 by its equiva
+
to the value of 0.657 mA obtained in Practice
nideal model.

Four
sing the ideal op amp common
model. Practice Problem 5.2
configurations:

. Most resistor op-amp circuits are simple enough to solve by inspection or in one node equation.
We’ll use a solver to continue being proficient in writing directly to Matlab. And we’ll need a solver
when we add dynamic elements.

i2
Rf
ting Amplifier
i1
wing sections, we consider some useful op amp R1 v 1 0 A
ve as modules for designing more complex cir-
1 − −
op amp circuits is the inverting amplifier shown 0V
ircuit, the noninverting input is grounded, vi is vi + v2 + +
− +
rting input through R1, and the feedback resistor vo
−
en the inverting input and output. Our goal is to
between the input voltage vi and the output
1. Inverting volt-
amplifier:
L at node 1, Figure 5.10
%% Ideal Op−amp model: The inverting
1. amplifier.
Inverting Amplifier
vi # v1 v1 # vo
! i2 1 ! clear all (5.8)
R1 Rf A key feature of the inverting amplifier
% Declare symbolic isvariablesthat both the input signal and the
an ideal op amp, since thesymsnoninverting
vi voterminal
R1 Rf feedback are applied at the inverting
terminal of the op amp.
% Node equations and solve for ouput vo in terms of input vs
vi vo vo = solve((0−vi)/R1 + (0−vo)/Rf == 0, vo)
!#
R1 Rf H = vo/vi
%

... which yields ...

vo = −(Rf*vi)/R1
H = −Rf/R1

5
 + +
vo is vo
− −

(a) (b)

ob. 5.4. i2 Rf

R1 i1
v1
−
+
v2 +

vi + vo
−
Noninverting Amplifier −

rtant application of the2.

op Non-Inverting amplifier:
amp is the noninverting ampli-
Fig. 5.16. In this case, the input voltage vi is applied Figure 5.16
noninverting input terminal,
%%and
Ideal R1−is
resistorOp connected
amp model:The Non−Inverting
2.noninverting amplifier. Amplifier
clear all
% Declare symbolic variables
syms vi vo R1 Rf
% Node equations and solve for ouput vo in terms of input vs
vo = solve(vi/R1 + (vi−vo)/Rf == 0, vo)
H = simplify(vo/vi)
%

... which yields ...

vo = (R1*vi + Rf*vi)/R1
H = (R1 + Rf)/R1

6
 −

ming Amplifier
the op amp can perform addition and subtrac- Figure 5.20
performed by the summing amplifier covered in For Practice Prob. 5.5.
action is performed by the difference amplifier i1 i
R1 Rf
ction. v1
i2 i 0
R2
v2 −
is an op amp circuit that combines several inputs a
i3 + +
put that is the weighted sum of the inputs. R3
v3 0 vo
−

plifier, shown in Fig. 3.

5.21, is a variation
Summing of the
amplifier:
akes advantage of the fact that the inverting con- Figure 5.21
many inputs at the same time. We keepOp
%% Ideal in−mind The summing
amp model: amplifier.
3. Summing Amplifier
clear all
% Declare symbolic variables
syms v1 v2 v3 vo R1 R2 R3 Rf
% Node equations and solve for ouput vo in terms of input vs
vo = solve((0−v1)/R1 + (0−v2)/R2 +(0−v3)/R3 + (0−vo)/Rf == 0, vo)

... which yields ...

vo = −Rf*(v1/R1 + v2/R2 + v3/R3)
%

And so we again see the results of Superposition.

7
 v1 ! va va ! vo
"
R1 R2
or
R2 R2
vo " a # 1b va ! v1 (5.16)
R1 R1

R2

R1 0
va
−
R3 0
vb
+ +
v1 +
− vo
+ v R4
− 2
−

4. Difference amplifier: Figure 5.24

Difference amplifier.
%% Ideal Op−amp model: 4. Difference Amplifier
clear all
% Declare symbolic variables − with a sensible relabeling of resistors
syms v1 v2 vx vo R1 R2 R3 Rf
% Node equations and solve for ouput vo in terms of input vs
[vo, vx] = solve((vx−v1)/R1 + (vx−vo)/Rf == 0,...
vx == v2*R2/(R2+R3), vo, vx)
vo = (R1*R2*v2 − R2*Rf*v1 + R2*Rf*v2 − R3*Rf*v1)/(R1*(R2 + R3))
vx = (R2*v2)/(R2 + R3)
collect(vo, [v1,v2])
%

... which yields ...

vx = (R2*v2)/(R2 + R3)
vo = (−(R2*Rf + R3*Rf)/(R1*(R2 + R3)))*v1 + ((R1*R2 + R2*Rf)/(R1*(R2 + R3)))*v2

Which is yet another Superposition result.

8
Procedure for Solving Ideal Op-Amp Problems
Most resistor-only op-amp circuits are simple enough to solve by inspection or by writing a single
one node equation. A solver is helpful when the circuit includes dynamic elements.
Ideal Op-Amp Solution:

1. Replace the independent source inputs with symbolic inputs Vin and Iin except in the simplest
problems.

2. Make note of every observation that follows from the properties of the Ideal Model.

3. Many resistor-only circuits can be solved by inspection.

4. Or ... write a node equation at the inverting input.

5. Observe the result in terms of a Transfer Function when appropriate.

6. Answer whatever question(s) are posed concerning the circuit quantity of interest.

Homework: Chapter 5 # 8, 12, 17, 22, 23, 27, 29, 32, 38, 40, 45, 54, 57, 59, 60, 65, 71, 73

9
200 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

TABLE 5.3

Summary of basic op amp circuits.

Op amp circuit Name/output-input relationship
R2 Inverting amplifier
R2
R1 vo ! " vi
vi − R1
+ vo

R2 Noninverting amplifier
R2
R1 vo ! a1 # b vi
− R1
vi vo
+

Voltage follower
− vo ! vi
vi + vo

R1 Rf Summer
v1 Rf Rf Rf
R2 vo ! "a v1 # v2 # v3 b
v2 R1 R2 R3
− vo
+
R3
v3

R1 R2 Difference amplifier
v1
R2
vo ! (v2 " v1)
− R1
+ vo

R1 R2
v2

3. An ideal op amp has an infinite input resistance, a zero output

resistance, and an infinite gain.
4. For an ideal op amp, the current into each of its two input termi-
nals is zero, and the voltage across its input terminals is negligi-
bly small.
5. In an inverting amplifier, the output voltage is a negative multiple
of the input.
6. In a noninverting amplifier, the output is a positive multiple of the
input.
7. In a voltage follower, the output follows the input.
8. In a summing amplifier, the output is the weighted sum of the
inputs.
9. In a difference amplifier, the output is proportional to the differ-
ence of the two inputs.
10. Op amp circuits may be cascaded without changing their input-
output relationships.
11. PSpice can be used to analyze an op amp circuit.
12. Typical applications of the op amp considered in this chapter include
the digital-to-analog converter and the instrumentation amplifier.
 Review Questions 201

Review Questions
5.1 The two input terminals of an op amp are labeled as: 5.6 If vs ! 8 mV in the circuit of Fig. 5.41, the output
(a) high and low. voltage is:
(b) positive and negative. (a) "44 mV (b) "8 mV
(c) inverting and noninverting. (c) 4 mV (d) 7 mV
(d) differential and nondifferential.
5.7 Refer to Fig. 5.41. If vs ! 8 mV, voltage va is:
5.2 For an ideal op amp, which of the following statements
are not true? (a) "8 mV (b) 0 mV

(a) The differential voltage across the input terminals (c) 10!3 mV (d) 8 mV
is zero.
5.8 The power absorbed by the 4-k$ resistor in
(b) The current into the input terminals is zero.
Fig. 5.42 is:
(c) The current from the output terminal is zero.
(a) 9 mW (b) 4 mW
(d) The input resistance is zero.
(c) 2 mW (d) 1 mW
(e) The output resistance is zero.
5.3 For the circuit in Fig. 5.40, voltage vo is:
(a) "6 V (b) "5 V
(c) "1.2 V (d) "0.2 V 4 kΩ
+
−
+
ix 6V +
10 kΩ − 2 kΩ vo
−
2 kΩ
−
+ +
1V + vo Figure 5.42
− 3 kΩ
− For Review Questions 5.8.

Figure 5.40
For Review Questions 5.3 and 5.4.
5.9 Which of these amplifiers is used in a digital-to-analog
5.4 For the circuit in Fig. 5.40, current ix is: converter?
(a) 0.6 mA (b) 0.5 mA (a) noninverter
(c) 0.2 mA (d) 1!12 mA (b) voltage follower
(c) summer
5.5 If vs ! 0 in the circuit of Fig. 5.41, current io is:
(d) difference amplifier
(a) "10 mA (b) "2.5 mA
(c) 10!12 mA (d) 10!14 mA 5.10 Difference amplifiers are used in (please check all that
apply):
(a) instrumentation amplifiers
8 kΩ
(b) voltage followers
4 kΩ (c) voltage regulators
−
a (d) buffers
+ io
+ (e) summing amplifiers
10 mV +
− vs + 2 kΩ vo
− (f ) subtracting amplifiers
−

Figure 5.41 Answers: 5.1c, 5.2c,d, 5.3b, 5.4b, 5.5a, 5.6c, 5.7d, 5.8b,
For Review Questions 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7. 5.9c, 5.10a,f.
202 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

Problems
Section 5.2 Operational Amplifiers +
741 vo
5.1 The equivalent model of a certain op amp is shown −
in Fig. 5.43. Determine:
+−
(a) the input resistance
1 mV
(b) the output resistance
Figure 5.45
(c) the voltage gain in dB For Prob. 5.6.

60 Ω 5.7 The op amp in Fig. 5.46 has Ri ! 100 k$,

− Ro ! 100 $, A ! 100,000. Find the differential
vd + 8 × 104v d voltage vd and the output voltage vo.
1.5 MΩ −
+

Figure 5.43
For Prob. 5.1. − +
vd
+
−
5.2 The open-loop gain of an op amp is 100,000. Calculate 10 kΩ 100 kΩ
the output voltage when there are inputs of #10 !V
on the inverting terminal and #20 !V on the +
1 mV + vo
noninverting terminal. −
−
5.3 Determine the output voltage when "20 !V is
applied to the inverting terminal of an op amp and
#30 !V to its noninverting terminal. Assume that Figure 5.46
the op amp has an open-loop gain of 200,000. For Prob. 5.7.
5.4 The output voltage of an op amp is "4 V when the
noninverting input is 1 mV. If the open-loop gain
of the op amp is 2 % 106, what is the inverting Section 5.3 Ideal Op Amp
input?
5.8 Obtain vo for each of the op amp circuits in Fig. 5.47.
5.5 For the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.44, the op amp has
an open-loop gain of 100,000, an input resistance of
10 k$, and an output resistance of 100 $. Find the
voltage gain vo!vi using the nonideal model of the 10 kΩ
op amp.
2 kΩ
−
2V +

− −
− + +
+ + +
+ vo
1 mA vo 1V + 2 kΩ
+ vo − −
vi − −
−

(a) (b)
Figure 5.44
For Prob. 5.5. Figure 5.47
For Prob. 5.8.

5.6 Using the same parameters for the 741 op amp in

Example 5.1, find vo in the op amp circuit of 5.9 Determine vo for each of the op amp circuits in
Fig. 5.45. Fig. 5.48.
 Problems 203

2 kΩ 25 kΩ

5 kΩ
− −
+ +
+ +
vs +
1 mA − 10 kΩ vo
+ 4V vo
− −
−

Figure 5.51
For Prob. 5.12.
+
− 5.13 Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 5.52.
+ 1V +
3V +
− − 2 kΩ vo 10 kΩ
−
+ io
−
1V +
− 100 kΩ +
Figure 5.48 90 kΩ 10 kΩ vo
For Prob. 5.9. −
50 kΩ

5.10 Find the gain vo!vs of the circuit in Fig. 5.49.

Figure 5.52
20 kΩ For Prob. 5.13.
+
− 5.14 Determine the output voltage vo in the circuit of
+ Fig. 5.53.
10 kΩ
10 kΩ
vs +
− vo

10 kΩ 10 kΩ
− 20 kΩ
−
+
+
Figure 5.49 2 mA 5 kΩ vo
For Prob. 5.10. −

5.11 Using Fig. 5.50, design a problem to help other

students better understand how ideal op amps work.
Figure 5.53
For Prob. 5.14.
Section 5.4 Inverting Amplifier
R2
5.15 (a) Determine the ratio vo!is in the op amp circuit of
Fig. 5.54.
R1
io (b) Evaluate the ratio for R1 ! 20 k$, R2 ! 25 k$,
−
R3 ! 40 k$.
+
R3 + R1 R3
+ R4 R5 vo
V − −
R2

−
Figure 5.50 +
For Prob. 5.11. +
is vo
−
5.12 Calculate the voltage ratio vo!vs for the op amp
circuit of Fig. 5.51. Assume that the op amp is Figure 5.54
ideal. For Prob. 5.15.
204 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.16 Using Fig. 5.55, design a problem to help students 5.19 Determine io in the circuit of Fig. 5.58.
better understand inverting op amps.
2 kΩ 4 kΩ 10 kΩ
R3
io
−
ix 750 mV +
− 4 kΩ +
R1 iy
– 2 kΩ
+

+ R4
Figure 5.58
V −
For Prob. 5.19.
R2
5.20 In the circuit of Fig. 5.59, calculate vo of vs ! 2 V.

8 kΩ
Figure 5.55
For Prob. 5.16. 2 kΩ
4 kΩ 4 kΩ
−
5.17 Calculate the gain vo!vi when the switch in Fig. 5.56 +
+
is in: 9V + +
− vs − vo
(a) position 1 (b) position 2 (c) position 3. −

12 kΩ
Figure 5.59
1 For Prob. 5.20.
80 kΩ
2 5.21 Calculate vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.60.
2 MΩ 3 10 kΩ
5 kΩ
− 4 kΩ
+ −
+
vi +
− 10 kΩ vo + +
−
3V + 1V + vo
− −
−

Figure 5.56
For Prob. 5.17.
Figure 5.60
For Prob. 5.21.
*5.18 For the circuit shown in Figure 5.57, solve for the
Thevenin equivalent circuit looking into terminals A 5.22 Design an inverting amplifier with a gain of "15.
and B.

10 kΩ 5.23 For the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.61, find the voltage
gain vo!vs.
10 kΩ Rf
−
+
7.5 V +
− 2.5 Ω
R1
–
+ +
vs +
−
R2
vo
Figure 5.57 −
For Prob. 5.18.

Figure 5.61
* An asterisk indicates a challenging problem. For Prob. 5.23.
 Problems 205

5.24 In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.62, find k in the voltage 5.28 Find io in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.66.
transfer function vo ! kvs.
50 kΩ
Rf

R1 −
R2 +
vs io
−
−+ 10 kΩ + 0.4 V 20 kΩ
+ + −

R3 R4 vo

−
Figure 5.66
For Prob. 5.28.
Figure 5.62
For Prob. 5.24. 5.29 Determine the voltage gain vo!vi of the op amp
circuit in Fig. 5.67.
Section 5.5 Noninverting Amplifier
R1
5.25 Calculate vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.63.
+
− +

12 kΩ vi + R2
− − R2 vo
+
+ R1
–
3.7 V +
−
20 kΩ vo
−
Figure 5.67
For Prob. 5.29.
Figure 5.63
For Prob. 5.25. 5.30 In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.68, find ix and the
power absorbed by the 20-k$ resistor.
5.26 Using Fig. 5.64, design a problem to help other
students better understand noninverting op amps.
60 kΩ
−
+ + ix
− io
1.2 V +
−
30 kΩ 20 kΩ
V +
− R2 R3
R1

Figure 5.68
For Prob. 5.30.
Figure 5.64
For Prob. 5.26.
5.31 For the circuit in Fig. 5.69, find ix.

5.27 Find vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.65. 12 kΩ

6 kΩ
16 Ω
v1 − v2 8 Ω +
+ ix −
+
+
+ 4 mA 3 kΩ
7.5 V − 24 Ω 12 Ω vo 6 kΩ vo
−
−

Figure 5.65 Figure 5.69

For Prob. 5.27. For Prob. 5.31.
206 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.32 Calculate ix and vo in the circuit of Fig. 5.70. Find +

− a
the power dissipated by the 60-k$ resistor.

vs +
− R2
ix R1
+ 20 kΩ
− b

+ Figure 5.73
4 mV + 50 kΩ vo For Prob. 5.36.
− 60 kΩ 30 kΩ
−
10 kΩ Section 5.6 Summing Amplifier
5.37 Determine the output of the summing amplifier in
Fig. 5.74.
Figure 5.70
For Prob. 5.32. 2V
10 kΩ
−+ 30 kΩ
5.33 Refer to the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.71. Calculate ix −2 V
and the power absorbed by the 3-k$ resistor. 20 kΩ
−+ −
+ +
4.5 V vo
30 kΩ −
1 kΩ +−

ix Figure 5.74
+
− For Prob. 5.37.

1 mA 4 kΩ 3 kΩ 5.38 Using Fig. 5.75, design a problem to help other

2 kΩ
students better understand summing amplifiers.

V1 R1
Figure 5.71
For Prob. 5.33. −+

+
V2 R2
−
+− +
5.34 Given the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.72, express vo
vo in terms of v1 and v2. V3 R3 −
−+ R5

V4
R1 R4
v in +−
v1 +
v2 −
R4 + Figure 5.75
R2
vo For Prob. 5.38.
R3
– 5.39 For the op amp circuit in Fig. 5.76, determine the
value of v2 in order to make vo ! "16.5 V.

Figure 5.72 10 kΩ 50 kΩ
For Prob. 5.34. +2 V
20 kΩ
v2 −
+ vo
5.35 Design a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 7.5. 50 kΩ
–1 V
5.36 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.73, find the Thevenin
equivalent at terminals a-b. (Hint: To find RTh, apply Figure 5.76
a current source io and calculate vo.) For Prob. 5.39.
 Problems 207

5.40 Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 5.77, 5.46 Using only two op amps, design a circuit to solve
determine Vo in terms of V1 and V2.
v1 " v2 v3
"vout ! #
3 2
100 kΩ 200 kΩ

100 kΩ
−
Section 5.7 Difference Amplifier
10 Ω
V1 + + 5.47 The circuit in Fig. 5.79 is for a difference amplifier.
− +
V2 + Find vo given that v1 ! 1 V and v2 ! 2 V.
−
40 Ω Vo
−

30 kΩ
Figure 5.77
For Prob. 5.40. 2 kΩ
−
2 kΩ
5.41 An averaging amplifier is a summer that provides + +
an output equal to the average of the inputs. By v1 +
−
v2 + vo
using proper input and feedback resistor values, − 20 kΩ
one can get −
1
"vout ! 4 (v1 # v2 # v3 # v4)
Using a feedback resistor of 10 k$, design an Figure 5.79
averaging amplifier with four inputs. For Prob. 5.47.

5.42 A three-input summing amplifier has input resistors

with R1 ! R2 ! R3 ! 75 k$. To produce an
averaging amplifier, what value of feedback resistor 5.48 The circuit in Fig. 5.80 is a differential amplifier
is needed? driven by a bridge. Find vo.
5.43 A four-input summing amplifier has R1 ! R2 !
R3 ! R4 ! 80 k$. What value of feedback resistor
is needed to make it an averaging amplifier?
20 kΩ 80 kΩ
5.44 Show that the output voltage vo of the circuit in
Fig. 5.78 is 10 kΩ 30 kΩ

(R3 # R4) −
vo ! (R2v1 # R1v2) + 10 mV vo
R3(R1 # R2) +

40 kΩ 60 kΩ
R4
20 kΩ
80 kΩ
R3
−
vo
R1
v1 +
Figure 5.80
For Prob. 5.48.
R2
v2

Figure 5.78
For Prob. 5.44. 5.49 Design a difference amplifier to have a gain of 4 and
a common-mode input resistance of 20 k$ at each
input.
5.45 Design an op amp circuit to perform the following 5.50 Design a circuit to amplify the difference between
operation: two inputs by 2.5.
vo ! 3v1 " 2v2 (a) Use only one op amp.
All resistances must be & 100 k$. (b) Use two op amps.
208 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.51 Using two op amps, design a subtractor. R2 R2

2 2

*5.52 Design an op amp circuit such that R1

− RG
+
vo ! 4v1 # 6v2 " 3v3 " 5v4 vi
− +
Let all the resistors be in the range of 20 to 200 k$. +
R1 vo
*5.53 The ordinary difference amplifier for fixed-gain R2 R2
operation is shown in Fig. 5.81(a). It is simple and 2 2 −
reliable unless gain is made variable. One way of
providing gain adjustment without losing simplicity
and accuracy is to use the circuit in Fig. 5.81(b). (c)
Another way is to use the circuit in Fig. 5.81(c). Figure 5.81
Show that: For Prob. 5.53.
(a) for the circuit in Fig. 5.81(a),
vo R2 Section 5.8 Cascaded Op Amp Circuits
!
vi R1
5.54 Determine the voltage transfer ratio vo!vs in the op
(b) for the circuit in Fig. 5.81(b), amp circuit of Fig. 5.82, where R ! 10 k$.
vo R2 1
!
vi R1 R1 R
1#
2RG
R
(c) for the circuit in Fig. 5.81(c),
R
vo R2 R2 −
! a1 # b + + +
vi R1 2RG −
+
vs
R vo
R
R2
− −
R1
−
−
vi
Figure 5.82
+ + For Prob. 5.54.
+
R1 vo
R2 5.55 In a certain electronic device, a three-stage amplifier
− is desired, whose overall voltage gain is 42 dB. The
individual voltage gains of the first two stages are to
be equal, while the gain of the third is to be one-
(a) fourth of each of the first two. Calculate the voltage
gain of each.
R2
R1 R1 5.56 Using Fig. 5.83, design a problem to help other
2 2 students better understand cascaded op amps.
− −
vi RG
+ + R2 R4
+
R1 R1 R1
vo R3
2 2 + −
R2 + −
vi +
− −

Figure 5.83
(b) For Prob. 5.56.
 Problems 209

5.57 Find vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.84. 5.61 Determine vo in the circuit of Fig. 5.88.

25 kΩ 50 kΩ 100 kΩ 100 kΩ +
vs1 vo 20 kΩ − 0.2 V 10 kΩ 40 kΩ
−
− 0.4 V 10 kΩ
− 20 kΩ
+ −
+ 100 kΩ + −
50 kΩ +
50 kΩ vo

vs2
Figure 5.88
Figure 5.84 For Prob. 5.61.
For Prob. 5.57.
5.62 Obtain the closed-loop voltage gain vo!vi of the
5.58 Calculate io in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.85. circuit in Fig. 5.89.
10 kΩ
Rf
1 kΩ 2 kΩ
−
+ − R2
+
5 kΩ io
R1
+ R3 −
0.6 V − −
3 kΩ 4 kΩ + + +
vi + vo
− R4
−

Figure 5.85
For Prob. 5.58. Figure 5.89
For Prob. 5.62.
5.59 In the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.86, determine the
voltage gain vo!vs. Take R ! 10 k$. 5.63 Determine the gain vo!vi of the circuit in Fig. 5.90.
2R 4R
R3
R
− R R2 R4
+ −
+ + R1
vs + R5
− vo −
+ −
+ + +
− vi R6
− vo
−

Figure 5.86
For Prob. 5.59. Figure 5.90
For Prob. 5.63.
5.60 Calculate vo!vi in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.87.
5.64 For the op amp circuit shown in Fig. 5.91, find
4 kΩ
vo!vs.
10 kΩ
G4
5 kΩ
− G
+ + G3
+ − +
vi G1
G
− –
2 kΩ vo –
+
G2 + +
10 kΩ vs +
− vo
−
–

Figure 5.87 Figure 5.91

For Prob. 5.60. For Prob. 5.64.
210 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.65 Find vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.92. 5.68 Find vo in the circuit of Fig. 5.95, assuming that
Rf ! ' (open circuit).

30 kΩ
Rf
50 kΩ 10 kΩ
– 20 kΩ
– 15 kΩ
+ +
+
− + 5 kΩ
−
+ +
6 mV + vo −
− 8 kΩ
40 kΩ +
15 mV +
– − 6 kΩ vo 1 kΩ
2 kΩ −

Figure 5.92
For Prob. 5.65.
Figure 5.95
For Probs. 5.68 and 5.69.
5.66 For the circuit in Fig. 5.93, find vo.

25 kΩ

40 kΩ 100 kΩ
5.69 Repeat the previous problem if Rf ! 10 k$.
20 kΩ
20 kΩ
−
+ −
6V +
− + +

+ 10 kΩ
4V − vo

2V +
− 5.70 Determine vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.96.
−

Figure 5.93 30 kΩ 40 kΩ
For Prob. 5.66.
10 kΩ A
− 20 kΩ C
−
5.67 Obtain the output vo in the circuit of Fig. 5.94. + vo
1V +
− +
60 kΩ
10 kΩ 10 kΩ
80 kΩ 80 kΩ
20 kΩ
− 40 kΩ 2V +
− 20 kΩ
+ −
+ −
+ vo
10 kΩ
0.3 V + B
− −

20 kΩ +
3V +
−

− 10 kΩ
+

0.7 V + +
− 4V −

Figure 5.94 Figure 5.96

For Prob. 5.67. For Prob. 5.70.
 Problems 211

5.71 Determine vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.97. 5.74 Find io in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.100.

100 kΩ 32 kΩ
20 kΩ
100 kΩ 10 kΩ io 1.6 kΩ
5 kΩ − −
− 40 kΩ
+ +
+ 20 kΩ
+
1.5 V − 80 kΩ – 0.9 V +
−
+ 0.6 V
−
10 kΩ + +

20 kΩ vo

10 kΩ – Figure 5.100
− For Prob. 5.74.
+
+
−
Section 5.9 Op Amp Circuit Analysis with
+
2.25 V − PSpice
50 kΩ
30 kΩ
5.75 Rework Example 5.11 using the nonideal op amp
LM324 instead of uA741.
Figure 5.97 5.76 Solve Prob. 5.19 using PSpice or MultiSim and
For Prob. 5.71. op amp uA741.
5.77 Solve Prob. 5.48 using PSpice or MultiSim and
op amp LM324.
5.72 Find the load voltage vL in the circuit of Fig. 5.98.
5.78 Use PSpice or MultiSim to obtain vo in the circuit of
Fig. 5.101.

100 kΩ 10 kΩ 20 kΩ 30 kΩ 40 kΩ
250 kΩ

− −
20 kΩ − − + +
+ + +
+
+ 2V + vo
1V
1.8 V +
− 2 kΩ vL − −
− −

Figure 5.98 Figure 5.101

For Prob. 5.72. For Prob. 5.78.

5.79 Determine vo in the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.102,

using PSpice or MultiSim.
5.73 Determine the load voltage vL in the circuit of
Fig. 5.99.
20 kΩ 10 kΩ

5V +
−
50 kΩ +
−
+
10 kΩ vo
− 100 kΩ
− −
+ 20 kΩ 10 kΩ 40 kΩ
+
+
5 kΩ
4 kΩ vL
+ 1.8 V
− − 1V +
− −
+

Figure 5.99 Figure 5.102

For Prob. 5.73. For Prob. 5.79.
212 Chapter 5 Operational Amplifiers

5.80 Use PSpice or MultiSim to solve Prob. 5.70. 5.86 Design a voltage controlled ideal current source
(within the operating limits of the op amp) where the
5.81 Use PSpice or MultiSim to verify the results in
output current is equal to 200 vs(t) mA.
Example 5.9. Assume nonideal op amps LM324.

Section 5.10 Applications

5.82 A five-bit DAC covers a voltage range of 0 to 7.75 V.
Calculate how much voltage each bit is worth.
5.83 Design a six-bit digital-to-analog converter.
(a) If |Vo| ! 1.1875 V is desired, what should 5.87 Figure 5.105 displays a two-op-amp instrumentation
[V1V2V3V4V5V6] be? amplifier. Derive an expression for vo in terms of v1
(b) Calculate |Vo| if [V1V2V3V4V5V6] ! [011011]. and v2. How can this amplifier be used as a
(c) What is the maximum value |Vo| can assume? subtractor?

*5.84 A four-bit R-2R ladder DAC is presented in Fig. 5.103.

(a) Show that the output voltage is given by v1 + R4
V1 V2 V3 V4 −
"Vo ! Rf a # # # b
2R 4R 8R 16R R2 R3
−
(b) If Rf ! 12 k$ and R ! 10 k$, find |Vo| for vo
v2 +
[V1V2V3V4] ! [1011] and [V1V2V3V4] ! [0101]. R1

Rf Figure 5.105
2R
For Prob. 5.87.
V1 −
+ Vo
R
2R
V2

R
2R
V3
*5.88 Figure 5.106 shows an instrumentation amplifier
R driven by a bridge. Obtain the gain vo!vi of the
2R
amplifier.
V4

2R
25 kΩ 500 kΩ
+
20 kΩ 30 kΩ −
Figure 5.103
For Prob. 5.84. vi −
10 kΩ + vo
5.85 In the op amp circuit of Fig. 5.104, find the value of
40 kΩ 80 kΩ
R so that the power absorbed by the 10-k$ resistor is 2 kΩ
10 mW. Take vs ! 2 V.
10 kΩ
+
−
25 kΩ
−
+ 10 kΩ +
− vs R
40 kΩ 500 kΩ

Figure 5.104 Figure 5.106

For Prob. 5.85. For Prob. 5.88.
 Comprehensive Problems 213

Comprehensive Problems
5.89 Design a circuit that provides a relationship between 5.92 Refer to the bridge amplifier shown in Fig. 5.109.
output voltage vo and input voltage vs such that Determine the voltage gain vo!vi.
vo ! 12vs " 10. Two op amps, a 6-V battery, and
several resistors are available. 60 kΩ
5.90 The op amp circuit in Fig. 5.107 is a current 30 kΩ
amplifier. Find the current gain io!is of the amplifier. −
+
+
20 kΩ 50 kΩ RL vo
20 kΩ −
−
− +
+ vi +
−
4 kΩ

io Figure 5.109
For Prob. 5.92.
is 5 kΩ 2 kΩ
*5.93 A voltage-to-current converter is shown in Fig. 5.110,
which means that iL ! Avi if R1R2 ! R3R4. Find the
constant term A.
Figure 5.107
For Prob. 5.90. R3

5.91 A noninverting current amplifier is portrayed in R1

−
Fig. 5.108. Calculate the gain io!is. Take R1 ! 8 k$ + +
and R2 ! 1 k$.
R4

vi
− iL
+
R2 RL
R2
R1
−
io

is R2 Figure 5.110
For Prob. 5.93.

Figure 5.108
For Prob. 5.91.