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Introduction To Experimental Programme

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16 views37 pages

Introduction To Experimental Programme

Uploaded by

emma.lau.min.ern
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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INTRODUCTION TO

EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAMME
• Types of scientific data
• Quantitative measurements
• Accuracy and Precision
• Types of errors
• Propagating Uncertainties
• Graphical Techniques
“Uncertainty is not simply due to
the limits of technology in
measuring certain events.
It is inherent in nature. “
Karl Pearson
English statistician
Credited with first describing
the concept of uncertainty
TYPES OF DATA
• Qualitative data include all non-numerical information
obtained from observations and not from direct
measurement.
• Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and
are always associated with random errors/uncertainties,
determined by apparatus and by human limitations such
as reaction times
Qualitative Quantitative
• Deals with descriptions • Deals with numbers and
units of measurement
• Data that can be
observed but not • Data that can be
measured measured using
instruments
• Colours of solution or
precipitates, • Subjected to uncertainties
effervescence (etc) and errors
Read the recorded qualitative observations.

Identify how the observations can be used to corroborate with


quantitative measured data?
SIGNIFICANCE OF SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES IN MEASUREMENTS
Rules on significant figures
3456 has
Non-zeros always count as significant 4 significant figures
figures:

0.0486 has
Zeros Leading zeroes do not count as 3 significant figures
significant figures:

16.07 has
Zeros Captive zeroes always count as 4 significant figures
significant figures:

Zeros Trailing zeros are significant only if


the number contains a written decimal 9.300 has
4 significant figures
point:
Textbook pages 351-354

REPORTING QUANTITATIVE DATA


• When adding or subtracting measurements, the
answer should be given to the least number of decimal
places.
• When multiplying or dividing measurements, the
answer should be given to the least number of
significant figures.
Rule for (addition and subtraction) of
data

► RULE 1. Your answer should only have the


same number of decimal placings as the most
imprecise number.

Eg. 0.011 + 0.01 = 0.021 🡪 0.02

Eg. 90 000 + 900 = 90 900 🡪 90 000


Rule for (multiplication and division) of
data
RULE 2. In carrying out a multiplication or
division, the answer cannot have more
significant figures than either of the original
numbers.
Practice
Practice
Determining uncertainty
UNLESS THE INSTRUMENT TELLS
YOU, UNCERTAINTY IS MEASURED IN
ONE OF TWO WAYS:
Analogue instruments
► 1. For glassware and similar instruments,
the uncertainty is half the smallest
increment of the instrument.
Digital instruments
► 2. For digital instruments, the uncertainty
is the smallest digit.
Example of analogue instrument:
Ruler

• We can see the markings between


1.6-1.7cm
• The uncertainty is half the smallest digit
0.1/2 = 0.05
1.
• The
Weabsolute
recorduncertainty
(1.65 +/-is always
0.05) expressed
cm as ouras 1 s.f
2. measurement
The processed measurement shares the same number of
decimal places as the absolute uncertainty.
Example of analogue instrument:
Measuring Cylinder
• The volume is
between 17 cm3
and 18 cm3.
• The uncertainty is
half the smallest
digit = 1/2 = 0.5
• So the answer is
17.5 ± 0.5 cm3

16
Example of digital instrument:
Electronic mass balance

What is the mass on the scale?


1) 0.025 ± 0.0005g
2) 0.025 ± 0.005g
3) 0.025 ± 0.001g
Accuracy refers to how close a
measurement is to the true or
accepted value.

Precision refers to how close


repeated measurements are to
each other.
All measurements have a limit of
precision and accuracy, and this
must be taken into account when
evaluating experimental results
Practice
Textbook pages 355-357

EXPRESSING UNCERTAINTY
• All measurements have a degree of uncertainty regardless
of its accuracy or precision
• Uncertainty in measurements can be reported in different
ways:
❖ Absolute uncertainty
❖ Percentage uncertainty
❖ Fractional uncertainty (more in physics)
Textbook pages 358-362

PROPAGATING UNCERTAINTIES

- ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION


- MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
- EXPONENTS (AHL ONLY)
Worked example 4 and 5, page 358-359
Propagation of uncertainties in calculated
result
1. When adding or subtracting
measurements, the uncertainty in the
calculated value is the sum of the
absolute uncertainties.
Worked examples 6 and 7, page 359-360
Propagation of uncertainties in calculated
result
2. When multiplying or dividing measurements, the
total % uncertainty in the calculated value is the
sum of individual % uncertainties.
Worked example 8, page 361

Propagation of uncertainties in calculated result

3. When propagating uncertainties in calculations


involving exponents requires % uncertainties. The %
uncertainty of the raw data is multiplied by the
value of the exponent.
Practice
Practice
Textbook pages 383-385

EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
• Understand the difference between random errors and
systematic errors.
• Propagation of random errors in data processing shows
the impact of the uncertainties on the final result.
• Experimental design and procedure usually lead to
systematic errors in measurement, which cause a
deviation of the data in a particular direction.
• Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random
errors but not systematic errors.
Systematic Random
• Causes the data to be skewed in • Causes the data to be either
one direction every time. Also, above or below accepted value
known as repetitive errors
• Can be reduced by averaging the
• Cannot be eliminated by data. But cannot be avoided.
averaging. But can be avoided by
changing the way in which the • Inherent in all the instruments
experiment is carried out we used in data measurements
(methodological error)

• Examples include: zero error,


mis-calibrated thermometer
When evaluating experimental conclusion,
systematic and random errors need to be
considered.
Precision and accuracy of the
measurements need to be discussed with
reference to both experimental procedures
and use of equipment.
Practice
Practice
Evaluating % error and %
uncertainty

When % error < % uncertainty:


• Major errors in the experiment are related to area of
precision
• Errors are mainly random in nature.

• Must have more replications to reduce error.

• Must have more precise measuring tools or larger


measured quantity to reduce uncertainty.
Practice
PRACTICE

Textbook pages 384-385

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