Inter-relationships

There are large number of relationships that can be derived using the basic definitions of the
above mentioned parameters. Such interrelationships are helpful to geotechnical engineers to
obtain some soil parameters in terms of the other available parameters or the parameters, which
can be easily determined. Some of the interrelationships widely used in geotechnical
engineering are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 – Commonly used interrelationships among parameters that describe the three phase
system.

wGs  Se

Se  Gs 
 bulk  
1  e w
1  wGs
 bulk  
1  e w
Gs
 dry  
1  e w
Gs  1  S  1e
 bulk  w
1  e

Exercise
1. Derive the interrelationships given in Table 2.1 using the fundamental definitions
of the relevant parameters and the phase diagram shown in Figure 2.
2. A soil sample has a diameter of 38.1mm and a length of 76.2mm. Its wet weight is
1.843 N and its dry weight is 1.647 N. The Gs is 2.70.
a. Determine: dry, bulk, e, w, and S.
b. Suppose the diameter was incorrectly measured to be 37.6mm and the length
incorrectly measured to be 75.6mm, what would be the error in the computed
values of S and w.
3. At a particular site, ground surface is at 0.00m elevation and the water table is at -
15.0m elevation. The soil is completely saturated below the water table and partially
 saturated above the water table. It is assumed that the degree of saturation above
the water table may be treated as a step function as given below:
S = 50% from 0.00m elevation to -5.00m elevation
S = 75% from -5.00m elevation to -10.00m elevation
S = 90% from -10.00m elevation to -15.00m elevation
The soil has a void ratio of 0.43 and a Gs of 2.70. Determine and compare the bulk unit
weights of the soil in zones of different degree of saturation.

Basic soil tests

There are basic soil tests that can be used to investigate the approximate engineering behavior
of soils. Most commonly used basic soil tests are particle size analysis and the Atterberg limits.

Particle size analysis

The particle size analysis is an attempt to determine the relative proportions of the different
grain sizes that make up a given soil mass. Obviously, to have significant results, the sample
must be statically representative of the mass. Actually it is not possible to determine the
individual particle sizes; the test can only bracket the approximate size range between two
sieves. The size bracketing is done by stacking a series of sieves ranging in aperture size from
the largest at the top to the smallest at the bottom and sieving a known quantity of material
through the stack. This is done by placing the material on the top sieve and shaking to separate
the particles into smaller diameters from the top to bottom.
Sieves are made of woven wire with rectangular openings ranging in size from 101.6 mm (4
in) in the coarse series to the No. 400 (0.038mm) in the fine series. The No. 200 sieve
(0.075mm) is the smallest practical sieve size. This mesh is about the finest size that permits
relatively free passage of water through it. All the soil classification systems use the No. 200
sieve as a dividing point: that is classifications are in terms of the amount retained or passing
the No. 200 sieve. Sometimes it is necessary to determine the particle seizes smaller than No.
200 sieve and in such situations Hydrometer Analysis is used to get the size variation of soil
particles smaller than No. 200.

Sieve Analysis
ASTM D 421 specifies the sample preparation for the sieve analysis test and the test procedure
is specified under ASTM D422. First the soil is oven dried and all lumps are broken into small
particles. The stack of sieves is prepared with progressively increasing sieve openings and the
pan is placed at the bottom. Normally the stack is made so that the sieve number of the sieve
is approximately twice of the sieve above it. The sieve numbers and the corresponding openings
specified by different standards are given in Table 1. The sample is placed in the top most sieve
and the lid is placed to avoid spilling of the sample during shaking. The sample is fixed in the
sieve shaker and shaken for about 5 minutes. Then the percentage of the soil weight retained
on each of the sieves is used to determine the percentage of the soil passing through each sieve.
Then a semi logarithmic plot of percentage passing verses sieve size is plotted as shown in
Figure 2 to obtain the particle size distribution curve. If the clay content of the sample is high,
wet sieving is done by washing the sample through No 200 sieve before sieving. The portion
retained on the No 200 sieve after washing is oven dried and used in the sieving.

Table 1 – Sieve openings and sieve numbers (ASTM)

Sieve No Opening (mm) Sieve No Opening (mm)
4 4.750 50 0.300
6 3.350 60 0.250
8 2.360 80 0.180
10 2.000 100 0.150
16 1.180 140 0.106
20 0.850 170 0.088
30 0.600 200 0.075
40 0.425 270 0.053

From the particle size distribution curve, grain sizes such as D10, D30 and D60 can be obtained
corresponding to 10%, 30% and 60% passing respectively. Then following parameters can be
defined.

D60
Uniformity coefficient (Cu): Cu  ; and
D10

2
D30
Coefficient of gradation (Cc): C c 
D60 D10

Typical results of sieve analysis test is given in Table 2 and the Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
curve is shown in Figure 3.

Table 2 – Sieve analysis test results

 Sieve opening Mass of soil Percentage Percentage
(mm) retained (g) retained (%) passing (%)
19 0 0.0 100.0
12.7 0 0.0 100.0
10 28.2 5.6 94.4
5 65.75 13.2 81.2
3.35 41.52 8.3 72.9
2.36 32.22 6.4 66.5
1.18 50.37 10.1 56.4
0.6 45.19 9.0 47.4
0.3 88.48 17.7 29.7
0.15 43.87 8.8 20.9
0.075 13.64 2.7 18.2

Partical Size Distribution curve

Sample 15
100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0
% passing

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01

Partical size(mm)

Figure 3 – A typical particle size distribution curve

Hydrometer Analysis

If the size of the soil particles are smaller than 0.075, it is very difficult to use sieving to separate
the particles. Therefore, hydrometer is used for obtaining particle size distribution of soil
smaller than 0.075mm. Settlement of soil particles from a suspension depends on the size of
the soil particles. Therefore, settlement of the soil particles from a suspension is used to obtain
the particle size distribution.
Soil passing 0.425mm sieve is used for the test but the sample should not be oven dried.
Therefore, a portion from the same soil is oven dried to obtain the moisture content of the soil
sample. Then, the dry weight of the sample used for the test is corrected using that moisture
content (referred to as hygroscopic moisture content). About 50 grams of this soil is accurately
weighted and 125 ml of Sodium Hexametaphospate solution (40g/litre) is added. Mixture is
thoroughly wetted and be allowed to soak for at least 16 hours. The soaked sample is transferred
to a dispersion cup and sample is further dispersed using a mechanical stirring apparatus after
adding a suitable amount of water.
After dispersion, soil-water slurry is transferred to a sedimentation cylinder and distilled or
demineralised water is added to until the total volume is 1000 ml. Using the palm of the hand
over the open end of the cylinder, cylinder shall be shaken vigorously by turning it up side
down and back for a period of about 1minute. Thereafter the cylinder is placed in a convenient
location to take hydrometer readings using a hyderometer shown in Figure 4. Readings are
taken at 0.5min, 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hrs, 4 hrs, 8 hrs, 16 hrs,
and 24 hrs. The hydrometer should be slowly removed after the reading at 4min, rinsed in water
and kept in a cylinder of distilled or demineralized water. When it is required to take the
hydrometer reading, the hydrometer should be carefully inserted about 30 – 45 secs before the
reading is due. Immediately after taking the reading, the hydrometer should be carefully
removed and placed back in the cylinder with distilled or demineralized water.
Figure 4 - Hydrometer

Correction of Hydrometer readings

When the hydrometer reading is taken, it should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus.
However, due to the soil suspension, it is practically not possible to do so. Therefore, the
reading of the hydrometer is taken at the top of the meniscus and a meniscus correction (Cm) is
applied as shown in Figure 5. This correction can be obtained by taking the reading at the top
and bottom of the meniscus after immersing the hydrometer in an identical solution (in cylinder
2), which is prepared without soil. The difference between the top and bottom readings is the
meniscus correction (Cm). Similarly, the dispersing agent correction (Cd) is also obtained by
taking the reading in cylinder 2.

Figure 5 - Meniscus and dispersing agent correction factors

Let RH/ is the uncorrected hydrometer reading, RH, the hydrometer reading after application of
the meniscus correction may be obtained by:

RH  RH/  Cm

The corrected hydrometer reading after application of both corrections may be obtained by:
R  RH  Cd  RH/  Cd  Cm 

Computations

Percentage of particles remaining in suspension

The percentage of soil (P) remaining in suspension at the level, where hydrometer is measuring
density, may be obtained by:
Ra
P x100%
W

Where
a – correction to be applied due to the variation of the specific gravity of the particles (Table
3).
R – Hydrometer reading after application of both the corrections
W – Oven dry mass of the soil in the suspension after applying the hydroscopic correction.

Table 3 – Correction factor ‘a’ based on specific gravity of soil

Diameter of soil particles

The diameter (D) of the particles at the level, where hydrometer is measuring density is given
by:
L
DK
t
Where
K – a constant which depends on the temperature of the suspension and could be obtained from
Table 4..
L – Can be obtained from Table 5
Table 4- Value of K

Table 5 – Values of effective depth based on Hydrometer

Once the diameter and the corresponding percentage of the particles are obtained, the particle
size distribution curve could be plotted.
Atterberg Limits

When clay minerals are present in fine grained soils, that soil can be remolded in the presence
of some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water
surrounding the clay particles. In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg
developed a method to describe the consistence of fine grained soils with varying moisture
contents. At very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture
content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis,
depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into four basic states:
solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid. Similarly, the volume of the soil varies with the increase
in moisture content as shown in Figure 6. Below the shrinkage limit, volume of soil remains
constant and varies linearly with the moisture content above the shrinkage limit as shown in
Figure 6.
The moisture content in percent, at which the transition from solid to semisolid state takes place
is defined as the shrinkage limit. The moisture content at the point of transition from semisolid
to plastic is the plastic limit, and from plastic to liquid state is the liquid limit.
Shrinkage Limit (SL) - The moisture content below which no further soil volume reduction
(shrinkage) takes place.

Plastic Limit (PL) – The moisture content below which the soil shows non-plastic behavior.

Liquid limit (LL) – The moisture content below which the soil behaves as a plastic material.
At this moisture content. The soil is on the verge of becoming a viscous fluid.

Following diagram shows volume change of soils with the moisture content. Liquid limit,
plastic limit and Shrinkage limits are given under ASTM D 4318.

Liquid Limit

A schematic diagram of a liquid limit device is shown in Figure 7. This consists of a brass cup
and hard rubber base. The brass cup can be dropped onto the base by a cam operated by a crank.
In order to perform the liquid limit test, soil portion passing No 40 sieve is used. The soil
sample is mixed with some water and a paste is made and the paste is placed in the cup as
shown in Figure 7(a). A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat with the standard grooving
tool as shown in Figure 7(b). Then, by using the crank-operated cam, the cup is lifted and
dropped from a height of 10mm at a rate of 2blows/sec. Number of blows required to close the
groove for a distance of 12.7mm along the bottom of the groove is recorded and the moisture
content of the soil is measured.

Figure 6 – Volume Verses moisture content

The above procedure is repeated by adding more moisture to the soil and mixing. A semi-
logarithmic plot of number of blows (N) and moisture content is plotted as shown in Figure 8.
The moisture content, in percent, required to close the groove along the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is defined as the Liquid Limit (LL).

Figure 7 – Liquid Limit apparatus

 Moisture content Vs Log (No of blows)
DAND-1-UDS-SCT-04
50
50
Content (%)

49
Moisture

49
48
48
47
47
46
10 100
Log (No of blows)
Figure 8 – Moisture content Verses Log(N).

The straight line between Moisture content vs log(number of blows) is referred as flow curve.
The slope of the flow curve is referred as flow index, Ip.
𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐼𝑝 =
𝑁
𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑁1 )
2

Based on large number of liquid limit tests, Waterways Experiment station in Vicksburg
Mississippi (1949) proposed the following empirical formula.

𝑁 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑊𝑁 ( )
25
Where
N – Number of blows in the liquid limit device for 12.7m groove closure
wN – Corresponding moisture content
tan β – generally 0.121
The above equation yield good results when the number of blow counts, N, is in the range of
20 to 30. The above equation may be used to determine the liquid limit when only one
laboratory test is run to determine the LL. Therefore, it is referred as one point method.
Plastic Limit

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at which the soil crumbles, when
rolled into threads of 3.2 mm (0.125 in.). Add certain amount of water to the soil so that it can
be readily remolded into peanut size soil balls. Place one of the soil balls on a glass plate and
using the fingers of a hand roll it to form a thread of uniform diameter. If the soil thread
diameter becomes 3mm and is not crumbling, break this thread into several small pieces, re-
form into a ball and repeat the process until soil thread just crumbles when rolled down to 3mm.
When that happens, take the thread for moisture content determination.

Plasticity index, PI = LL - PL

The relative consistency of a soil in natural state can be defined as liquidity index, LI,

𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿

w – is the natural moisture content

For some sensitive clays, LI > 1 (w is more than LL). Such soils when remolded, flows like
liquid. Some stiff soils may have natural moisture content less than PL and hence, LI is
negative.

It is observed that the PI increases with the % of clay size particles (particles less than
0.002mm) and hence, Activity A is defined as below.
𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
%𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

It is found that the Activity A depends on the type of clay mineral present in clay. For example
for illite A varies from 0.5 to 1 and for Kaolinite A is about 0.5.