1.A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage many thin wafers like Fig.

rs like Fig. 23.2 (ii), the typical thickness of the wafer being
from a source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. The circuit arrangement 200 µm. One side of wafer is polished to get rid of surface imperfections. This
is shown in Fig. 6.56 (i). The zener diode of zener voltage VZ is reverse connected wafer is called the substrate. The ICs are produced on this wafer (ii) Epitaxial
across the load RL across which constant output is desired. The series resistance R n layer. The next step is to put the wafers in a diffusion furnace. A gas
absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the mixture of silicon atoms and pentavalent atoms is passed over the wafers.
load. It may be noted that the zener will maintain a constant voltage VZ (= E0 ) This forms a thin layer of n-type semi-conductor on the heated surface of
across the load so long as the input voltage does not fall below VZ .When the circuit substrate [See Fig. 23.3 (i) ]. This thin layer is called the *epitaxial layer and
is properly designed, the load voltage E0 remains essentially constant (equal to VZ ) is about 10 µm thick. It is in this layer that the whole integrated circuit is
even though the input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range. formed. (iii) Insulating layer. In order to prevent the contamination of the
(i) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, epitaxial layer, a thin SiO2 layer about 1µm thick is deposited over the entire
the zener diode is equivalent to a battery VZ as shown in Fig. 6.56 (ii). It is clear that surface as shown in Fig. 23.3 (ii). This is achieved by passing pure oxygen
output voltage remains constant at VZ (= E0 ). The excess voltage is dropped across over the epitaxial layer. The oxygen atoms combine with silicon atoms to
the series resistance R. This will cause an increase in the value of total current I. The form a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2). (iv) Producing components. By the
zener will conduct the increase of current in I while the load current remains process of **diffusion, appropriate materials are added to the substrate at
constant. Hence, output voltage E0 remains constant irrespective of the changes in specific locations to produce diodes, transistors, resistors and capacitors.
the input voltage Ei . (ii) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load The production of these components on the wafer is discussed in Art 23.6. (v)
resistance RL decreases. This will cause an increase in load current. The extra current Etching. Before any impurity is added to the substrate, the oxide layer (i.e.
cannot come from the source because drop in R (and hence source current I) will not SiO2 layer) is etched. The process of etching exposes the epitaxial layer and
change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will permits the production of desired components. The terminals are processed
come from a decrease in zener current I Z . Consequently, the output voltage stays at by etching the oxide layer at the desired locations. (vi) Chips. In practice, the
constant value. Voltage drop across R = Ei − E0 Current through R, I = I Z + I L wafer shown in Fig. 23.4 is divided into a large number of areas. Each of
these areas will be a separate chip. The manufacturer produces hundreds of
alike ICs on the wafer over each area. To separate the individual ICs, the
wafer is divided into small chips by a process similar to glass cutting. This is
illustrated in Fig. 23.4. It may be seen that hundreds of alike ICs can be
produced from a small wafer. This simultaneous mass production is the
reason for the low cost of integrated circuits. After the chip is cut, it is bonded
to its mounting and connections are made between the IC and external leads.
The IC is then encapsulated to prevent it from becoming contaminated by the
surrounding atmosphere.

JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor):

Characteristics:

JFETs are three-terminal semiconductor devices where current flows

between two terminals (source and drain) under the control of a voltage
applied to the third terminal (gate).
They are voltage-controlled devices, meaning the current flowing between
the source and drain is controlled by the voltage applied to the gate terminal.
JFETs are majority carrier devices, meaning the current conduction is due to
the movement of majority carriers (electrons or holes).
JFETs typically operate in the depletion mode, meaning the channel is
normally conductive, and applying a reverse bias to the gate reduces the
channel conductivity.
Functionalities:

JFETs are often used in amplifier circuits due to their high input impedance,
which minimizes loading effects.They are also used as switches in some
applications where a low-frequency signal needs to control a higher power
load.

MOSFETs are electronic switches controlled by voltage, not current.

They have three terminals: gate, source, and drain. They're ideal for
switching and amplifying signals, have high input impedance, low output
impedance, and can handle high power levels. They're commonly used
in various applications, including power electronics and RF circuits, due
to their fast switching speeds and efficiency.

IC(i) p-Substrate. This is the first step in the making of an IC. A cylindrical p-
type *silicon crystal is grown having typical dimensions 25 cm long and 2.5
cm diameter [See Fig. 23.2 (i)]. The crystal is then cut by a diamond saw into