Unit-4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Applications

Introduction: Fluids properties, pressure, density, dynamic and kinematic viscosity, specific gravity,
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluid, Pascal‘s Law and Continuity Equation.
Working principles of hydraulic turbines (Pelton Wheel and Francis) & pumps (Centrifugal and
Reciprocating) and their classifications and hydraulic lift.

INTRODUCTION
• Fluid Mechanics is basically a study of
 Physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems and laws governing their behavior.
 Action of forces on fluids and the resulting flow pattern.
• Fluid is further sub-divided in to liquid and gas.
• The liquids and gases exhibit different characteristics on account of their different molecular
structure.
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to shearing forces
Fluid Statics deals with action of forces on fluids at rest or in equilibrium.
Fluid Kinematics deals with geometry of motion of fluids without considering the cause of motion.
Fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluids considering the cause of motion.

Fluids: We normally recognize three states of matter: solid; liquid and gas. However, liquid and gas
are both fluids: in contrast to solids they lack the ability to resist deformation. Because a fluid cannot
resist the deformation force, it moves, it flows under the action of the force. Its shape will change
continuously as long as the force is applied. A solid can resist a deformation force while at rest, this
force may cause some displacement but the solid does not continue to move indefinitely.

The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Referring to the
figure below, we see the force F acting tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC. This
is a shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element A‘B‘DC.
APPLICATIONS: FLUID MECHANICS COVER MANY AREAS LIKE:
 Design of wide range of hydraulic structures (dams, canals, weirs etc) and machinery (Pumps,
Turbines etc).
 Design of complex network of pumping and pipe lines for transporting liquids. Flow of water
through pipes and its distribution to service lines.
 Fluid control devices both pneumatic and hydraulic.
 Design and analysis of gas turbines and rocket engines and air–craft.
 Power generation from hydraulic, stream and Gas turbines.
 Methods and devices for measurement of pressure and velocity of a fluid in motion.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS:
 A dimension is a name which describes the measurable characteristics of an object such as
mass, length and temperature etc. a unit is accepted standard for measuring the dimension. The
dimensions used are expressed in four fundamental dimensions namely Mass, Length, Time and
Temperature.
 Mass (M) – Kg
 Length (L) – m
 Time (T) – S
 Temperature (t) – 0C or K (Kelvin)
Density: Mass per unit volume= kg/m3
Newton: Unit of force expressed in terms of mass and acceleration, according to Newton‘s 2nd law
motion. Newton is that force which when applied to a mass of 1 kg gives an acceleration 1m/Sec2.
F=Mass x Acceleration = kg – m/sec2 = N.
Pascal: A Pascal is the pressure produced by a force of Newton uniformly applied over an area of 1 m2.
Pressure = Force per unit area = N/ m2 = Pascal or Pa.
Joule: A joule is the work done when the point of application of force of 1 Newton is displaced Work
= Force per unit = N/m = J or Joule.
Watt: A Watt represents a work equivalent of a Joule done per second.
Power = Work done per unit time = J/ Sec = W or Watt.
Properties of Fluids
The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are of interest in engineering. The
Symbol usually used to represent the property is specified together with some typical values in SI units
for common fluids. Values under specific conditions (temperature, pressure etc.) can be readily found
in many reference books. The dimensions of each unit is also give in the MLT system
Density: The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the
substance. It can be expressed in three different ways
Mass Density: The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to
its volume. Thus the mass per unit volume of the fluid is called density.
It is denoted by ρ
ρ =( mass /volume)
The unit of mass density is Kg/m3
Units: Kilograms per cubic metre, kg / m3 (or kgm-3 ) Dimensions: ML-3
Typical values: Water = 1000 kg/m3, Mercury =13546 kg/m3 Air = 1.23 kg/m3,
(at pressure =1.013 x 10-5 N m-2 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)
With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases and hence mass density decreases.
In case of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases and hence mass density increases.

Specific weight or Specific density: Specific Weight , or w (sometimes , and sometimes known as
specific gravity) is defined as the weight per unit volume.
It is the ratio between the weights of the fluid to its volume. The weight per unit volume of the fluid is
called weight density and it is denoted by γ

Units: Newton‘s per cubic metre, N / m3

Typical values: Water =9814 N / m3, Mercury = 132943 N / m3, Air =12.07 N / m3
With increase in temperature volume increases and hence specific weight decreases.
With increases in pressure volume decreases and hence specific weight increases.
Note: Relationship between mass density and weight density:

Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the Weight density (or density) of a fluid to the Weight
density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids the standard fluid taken is water and for gases the
standard liquid taken is air. The Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is a dimension less
quantity and it is denoted by ѕ.
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass density for water (which occurs
at 40 c) at atmospheric pressure
�

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number.

Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
Specific gravity or relative density of a fluid can also be defined as the ratio of mass density of the fluid
to mass density of the standard fluid. Mass density of standard water is 1000 kg/m3
ρ = s ρ Standard fluid
Specific volume: It is defined as the volume of the fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit
mass of fluid is called Specific volume.

Thus the Specific volume is the reciprocal of Mass density. It is expressed as m3/kg and is commonly
applied to gases.
As the temperature increases volume increases and hence specific volume increases.
As the pressure increases volume decreases and hence specific volume decreases.
Cohesion: The force attraction between molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force.
Adhesion: Adhesion is the property of fluid by which the molecules of the different liquids are
attracted to each other or molecules of a liquid attracted to another body.
Properties of fluids
 Viscosity
 Kinematic Viscosity
 Newton‘s Law of viscosity
 Types of Fluids
 Surface tension
A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to shearing forces.
When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to one
another. When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the same at
every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will be
zero. The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe. This change in velocity cross
the direction of flow is known as velocity profile and shown graphically in the figure below:
 Velocity profile in a pipe.
Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are shear forces
in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid. On the other hand, if a
fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with the same velocity, the
velocity profile would look something like this:

And there will be no shear forces present as all particles have zero relative velocity. In practice we are
concerned with flow past solid boundaries; aero planes, cars, pipe walls, river channels etc. and shear
forces will be present

VISCOSITY: It is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of the fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.

NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY: It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient
of viscosity.
When the two layers of a fluid, at a distance ‗dy‘ apart, move one over the other at different velocities,
say u and u+du.
The viscosity together with relative velocities causes shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
In case of liquids, viscosity is due to cohesive force between the molecules of adjacent layers of liquid.
In case of gases, molecular activity between adjacent layers is the cause of viscosity.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear
stress on the adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by
symbol τ (tau).

Where μ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or only
viscosity. du/dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient.
From the above equation, we have

Thus, viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required producing unit rate of shear strain.
The unit of viscosity is newton-second per square metre, which is usually expressed as pascal-second
in SI units.

Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids: Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of
fluids.
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive force between
the molecules of adjacent layers. As the temperature increases cohesive force decreases and hence
viscosity decreases.
2. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases: Viscosity of gases is due to molecular activity between
adjacent layers. As the temperature increases molecular activity increases and hence viscosity
increases.
Units: Newton seconds per square metre, N s/ m2 or Kilograms per meter per second, kg/m s.
(Although note that is often expressed in Poise, P, where 10 P = 1 kg/m s.)
Typical values: Water =1.14 103 kg/m s , Air =1.78 105 kg/m s , Mercury =1.552 kg/m s ,

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
It is defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
It is denoted by symbol 𝜗 (nu)
The unit of viscosity in CGS is called poise and is equal to dynesee/cm2
The unit poise (P) is equivalent to dyne-second per centimeter. Poise can be explained as the
tangential force of 1 dyne per square centimeter to maintain the velocity difference of about 1
centimeter per second.
1 poise = 0.1 N s/m2 = 1 gm/cm-sec;
Thus one stoke = cm2/sec =(1/100)2 m2/sec= 10-4 m2/sec
1 poise = 0.1 N s/m2 = 1 gm/cm-sec;
Units: square metres per second, m2 /s
Typical values: Water =1.14 106 m2 /s , Air =1.46 105 m2 /, Mercury =1.145 104 m2 /s ,
PROBLEM-1
Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

Density of a liquid = S x density of standard liquid

𝜌= 0.7×1000 = 700 kg/m3
Specific weight w = 𝜌 × g = 700×9.81= 6867 N/m3
Volume = 1 liter = 0.001 m3
Weight (w)

Weight of petrol = w× volume of petrol

= 6867 × 0.001
= 6.867 N
PROBLEM-2
Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of
viscosity 14 poises. Calculate shear stress in oil, if the upper plate is moved velocity of 2.5 m/sec.
Sol: Given Data
Distance between the plates, dy= 1.25 cm = 0.0125m
Viscosity, μ = 14 poise = (14/10) N s/m2
Velocity of upper plate, u = 2.5 m/sec
Shear stress, τ = μ (du/dy)
Where du = change of velocity between plates = u – 0
= u = 2.5 m/sec

PROBLEM-3

PROBLEM-4
A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and requires a force of 1.962N/m2
area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid between the plates.

Assuming linear velocity distribution

PROBLEM-5
TYPES OF FLUIDS: The fluids may be classified in to the following.

1. Ideal fluid: A fluid which is compressible and is having no viscosity is known as ideal fluid. It
is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids have some viscosity
2. Real fluid: A fluid possessing a viscosity is known as real fluid. All fluids in actual practice are
real fluids. Any fluids which possess certain viscosity is called real fluid. It can be Newtonian
or non – Newtonian, thixotropic or ideal plastic.
3. Newtonian fluid: A real fluid, in which the stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain, is known as Newtonian fluid. Eg: Water, Kerosene.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which shear stress is not Proportional to the rate of shear
strain is known as NonNewtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear strain is known as ideal plastic fluid. Sometimes they are also
called Bingham‘s Plastics: Eg: Industrial sludge.

SURFACE TENSION
• Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid is contact with a gas or
on the surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
The free surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane and has a natural tendency to
contract. The free surface of a liquid tends to occupy a minimum area. This property of liquid is called
the surface tension
• The magnitude of this force per unit length of free surface will have the same value as the surface
energy per unit area.
• It is denoted by 𝜍 (sigma).
• In MKS units it is expressed as Kg f/m while in SI units as N/m
SURFACE TENSION ON LIQUID DROPLET
Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‗r‘ on the entire surface of the droplet, the
tensile force due to surface tension will be acting
Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
p = pressure intensity inside the droplet (In excess of outside pressure intensity)
d = Diameter of droplet
Let, the droplet is cut in to two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be

Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion
= σ ×circumference = σ × 𝜋d
• Pressure force on the area (𝜋 /4)d2 = p ×(𝜋/ 4) d2
• These two forces will be equal to and opposite under equilibrium conditions i.e.

SURFACE TENSION ON HOLLOW BUBBLE

• A hallows bubble like soap in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside.
• Thus, two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. 𝑝 ×(𝜋/4)d2 = 2(σ𝜋𝑑 )
SURFACE TENSION ON LIQUID JET
Consider a liquid jet of diameter‗d‘ length ‗L‘
Let, p = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
σ = surface tension of the liquid
Consider the equilibrium of the semi- jet.
Force due to pressure = p × area of the semi jet
=p×L×d
Force due to surface tension = σ × 2L
Equating above forces we get,
p × L × d = σ× 2L

Vapour Pressure: The process by which the molecules of the liquid go out of its surface in the form of
vapour is called Vapourisation. There are two ways of causing Vapourisation.
a) By increasing the temperature of the liquid to its boiling point.
b) By reducing the pressure above the surface of the liquid to a value less than Vapour pressure of the
liquid.

 The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition)
occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface.
 Consider a liquid at a temperature of 20°C and pressure is atmospheric is confined in a closed
vessel.
 This liquid will vaporize at 100°C, the molecules escape from the free surface of the liquid and
get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel.
 These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as
vapour pressure of the liquid or pressure at which the liquid is converted in to vapours.
 Consider the same liquid at 20° C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel and the pressure
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means; the boiling temperature will also reduce.
  If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour
pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C.
 Thus, the liquid may boil at the ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is
reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature.
Importance of Vapour Pressure: In case of Hydraulic turbines sometimes pressure goes below the
vapour pressure of the liquid. This leads to vapourisation and formation of bubbles of liquid. When
bubbles are carried to high Pressure zone they get busted leaving partial vacuum. Surrounding liquid
enters this space with very high velocity exerting large force on the part of the machinery. This
phenomenon is called cavitation. Turbines are designed such that there is no cavitation
CAPILLARITY
• Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
• The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise, while the fall of the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression.
• It is expressed in terms of ‗cm‘ or ‗mm‘ of liquid.
• Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of
the liquid.
EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY RISE
• Consider a glass tube of small diameter‗d‘ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid.
• The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid outside the tube.
• Let ‗h‘ be the height of the liquid in the tube.
• Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of the liquid of height ‗h‘ is balanced by the force at the
surface of the liquid in the tube.

But, the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
• Let σ = surface tension of liquid
θ = Angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube
• The weight of the liquid of height ‗h‘ in the tube = (area of the tube × h) × 𝜌 × g =(𝜋/4)d2 × h × 𝜌 × g
Where ‗𝜌′ is the density of the liquid.
• The vertical component of the surface tensile force = (σ ×circumference) × cos θ = σ × 𝜋d × cos θ.
=(𝜋/4)d2 × h × 𝜌 × g = σ × 𝜋d × cos θ.
The value of θ is equal to ‗0‘ between water and clean glass tube, then cos θ = 1, then

EXPRESSION FOR CAPILLARY FALL

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the Level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general
level of the outside liquid.

The value θ of for glass & mercury 1280

PROBLEMS ON SURFACE TENSION
Pascal‘s Law and Continuity Equation.
PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

Fluid is a state of matter which exhibits the property of flow. When a certain mass of fluids is held in
static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it exerts force along direction perpendicular
to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid pressure.
Pascal’s Law: According to Pascal‘s Law, ―Pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
fluid will be equal in all directions‖.
Let us consider one arbitrary fluid element of triangular shape ABC as displayed here in following figure. Let us
assume that width of fluid element ABC perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity
Let us consider the following terms as mentioned here
PX = Pressure acting in X- direction over the face AB
PY = Pressure acting in Y- direction over the face AC
PZ = Pressure acting in Z- direction over the face BC
θ = Angle ABC, as displayed above in figure
dx, dy and ds : Fluid element dimensions
ρ = Density of the fluid
Let us analyse here the forces acting on the fluid element ABC
Force on the face AB, AC and BC
FAB = PX x Area of face AB = PX. dy. 1 = PX. dy (Area= Length×Width), =1
FAC = PY x Area of face AC = PY. dx. 1 = PY. dx
FBC = PZ x Area of face BC = PZ. ds. 1 = PZ. ds
Weight of the fluid element, W = Volume x Density of fluid x acceleration due to gravity (W=mg, )
W = Area x width of fluid element x Density of fluid x acceleration due to gravity
W = (AB x AC/2) x 1 x ρ x g = (dy dx/2) x ρ x g
Considering the forces in X-direction
Px. dy - PZ. ds Sin (90- θ) = 0
PX. dy = PZ. ds Cos θ
As we can see from above fluid element ABC, dy = ds Cos θ
PX. dy = PZ. dy
PX = PZ
Considering the forces in Y-direction
PY. dx - PZ. ds Cos (90- θ) - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
As fluid element is very small and therefore, we can neglect the weight of fluid element
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ = 0
As we can see from above fluid element ABC, dx = ds Sin θ
PY. dx - PZ dx = 0
PY = PZ
From above two expressions mentioned in colour, we can write following equation as
mentioned here
PX = PY = PZ
We can say from above equation that pressure at any point in X, Y and Z directions will be same.
Pascal‘s Law provides the base for any hydraulic system or we can say that complete hydraulic system
is based on the principle of Pascal‘s Law
HYDROSTATIC LAW: As per the hydrostatic law, the rate of increase of pressure in the vertically
downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
The pressure head in fluid mechanics can be determined by considering the pressure acting at any point
on a fluid in rest condition. Consider a fluid element ABCD as shown in figure-1 below.

The cross-sectional area of the fluid element is delta(A) and the height of the fluid element is delta(Z).
The pressure on the face AB is 'p'. The distance of the fluid element from the free surface is 'Z'.
From the figure above, the forces acting on the element surfaces are:
Force on surface AB:
The force is acting perpendicular to the face AB in the downward direction.

Force on DC
This force is acting perpendicular to the face DC in the upward direction.
Weight of the fluid element ABCD:

From the figure, the forces acting on AD are equal and opposite to the forces acting on BC. Hence, for
the equilibrium of the fluid element,

Where ρ x g is specific weight of the fluid

Hence the equation-1 states that, the rate of increase of the pressure in the vertical direction is equal to
the weight of the fluid. This is hydrostatic law.
By intergrating the Eq.1,

Z is the height of the point from the free surface which forms the pressure head. 'p' is the pressure
above the atmospheric pressure.
PRESSURE MEASURING SYSTEM
The pressure on a fluid is measure in two different systems.
• In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the
Absolute pressure.
• In other system, pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and is called Gauge pressure.

DEFINITIONS
• ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: Absolute pressure at a point is the intensity of pressure at that point
measured with reference to absolute vacuum or absolute zero pressure. Absolute pressure at a point can
never be negative since there can be no pressure less than absolute zero pressure
• GAUGE PRESSURE: It is defined as the pressure, which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric on the
scale is marked as zero.
• VACUUM PRESSURE: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure
i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure+ gauge pressure
ii) Vaccum pressure= Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure
The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 150C is 10.13N/cm2 or 101.3KN/m2 in S I Units and 1.033 Kg
f/cm2 in M K S System.
• The atmospheric pressure head is 760mm of mercury or 10.33m of water

The pressure of a fluid is measured by the fallowing devices.

Manometers
Mechanical gauges
Manometers: Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid.
They are classified as:
Simple Manometers
Differential Manometers
Mechanical Gauges: These are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by balancing
the fluid column by the spring or dead weight.
The commonly used Mechanical pressure gauges are:
 Diaphragm pressure gauge
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Dead – Weight pressure gauge
 Bellows pressure gauge.
SIMPLE MANOMETER
• A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.
• The common types of simple manometers are:
Piezometer.
U-tube manometer (for gauge & vaccum pressure)
Single column manometer
 Vertical Single column manometer
 Inclined Single column manometer

PIEZOMETER
It is a simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressure.
• One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end
is open to the atmosphere.
• The rise of liquid in the Piezometer gives pressure head at that point A.
• The height of liquid say water is ‗h‘ in piezometer tube, then Pressure at A = 𝛒 g h N/m2
(kg/m3 *m/sec2 * m)

U- TUBE MANOMETER
• It consists of a glass tube bent in u-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure
is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere.
• The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the
specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
• For Gauge Pressure: Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The
datum line A – A
• Let h1 = height of light liquid above datum line
h2 =height of heavy liquid above datum line
S1 = sp. gravity of light liquid
ρ1= density of light liquid = 1000 S1
S2 = sp. gravity of heavy liquid
ρ2= density of heavy liquid = 1000 S
As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence the pressure above the horizontal datum
line A – A in the left column and the right column of U – tube manometer should be same.
• Pressure above A—A ion the left column = p + 𝜌1 gh1
• Pressure above A – A in the right column = 𝜌2 gh2
• Hence equating the two pressures p + 𝜌1 gh1 = 𝜌2 gh2
p =𝝆𝟐gh2 - 𝝆𝟏gh1

U- TUBE MANOMETER (VACCUM PRESSURE)

• For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of heavy fluid in the manometer will be as shown in fig.
• Pressure above AA in the left column = 𝜌2 g h2 + 𝜌1g h1+ P
• Pressure head in the right column above A-A = 0
• Therefore, equating two pressures we get, 𝜌1 g h2 + 𝜌1g h1 + P = 0
p = −(𝝆𝟐gh2 + 𝝆𝟏gh1 )

The right limb of a simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere,
while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp.gr.0.9 is flowing. The centre of pipe
is 12cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe, if the
difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.
Sol: Given data,
Sp.gr. of liquid, S1= 0.9
Density of fluid, 𝜌1 = S1 × 1000 = 0.9 × 1000 =900 kg/ m3
Sp.gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury, 𝜌2 =13.6× 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
Difference of mercury level, h2 = 20cm = 0.2m
Height of the fluid from A – A, h1 = 20 – 12 = 8cm = 0.08 m
Let ‗P‘ be the pressure of fluid in pipe Equating pressure at A – A,
we get p + 𝜌1gh1 = 𝜌2gh2
p + 900 × 9.81 × 0.08 = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2
p = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 900 × 9.81 × 0.08
p = 26683 – 706 p = 25977 N/m2 p = 2.597 N/cm2
Therefore, Pressure of fluid P= 2.597 N/ cm2

A simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp.gr.
0.8 And having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs
is 40cm. and the height of the fluid in the left tube from the centre of pipe is 15cm below.
Sol: Given data,
Sp.gr of fluid, S1 = 0.8
Sp.gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Density of the fluid 𝜌1= S1 × 1000 = 0.8 × 1000 = 800 kg/m3
Density of mercury 𝜌2= 13.6 ×1000
Difference of mercury level h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
Height of the liquid in the left limb = 15cm =0.15m

Let the pressure in the pipe = p

Equating pressures above datum line A– A
𝜌2gh2 + 𝜌1gh1 + P = 0
P = - [𝜌2gh2 + 𝜌1gh1 ] = - [13.6 ×1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 + 800 × 9.81 × 0.15]
= 53366.4 + 1177.2 = -54543.6 N/m2
Therefore, the vacuum pressure in pipe, P = - 5.454 N/cm2
Monomeric liquids
♦ Monomeric liquids should neither mix nor have any chemical reaction with the fluid whose pressure
intensity is to be measured.
♦ It should not undergo any thermal variation.
♦ Monomeric liquid should have very low vapour pressure.
♦ Monomeric liquid should have pressure sensitivity depending upon the magnitude of pressure to be
measured and accuracy requirement.
To write the gauge equation for manometers Gauge equations are written for the system to solve for
unknown quantities. Steps:
1. Convert all given pressure to meters of water and assume unknown pressure in meters of waters.
2. Starting from one end move towards the other observing the following points.
♦ Any horizontal movement inside the same liquid will not cause change in pressure.
♦ Vertically downward movement causes increase in pressure and upward motion causes
decrease in pressure.
♦ Convert all vertical columns of liquids to meters of water by multiplying them by
corresponding specify gravity.
♦ Take atmospheric pressure as zero (gauge pressure computation).
3. Solve for the unknown quantity and convert it into the required unit.
4. If required calculate absolute pressure.

DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS • Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the
difference of pressure between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes.
• A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
• The common types of U- tube differential manometers are:
U- Tube differential manometer
Inverted U- tube differential manometer
TWO POINTS A AND B ARE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS AND ALSO CONTAINS LIQUIDS OF
DIFFERENT SP.GR.
• These points are connected to the U – Tube differential manometer.
• Let the pressure at A and B are pA and pB
• Let h = Difference of mercury levels in the u – tube
y = Distance of centre of B from the mercury level in the right limb
x = Distance of centre of A from the mercury level in the left limb
𝜌1 = Density of liquid A , 𝜌2 = Density of liquid B
𝜌𝑔 = Density of heavy liquid or mercury

Taking datum line at X – X

• Pressure above X – X in the left limb =𝜌1g(h + x) + pA (where pA = Pressure at A)
• Pressure above X – X in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2g y + PB (where pB = Pressure at B)
• Equating the above two pressures, we have 𝜌1g(h + x) + pA = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2 g y + pB
pA - pB = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌2g y - 𝜌1g ( h + x) = h g (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1) + 𝜌2g y - 𝜌1g x
• Therefore, Difference of Pressures at A and B is = h g (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 g y - 𝜌1g x
TWO POINTS A AND B ARE AT SAME LEVELS AND ALSO CONTAINS SAME LIQUIDS OF
SP.GR.
• Then pressure above X – X in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1g x + PB
• Pressure above X—X in the left limb = 𝜌1g (h + x) + PA
• Equating the two pressures 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1g x + PB = 𝜌1g (h + x) + PA
PA - PB = 𝜌𝑔 g h + 𝜌1g x - 𝜌1g( h + x) = g h (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1)
• Therefore, Difference of pressure at A and B = g h (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1)

Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer: It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two
ends of the U-tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for
measuring difference of low pressures. Fig shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the
points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.

Let h1=Height of liquid in the left limb bellow the datum line X-X
h2= Height of liquid in the right limb , h= Difference of light liquid
ρ1=Density of liquid at A, ρ2=Density of liquid at B
ρs= Density of light liquid , PA=Pressure at A PB= Pressure at B.
 Continuity Equation.
RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q)
It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or channel.
For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of the
liquid flowing cross the section per second.
For compressible fluids the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid flowing across the
section.
(i) For liquids the unit of Q is m3 /sec or Litres/sec.
(ii) For gases the unit of Q is Kgf/sec or Newton/sec.

• The discharge Q = A×V Where, A = Area of cross-section of pipe. V= Average velocity of fluid
across the section.

CONTINUITY EQUATION: As we stated the equation based on the law of conservation of mass
is called the continuity equation. For a fluid flowing through a pipe at all the cross-sections, the
quantity of the fluid per second is constant.
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called Continuity equation.
• Consider two cross- sections of a pipe.

Let V1 = Average velocity at crosssection 1-1

ρ1 = Density of fluid at section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1 And V2 , ρ2 , A2 are the corresponding values at section 2-2

 Then the rate flow at section 1-1= ρ1A1V1

 Rate of flow at section 2-2 = ρ2 A2V2
 According to law of conservation of mass, Rate of flow at section 1- 1 = Rate of flow at section
2-2
 ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
 This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called
―Continuity equation‖.
 If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ1=ρ2 and the continuity equation reduces to A1 V1 = A2 V2
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FOR 3D FLOW

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z.

Let u, v and w are the inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second = ρ × velocity in x – direction × Area of ABCD
= ρ × u ×(dy×dz)
Then the mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second

Gain of mass in x- direction = Mass through ABCD – Mass through EFGH per second

Similarly gain of mass in y- direction

Similarly gain of mass in z- direction

As per the Law of conservation of masses, as mentioned above, the mass is neither created nor
destroyed in the fluid element, the net increase of mass per unit time in the fluid element must be to the
rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element.

But the mass of fluid in the element is ρ dx dy dz

And its rate of increase with time is
Equating the two expressions (4) & (5)

This equation is applicable to

Steady and unsteady flow
Uniform and non- uniform flow , and
Compressible and incompressible flow.
For steady flow 𝝏𝛒 /𝝏𝒕 = 0 and hence equation becomes

If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ is constant and the above equation becomes

This is the continuity equation in three - dimensional flow.

For a two-dimensional flow, the component w = 0 and hence continuity equation becomes as
Simple Problems Problem:-1 The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10cm and 15cm
respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of the water flowing through the pipe at
section 1 is 5m/s. Determine also the velocity at section 2

Problem:-2 A 30cm diameter pipe is conveying water branches into two pipes of diameter 20cm and
15cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in
this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15cm pipe if the average velocity in 20cm diameter pipe is
2m/s Solution:
Problem:-3: A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. Gr. 0.9 at a velocity of 3m/s. At another section
the diameter is 20cm. Find the velocity at this section and also mass rater of flow of oil
Problem:-4: Water through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes through a pipe BC 1.5
m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8 m in diameter and carrier one third of the flow
of AB. The flow velocity in branch` CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in
BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.
Solution: Given Data: Diameter of pipe AB, DAB = 1.2m
Velocity of flow through AB, VAB = 3.0m/s
Dia, of pipe BC DBC = 1.5m
Dia of branched pipe CD = VCD = 0.8m
Velocity of flow in pipe CE, VCE = 2.5m/s
Let flow rate in pipe AB = Q m3 /s
Velocity of flow in pipe BC = VBC m/s
Velocity of flow in pipe CD = VCD