IZMIR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Physics

GENERAL PHYSICS II
LABORATORY MANUAL

October, 2020
physics.iyte.edu.tr
 Contents

1- COULOMB’S LAW 22

2- EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 32

3- BASIC ELECTRICITY PART I-III 42

4- BASIC ELECTRICITY IV- V 61

5- CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS 63

6- MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE 71

7- ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 81

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3
 LABORATORY RULES
1 . Students may enter a laboratory only when a lecturer or demonstrator is present unless
special permission has been granted.

2. Eating and drinking in any laboratory is prohibited.

3. Before starting an experiment;

• Check that all apparatus is present and has no obvious defect.

• Report to the person in charge any damaged or missing equipment.

4. During an experiment the student should report to the person in charge;

• any equipment that does not seem to be functioning properly.

• any accidents and breakages that occur.

• NEVER borrow equipment from another bench without permission.

5. Before leaving the laboratory,

• Switch off all power supplies and remove all AC/DC power plugs.

• Disconnect electrical circuits and collect the leads in a neat bundle.

• Ensure that the apparatus has been left tidily.

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 ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS AND
EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTIES
1. RANDOM UNCERTAINTIES

The arithmetic mean x̄ of a quantity obtained from a number (N) of readings xi is the most
probable value of that quantity. If the uncertainties are entirely random and is large, then
x̄ is close to the true value.

1 PN
x̄ = xi
N i=1

If the uncertainties of measurement are entirely random an estimate of the precision is given
by the standard deviation
s
PN (xi − x̄)2
S= i=1
N −1

where (xi − x̄) is the deviation of a reading xi from the mean x̄.

The standard error (SE) of the mean SE = (S/N)1/2 and the error at a 95% confidence
level is 2SE.

The significance of S can be seen by consideration of the distribution of a large collection

of measurements, known as the normal or Gaussian distribution. It can be shown that for
large N the probability of an individual reading differing from the mean by more than S is
about 32%. 2S is about 5% and 3S is less than 1%.

In practice, when N is less than 6 the statistical analysis is not appropriate and an
estimate of the uncertainty may be obtained from the range of values obtained.

2. PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES

Almost all experiments require calculations to be performed which involve manipulation of

the measured uncertainties. In order to calculate the uncertainty in the final result it is
necessary to know how the computed or estimated uncertainties in each quantity combine
or propagate.

2.1 A General Approach

The easiest method of estimating the uncertainty is to substitute the extreme values of the
quantities into the expression and calculate the result. The uncertainty is the difference
between this value and the preferred value. e.g.

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 d sin θ
λ=
n
Preferred value
d = (1.00x10−6 ± 0.05x10−6 )m
θ = 30.0o ± 0.5o , and n = 1
λ = 10−6 xsin 30.0o = 0.50µm

Maximum value of λ is obtained with maximum value of d and maximum value of θ.

λmax = (1 + 0.05)x10−6xsin(30 + 0.5) = 0.53µm

λmin = (1 − 0.05)x10−6 xsin(30 − 0.5) = 0.47µm

λ = 0.50 ± 0.03µm

Note: The same method may be used for any uncertainty calculation e.g.

Density = mass/volume.

Mass of object = (2.00 ± 0.01)kg

V olume of object = (2.50 ± 0.05)x10−3m3
Density(ρ) = 800kgm−3

Maximum value of ρ obtained using maximum mass and minimum volume

2.01kg
ρmax = = 820kgm−3
2.45x10−3 m3

Minimum value of ρ is obtained using minimum mass and maximum volume

1.99kg
ρmin = = 780kgm−3
2.55x10−3 m3

ρ = 800 ± 20kgm−3

2.2 Additions and Subtractions

It is usually fairly easy to write down the possible uncertainty in any single measurement.
Thus suppose that in an experiment with a spring the length of the spring is measured with
a metre scale. With care such a scale allows you to measure to about 1 mm. If you take
a number of careful readings with the scale you should find that they do not differ among
themselves by more than this. Thus for one particular reading you may be able to say:

Length of spring = 302 ± 1mm

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 If additional masses are added and the spring is re-measured, you may find

New length of spring = 488 ± 1mm

Now consider what you know about the change in length. According to our figures the
change is equal to 186 mm. But each of the figures may have been wrong by 1 mm. If
one of them happened to be too high by this amount while the other was too low, then the
uncertainty in the difference would be 2 mm. To be on the safe side we must assume
that the worst has happened. So we say

Change in length = 186 ± 2mm

The same thing applies if we are concerned with adding the two lengths. The worst possible
case will be when both figures were too high or both figures were too low. We assume the
worst possiblee case and say

Sums of lengths = 790 ± 2mm.

Thus if you are adding or subtracting two figures the actual uncertainty is the sum of the
separate uncertainties.

2.3 Multiplications and Divisions

Now suppose that you are measuring the volume of a cylinder. You measure the diameter d
and the length l and then calculate the volume from the equation

πd2 l
V olume =
4
In a case such as this the fractional uncertainty in the volume is the sum of the fractional
uncertainty in the length plus twice the fractional uncertainty in the diameter. The fractional
uncertainty in the diameter is doubled as a consequence of the fact that it is the square of
the diameter that comes into the formula. If the formula had involved d3 , three times the
fractional uncertainty would have been added and so on.
To take a very general case, suppose we are concerned with a formula of the type

k a tb
x=
mc nd
In this case:
△x a△k b△t c△m d△n
= + + +
x k t m n

Fractional uncertainty in x=a(fractional uncertainty in k)+ b(fractional uncertainty in t)

+c(fractional uncertainty in m) + d(fractional uncertainty in n)

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 This general rule can be proved, but the student is advised to accept the rule and leave the
proof until later.

The rule is simple: if you are multiplying together or dividing a number of figures, the possible
fractional uncertainty in the result is the sum of the separate fractional uncertainties

3.SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

In quoting a result only one uncertain figure should be retained; then the number of
figures indicates the order of accuracy. For example, suppose the speed of light was calculated
as 2.988x108ms−1 and is known to 1%. The possible uncertainty is then 0.03x108 ms−1

This shows that the third and subsequent significant figures are unreliable, hence we retain
only three figures and express the result in its neatest form as
(2.99 ± 0.03)x108 ms−1

4. GRAPHICAL UNCERTAINTIES

In laboratory work a graph is often used to illustrate the behaviou of system; to assist in the
calculation of a quantity or to determine the relationship between variables. It is essential
that the graph displays the characteristics of the results and their uncertainties as clearly as
possible. This involves the proper selection of scale and the physical arrangement
of the axis.

The best way to indicate the uncertainties of the variables is to locate the point of the graph
by a dot at the centre of bars indicating the range of uncertainty. A method of estimating
the uncertainty in the gradient of a straight line is to draw lines of maximum and minimum
gradient which are possible fits to the experimental points.The uncertainty in the gradient
of the line of best fit is then one half the difference between the maximum and minimum
gradients. A similar method can be used to estimate the uncertainty in an intercept. These
techniques are illustrated on the graph in Figure 1.

5. THE SI SYSTEM OF UNITS

5.1 Classes of SI Units

There are three classes of SI units. These are:

Base units
Derived units
Supplementary units.

The base units are seven well-defined units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela
and mole.

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 Figure 1:

The derived units are units which can be obtained by combining base units according to the
algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities.
The supplementary units, the radian and steradian (symbol, rad and sr respectively) are
dimensionless quantities used when defining derived units for quantities such as angular
frequency.

5.2 Definition of Base Units

metre (unit of length, symbol m)

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second. Note that the metre is defined in terms of the speed of light.

kilogram (unit of mass, symbol kg)

The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. Once the
mass of a litre of water, it may soon be redefined as the mass of a number of carbon-12
atoms.

second (unit of time, symbol s)

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
This is a highly monochromatic microwave emission.

ampere (unit of electric current symbol A)

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel con-
ductors of negligible circular cross-section, placed one metre apart in vacuum, would

9
 produce beetwen these conductors a force equal to 2x10−7 Newton per metre of length.

Earlier metric systems used the coulomb as the base unit, but it was too hard to measure
with sufficient precision.

Kelvin (unit of thermodynamic temperature, symbol K)

The Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.15 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water. The Kelvin is used to express an interval or a difference in temperature, so it tends
to appear in the denominator of derived units.

(Celsius temperature, symbol T, is defined by the expression T = K − 273.15)

candela (unit of luminous intensity, symbol cd)

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-
matic radiation of frequency 540x1012 Hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction
of 1/683 watt per steradian. This unit is used when the instrument of comparison is the
human eye. Its use is in decline.

mole (unit of amount of substance, symbol mol)

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities
must be specified. It is properly used as a number, but is often used as a mass.

5.3 Writing of Symbols

Roman lower case is used for symbols of units unless the symbols are derived from proper
names, when capital roman type is used for the first letter. These symbols are not followed
by a stop.

Unit names and symbols do not change in the plural, even though we often add an ”s” in
common speech. (2K reads as two degree Kelvins.)

5.4 Derived Units, Special Names

Several derived units have been given special names and may be used to obtain further
derived units. This is much simpler than expressing all units in terms of base units. e.g.
1P a = 1Nm−2

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 Table 1 Derived units which have been given special names

PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL IN TERMS OF BASE UNITS

activity becquerel Bq s−1
capacitance farad F m−2 kg −1s4 A2
conductance siemens S m−2 kg −1s3 A2
dose absorbed gray Gy m2 s−2
dose equivalent sievert Sv m2 s−2
electric charge coulomb C sA
electric potential volt V m2 kgs−3A−1
electric resistance ohm Ω m2 kgs−3A−2
energy, work, heat joule J m2 kgs−2
force newton N mkgs−2
frequency hertz Hz s−1
illuminance lux lx m−2 cdsr
inductance henry H m−2 kgs−2A−2
luminous flux lumen lm cdsr
magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kgs−2A−1
magnetic induction tesla T kgs−2 A−1
power, radiant flux watt W m2 kgs−3
pressure pascal Pa m−1 kgs−2

5.5 Recommendations for Use of Units

(i) It is preferable to indicate the product of two units with a dot when there is a risk of
confusion with another symbol. When no dot is used a space should be left between
the symbols for the two units.

(ii) A negative power, horizontal line, or a solidus (/), may be used to express a derived unit
obtained from two other units by division.

(iii) The solidus must not be repeated unless parentheses are used to avoid ambiguity.

5.6 Number Notation

The decimal point should be expressed by a dot placed on the line. Then multiplication
should be indicated by an ”x”. If a dot half-high is used for this purpose, the decimal point
must be a comma. A number should never commence with a decimal point.

Long numbers should be arranged in groups of three with a space, not a comma, separating
them. The grouping should start at the decimal point.

A space should be left between the number and the unit.

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 5.7 Multiples and Sub-multiples

Table 2

FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL

1018 exa E 10−3 milli m
1015 peta P 10−6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10−9 nano n
109 giga G 10−12 pico p
106 mega M 10−15 femto f
103 kilo k 10−18 atto a

The prefixes hecto, deca, deci and centi are still legal but should be avoided in technical
work. An exponent attached to a symbol containing a prefix indicates that the multiple, or
submultiple, of the unit is raised to the power of the exponent: e.g. a sand grain of 2 mg has
a volume of about 1mm3 . (The metre is cubed and so is the milli). A prefix should not
appear in the denominator of a derived unit: e.g. thus the sand grain has a density
of about 2Mgm−3

NOTE: The kilogram is the only base unit containing a prefix, retained for historical reasons.
It may appear in the denominator: e.g. a specific activity of 1.5kBqkg −1, not 1.5Bqg −1.

5.8 Units which are not within the SI

Some units, not within the SI are in widespread use. They should be converted to SI units
before calculations. These are:

minute (min) tonne (t) (1 Mg)

hour (h) degree (o)
day (d) minute (’)
year (a) second (”)
litre (l,L)

Jargon survives in all disciplines despite a general willingness to conform (to SI) for the
general good. In physics, the following non-SI units have survived:

electronvolt (eV)
The energy acquired by an electron when moved through a potential difference of one volt.
(6 eV = 1 aJ approx; 6 MeV = 1 pJ approx)

atomic mass unit (u)

1/12 of the mass of one 12 C atom. An energy of 149 pJ or 931 MeV has approximately 1 u
of mass. Atomic masses are expressed in u.

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 light year (ly)
The distance light travels in a year. (1 ly = 10 Pm, approx).

curie (Ci)
An activity of 37 GBq. This number is similar to the number of events per second in a gram
of radium.
Other jargon units will be encountered in specialist areas; their conversion factors will be
found in the references below.
Other disciplines have their jargon units, too. For instance - engineering has rpm (1 Hz = 60
rpm), geophysics has milligals (1mgal = 10µms−2 ) and surveying has hectares (1ha = 104 m2 ,
1km2 = 100ha).

6. UNITS, ERRORS AND DIGITS

When an experimental value is to be reported, it must be put into the standard form. Here
is how to do it:
Take a fresh page. Lay out the value to be processed. Rewrite it as you make each of the
following corrections:
1. Reduce the units’ denominator to base units: (DENOM)
2. Reduce the units’ numerator to an appropriate unit: (NUM)
3 . Choose a 103N prefix which brings the main value to between 1 and 999 (PREFIX)
4. Express the error in the same units as the value: (SAME UNITS)
5. Round the error to one or two significant figures: (SIG. FIG.)
6. Round the main value and error to the same decimal place: (D.P.)
7. Check the spaces and cases: (FORMAT)

A difficult example: 605.643calories/gK ± 1.567%

=605643calorieskg −1K −1 ± 1.567% DENOM

=2537648.Jkg −1K −1 ± 1.567% NUM
=2.537648MJkg −l K −1 ± 1.567% PREFIX
=2.537648 ± 0.039765MJkg −1K −1 SAME UNIT
=2.537648 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 SIG. FIGS.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 D.P.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 FORMAT

Practice the following, using pencil, eraser and scratch paper

2.3 ± 0.37Jg −1
6.71 ± 0.022Bqcm−2
1191300GJ ± 15T J

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 171 ± 9.666666N/mm2
1050.3 ± 18.33hectopascals
55tonnes km−3 ± 2%
1.2345x10−7g ± 75875f g
∼ 6miles, ∼ 6f t, ∼ 17min., ∼ 3kW h, ∼ 100light years
∼ 60MeV, ∼ 10−5 kgs−2A−2 (magnetic unit)

7. USE OF GRAPHS

This session is designed to give an understanding of the use of graphs. For those who are
good at mathematics it will serve as revision, for the rest of you please use the time to master
the following:

• Knowledge and understanding of the equation of a straight line.

• Ability to write an equation for a straight line given the graph.
• Ability to draw the graph given the equation without plotting out all the points.
• Understanding of ”directly proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show direct proportion in a variety of situations.
• Understanding of the term ”inversely proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show inverse proportionality.
• Ability to check equations using log graphs.

7.1 Gradient of a Stright Line

The straight line shown in Figure 2 has a constant gradient. In other words, as point P moves
along the line in the direction of x increasing (i.e. from A to B) y changes at a constant
rate, and in this case it is a simple matter to find the gradient.

7.1.1 Calculation of Gradient

In moving from A to B the x-coordinate has increased by 10 (from 0 to 10) while the
y-coordinate has increased by 5 (from 2 to 7).

increase in y 5 1
Gradient = = =
increase in x 10 2

The gradient is positive as y is increasing as x increases. So we say that the gradient of the
line in Figure 2 is 1/2 or 0.5. In fact to find the gradient of the line we can take any two
points on the line; e.g. we could have considered the points C add D with co-ordinates (4,4)
and (8,6) respectively. To obtain the most accurate answer choose points which are as far
apart as is convenient.

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 Figure 2:

7.1.2 Equation of a Straight Line

Consider the line shown in Figure 3. What is its gradient? Answer is 2. Now look at the
points marked and write down their coordinates. Answer:
A : (0,1)
B : (1,3)
C : (2,5)
D : (3,7)
E : (4,9)

You might like to add a few more points of your own. Can you now find a connection between
the y and x coordinates?

The first thing to notice is that the x-coordinate increases by 1 at each step as you go from
A to E, and as we would expect the y-coordinate increases by 2 each time, since 2 is the
gradient of the line (remember gradient is the change in y for an increase of 1 in x). Can
you find the rule which connects y with x? The answer is that to get the y-coordinate you
double the x-coordinate and add 1. Since the y-coordinate is referred to simply as ’y’ and
the x-coordinate as ’x’:

y = 2x + 1, (gradient)x + (intercept on y axis)

or in general terms y = mx + c

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 Figure 3:

7.2 Direct Proportion

Imagine you go shopping and buy items at $3 each. If you tabulated the cost then you would
get:

Number of items cost

1 $3
2 $6
3 $9
. .
. .
. .
10 $30

Draw a graph of cost on y-axis against number of items on the x-axis. The graph represents
a graph of two quantities which are proportional.

y ∝ x or y = kx

The two main features of a graph showing that two quantities are directly proportional are:
1. the graph is a straight line

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 2. the graph passes through the point (0,0).

If you added the cost of the journey to the shop then the cost would no longer be directly pro-
portional to the number of items. (If you bought twice the number of items it would cost less
than twice as much). The graph would still be a straight line but it would not pass through
(0,0), i.e. a straight line alone is not sufficient proof of direct proportionality.

Choose a value for the cost of the journey and plot the graph.

Write down the equation of the line. It should be

Cost = $3 x number of items + cost of journey

Another shopping example, this time the cost of tiling a square room at $10 a square metre.

side of room area of room cost

lm 1m2 $10
2
2m 4m $40
2
3m 9m $90
4m 16m2 $160

Question

Draw a graph of cost against side of room and of cost against (side of room)2 . What do
you find?

Which graph enables you to deduce the relationship between cost and the length of the side
of the room?

7.3 Inverse Proportion

The term inverse proportion is often wrongly used. It has a very precise meaning and refers
to the situation where doubling one quantity halves the other, trebling one causes the other
to be a third etc.
1
y∝ or xy = constant
x

Question

Which of the following sets of pairs of numbers are inversely proportional?

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 a b c d e f
l 24 1 20 1 144
2 12 2 16 2 48
3 8 3 12 3 32
4 6 4 8 4 16
5 4.8 5 4 5 8
6 4 6 0 6 6

Draw a graph of each. What do you notice?

What graph can you draw to establish without doubt that the two quantities are inversely
proportional?

Note: You need a straight line graph before you can be sure about the relationship between
two variables.

7.4 Linear Graph from Non-linear Equations

The aim of many experiments is to find an equation relating two variables. If the graph
obtained by plotting these two variables is a straight line, it is an easy matter to measure
the slope and intercept and write out an equation in the form y = mx + c. If the graph is a
curve, the solution is not so simple but it is often possible to choose the variables so that a
straight line is obtained. Here are distances moved by a trolley from rest after various times.

Time, t Distance, s
0.7 0.141
1.3 0.372
1.9 0.794
2.3 1.113
2.9 1.850

If s is plotted against t the graph will not be a straight line since s increases much more
rapidly than t because the trolley is accelerating.

For an object travelling with constant acceleration from rest, the equation relating acceler-
ation (a), distance (s) and time (t) is

s = (1/2)at2

comparing this with y = mx + c shows that a graph of s against t2 should be a straight line
passing through (0,0) and having a gradient of (1/2)a.

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 Question

How would you check graphically whether experimental results fit the following equations?

1. F = k/r 2 , where k is constant.

2. E = (1/2)mv 2 , where m is constant,
3. V = RE/(R + r), when E and r are constant.

7.5 Log Graphs

Sometimes, two variables are related by an equation of the form

y = Axn

where A and n are unknown constants.

You can use trial and error to try to find n but this would involve graphing;

y against x
y against x2
y against 1/x

etc. until you obtained a straight line and, in the end, you might give up without getting a
solution. However, if

y = Axn then
log y = log(Axn )
log y = logA + log xn
log y = logA + nlog x

(compare this with) y = mx + c.

The graph of logy against logx would be a straight line. The constant n is the gradient and
the intercept is logA. From this graph we would be able to find both A and n.

Question

Under certain conditions (when heat cannot flow into or out of the gas) the pressure p and
volume V are related by the equation

pV γ = k

where γ and k are constants.

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 If you obtained experimental data under these conditions, what graph would you plot to find
the values of γ and k and how would you find the values of γ and k?

Question

Theory suggests that the power P dissipated in a heated filament of resistance R is given by
an equation of the form

P = kRn

where k and n are constants.

Plot a suitable graph of the following data so that the values of n and k can be found.

P(W) R(Ω)
4.41 0.91
8.11 1.11
12.59 1.27
17.70 1.41
23.88 1.51

7.6 Use of Graphs-Assignment

1. A 100 watt heater and a thermometer were immersed in a copper calorimeter containing
water. The following readings were obtained:

temperature (o C) 22 36 40 45 49 54 58
time (minutes) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Plot a graph of temperature against time (reminder: this means that time should be on the
x axis).

The relevant equation is: power x time = heat capacity x temperature rise
Compare this equation with the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c

From your graph determine the initial temperature of the water and the heat capacity of the
calorimeter + water.

2. The tension of a vibrating string is kept constant and its length varied to tune it to a
series of tuning forks. The necessary lengths are given below:

Tuning Fork C D E F G
frequency of tuning fork (Hz) 256 288 320 384 512

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 length of string (cm) 117 104 94 78 59

Plot a graph of length against frequency. What possible relationship is there between the
frequency of vibration and the length of the string? Draw a suitable graph to confirm this.

21
 Experiment 1

COULOMB’S LAW

Purpose
Verifying the electrostatic force-distance relationship, and the electrostatic force-charge re-
lationship and also determining the Coulomb constant.

Introduction
Let two charged particles (also called point charges) have magnitudes q1 and q2 and be
separated by a distance r. The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between them
has the magnitude
q1 q2
F =k
r2

in which k is a constant. Each particle exerts a force of this magnitude on the other particle;
the two forces form a third-law force pair. If the particles repel each other, the force on each
particle is directed away from the other particle. If the particles attract each other, the force
on each particle is directed toward the other particle.

The Coulomb Balance (Figure 12.1) is a delicate torsion balance that can be used to in-
vestigate the force between charged objects. A conductive sphere is mounted on a rod,
counterbalanced, and suspended from a thin torsion wire. An identical sphere is mounted
on a slide assembly so it can be positioned at various distances from the suspended sphere.
To perform the experiment, both spheres are charged, and the sphere on the slide assembly
is placed at fixed distances from the equilibrium position of the suspended sphere. The
electrostatic force between the spheres causes the torsion wire to twist. The experimenter
then twists the torsion wire to bring the balance back to its equilibrium position. The an-
gle through which the torsion wire must be twisted to reestablish equilibrium is directly
proportional to the electrostatic force between the spheres.

The torsion balance gives a direct and reasonably accurate measurement of the Coulomb
force. The most accurate determinations of Coulomb’s law, however, are indirect. It can

22
 Figure 12.1: The Coulomb Balance

be shown mathematically that if the inverse square law holds for the electrostatic force, the
electric field inside a uniformly charged sphere must be everywhere zero. Measurements of
the field inside a charged sphere have shown this to be true with remarkable accuracy. The
Coulomb force can be expressed by the formula:
q1 q2
F =k
r 2+n
Using this indirect method, it has been demonstrated experimentally that n = 2x10−16 .

Tips For Accurate Results

• Perform the experiment during the time of year when humidity is lowest.

• Perform the experiment in a draft-free room.

• The table on which you set up the experiment should be made of an insulating material
(wood, masonite, plastic, etc). If a metal table is used, image charges will arise in the table
that will significantly affect the results. (This is also true for insulating materials, but the
effect is significantly reduced.)

• Position the torsion balance at least two feet away from walls or other objects which could
be charged or have a charge induced on them.

• When performing experiments, stand directly behind the balance and at a maximum
comfortable distance from it. This will minimize the effects of static charges that may
collect on clothing.

• Avoid wearing synthetic fabrics, because they tend to acquire large static charges. Short
sleeve cotton clothes are best, and a grounding wire connected to the experimenter is helpful.

• Use a stable, regulated kilovolt power supply to charge the spheres. This will help ensure
a constant charge throughout an experiment.

23
 When charging the spheres, turn the power supply on, charge the spheres, then immediately
turn the supply off. The high voltage at the terminals of the supply can cause leakage
currents which will affect the torsion balance. A supply with a momentary “power on”
button is ideal.

• When charging the spheres, hold the charging probe near the end of the handle, so your
hand is as far from the sphere as possible. If your hand is too close to the sphere, it will have
a capacitive effect, increasing the charge on the sphere for a given voltage. This effect should
be minimized so the charge on the spheres can be accurately reproduced when recharging
during the experiment.

• Surface contamination on the rods that support the charged spheres can cause charge
leakage. To prevent this, avoid handling these parts as much as possible.

• There will always be some charge leakage. Perform measurements as quickly as possible
after charging, to minimize the leakage effects.

• Recharge the spheres before each measurement.

Corrections to the Data

The reason for the deviation from the inverse square relationship at short distances is that
the charged spheres are not simply point charges. A charged conductive sphere, if it is
isolated from other electrostatic influences, acts as a point charge. The charges distribute
themselves evenly on the surface of the sphere, so that the center of the charge distribution
is just at the center of the sphere.

However, when two charged spheres are separated by a distance that is not large compared
to the size of the spheres, the charges will redistribute themselves on the spheres so as to
minimize the electrostatic energy. The force between the spheres will therefore be less than
it would be if the charged spheres were actual point charges. A correction factor B, can be
used to correct for this deviation.

a3
B =1−4
r3

where a equals the radius of the spheres and r is the separation between spheres.

Equipments
The Coulomb Balance Set
A kilovolt Power Supply

24
 Part I: Force versus Distance

Procedure

1. Be sure the spheres are fully discharged (touch them with a grounded probe) and move
the sliding sphere as far as possible from the suspended sphere. Set the torsion dial to 0o C.
Zero the torsion balance by appropriately rotating the bottom torsion wire retainer until the
pendulum assembly is at its zero displacement position as indicated by the index marks.

2. With the spheres still at maximum separation, charge both the spheres to a potential of
5 − 6kV , using the charging probe. (One terminal of the power supply should be grounded.)
Immediately after charging the spheres, turn the power supply off to avoid high voltage
leakage effects.

3. Position the sliding sphere at a position of 20cm. Adjust the torsion knob as necessary to
balance the forces and bring the pendulum back to the zero position. Record the distance
r and the angle θ in Table 12.1. Repeat this measurement third times until your result is
repeatable to within ±1 degree and record all your results.

4. Repeat Step 3 for 14, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 and 5cm.

Part II: Force Versus Charge

The capacitance of an isolated conductive sphere is given by the equation:

C = 4πǫo a

where C is the capacitance, ǫo = 8.85x10−12 F/m, and a is the radius of the sphere which
is 19mm. For a capacitor, charge q and charging potential V are related by the equation:
q = CV . You can use this equation to determine the charge on the spheres from your
applied charging potential. This is the simplest method for determining the charge on the
spheres. Unfortunately, the conducting spheres of the Coulomb Balance are not isolated in
this application, so the measured values of q will be only approximate.

Note: A capacitor normally consists of two conductors. The charge on one conductor is +q
and the charge on the other is −q. V is the potential difference between the two conductors.
For an isolated sphere with a charge +q, the second conductor is a hypothetical plane at
ground potential and with charge −q, located at a distance infinitely far from the sphere.

Procedure

With the sphere separation r held at a constant value (choose a value between 7 and 10 cm),
charge the spheres and measure the resulting angle. Record your data in Table 12.2. Keep
the charge on one sphere constant, and vary the charge on the other (When charging the
spheres, they should always be at their maximum separation).

25
 Part III: The Coulomb Constant

In previous parts of this lab, you determined (if all went well) that the electrostatic force
between two point charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges and directly proportional to the charge on each sphere. This relationship is stated
mathematically in Coulomb’s Law:
q1 q2
F =k
r2

where F is the electrostatic force, q1 and q2 are the charges, and r is the distance between the
charges. In order to complete the equation, you need to determine the value of the Coulomb
constant, k. To accomplish this, you must measure three additional variables; the torsion
constant of the torsion wire (K), so you can convert your torsion angles into measurements
of force and the charges, q1 and q2 . Then, knowing F , q1 , q2 and r, you can plug these values
into the Coulomb equation to determine k.

Measuring the Torsion constant, K

A torsion constant for a wire usually expresses the torque required to twist the wire a
unit angle, and is normally expressed in newton meters per degree. However, when using
the torsion balance, the torque arm is always the same (the distance from the center of
the conductive sphere to the torsion wire), so the torsion constant for the balance is more
conveniently expressed in newtons per degree.

Figure 12.2: Calibrating the Torsion Balance

26
 Procedure

1. Carefully turn the Torsion Balance on its side, supporting it with the lateral support bar,
as shown in Figure 12.2. Place the support tube under the sphere.

2. Zero the torsion balance by rotating the torsion dial until the index lines are aligned.
Record the angle of the degree plate in Table 12.3.

3. Carefully place the 20mg mass on the center line of the conductive sphere.

4. Turn the degree knob as required to bring the index lines back into alignment. Read the
torsion angle on the degree scale. Record the angle in Table 12.3.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4, using the two 20mg masses and the 50mg mass to apply each of
the masses shown in the table. Each time record the mass and the torsion angle.

27
 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 1: COULOMB’S LAW

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Force versus Distance

Table 12.1

Vcharging potential = ....................

r(cm) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ (θavg ) B θcorrected r 2 (cm2 )

In this part of the experiment, we are assuming that force is proportional to the torsion
angle. Determine the functional relationship between the force, which is proportional to the
torsion angle θ and the distance r. This can be done in the following ways:

1. Plot logθ versus logr.

Explanation: If θ = br n , where b and n are unknown constants, then logθ = nlogr + logb.
The graph of logθ versus logr will therefore be a straight line. Its slope will be equal to
n and its y intercept will be equal to logb. Therefore, if the graph is a straight line, the
function is determined.

2. Plot θ versus r 2

Either of these methods will demonstrate that, for relatively large values of r, the force is
proportional to 1/r 2 . For small values of r, however, this relationship does not hold.

28
 To Correct Your Data:

1. Calculate the correction factor B for each of the separations r that you used. Record
your results in Table 12.1.

2. Multiply each of your collected values of θ by 1/B and record your results as θcorrected.

3. Reconstruct your graphs relating force and separation, but this time use θcorrected instead
of θ. Make corrected your new plot on the same graph as your original plot.

Question

How does the correction factor affect your results?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

Part II: Force versus Charge

Table 12.2

V1 , charging potential for the one sphere.

V2 , charging potential for the other sphere.

Capacitance of the spheres, C=............................

r = .....................

V1 (kV ) V2 (kV ) θ q1 (C) q2 (C)

Graph angle versus multiply of charges to determine the relationship.

29
 Part III: The Coulomb Constant

Measuring the Torsion Constant, K

Table 12.3

m (mg) θ mg (N) mg/θ (K) (N/degree)

20
40
50
70

Complete the table as follows to determine the torsion constant for the wire:

a. Calculate the weight for each set of masses that you used.

b. Divide the weight by the torsion angle to determine the torsion constant at each weight.

c. Average your measured torsion constants to determine the torsion constant for the wire.
Use the variance in your measured values as an indication of the accuracy of your measure-
ment.

K = Kavg =...........................

Calculations for the Coulomb Constant

The Coulomb constant can now be determined by using any data pair from your force versus
distance data. Fill in the Table 12.4.

Table 12.4

Charging potential, V1 = V2 =...........................

r (cm) θ B θcorrected F (N) q1 (C) q2 (C) k (Nm2 /C 2 )

1. Convert your torsion angle measurement (θcorrected ) to a force measurement, using your
measured torsion constant for the torsion wire: F = Kθcorrected .

2. Determine the charge that was on the sphere using the equation q = CV .

30
 q1 q2
3. Plug your collected data into the Coulomb equation, F = k 2 to determine the value
r
of k. Do this for several sets of data. Average your results to determine a value for k.

k = kavg =...........................

31
 Experiment 2

EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC

FIELD LINES

Purpose
To plot the equipotential lines in the space between a pair of charged electrodes and relate
the electric field to these lines.

Introduction
The electric field is a vector field; it consists of a distribution of vectors, one for each point
in the region around a charged object. In principle, we can define the electric field at some
point near the charged object as follows: We first place a positive charge qo , called a test
charge, at the point. We then measure the electrostatic force F~ that acts on the test charge.
Finally, we define the electric field E~ at this point due to the charged object as

~
~ = F
E
qo

Thus, the magnitude of the elctric field E ~ at this point is E = F/qo , and the direction of E ~
is that of the force F~ that acts on the positive test charge. To define the electric fi eld within
some region, we must similarly define it at all points in the region.

Although we use a positive test charge to define the electric field of a charged object, that
field exists independently of the test charge. We assume that in our defining procedure, the
presence of the test charge does not affect the charge distribution on the charged object, and
thus does not alter the electric field we are defining.

Michael Faraday, who introduced the idea of electric fields in the 19th century, thought of
the space around a charged body as filled with lines of force. Although we no longer attach
much reality to these lines, now usually called electric field lines, they still provide a nice
way to visualize patterns in electric fields.

32
 The relation between the field lines and electric field vectors is this:

(1) At any point, the direction of a straight field line or the direction of the tangent to a
~ at that point, and
curved field line gives the direction of E

(2) The field lines are drawn so that the number of lines per unit area, measured in a plane
~
that is perpendicular to the lines, is proportional to magnitude of E.

This second relation means that where the field lines are close together, E is large and where
they are far apart, E is small.

Figure 13.1:

Figure 13.1 shows the field lines for two equal positive charges and the pattern for two charges
that are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign, a configuration that we call an electric
dipole.

Another useful concept that is introduced along with the electric field is the ”electrostatic
potential energy”. The electrostatic potential energy of a test charge qo placed at point A,
in the vicinity of a charge distribution, i.e. in the electric field of the charge distribution,
is defined as the work done to bring that charge from infinity to the point A. As is the
case with the gravitational field, one is usually interested in the potential energy difference
between two points rather than the absolute value of the potential energy at that point. The
electrostatic potential energy difference between any two points A and B, say, in the vicinity
of a charge distribution is defined as the work done to move a charge from A to B.

△U = UB − UA = WAB

where WAB is the work done to move q from A to B. The ”electrostatic potential” is the
electrostatic potential energy per unit charge. So as the electrostatic potential difference or
simply the potential difference △V between the points A and B will be just the electrostatic
potential energy difference per unit charge between A and B,

WAB
△V = VB − VA =
qo

33
 Note that electric potential is a scalar, not a vector.

Adjacent points that have the same electric potential form an equipotential surface, which
can be either an imaginary surface or a real, physical surface. No net work is done on a
charged particle by an electric field when the particle moves between two points on the same
equipotential surface.

From symmetry, the equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge or a spherically

symmetrical charge distribution are a family of concentric spheres. For a uniform electric
field, the surfaces are a family of planes perpendicular to the field lines. In fact, Equipotential
surfaces are always perpendicular to electric field lines and thus to E,~ which is always tangent
to these lines. If E ~ were not perpendicular to an equipotential surface, it would have a
component lying along that surface. This component would then do work on a charged
particle as it moved along the surface.

Figure 13.2:

Figure 13.2 shows electric field lines and cross sections of the equipotential surfaces for a
uniform electric field and for the field associated with a point charge and with an electric
dipole.

Equipments
The Field Mapper Kit
Low Voltage AC/DC Power Supply
Digital Multimeter

Procedure
1. Connect the electrodes to a DC power supply as in Figure 13.3.
2. Apply a voltage of 5 − 20V to the electrodes.

34
 Figure 13.3: Connections of the Electrodes to a DC Power Supply

3. Equipotentials are plotted by connecting one lead of the voltmeter (the ground) to one
of the electrode. This electrode now becomes the reference. The other voltmeter lead (the
probe) is used to measure the potential at any point on the paper simply by touching the
probe to the paper at that point.

To map an equipotential line, move the probe until the desired potential is indicated on
the voltmeter. Mark the paper at this point with a soft lead pencil. Continue to move the
probe, but only in a direction which maintains the voltmeter at the same reading. Continue
to mark these points. Connecting the points produces an equipotential line.

4. To plot electric field lines, neither lead of the voltmeter is connected to an electrode.
Instead, the two leads of the voltmeter will be placed on the conductive paper side-by-side
at a set distance of separation (one centimeter is a useful separation to use). It is best to
tape the two leads of the voltmeter together for this procedure. The technique is to use
the voltmeter leads to find the direction from an electrode that follows the path of greatest
potential difference from point to point.

Do not attempt to make measurements by placing the leads on the grid marks on the
conductive paper. Touch the voltmeter leads only on the solid black areas of the paper. It
may be necessary to use a higher voltmeter sensitivity for this measurement than was used
in measuring equipotentials.

To plot the field lines on the conductive paper, place the voltmeter lead connected to ground
near one of the electrodes. Place the other voltmeter lead on the paper and note the voltmeter
reading. Now pivot the lead to several new positions while keeping the ground lead stationary.
Note the voltmeter readings as you touch the lead at each new spot on the paper. When
the potential is the highest, draw an arrow on the paper from the ground lead to the other
lead by using a light-colored pencil (Figure 13.4). Then move the ground lead to the tip
(head) of the arrow. Repeat the action of pivoting and touching with the front lead until
the potential reading in a given direction is highest. Draw a new arrow. Repeat the action

35
 of putting the ground lead at the tip (head) of each new arrow and finding the direction in
which the potential difference is highest.

Eventually, the arrows drawn in this manner will form a field line. Return to the electrode
and select a new point at which to place the voltmeter’s ground lead. Again probe with the
other lead until the direction of highest potential difference is found. Draw an arrow from
the ground lead to the other lead, and repeat the process until a new field line is drawn.
Continue selecting new points and drawing field lines around the original electrode.

Figure 13.4: Plotting the field lines

The followings are only some suggested experiments in mapping equipotentials and field
gradient using the Field Mapper.

36
 a

37
 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 2: EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Figure 13.5: Parallel Plate Capacitor

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. What is the field outside the capacitor plates?

2. How does the ratio of the plate length (l) versus separation (d) affect the fringing effect
at the edges of the plates?

3. What redesign of the plates, or perhaps extra electrodes, could help eliminate the fringing
effect?

115

38
 Circular Source in Paralel Plate Capacitor

Figure 13.6: Circular Source in Paralel Plate Capacitor

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. How does the circular electrode distort the field?

2. What is the potential of the circular electrode? Of the area inside the electrode?

Point Charges

Figure 13.7: Point Charges

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. Where is the electric field most nearly uniform?

2. What is the central equipotential shape?

3. What is the equipotential shape close to ”point” electrode?

116

39
 Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines for the following electrode combinations.

Figure 13.8: Line and Sharp Point

Figure 13.9: Line and Point Source

40
 Figure 13.10: Line and Circular Source

Questions
1. What is the relation between the direction of a maximum value field gradient and equipo-
tential line at the same point? (A geometrical relation is desired.)

2. What effect does the finite size of the black paper have on the field?

3. What distortion of the field is produced by the large electrode around the perimeter of
the paper?

41
 Experiment 3

BASIC ELECTRICITY

Purpose
To become familiar with the Circuits Experiment Board. To learn how to construct a
complete electrical circuit and represent electrical circuits with circuit diagrams.

Introduction
The Electric Circuit

In its simplest form, an electric circuit consists basically of a source, a load and a current
path. The source can be a battery or any other type of energy source that produces voltage.
The load can be a simple resistor or any other type of electrical device or more complex
circuit. The current path is the conductors connecting the source to the load.

Figure 14.1: A simple electrical circuit

A closed circuit is one in which the current has a complete path. An open circuit is one in
which the current path is broken and the current cannot flow. An open circuit represents an

42
 infinitely large resistance. A switch is the device commonly used to open or close a circuit.
An open circuit sometimes is a result of the failure of a component in a circuit, such as a
burned-out resistor or lamp bulb.

Figure 14.2: Closed and open circuits

A short circuit is a near-zero resistance path and occurs when two points accidentally become
connected, and current flows through the shorted contact. A short across a component such
as a resistor will cause all of the current to flow through the short, bypassing the resistor.

Figure 14.3: Short circuit

Protective Devices and Switches

Protective devices are used in electrical and electronic circuits to protect the circuit from
damage due to overcurrent, to prevent fire hazards due to excessive current and to protect
personel from shock hazards.

Fuses are used to protect an electrical circuit or an electronic instrument from excessive
current. There are several types of fuses, each with various current ratings. The current
rating is the maximum amount of current that the fuse can carry without opening. If the
current exceeds this amount, the fuse will blow and cause an open that stops the current.

43
 Two types of fuses are found in power applications such as residential wiring: the plug type
and the cartridge type.

In power applications such as commercial, industrial and residental wiring, circuit breakers
are replacing fuses in new installations. A circuit breaker can be reset and reused repeatedly,
an advantage over fuses, which must be replaced when they go out. Circuit breakers are also
commonly used in electronic equipment. There are two types of circuit breakers: magnetic
and thermal.

Switches are used to turn current on or off in a circuit. There are several types of switches.

Current

Electrical current is the net movement of electrical charge from one point to another in a
conductive material. In other words, current is the rate of flow of electrical charge in a
conductor. Electrical charge is symbolized by the letter Q, current by the letter I. Since
current is the rate of charge flow, it can be stated as follows:

Q
I=
t

Current is measured in a unit called the ampere, abbreviated by the letter A. One ampere
is the amount of current flowing in a conductor when one coulomb of charge moves past a
given point in one second.

Voltage

Normally, in a conductive material such as copper wire, the free electrons are in random
motion and have no net direction. In order to produce current, the free electrons must
move in the same general direction. To produce motion in a given direction, energy must be
imparted to the electrons. This energy comes from a voltage source connected to a conductor.
The battery is a typical energy source that provides voltage. Keep in mind that you must
have voltage in order to have current.

Voltage represents the energy required to moves a certain amount of charge from one point
to another. Voltage is also known as eletromotive force (emf) or potential difference.

ε
V =
Q

Voltage is measured in a unit called the volt, abbreviated V . One volt is the amount of
potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb
of charge from one point to the other.

44
 Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to current. It is used in electric circuits to limit or control the
amount of current that flows. An electrical component having the property of resistance is
called a resistor. There are many types of resistors in common use, but generally they can
be placed in two main categories: fixed and variable.

Fixed resistors have ohmic values set by manufacturer and cannot be changed easily. Various
sizes and construction methods are used to control the heat-dissipating capabilities, the
resistance value and the precision. Fixed resistors with value tolerances of 2%, 5%, 10%,
20% are color coded with four bands to indicate the resistance value and the tolerance. This
color-code band system is shown in Figure 14.4.

Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance values can be changed easily with a
manual or an automatic adjustment. Two basic types of manually adjustable resistors are
the potentiometer and the rheostat.

Figure 14.4: Coding of a Resistor

The resistance of a resistor can be determined by the color bands printed on the resistor
according to the following rule:

R = (f irst color number)(second color number) x 10(third color number)

Ω

Resistors in Series

Resistors in series are connected end-to-end. A series connection provides only one path for
current between two points in a circuit so that the same current flows through each series
resistor. For any number of individual resistors connected in series, the total resistance is
the sum of each of the individual values:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn

Resistors in Parallel

When two or more components are connected across the same voltage source, they are in
parallel. A parallel circuit provides more than one path for current. Each parallel path is

45
 called a branch. When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit
decreases. The total resistance of a parallel combination is always less than the value of
the smallest resistor. For any number of individual resistors connected in parallel, the total
resistance is as follows:
1
RT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
R1 R2 R3 Rn

Measurements

Current, voltage and resistance measurements are common in electrical work. Special types
of instruments are used to measure these quantities.

Current is measured with an ammeter connected in the current path by breaking the circuit
and inserting the meter. As you will learn later, such a connection is called a series connec-
tion. The positive side of the meter is connected toward the positive terminal of the voltage
source.

Figure 14.5: Current measurement with an ammeter

46
 Voltage is measured with a voltmeter connected across the component. Again as you will
learn later, such a connection is called parallel connection. The positive side of the meter
must be connected toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.

Figure 14.6: Voltage measurement with a voltmeter

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter connected across the resistor. The resistor must
be removed from the circuit or disconnected from the voltage source in some way. Failure
to disconnect the voltage source will result in damage to the ohmmeter.

Figure 14.7: Resistance measurement with an ohmmeter

The Circuits Experiment Board (Figure 14.8),which you will use in this experiment, is de-
signed to implement a large variety of basic electrical circuits for experimentation.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm discovered that when the voltage across a resistor changes, the current through the
resistor changes. He expressed this as I = V /R (current is directly proportional to voltage
and inversely proportional to resistance). In other words, as the voltage increases, so does
the current. The proportionality constant is the value of the resistance. The current is
inversely proportional to the resistance. As the resistance increases, the current decreases.

If the voltage across an ”Ohmic” resistor is increased, the graph of voltage versus current
shows a straight line (if the resistance remains constant). The slope of the line is the value

47
 Figure 14.8: Circuits Experiment Board

of the resistance. However, if the resistance changes (that is, if the resistor is ”non-Ohmic”),
the graph of voltage versus current will not be a straight line. Instead, it will show a curve
with a changing slope.

Kirchhoff ’s Rules

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the sum of all the voltages around a closed path is zero.
In other words, the sum of the voltage drops equals the total source voltage (Figure 14.9).
The general form of Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

Vs1 + Vs2 + ... + Vsn = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn

Figure 14.9:

Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents into a junction is equal to the
sum of the currents out of that junction. A junction is any point in a circuit where two
or more circuit paths come together. In a parallel circuit, a junction is where the parallel
branches connect together. Another way to state Kirchhoff’s current law is to say that the
total current into a junction is equal to the total current out of that junction (Figure 14.10).
The general formula for Kirchhoff’s current law is

Iin(1) + Iin(2) + ... + Iin(n) = Iout(1) + Iout(2) + ... + Iout(m)

48
 Figure 14.10:

Part I: Resistances in Circuits

Procedure

1. Choose five resistors having different values. Enter those sets of colors in Table 14.1.

2. Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labeled “Coded
Resistance”. Enter the tolerance value as indicated by the color of the fourth band under
“Tolerance.”

3. Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your five resistors. Enter these
values in the table.

4. Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in the
appropriate column.

(Measured value − Coded value)

Experimental Error = x100
Coded value

Figure 14.11: Resistors in Series Circuit

49
 5. Now connect the three resistors into the series circuit (Figure 14.11), using the spring
clips on the Circuits Experiment Board. Measure the resistances of the combinations as
indicated on the figure by connecting the leads of the Multimeter between the points at
the ends of the arrows. Record your values in Table 14.2. Compare these values with the
calculated values.

6. Construct a parallel circuit as in Figure 14.12. Measure the resistance values in Table
14.3 and record them. Compare with calculated values.

Figure 14.12: Resistors in Parallel Circuit

7. Now construct a combination circuit as in Figure 14.13. Measure and record the resistance
values shown in the figure. Record these values in Table 14.4 and compare with calculated
values.

Figure 14.13: Resistors in Combination Circuit

50
 Part II: Voltages in Circuits
Procedure

1. Connect the three resistors that you used before into the series circuit shown in Figure
14.14. Connect two wires to the Power Supply, carefully noting which wire is connected to
the negative terminal and which is connected to the positive.

2. Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages across the
individual resistors and then across the combinations of resistors. Be careful to observe the
polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). Record your readings in Table 14.5.

Figure 14.14: Voltage Measurements in Series Circuit

.
3. Now connect the parallel circuit (Figure 14.15), using three resistors. Measure the voltage
across each of the resistors and the combination, taking care with the polarity as before. Fill
in Table 14.6.

Figure 14.15: Voltage Measurements in Parallel Circuit

4. Now connect the combination circuit as shown in Figure 14.16. Measure the voltages in
the figure. Record them in Table 14.7 and compare with calculated values.

51
 Figure 14.16: Voltage Measurements in Combination Circuit

Part III: Currents in Circuits

Procedure

1. Connect the three resistors into the series circuit (Figure 14.17). Change the leads in your
Multimeter, so that it can be used to measure current. Be careful to observe the polarity
of the leads (red is +, black is -). Move the Multimeter to the positions, indicated in the
figure. Record your readings in Table 14.8 each time interrupting the circuit, and carefully
measuring the current.

Figure 14.17: Current Measurements in Series Circuit

2. Connect the parallel circuit shown in Figure 14.18. Review the instructions for connecting
the Multimeter as an ammeter. Connect it first between the positive terminal of the power
supply and the parallel circuit junction to measure Io . Then interrupt the various branches of
the parallel circuit and measure the individual branch currents. Record your measurements
in Table 14.9.

52
 Figure 14.18: Current Measurements in Parallel Circuit

Part IV: Ohm’s Law

Procedure

Ohmic Resistors

1. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 14.19.

Figure 14.19:

3. As the power supply is OFF, set the Multimeter to dc current range and connect it in
the circuit to read the current flowing through the resistor.

4. Open the power supply and set the voltage output to 2V.

5. Read the current and enter the value in Table 14.10.

6. Set the voltage output in turn to 4V, 6V, 8V, 10V and 12V, and record the current at
each step.

7. Now repeat the procedure with a different value of resistor connected in the circuit instead
of the previous one.

53
 Part V: Kirchhoff ’s Rules
Procedure

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 14.20 using any of the resistors you have except the
10Ω one. Record the resistance values in Table 14.11. With no current flowing (the power
supply is off), measure the total resistance RT of the circuit between points A and B.

Figure 14.20: The Circuit for Kirchhoff’s Rules

2. With the circuit connected to the Power Supply and the current flowing, measure the
voltage across each of the resistors and record the values in the table. On the circuit diagram
in Figure 14.20, indicate which side of each of the resistors is positive relative to the other
end by placing a ”+” at that end.

3. Now measure the current through each of the resistors. Interrupt the circuit and place
the Multimeter in series to obtain your reading. Make sure you record each of the individual
currents, as well as the current flow into or out of the main part of the circuit, IT . Record
your data in Table 14.11.

54
 a

55
 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 3: BASIC ELECTRICITY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Resistances in Circuits

Table 14.1

Colors 1 2 3 4 Coded R(Ω) Tolerance Measured R(Ω) %Error

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Table 14.2

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R12
R23
R123

Table 14.3

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R12
R23
R123

56
 Table 14.4

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R1
R23
R123

Questions

1. How does the % Error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

2. What is the apparent rule for combining resistances in series circuits? In parallel circuits?
Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

57
 Part II: Voltages in Circuits

Table 14.5

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V2
V3
V12
V23
V123

Table 14.6

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V2
V3
V12
V23
V123

Table 14.7

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V23
V123

58
 Questions

1. What is the pattern for how voltage gets distributed in a series circuit? Is there any
relationship between the size of the resistance and the size of the resulting voltage?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

2. What is the pattern for how voltage distributes itself in a parallel circuit? Is there any
relationship between the size of the resistance and the size of the resulting voltage?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

3. Do the voltages in your combination circuit follow the same rules as they did in your
circuits which were purely series or parallel? If not, state the rules you see in operation.

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

59
 Part III: Currents in Circuits

Table 14.8

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, mA Calculated value, mA

Io
I1
I2
I3

Table 14.9

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, mA Calculated value, mA

Io
I1
I2
I3
I4

Questions

1. What is the pattern for how current behaves in a series circuit? At this point you should
be able to summarize the behavior of all three quantities resistance, voltage and current in
series circuits.

2. What is the pattern for how current behaves in a parallel circuit? At this time you should
be able to write the general characteristics of currents, voltages and resistances in parallel
circuits.

60
 Experiment 4

BASIC ELECTRICITY (Part 4 and 5)

Part IV: Ohm’s Law

Ohmic Resistors

Table 14.10

Voltage (V ) Current through R1 (mA) Current through R2 (mA)

2
4
6
8
10
12

Plot a graph of current against voltage for the readings obtained. Find the value of the
resistance.
From your graphs obtain the current that would flow trough the one of the resistors for an
applied voltage of 7V.

61
 Part V: Kirchhoff ’s Rules

Table 14.11

Resistance, Ω Voltage, V Current, mA

R1 V1 I1
R2 V2 I2
R3 V3 I3
R4 V4 I4
R5 V5 I5
RT VT IT

1. Determine the net current flow into or out of each of the four ”nodes” in the circuit.

2. Determine the net voltage drop around at least three of the six or so closed loops.
Remember, if the potential goes up, treat the voltage drop as positive (+), while if the
potential goes down, treat it as negative (-).

3. Use your experimental results to analyze the circuit you built in terms of Kirchhoff’s
Rules. Be specific ans state the evidence for your conclusions.

62
 Experiment 5

CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS

Purpose
Determining how capacitors behave in a RC circuit and experimentally obtaining the charg-
ing and discharging voltage curves for a capacitor. By using these curves, to determine time
constant value of a RC circuit.

Introduction
You can store energy as potential energy in an electric field, and a capacitor is a device you
can use to do exactly that. Capacitors have many uses in our electronic age beyond serving
as storehouses for potential energy. They can be many sizes and shapes. The basic elements
of any capacitor are two isolated conductors of any shape. No matter what their geometry,
flat or not, we call these conductors plates.

When a capacitor is charged, its plates have equal but opposite charges of +q and −q.
However, we refer to the charge of a capacitor as being q, the absolute value of these charges
on the plates. (Note that q is not the net charge on the capacitor, which is zero.)

Because the plates are conductors, they are equipotential surfaces; all points on a plate are
at the same electric potential. Moreover, there is a potential difference between the two
plates. For historical reasons, we represent the absolute value of this potential difference
with V .

The charge q and potential difference V for a capacitor are proportional to each other; that
is,

q = CV

The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. Its value depends
only on the geometry of the plates and not on their charge or potential difference. The
capacitance is a measure of how much charge must be put on the plates to produce a certain

63
 potential difference between them: The greater the capacitance, the more charge is required.

Capacitance is directly proportional to the physical size of the plates as determined by the
plate area, A. A larger plate area produces a larger capacitance. Capacitance is inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The plate separation is designated d. A
greater separation of the plates produces a smaller capacitance.

The insulating material between the plates of a capacitor is called the dielectric. Every
dielectric material has the ability to concentrate the lines of force of the electric field existing
between the oppositely charged plates of a capacitor and thus increase the capacity for energy
storage. The measure of a material’s ability to establish an electric field is called the dielectric
constant or relative permittivity, symbolized by ǫr . Capacitance is directly proportional to
the dielectric constant. An exact formula for calculating the capacitance in terms of these
three quantities is as follows:

Aǫr (8.85x10−12 F/m)

C=
d

The SI unit of capacitance is the coulomb per volt. This unit occurs so often that it is given
a special name, the farad (F).

Series Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the effective plate separation increases, and the
total capacitance is less than that of the smallest capacitor. If n capacitors are in series in
a circuit, the total capacitance can be found as;

1
CT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
C1 C2 C3 Cn

Parallel Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the effective plate area increases, and the total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. If n capacitors are in parallel in a
circuit, the total capacitance can be found as;

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn

Charging a Capacitor

A capacitor charges when it is connected to a dc voltage source. As this charging process

continues, the voltage across the plates builds up rapidly until it is equal to the applied
voltage, Vs , but opposite in polarity. When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no current.
A capacitor blocks constant dc. When the charged capacitor is disconnected from the source,

64
 it remains charged for long periods of time, depending on its leakage resistance, and can cause
severe electrical shock.

Discharging a Capacitor

When a wire is connected across a charged capacitor, the capacitor will discharge. In this
particular case, a very low resistance path (the wire) is connected across the capacitor. The
charge is neutralized when the numbers of free electrons on both plates are again equal. At
this time, the voltage across the capacitor is zero, and the capacitor is completely discharged.

Current during Charging and Discharging

Direction of the current during discharge is opposite to that of the charging current. It
is important to understand that there is no current through the dielectric of the capacitor
during charging or discharging, because the dielectric is an insulating material. Current
flows from one plate to the other only through the external circuit.

The RC Time Constant

In a practical situation, there cannot be capacitance without some resistance in a circuit. It

may simply be the small resistance of a wire, or it may be a designed-in resistance. Because
of this, the charging and discharging characteristics of a capacitor must always be considered
in light of the associated resistance. The resistance introduces the element of time in the
charging and discharging of a capacitor.

When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for
the capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
intantaneously, because a finite time is required to move charge from one point to another.
The rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant
of the circuit. The time constant of a series RC circuit is a time interval that equals the
product of the resistance and the capacitance. The time constant is symbolized by τ , and the
formula is as follows:

τ = RC

Recall that I = Q/t. The current depends on the amount of charge moved in a given
time. When the resistance is increased, the charging current is reduced, thus increasing the
charging time of the capacitor. When the capacitance is increased, the amount of charge
increases; thus, for the same current, more time is required to charge the capacitor.

The Charging and Discharging Curves

A capacitor charges and discharges following a nonlinear curve, as shown in Figure 15.1. In
these graphs, the percentage of full charge is shown at each time-constant interval. This

65
 type of curve follows a precise mathematical formula and is called an exponential curve.
The charging curve is an increasing exponential, and the discharging curve is a decreasing
exponential. As you can see, it takes five time constants to aproximately reach the final
value.

Figure 15.1:

The general expressions for either increasing or decreasing exponential curves are given in
the following equations:

Vc (t) = Vs (1 − e−t/RC )

Vc (t) = Vi e−t/RC

Equipments
Circuits Experiment Board
Digital Multimeter
Power Supply
Capacitors (100µF , 330µF )
Resistors (100kΩ, 220kΩ)

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 15.2 using a 100kΩ resistor and a 100µF capacitor.
Use one of the spring clips as a ”switch”. Keeping the switch at open position, turn on the
power supply and set its output voltage to 5V . Connect the Multimeter to the circuit which
reads the voltage across the capacitor.

2. Start with no voltage on the capacitor. If there is a remaining voltage on the capacitor,
use a piece of wire to ”short” the two leads together, draining any remaining charge.

66
 Figure 15.2:

3. Now close the ”switch” by touching the wire to the spring clip and start the stopwatch.
Observe the capacitor voltage in every five seconds until the voltage increases to a value of
5V . Record your data in Table 15.1.

4. If you now open the ”switch” by removing the wire from the spring clip, the capacitor
should remain at its present voltage with a very slow drop over time. This indicates that
the charge you placed on the capacitor has no way to move back to neutralize the excess
charges on the two plates.

Figure 15.3:

5. Now, you will discharge the capacitor that you charged above, allowing the charge to
drain back through the resistor. Observe the voltage readings on the Multimeter as the
charge flows back and record them in Table 15.1.

6. Now, do the same procedure for the following circuits; recording the time taken to move
from 0.0V to the %63 of the power supply output voltage (which is 3.2V ) while charging.

67
 This time is the ”time constant” (τ ) of the circuit measured experimentally. Record your
times along with the resistance and capacitance values in Table 15.2.

Calculate the time constants of the circuits and record them in the table. Compare with the
experimental values.

• Replace the 100µF capacitor with a 330µF capacitor.

• Return to the original 100µF capacitor, but put a 220kΩ resistor in the circuit.

• Repeat the procedure 220kΩ resistor with a 330µF capacitor.

• Return to the original 100kΩ resistor, but use the 100µF capacitor in series with the 330µF
capacitor (Figure 15.3).

• Repeat the procedure with the 100µF and the 330µF capacitors are in parallel (Figure
15.4).

• Now repeat the procedure with the 220kΩ resistor and the capacitors as they are in series
and parallel in the circuit.

Figure 15.4:

68
 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 5: CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 15.1

Vs =...................... R=...................... C=......................

Vc (charging), V t(s) Vc (discharging), V t(s)

Using the data in Table 15.1, plot the graphs of the voltage on the capacitor versus time for
both charging and discharging curents. Find the time constant of the circuit from the both
graphs. Find also the theoretical value of the time constant using the formula τ = RC, and
compare it with the values you have found from the graphs.

69
 Table 15.2

Resistance (Ω) Capacitance (µF ) τexperimentally (s) τtheoretically (s)

Questions
1. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the capacitance is increased?
What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the capacitance?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

2. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the resistance of the circuit is
increased? What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the resistance?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

3. What is the effect on the total capacitance if capacitors are combined in series? What if
they are combined in parallel?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

70
 Experiment 6

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A
CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

Purpose
A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force that is usually referred to
as a magnetic force. In this experiment we will determine that how the magnitude and the
direction of this force depends on the magnitude of the current I; the length of the wire L;
the strength of the magnetic field B; and the angle between the field and the wire θ.

Introduction
A magnetic field exerts force on electrons in a conductor. Since the electrons cannot escape
the wire, this force must be transmitted to the wire itself. Consider a wire carrying current I
placed in a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude B and the direction is perpendicular
to the wire. Consider a length L of the wire and one of the conduction electrons drifting
with an assumed drift speed vd .

L
Charge q = It = I moves through the segment of wire during the time interval t. The
vd
magnetic force on this conductor is

L
FB = qvd B = (I )vd B
vd

Finally, the force is FB = ILB.

If the magnetic field is NOT perpendicular to the current- carrying wire,

F~B = I Lx
~ B~

~ is a vector of magnitude L and the direction of the conventional current. The

where L
magnitude of the force on a current carrying wire is

71
 FB = ILB sin θ

where θ is the angle between the direction of current and the magnetic field.

In this experiment we will use the Basic Current Balance (Figure 16.1). With it you can vary
three of the variables in the equation; the current, the length of the wire, and the strength
of the magnetic field and measure the resulting magnetic force.

Figure 16.1: Basic Current Balance

By adding the Current Balance Accessory (Figure 16.2), you can also vary the angle be-
tween the wire and the magnetic field, thereby performing a complete investigation into the
interaction between a current carrying wire and a magnetic field.

Figure 16.2: Current Balance Accessory

72
 Equipments
Basic Current Balance
Current Balance Accessory
Lab stand
DC power supply (capable of supplying up to 5A)
DC ammeter (capable of measuring up to 5A)
Balance (capable of measuring forces with an accuracy of 0.01g mass equivalent)

Part I: Force versus Current

Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.3

Figure 16.3: Setting up the Basic Current Balance

2. Determine the mass of the magnet holder and magnets with no current flowing. Record
this value in the column under ”Mass” in Table 16.1.

3. Set the current to 0.5A. Determine the new ”mass” of the magnet assembly. Record this
value under ”Mass” in Table 16.1.

4. Subtract the mass value with the current flowing from the value with no current flowing.
Record this difference as the ”Force ”.

5. Increase the current in 0.5A increments to a maximum of 5.0A, each time repeating steps
2-4.

73
 Part II: Force versus Length of Wire
Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.3 again.

2. With no current flowing, determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly. Record this value
on the line at the top of Table 16.2.

3. Set the current to 2.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly. Record
this value under ”Mass” in Table 16.2.

4. Subtract the mass that you measured with no current flowing from the mass that you
measured with the current flowing. Record this difference as the ”Force.”

5. Turn the current off. Remove the Current Loop and replace it with another. Repeat
steps 2-4.

Part III: Force versus Magnetic Field

Procedure

Use the shortest length current loop.

1. Mount a single magnet in the center of the holder.

2. With no current flowing, determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly. Record this value
in the first column under ”Mass” in Table 16.3 on the appropriate line.

3. Set the current to 2.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly. Record
this value in the second column under ”Mass” in Table 16.3.

4. Subtract the mass you measured when there was no current flowing from the value you
measured with current flowing. Record this difference as the ”Force”.

5. Add additional magnets, one at a time. (Make sure the north poles of the magnets are all
on the same side of the Magnet Assembly.) Each time you add a magnet, repeat steps 2-4.

74
 Part IV: Force versus Angle
Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.4

Figure 16.4: Setting up the Current Balance Accessory

2. Determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly with no current flowing. Record this value
in Table 16.4 on the appropriate line.

3. Set the angle to θ with the direction of the coil of wire approximately parallel to the
magnetic field. Set the current to 1.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly.
Record this value under ”Mass” in Table 16.4.

4. Subtract the mass measured with no current flowing from the mass measured with current
flowing. Record the difference as the ”Force”:

5. Increase the angle in 5◦ increments up to 90◦ , and then in -5◦ increments to -90◦. At each
angle, repeat the mass/force measurement.

75
 a

76
 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 6: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Force versus Current

Table 16.1

Current (A) Mass (g) Force (N)

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Current (horizontal axis).

What is the nature of the relationship between these two variables? What does this tell
us about how changes in the current will affect the force acting on a wire that is inside a
magnetic field?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

77
 Part II: Force versus Length of Wire

Table 16.2

Mass(g)=.........................

Length (cm) Mass (g) Force (N)

1.2
2.2
3.2
4.2
6.4
8.4

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Length (horizontal axis).

What is the nature of the relationship between these two variables? What does this tell us
about how changes in the length of a current-carrying wire will affect the force that it feels
when it is in a magnetic field?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

78
 Part III: Force versus Magnetic Field

Table 16.3

Mass (g) Mass (g)

# of magnets I = 0 I 6= 0 Force (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Number of Magnets (horizontal axis).

What is the relationship between these two variables? How does the number of magnets
affect the force between a current-carrying wire and a magnetic field? Is it reasonable to
assume that the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the number of
magnets? What would happen if one of the magnets were put into the assembly backwards,
with its north pole next to the other magnets’ south poles? If there is time, try it.

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

79
 Part IV: Force versus Angle

Table 16.4

Angle (θ) Mass (g) Force (N) Angle (θ) Mass (g) Force (N)
0 0
10 -10
20 -20
30 -30
40 -40
50 -50
60 -60
70 -70
80 -80
90 -90

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Angle (horizontal axis).

What is the relationship between these two variables? How do changes in the angle between
the current and the magnetic field affect the force acting between them? What angle produces
the greatest force? What angle produces the least force?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

80
 Experiment 7

ELECTROMAGNETISM AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Introduction
What is Electromagnetism?

Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Nearly ev-
eryone, at some time or another, has had the opportunity to play with magnets. Most of
us are acquainted with bar magnets or those thin magnets that usually end up on refrig-
erators. These magnets are known as permanent magnets. Although permanent magnets
receive a lot of exposure, we use and depend on electromagnets much more in our everyday
lives. Electromagnetism is essentially the foundation for all of electrical engineering. We use
electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our computers, generate pictures on
a television screen, diagnose illnesses, and in just about every other aspect of our lives that
depends on electricity.

Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through a wire generates
a magnetic field. This magnetic field is the same force that makes metal objects stick to
permanent magnets. In a bar magnet, the magnetic field runs from the north to the south
pole. In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the wire. If we wrap that wire around a metal
object, we can often magnetize that object. In this way, we can create an electromagnet.

Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electrical potential difference (or voltage)

across a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field. Michael Faraday was the first to
describe this phenomenon mathematically: he found that the size of the voltage produced
is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. This applies whether the flux
itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it. Electromagnetic induction

81
 underlies the operation of generators, induction motors, and most other electrical machines.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that

dφ
ε=N
dt

where ε is the electromotive force (emf) in volts, N is the number of turns of wire, and φ is
the magnetic flux in webers.

Further, Lenz’s law gives the direction of the induced emf, thus:
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it
drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf.

Transformers

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to
another by means of magnetic coupling. An electrical transformer is the name given to any
device for producing by means of one electric current another of a different character. It
typically transforms between high and low voltages and accordingly between low and high
currents.

Transformers usually have two induction coils or windings. As the changing current flows
through the powered or primary winding, it produces a changing magnetic field that grows
through the unpowered or secondary windings. This changing magnetic field induces a
current in the secondaries. The winding with fewer turns of wire has higher current, at a
lower voltage. The winding with more turns of wire has less current, at a higher voltage.
The ratio of voltages is proportional to the ratio of the numbers of turns of wire.

Uses of Transformers

If electrical power needs to be transmitted over long distances, the loss is much lower if high
voltage is used. But high voltage is dangerous in the home, so transformers are employed to
step the voltage up at the power station and back down at the consumer’s premises.

Small transformers are often used to isolate and link different parts of radios.

Some transformers are designed so that one winding turns or slides, while the other remains
stationary. These can pass power or radio signals from a stationary mounting to a turning
mechanism, such as a machine tool head or radar antenna.

Some moving transformers are precisely constructed in order to measure distances. Most
often, they have several primaries, and electronic circuits measure the shape of the wave in
the different secondaries.

82
 Construction

Transformers often have silicon steel cores to channel the magnetic field. This keeps the field
more concentrated around the wires, so that the transformer is more efficient. The core also
keeps the field from being wasted in nearby pieces of metal.

Laminated cores are made of many stamped pieces of thin steel. This prevents eddy currents
from forming in the cores and wasting power by heating the core. Other types of core are
made of nonconductive magnetic materials, such as a ceramic material called ferrite.

High-frequency transformers in low-power circuits where moderate losses are acceptable may
have air cores. These save weight and cost.

Power transformers are usually more than 98% efficient which makes them the most efficient
devices man can make. The higher-voltage transformers are bathed in nonconductive oil
that is stable at high temperatures. This used to be polychlorinated biphenyl, the famous
toxic waste, ”PCB”. Nowadays, nontoxic very stable fluorinated hydrocarbons are preferred.
The oil cools the transformer, and helps prevent short circuits. It has to be stable at high
temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a breakdown or fire.

Equipments

The Complete Coils Set

Low voltage AC/DC power supply
Digital multimeter
Banana connecting leads for electrical connections

Procedure

When an alternating current passes through a coil of wire, it produces an alternating mag-
netic field. This is precisely the condition needed for the electromagnetic induction to take
place in a second coil of wire.

1. Set up the coils and core as shown in Figure 17.1. The coil to the left will be referred
to as the primary coil and the one to the right will be the secondary coil. Note that we are
putting in an alternating current to the primary at one voltage level, and reading the output
at the secondary.

2. With the 400-turn coil as the primary and the 400-turn coil as the secondary, adjust the
input voltage to 6 VAC. Measure the output voltage and record your result in Table 17.1.

3. Repeat step 2 after inserting the straight cross piece from the top of the U-shaped core.
Record your result. (See Figure 17.2.)

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 Figure 17.1: Induction Proceed by Passing Magnetic Field Between the Two Coils

4. Repeat step 2 after placing the coils on the sides of the open U-shaped core. Record your
result.

5. Finally, repeat step 2 after placing the cross piece over the U-shaped core. Record your
result.

6. Using the core configuration which gives the best output voltage compared to input
voltage, try all combinations of primary and secondary coils. Use a constant input voltage
of 6 VAC. Record your data in Table 17.2.

Figure 17.2:

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 REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 7: ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 17.1

Number of turns

Primary Coil Secondary Coil Input V Output V Core

Table 17.2

Core Configuration :————————————–

Number of turns

Primary Coil Secondary Coil Input V Output V

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 Questions

1. Which core configuration gives the maximum transfer of electromagnetic effect to the
secondary coil? Develop a theory to explain the differences between configurations.

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2. From your data in Table 17.2, for a primary having a constant number of turns, graph
the resulting output voltage versus the number of turns in the secondary. What type of
mathematical relationship exists between numbers of turns of wire and the resulting output
voltage? Is the data ideal? Why or why not?

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3. Consider further improvements to your transformer. What additional changes might you
make to increase the transfer from one coil to the other?

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