CHAPTER NO 3.

Cell
Q1: Define cell, unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Cell The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms is called cell
Unicellular Organisms: -Those organisms which are made from single cell
are called unicellular organisms.
Example: Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
Multicellular organisms: - Those organisms which are made from more than
one cells are called multicellular organisms.
Example: All plants and animals

QNO 2: History of cell theory

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 Q3: Write the main points of cell theory?
Ans: Cell Theory:-
Cell theory was first proposed by two German scientists, Botanist Matthias
Schleiden and Zoologist Theodor Schwan. They made final presentation of
cell theory.
Main Points:-
1. All living organisms are made from one or more cells.
2. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organism.
3. New cells arise from pre-existing cells by cells division
Q4: What do you meant by a cellular or sub-cellular particles?
According to first principle of the cell theory all organisms are composed of one or
more cells. Discovery of virus prions and viroid claims that the statement is not
universal. They are not composed of cells rather they are sub-cellular or acellular
particles. As they show some characteristics of living organisms i.e.,
• They do not run metabolism inside them,
• they do not respire and
• They cannot reproduce themselves as the lack all the basic requirements for
the reproduction. They reproduce only in host cell.
• They can increase in number and can transmit their characteristics to the next
generation.

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QNO5: What is a cell? What is the role of a cell?
• Cell is the structural functional and basic unit of a body.
• A cell form a structure of an organism.
• All the functions of an organism are performed by cell.
• Cell is bounded by cell membrane which controls all the important
processes of life.
• Cell is involved in growth, development and creation of new cells.
• Some cells like bacteria can live alone, other make colonies and some
make a multicellular organization.
• Cells perform all the life activities like respiration metabolism making
energy eliminating waste products etc

TYPES OF CELL
QNO 6: discuss Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes:
Nucleus: the cells that Lack all membrane bounded organelles and its DNA
is not enclosed inside the nuclear envelop rather dispersed in the cytoplasm
are called Prokaryotes.
The site where their DNA is found is called nucleoid.
Cell wall: peptidoglycan or other polysaccharides
Size: 1 to 10 micrometer
Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic, saprotrophs
Membrane bounded organelles. Absent
Ribosomes: 70S
Cell form: unicellular. Colonial or filamentous
Reproduction: by binary fission.(splitting in two half) mitosis meiosis
absent

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No of chromosomes. Single haploid
Movement: by flagella or cilia
Exchange of genetic material: by pilus or fimbrae
Examples Archea ,Bacteria , cyanobacteria.
Eukaryotic cells:
Nucleus: The cells that possess all membrane bounded organelles and its
DNA is also enclosed inside the nuclear envelop are called Eukaryotes.
Cell wall: in plant and algae cellulose and in fungi chitin
Size: 5 to 100 micrometer
Mode of nutrition: Autotrophs ingestive heterotrophs or saprotrophs
Membrane bounded organelles. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic
reticulum ,lysosomes plastids and vacuole present
Ribosomes: 80S
Reproduction: asexual and sexual
No of chromosomes. Single haploid to diploid even number of
chromosomes
Cell form: unicellular and multicellular
Movement: different modes
Exchange of genetic material: during meiosis
Examples: Plant cell , animal cells, fungi and protists all are Eukaryotic cells.
QNO 7: Difference Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
All mentioned above

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Q8: Cell Wall
Cell Wall:-
It is nonliving structure present in bacteria, plants, fungi and some protists.
Location:-
Cell Wall is located outside the cell membrane.
Chemical Composition:-
The cell wall of plant cell is made from cellulose
The cell wall of Fungi is made from chitin
Prokaryotes are made from murein a peptidoglycan ( it is a single molecule
made from amino acid and sugar)
Structural of Cell Wall:-
Cell Wall is mainly composed of three main layers.
i). Primary Wall:- It is the outer layer of cell wall which is composed of
cellulose. Cellulose molecules are arranged in crisscross manner.
Secondary wall:-
It is the second layer of cell wall which lies inner to the primary wall. It is
comparatively thick and rigid than the primary wall.it is composed of cellulose
lignin and some other chemicals
The secondary cell wall is present in woody structures as bark of tree nut
shells
Middle Lamella:-
It is the inner layer between primary walls of two adjacent cells.
It is composed of pectin that glue primary walls of two adjacent cells.
Plasmodesmata: there are channels present in cell wall of two adjacent cells
through which their cytoplasm are connected
Function of Cell Wall:-
cell wall is nonliving part of cells it allows water and salts to pass through
Protection: It protects the cellular contents from the outer environment.
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Support: It gives support to the plant cell.
Shape: It gives proper shape to the cell.
Rigidity: It provides rigidity to the cell.
Turgidity: plant cell can develop turgidity due to presence of cell wall.

Q 9: Explain the structure and function of cell membrane?

Location:-
All prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a thin and elastic cell membrane
covering the cytoplasm.
• It is the outermost layer of the animal cell.
• While in the cells of bacteria plants fungi and some protists, cell
membrane lies beneath cell wall.
Chemical Composition:-
Chemically cell walls are composed of 20-40% lipids and 60-80% proteins
and also contain some carbohydrates.

QNO 10: Structure of Cell Membrane:- Or fluid mosaic model.

The most acceptable model of cell membrane is Fluid mosaic model.
Fluid Mosaic Model:-
In 1972 singer and Nicolson presented a model about the structure of cell
membrane which is known as fluid mosaic model.
According to this model, the phospho lipids bilayer is a sea and the protein are
floating like ice bergs over it while some stay embedded in the bilayer.
• The lipid bilayer provide fluidity and flexibility to the membrane.
• Small quantity of Carbohydrates molecules are joined with proteins or
with lipids in the form of glycoproteins or glycolipids. These act as
surface markers for a cell and also helps the cells to recognize other
cells.
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 • In Eukaryotic cells cholesterol molecules are also present in lipid bilayer.
Which prevents stiffening of cell membrane makes it more stable and
also help secretory vesicles to fuse to the cell membrane

QNo 11: Cell membrane as differentially or selectively or semi permeable

membrane:-
Cell membrane is a thin delicate and elastic structure the covers the exterior of
the cell. Cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane because it controls the
inflow and outflow of material from the cell. it prevents the content of the cell
from escaping and controls the entry of the molecule passing through it. It
allow only the passage of water and other small molecules such as gases while
other substances such as glucose, amino acids etc can slowly diffuse through
it. Waste product are allowed to leave and harmful substances are kept out of
cells.
Membrane bounded structures: many cell organelles are bounded by cell
membrane e.g mitochondria, chloroplast ,ER ,Golgi ,Lysosomes and nucleus.
The term plasma membrane is used for the membrane bounded the cell and
term cell membrane is used for all membranes that cover the organelles or a
cell.

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QNO 12 :Function of cell membrane :-
Protection: It protects the inner parts of cell.
Contact: cell membrane forms cells point of contact with the environment
Shape: It gives proper shape to the cell.
Regulation: It regulates the inflow and outflow of substances.
Binding site: It provides binding sites for ATP and other biological molecule.
Surface marker: cell membrane also functions to communicate with other
cells and immune cells. The proteins in the plasma membrane serve as surface
marker for immune system

Q 13: Define cytoplasm? Describe the structure of cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm:-
The portion of the cell which lies between the nuclear membrane and cell
membrane is called cytoplasm. It contains a variety of cell organelles and
other substances.
Characteristics:
It is translucent, living and viscous substances.
Main Parts:-
It consists of two main parts.
• Soluble Part:-Cytosol
• Soluble liquid part contain about Water and organic and inorganic
substances..
• Insoluble Part cytogel:-
• Cell organelles are the insoluble part of cytoplasm.
Composition: it is composed of 90% water, salts ,organic molecules , energy
reserve granules , waste granules and enzymes for biochemical reactions

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Functions of cytoplasm:
• The cytoplasm of the cell provides space for the proper functioning of
the organelles.
• It also act as the site for various metabolic reactions for example
Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration)
• Cytoplasm store useful substance like protein, lipid, vitamin,
carbohydrates.
Q14: Explain the structure of nucleus?
Nucleus: -It is the most important part of cell. It is also called brain of the cell
because it controls all the cellular activities as it contain hereditary material.
Shape: - Nucleus is spherical in shape.
Location; - In animals cell nucleus is present in the center.
In plant cells, it is pushed to the side due to the presence of large central
vacuole.
Structure of Nucleus: -Following are the main parts of the nucleus.
Nuclear Membrane: -
Nucleus is bounded by a double membrane called nuclear envelope. It is present in
eukaryotes but absent in prokaryotes.
Nuclear pores or Porins: -Small pores are present on the surface of the nucleus.

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These pores allow the exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm: - Inside the nucleus there is a granular matrix called nucleoplasm. It
contains DNA wrapped around a protein Histone to form thread like structure
Chromatin which become visible during cell division in the form of
chromosomes.
Nucleolus: (Plural-nucleoli).- These are one or two rounded structures present in
the nucleoplasm. It disappears during cell division.
Function of Nucleoli: -It is responsible for the formation of ribosomal RNA. rRNA
combines with protein to make ribosomes.
QNO 15: What are chromosomes or chromatin?
Chromosomes: -Chromosomes are in the form of a network of fine threads
chromatin present in Nucleoplasm.
Terminology: -The word chromosomes have derived from two words.
Chroma mean color. Soma mean bodies.
Chemical Composition: - Chromosomes are made of deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA and proteins.
Structure: - Each chromosome is composed of two main parts.
• Two chromatids.
• One centromere.
Function of chromosomes; -It is responsible for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from parents to off springs.
Number of Chromosomes; -
Members of same species having the same numbers of chromosomes.
Chromosomes in different species are given below.
Specie Chromosomes Pairs
Human 46 23
Radish 18 9
Onion 16 8

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Q16: Describe the structure and function of Endoplasmic Reticulum? Ans:
Endoplasmic Reticulum:-
Structure:
It is an extensive network of interconnected channels present throughout cytoplasm.
These membranes are composed of flattened sacs called Cisternae.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:-
There are two type of endoplasmic reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:-
The endoplasmic reticulum which has small granules called Ribosome present on its
surface that provide a rough appearance to the organelle is called rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
It is continuous with nuclear membrane.
Function:-
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis. Proteins are
synthesized in ribosomes and enter the RER where they are modified and
ready to send elsewhere.
• Transport of materials from nuclear membrane to cytoplasm.
• They give support to the cell.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:-
The endoplasmic reticulum which has no ribosome’s present on its surface is called
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is attached with cell membrane.
Function:-
• It plays an important role in the formation of lipids.
• They transfer materials from one part of cytoplasm to another in the form of
vesicle.
• In liver they are involve Detoxification of toxic materials or drugs
• In muscles they store calcium and are called sarcoplasmic reticulum
• They give support to the cell.

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Q17: Describe the structure and function of mitochondria?
Mitochondria:- singular ( mitochondrion)
Mitochondria are the important organelle of a eukaryotic cell but absent in
prokaryotes.
Shape:- Mitochondria are oval, rod shaped or filamentous shape bodies.
Structure:-
Mitochondrion is bounded by double membrane. The outer membrane is
smooth and the inner membrane is inwardly folded these folds are called
cristae singular (crista). Cristae increase the surface area of respiratory
process. The Cristae encloses the mitochondrial matrix. The space between
outer membrane and inner cristae is called inter membranal space
Replication:-
Mitochondria are the self-replicating organelle.as they have their own DNA
and 70s ribosomes in the matrix
Function:-
Power House:-
• Mitochondria are energy producing organelles therefore they are called
powerhouse of the cell. They produce energy rich ATP molecules. they
are abundant in muscle cells.
• Mitochondria play a role in cellular aerobic respiration, where cells get
energy by breakdown of food in the presence of oxygen.

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Q18: Explain the structure and function of Golgi Bodies?
Golgi Bodies /Gogi Apparatus or Golgi complex.
first discovered by an Italian Scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898.
Shape and Structure:-
Golgi bodies consist of stacks of flattened sacs made of membrane which are
arranged parallel to each other called cisternae. these stacks are joined
together by protein matrix and supported by microtubules
The surface of golgi apparatus facing the endoplasmic reticulum is called
inner face or receiving face or cis face. Or forming face
The surface directed to words plasma membrane is outer face or releasing
face or trans face or maturing face
Lumen of golgi contain especial proteins that help in modification of a
molecule.
Other Name:- They are also known as Golgi apparatus. In plants it is
generally known by the name of Dictyosomes.
Number: 10 to 20 sets of flattened sacs
Function:-
• Golgi bodies store the secretory product. Hence involve in cell secretion.
• Golgi bodies receive the vesicles coming from ER at cis face. Modify
and pack the secretory products at their margins into small rounded sacs
called Golgi vesicles or lysosomes. And release it from its trans face.
• Golgi apparatus is the site for the synthesis of various glycolipids,
• In the plant cells, complex polysaccharides of the cell wall are
synthesized in the Golgi apparatus.
• Golgi bodies also release another organelle lysosome
• They also synthesize complex carbohydrates from simple sugar.

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Q19: Describe the structure and function of Ribosome and Plastid?
i) Ribosomes:-
Ribosomes are the only organelles found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
Position:- They are either freely dispersed in cytoplasm or attached with
ER(endoplasmic reticulum).
Discovery:- Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in 1955.
Structure:- ribosomes are not bounded by membrane. Ribosomes have two
subunits.
Large subunit. And Small subunit.
Small and large subunit combines to form ribosome. When ribosomes are not
working these subunits disassemble.
Formation:- ribosomes are produced in nucleolus.
Composition: A ribosomes is made of almost equal amount of protein and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Eukaryotic Ribosomes: Ribosome present in eukaryotes is of 80S
. Prokaryotic Ribosome: Ribosome of
prokaryotic cell is of 70s,
Group of Ribosome: Group of ribosome
attached on mRNA is called polysomes.
Function: Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes receive
instructions from DNA in the form of mRNA to assemble amino acid in right
order to make a protein.

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Q20: Describe the formation and function of lysosomes?
Lysosomes: Christian Rene de Duve discovered lysosomes. De Duve
Structure: -
These are single membrane bound organelles made by Golgi bodies.
Lysosomes contain strong hydrolytic enzymes that digest and work for the
breakdown of food and waste materials within the cell.
Function: when lysosomes are released from Golgi bodies theses are termed
as primary lysosomes. When primary lysosome fuses with the food vacuole
or its target it is called a secondary lysosome. It releases its enzymes to break
down the materials. Small molecules as amino acid are released in the cells
and used in the cell. This function is called intracellular digestion.
• Lysosomes also digest old or unwanted organelles by autophagy and
recycles the cell content. e.g mitochondria
• It is also termed as suicide bags of cell because it helps during cell death
(apoptosis).
• It helps to keep the cell clean.
Q21: Write short note on centrioles.
Centriole: -
These are the non-membranous cell organelles that are present in animal cell and in
unicellular organism.
Each cell has two centrioles at right angle to each other and are collectively called
centrosomes.
Location: - present near the nucleus. Only appears during cell division
Structure: - These are hollow open ended cylindrical structures called microtubule.
Each centriole contains nine triplets of microtubules (9*3 =27) microtubules). A
group of three microtubules is called triplet. Each microtubule is composed of
tubulin proteins.
Diameter: - Each microtubule is 0.2 micrometer in diameter.

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Function: - in Animal Cell: -
In animal cell they help in the formation of spindle fibers which help in the
separation and movement of chromosomes during cell division.
Unicellular organisms: -
In some unicellular organisms it helps in the formation of cilia and flagella which
are the locomotory organs of some unicellular organisms.
QNO 22: Plastid:
Definition;
Plastids are also membrane bounded organelles that only occur in plant and
photosynthetic protist (algae)
Types of Plastids:-
There are three types of Plastids.
i). Chloroplast:-
It is the most important and abundant type of plastids. It is bounded by double
membrane. The outer membrane is smooth while inner one give rise to
membranous sac called thylakoids. The stack of thylakoids is known as
granum (plural. grana).
Position:-These are present in green parts of plants particularly in leaves.
Color:- Chloroplast are green in color due to green pigment called chlorophyll
in thylakoids.
Structure of chloroplast:-
Chloroplast is bounded by double membranes. A smooth outer membrane and
an inner folded membrane give rise to sacs called thylakoids. Thylakoids are
stacked over one another like the pile of coins called granum( singular: grana)
Granum is attached with each other by intergrana. The photosynthetic
pigments (such as Chlorophyll) are present in grana or thylakoid.

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Stroma;-
The semi fluid and gelatinous matrix present inside the chloroplast is called
stroma.it contain 70s ribosomes and DNA
Function;-The process of photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast.
Photosynthesis complete in two steps, light reaction and dark reaction.
Light Reaction;-
Light reaction of photosynthesis occurs in grana.
Dark Reaction:-
Dark Reaction of photosynthesis occurs in stroma.
ii- Chromoplast:- Location:-
It is present in the petal of flowers and in the skin of ripened fruits.
Colour:-In plants colours other than green are due to Chromoplasts.
Function:- Its bright colour attracts insects for pollination.

iii- Leucoplast:
Leucoplast is colorless plastids. They are present in underground parts of the
plants particularly in roots.
Position:- They are present in underground part of the plant called roots. and
seeds
Colour: - Leucoplast is colorless.
Function: They store food materials such as starch, protein and lipid.
Types of leucoplast:
• Amyloplast: stores starch
• Elaioplast: stores oils
• Protrinoplast: stores protein

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QNO 23: Vacuole: -
It is a single membrane bounded organelle present in the cytoplasm of both
plants and animal cells. Vacuole contain water ions organic compounds and
waste in the form of sap.
Tonoplast: -
Vacuole is bounded by single membrane called tonoplast. Animal cell there
are many small vacuoles to store water, food or waste.
In immature plant cell there are small vacuole but as the cell grows there is a
single large vacuole present in the center. When the vacuole is filled with sap
its exerts pressure on cytoplasm against cell wall. Plant Cells in this state are
called turgid. And the pressure inside the cell is called turgor pressure.
In unicellular organisms there are two vacuoles.
Food vacuole: Digestion of food occurs in food vacuole.
Contractile vacuole: Excretion (removal of metabolic waste and toxic
materials).
Function: -
• A plant vacuole store important material like water, amino acids, sugar
and some minerals.
• To keep the plant cell turgid
• To store reserve food or waste inside the cell.
• Some unicellular organisms use contractile vacuole for the elimination of
wastes from their body.

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 Q24: Write short note on cytoskeleton?
Meaning: Skeleton of cytoplasm.
Cytoskeleton is an important component of a cell, made up of protein fibers.
Structure: Three important types of filaments make up the cytoskeletons are,
i- Microtubules ii- Microfilaments iii- intermediate filament
i. Microtubules: -
Microtubules are made up of a thick protein called
tubulin. They Unbranched Tube like structure
Function: -
• Microtubules are also the major component of
cilia and flagella.
• Microtubules are used to hold the structure of the cell.
• Microtubules form spindle fiber during cell division hence involved in
movements with in the cell
• It maintains the cell’s shape, anchors organelles in place
Microfilaments: are made up of a thin contractile proteins called actin
Microfilaments are often used by cells to
change their shapes
• Responsible for muscle contraction
• Cytoplasmic streaming ,amoeboid
movements and cytokinesis during
cell division
Intermediate filament: are composed of proteins keratin and vimentin
• They form branching network in the cell
• They maintain cell structure and offers strength and stability to the cell.
• In tissues they fix the cell with each other.

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