CHAPTER 2

SETS & VENN DIAGRAM

A set is a collection of objects, and these objects are called the elements of the set. Some sets
can be described by listing their elements within braces, for example, {1,2,3,4} or {all natural
number between 1 and 4} and a Venn diagram is a graphical presentation of how sets are related

Absolutely anything can be considered a set. Below you'll see just a sampling of items that
could be considered as sets:

• Your favorite clothes

• The English alphabet
• Positive even numbers
• An interval [1,2] which contains all real numbers between (and including) 1 and 2.

A set could have as many entries as you would like. It could have 10, 15 or even an infinite
number of entries. For example, in the above list, the English alphabet would have 26 entries,
while the set of even numbers and the set [1,2] would have an infinite number of entries. Each
entry in a set is known as an element.

For example, the English alphabet could be written as

{a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, I, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z}.

The order does not matter. This way of writing a set is called Roster Notation.

Note that {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z} = {g, h, i, j, k, l, m,

n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, a, b, c, d, e, f}.
Positive even numbers could be {2,4,6,8,10,...} (Note: the dots at the end indicating that the
set goes on infinitely).

There are special symbols to learn so we don’t have to write it out every time. “3 is an element
of the set C” is written while we write when “3 is not an element of the set C”.
2.1 Operations on sets

2.1.1 Union of sets:

A union of two or more sets is another set that contains everything contained in the previous
sets. The Union is designated by the symbol .

If A and B are sets then represents the union of A and B, by

Example 1: Use the Venn diagram to Find C .

Let’s illustrate using C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and D = {2,-2}.
The left-hand circle below represents C and the right-hand one represents D.
The shaded portion is C  D .
It shows all those points that are in either C or D or both.

CD

Example 2: Find

A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={5,7,9,11,13}

Notice that when we write out the united set we do not write "5" twice. We simply list all of
the elements of the new set.

Example 3: Find

A={all the books written by Charles Dickens}

B={all the books written by Mark Twain}
A B = {all books written by either Charles Dickens or Mark Twain}
Example 4: Draw a venn diagram to represent

A={1,2,3,4,5}

B={6,7,8,9,10}

2.1.2 Intersection of sets

The intersection of two (or more) sets is those elements that they have in common.
The intersection is designated by the symbol . So if A and B are sets then the intersection (the

elements they both have in common) is denoted by A B.

Venn diagrams also can illustrate the intersection of two sets. The left-hand circle again
represents C and the right-hand circle is D.
The shaded portion is C  D , those points which belong to both C and D

CD
Example 1:

A={1,3,5,7,9}
B={2,3,4,5,6}
The elements they have in common are 3 and 5.

Example 2:

A={The English alphabet}

B={vowels}
So = {vowels}

Example 3:

A={1,2,3,4,5} B={6,7,8,9,10}
In this case, A and B have nothing in common.
As usual, we have a symbol for this phenomenon: .
This is called the “empty set.”
Notice that this symbol has no set brackets around it. That is because literally means a set
with nothing in it: .
In this example .

These sets that we have been looking at are all finite sets. They only have a finite number of
elements.

2.1.3 B without A
This is written B-A or B\A It is the set of elements that are in B but are not in A.

Example 1: Find B-A

A={1,3,5,7,9} and B={2,3,4,5,6}

3 and 5 are in the intersection of A and B.
So for B - A we have to throw out 3 and 5 from B.
B – A = {2, 4, 6}
Example 2: Draw a Venn diagram that represents B\A of A={1,3,5,7,9} and B={1,2,3,4,…,8}

2.1.4 Universal Set

The Universal Set U is a set which contains all the elements or objects involved in the problem
under consideration.

Venn diagram presenting Universal Set:

 a) Union

b) Intersection

c) B without A, B\A or B-A

Set Difference: The relative complement or set difference of sets A and B, denoted A – B, is
the set of all elements in A that are not in B.

In set-builder notation, A – B = {x ∈ U : x ∈ A and x ∉ B}= A ∩ B'.

2.1.5 Complement of a set

The complement of A, denoted by A', is given by A'=U-A. It is the set of elements that are in
U but are not in A.

2.1.6 Set –Builder Notation

A=  x  R 2  x  4 means A consists of all the real numbers between 2 and 4 and including
2 and 4. The vertical line is read as “such that”. Note that A can also be written in interval
notation as [2, 4]. A has infinitely many elements. Suppose B = (1, 3)

Then and . Note that the union or intersection of intervals is an

interval, and the union or intersection of finite sets is a finite set.

C= x  R x 2

− 25 = 0 is a set with only 2 elements. What are they? Since the equation
has solutions , the set can be written as .

Exercises 2.1:

1. If U = (1,2,…,10}, A = {2,4,5}, B = (1,4,6,7,8}

Find , , Ac, Bc , U\A by using the Venn diagram

2. Find , , Ac, Bc , Cc , U\A, ,

If U = R, A = (0, ∞), B = (-5, 10), C= {x∊R | x2 – 4 =0}

2.2 Subsets
Let A be the set of objects that you own in your home and let B be the set of objects that you
own which are kept on the ground floor of your home. Let C be the set of objects that you
own which are kept in your bedroom [Note your bedroom is on the ground floor] and let D be
the set of objects that you own which are kept under your bed

Now we could say D is contained within C, which in turn is contained within B, which in turn
is contained within A.

This is the idea of a subset. D is said to be a subset of C since it is completely contained

within C (another way to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of set C). C
is said to be a subset of B since it is completely contained within B (another way to think of
this is every element of set C is also an element of set A). B is said to be a subset of A since it
is completely contained within A (another way to think of this is every element of set D is
also an element of set C).

The symbol for the subset is .

So and and . This is an example of nested sets.

For example, A={1,2,3,4,5}; B={1,2,3}, C={1,2} and D = {1}

and and

Thus We call this a nested set

However, if even one element of one set is not contained within the other then they are not
subsets.
If A were defined as {1,2,3,4,5} and B as {3,4,5,6} then B would not be a subset of A since
but .

The symbol for “not a subset” is .

We would write B ⊈ A.

The notion of subsets is graphically illustrated below

In this first illustration, B is entirely within A so .

In this second illustration, A and B have nothing in common ( ) so we could write

and .

In the case of B being a subset of A, but with A and B not being equal, we write and

say that B is a proper subset of A.

Note:

1. If N is the set of all natural numbers, I represent the set of all integers, Q the set of all
rational numbers and R is the set of all real numbers, then N
2. Every set is a subset of itself; that is for any set A. However is not true.
3. An empty set is a subset of any set A: is for any set A. In order to explain this,
let us rephrase the definition of subset B is subset of A if and only if there is no object
that belongs to B and does not belong to A. It is clear that there exists no object that
belongs to and does not belong to A for the simple reason that there exists no object
that belongs to at all. Hence .
4. Two sets are equal if they contain the same elements. For example, A= {a, b, c, d} and
B = {d, a, b, c} i.e. and and therefore A = B.

The universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle and the other sets are
represented by circles or ellipses or small rectangles (or some curved figures!) lying within the
rectangle. Here is an example where every element of A is also in B.

Example 1:
A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and B={2,3,4}.
B is entirely within A (i.e. every element of B is also an element of A) so we can write
.
Also, since and A and B are not equal, B is a proper subset of A and we can write

Example 2:
A={1,2,3,4,5} and B={1,2,3,4,5}
Here and but A and B are not proper subsets as they are equal. That is we could
write and .
2.2.1 Sets of numbers
The sets that we will be concentrating on are sets of numbers. Below you will graphically see
the most common sets of numbers, along with brief descriptions of each major set.

Whole numbers Integers are the

are positive The Real Numbers positive and
counting negative counting
numbers. numbers.
Whole numbers Integers do not
Whole
do not have any contain decimals
decimals and Numbers and
they cannot be they cannot be
Integers
fractions. fractions
The whole {Whole numbers}
Irrational Numbers
numbers are Rational Numbers ⊆{Integers}
{0,1,2,3,4,5,...} The Integers are
{...-5,-4,-3,-2,-
1,0,1,2,3,4,5,...}
Rational numbers are any The Irrational numbers are any The Real numbers
number that can be number that cannot be expressed as encompass everything
expressed as a ratio of two a ratio of two integers {Real numbers}={Rational
integers (a ratio being one The Greek constant pi, (π) which is numbers} {Irrational
number placed over used in calculating the area and numbers}.
another with a "/" in circumference of a circle, is one
between-we will examine example of an Irrational number. π
this more thoroughly in the is approximately equal to 3.14
unit on fractions) Square roots of numbers that are not
{integers} ⊆ {Rational square are also irrational numbers
numbers}
The Rational numbers
include decimals and
fractions.
Just as an example of some
Rational numbers, {1/3,
5/1 (=5), -2/3, -2/1 (=-2),
0.56, -0.02} ⊆ {Rational
numbers}

List of Numbers
Symbol Name Sets
N Natural Numbers N={1,2,3,4,…}
 Z Integers Z={…,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
3,…}
Q Rational Numbers Q={a/b, b≠0 where a,b ∊ Z}
Q’ Irrational Numbers
R Real Numbers x∊(-∞, ∞)

2.2.2 Laws of sets

Union or intersection with itself

Identity

Commutative

Associative

i. A  (B  C ) = ( A  B )  C
ii. A  (B  C ) = ( A  B )  C

Distributive

i. A  (B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C )
ii. A  (B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C )

Line Segments and Set Operations

We can also perform set operations on infinite sets of real numbers, usually written in interval
form by first representing the sets graphically on a number line and then performing the
required operations.

In general, the set A= {x∊R | a ≤ x ≤ b} is in interval form A=[a, b] and drawn

on the number line.

We also have:
 SET-BUILDER INTERVAL FORM NUMBER LINE
NOTATION
A= {x∊R | a ≤ x ≤ b} A = [a, b]

B= {x∊R | a ≤ x < b} B = [a, b)

C= {x∊R | a < x ≤ b} C = (a, b]

D= {x∊R | a < x < b} D = (a, b)

E= {x∊R | x ≤ a} E = (-∞, a]

F= {x∊R | x < a} F = (-∞, a)

G= {x∊R | x > a} G = (a, ∞)

H= {x∊R | x ≥ a} H = [a, ∞)

Example 1:

Draw the line segments A = [1, 5]; B =(2,3) ; c=(3,∞) and D=(-∞, 4] on the same number line.

Example 2: Draw the line segments A=[2,7]; B=(3,6); U=(1,9). Then find AυB, A∩B, Ac, Bc,
B\A

Exercises:

1. Find , , Bc , Cc , U\A, ,
If U = R, A = (0, ∞), B = (-5, 10), C= {x∊R | x2 – 4 =0}

2. Draw the line segments A = [0,7], B=(3,2], U=[0,10]. Find AυB, A∩B, Ac, Bc, B\A
3. A= { x x 2 − 9 = 0} , B={1,2,3}, U = {-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3}, Find AυB, A∩B, A’, B’, B\A