Mathematics can be broadly classified into two categories −

 Continuous Mathematics − It is based upon continuous number line or the

real numbers. It is characterized by the fact that between any two numbers,
there are almost always an infinite set of numbers. For example, a function in
continuous mathematics can be plotted in a smooth curve without breaks.
 Discrete Mathematics − It involves distinct values; i.e. between any two
points, there are a countable number of points. For example, if we have a
finite set of objects, the function can be defined as a list of ordered pairs
having these objects, and can be presented as a complete list of those pairs.

Topics in Discrete Mathematics

Though there cannot be a definite number of branches of Discrete Mathematics, the
following topics are almost always covered in any study regarding this matter −

 Sets, Relations and Functions

 Mathematical Logic
 Mathematical Induction and Recurrence Relations
 Boolean Algebra
We will discuss each of these concepts in the subsequent chapters of this tutorial.
German mathematician G. Cantor introduced the concept of sets. He had defined a
set as a collection of definite and distinguishable objects selected by the means of
certain rules or description.
Set theory forms the basis of several other fields of study like counting theory,
relations, graph theory and finite state machines. In this chapter, we will cover the
different aspects of Set Theory.

Set - Definition
A set is an unordered collection of different elements. A set can be written explicitly
by listing its elements using set bracket. If the order of the elements is changed or
any element of a set is repeated, it does not make any changes in the set.
Some Example of Sets
 A set of all positive integers
 A set of all the planets in the solar system
 A set of all the states in India
 A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet

Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways −

 Roster or Tabular Form

 Set Builder Notation
Roster or Tabular Form
The set is represented by listing all the elements comprising it. The elements are
enclosed within braces and separated by commas.
Example 1 − Set of vowels in English alphabet, A={a,e,i,o,u}

Example 2 − Set of odd numbers less than 10, B={1,3,5,7,9}

Set Builder Notation

The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of the set have in
common. The set is described as A={x:p(x)}

Example 1 − The set {a,e,i,o,u} is written as –

A={x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Example 2 − The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as –

B={x:1≤x<10 and (x is not divisible by 2)≠0}

If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by x∈S and if an element y is

not a member of set S, it is denoted by y∉S.
Example − If S={1,1.2,1.7,2},1∈S but 1.5∉S
Some Important Sets
N − the set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}
Z − the set of all integers = {.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
Z − the set of all positive integers
+
Q − the set of all rational numbers
R − the set of all real numbers
W − the set of all whole numbers

Cardinality of a Set
Cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements of the set. The
number is also referred as the cardinal number. If a set has an infinite number of
elements, its cardinality is ∞.
Example − |{1,4,3,5}|=4,|{1,2,3,4,5,…}|=∞
If there are two sets X and Y,
 |X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having same cardinality. It occurs when the
number of elements in X is exactly equal to the number of elements in Y. In
this case, there exists a bijective function ‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|≤|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal to set Y’s
cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is less than or equal to
that of Y. Here, there exists an injective function ‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s cardinality. It occurs
when number of elements in X is less than that of Y. Here, the function ‘f’
from X to Y is injective function but not bijective.
 If |X|≤|Y| and |X|≥|Y| then |X|=|Y|. The sets X and Y are commonly referred as
equivalent sets.

Types of Sets
Sets can be classified into many types. Some of which are finite, infinite, subset,
universal, proper, singleton set, etc.
Finite Set
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and 70>x>50}

Infinite Set
A set which contains infinite number of elements is called an infinite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and x>10}

Subset
A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X⊆Y) if every element of X is an element of
set Y.
Example 1 − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}. Here set Y is a subset of set X as
all the elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.
Example 2 − Let, X={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3}. Here set Y is a subset (Not a proper
subset) of set X as all the elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can
write Y⊆X.
Proper Subset

The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not equal to”. A Set X is a
proper subset of set Y (Written as X⊂Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y
and |X|<|Y|.
Example − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}. Here set Y⊂X since all elements
in Y are contained in X too and X has at least one element is more than set Y.
Universal Set
It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or application. All the sets in
that context or application are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal
sets are represented as U.
Example − We may define U as the set of all animals on earth. In this case, set
of all mammals is a subset of U, set of all fishes is a subset of U, set of all
insects is a subset of U, and so on.
Empty Set or Null Set
An empty set contains no elements. It is denoted by ∅. As the number of elements
in an empty set is finite, empty set is a finite set. The cardinality of empty set or null
set is zero.
Example − S={x|x∈N and 7<x<8}=∅
Singleton Set or Unit Set
Singleton set or unit set contains only one element. A singleton set is denoted
by {s}.
Example − S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}
Equal Set
If two sets contain the same elements they are said to be equal.
Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={6,1,2}, they are equal as every element of set A
is an element of set B and every element of set B is an element of set A.
Equivalent Set
If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they are called equivalent sets.
Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={16,17,22}, they are equivalent as cardinality of A
is equal to the cardinality of B. i.e. |A|=|B|=3
Overlapping Set
Two sets that have at least one common element are called overlapping sets.
In case of overlapping sets −
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
 n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
 n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)
 n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={6,12,42}. There is a common element ‘6’, hence
these sets are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have even one element in
common. Therefore, disjoint sets have the following properties −
 n(A∩B)=∅
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={7,9,14}, there is not a single common element,
hence these sets are overlapping sets.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagram, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic diagram that shows
all possible logical relations between different mathematical sets.
Examples

Set Operations
Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference, Complement of
Set, and Cartesian Product.
Set Union
The union of sets A and B (denoted by A∪B) is the set of elements which are in A, in
B, or in both A and B. Hence, A∪B={x|x∈A OR x∈B}.
Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}.
(The common element occurs only once)

Set Intersection
The intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A∩B) is the set of elements which are
in both A and B. Hence, A∩B={x|x∈A AND x∈B}.
Example − If A={11,12,13} and B={13,14,15}, then A∩B={13}.

Set Difference/ Relative Complement

The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A–B) is the set of elements which
are only in A but not in B. Hence, A−B={x|x∈A AND x∉B}.
Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},
then (A−B)={10,11,12} and (B−A)={14,15}. Here, we can see (A−B)≠(B−A)

Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A (denoted by A′) is the set of elements which are not in
set A. Hence, A′={x|x∉A}.
More specifically, A′=(U−A) where U is a universal set which contains all objects.
Example − If A={x|x belongs to set of odd integers} then A′={y|y doesnot belong to set of
odd integers}

Cartesian Product / Cross Product

The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1,A2,…An denoted as A1×A2⋯×An can
be defined as all possible ordered pairs (x1,x2,…xn) where x1∈A1,x2∈A2,…xn∈An
Example − If we take two sets A={a,b} and B={1,2},
The Cartesian product of A and B is written as − A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
The Cartesian product of B and A is written as − B×A={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}

Power Set
Power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the empty set. The
cardinality of a power set of a set S of cardinality n is 2n. Power set is denoted
as P(S).
Example −
For a set S={a,b,c,d} let us calculate the subsets −
 Subsets with 0 elements − {∅} (the empty set)
 Subsets with 1 element − {a},{b},{c},{d}
 Subsets with 2 elements − {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
 Subsets with 3 elements − {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
 Subsets with 4 elements − {a,b,c,d}
Hence, P(S)=
{{∅},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},
{a,b,c,d}}
|P(S)| = 16
Note − The power set of an empty set is also an empty set.
|P({∅})|= 20=1

Partitioning of a Set
Partition of a set, say S, is a collection of n disjoint subsets, say P1,P2,…Pn that
satisfies the following three conditions −
 Pi does not contain the empty set.
[Pi≠{∅} for all 0<i≤n]
 The union of the subsets must equal the entire original set.
[P1∪P2∪⋯∪Pn=S]
 The intersection of any two distinct sets is empty.
[Pa∩Pb={∅}, for a≠b where n≥a,b≥0]
Example
Let S={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
One probable partitioning is {a},{b,c,d},{e,f,g,h}
Another probable partitioning is {a,b},{c,d},{e,f,g,h}
Bell Numbers
Bell numbers give the count of the number of ways to partition a set. They are
denoted by Bn where n is the cardinality of the set.
Example −
Let S={1,2,3}, n=|S|=3
The alternate partitions are −
1. ∅,{1,2,3}
2. {1},{2,3}
3. {1,2},{3}
4. {1,3},{2}
5. {1},{2},{3}
Hence B3=5