Unit- IV

MECHATRONICS & ROBOTICS

Introduction to Mechatronics:

Mechatronics, also called mechatronics engineering, is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering

that focuses on the integration of mechanical, electronic and electrical engineering systems, and
also includes a combination of robotics, electronics, computer
science, telecommunications, systems, control, and product engineering.
As technology advances over time, various subfields of engineering have succeeded in both
adapting and multiplying. The intention of mechatronics is to produce a design solution that unifies
each of these various subfields. Mechatronics is defined as an "approach aiming at the synergistic
integration of mechanics, electronics, control theory, and computer science within product design
and manufacturing, in order to improve and/or optimize its functionality".

4.1 Mechatronics design process:

Figure 4.1: Stages of a Mechatronics design process

The design process for any system can be considered as involving a number of stages.

1 The need

The design process begins with a need from, perhaps, a customer or client. This may be identified by
market research being used to establish the needs of potential customers.

2 Analysis of the problem

The first stage in developing a design is to find out the true nature of the problem, i.e. analysing it.
This is an important stage in that not defining the problem accurately can lead to wasted time on
designs that will not fulfil the need.

3 Preparation of a specification

Following the analysis, a specification of the requirements can be prepared. This will state the
problem, any constraints placed on the solution, and the criteria which may be used to judge the
quality of the design. In stating the problem, all the functions required of the design, together with
any desirable features, should be specified. Thus there might be a statement of mass, dimensions,
types and range of motion required, accuracy, input and output requirements of elements, interfaces,
power requirements, operating environment, relevant standards and codes of practice, etc.

4 Generation of possible solutions

This is often termed the conceptual stage. Outline solutions are prepared which are worked out in
sufficient detail to indicate the means of obtaining each of the required functions, e.g. approximate
sizes, shapes, materials and costs. It also means finding out what has been done before for similar
problems; there is no sense in reinventing the wheel.

5 Selections of a suitable solution

The various solutions are evaluated and the most suitable one selected. Evaluation will often involve
the representation of a system by a model and then simulation to establish how it might react to
inputs.

6 Production of a detailed design

The detail of the selected design has now to be worked out. This might require the production of
prototypes or mock-ups in order to determine the optimum details of a design.

7 Production of working drawings

The selected design is then translated into working drawings, circuit diagrams, etc., so that the item
can be made.

It should not be considered that each stage of the design process just flows on stage by stage. There
will often be the need to return to an earlier stage and give it further consideration. Thus when at the
stage of generating possible solutions there might be a need to go back and reconsider the analysis of
the problem.

Traditional and mechatronics designs

Engineering design is a complex process involving interactions between many skills and disciplines.
With traditional design, the approach was for the mechanical engineer to design the mechanical
elements, then the control engineer to come along and design the control system. This gives what
might be termed a sequential approach to the design. However, the basis of the mechatronics
approach is considered to lie in the concurrent inclusion of the disciplines of mechanical engineering,
electronics, computer technology and control engineering in the approach to design. The inherent
concurrency of this approach depends very much on system modelling and then simulation of how
the model reacts to inputs and hence how the actual system might react to inputs.

Figure 4.2: Traditional and mechatronics designs

As an illustration of how a multidisciplinary approach can aid in the solution of a problem, consider
the design of bathroom scales. Such scales might be considered only in terms of the compression of
springs and a mechanism used to convert the motion into rotation of a shaft and hence movement of
a pointer across a scale; a problem that has to be taken into account in the design is that the weight
indicated should not depend on the person’s position on the scales. However, other possibilities can
be considered if we look beyond a purely mechanical design. For example, the springs might be
replaced by load cells with strain gauges and the output from them used with a microprocessor to
provide a digital readout of the weight on an light-emitting diode (LED) display. The resulting scales
might be mechanically simpler, involving fewer components and moving parts. The complexity has,
however, been transferred to the software.

The differences between traditional and mechatronics designs are as listed below:

Table 4.1. Comparison between traditional and mechatronics approach

4.2 Measurement systems
Of particular importance in any discussion of mechatronics are measurement systems. Measurement
systems can, in general, be considered to be made up of three basic elements (as illustrated in Figure
1.6).

1 A sensor responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a signal which is
related to the quantity. For example, a thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The input to
the sensor is a temperature and the output is an e.m.f., which is related to the temperature
value.
2 A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a condition which
is suitable either for display or, in the case of a control system, for use to exercise control.
Thus, for example, the output from a thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f. and might be fed
through an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is the signal conditioner.
3 A display system displays the output from the signal conditioner. This might, for example, be
a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.

Figure 4.3: A measurement system and its constituent elements

Figure 4.4: A digital thermometer system.

As an example, consider a digital thermometer (Figure 1.7). This has an input of temperature
to a sensor, probably a semiconductor diode. The potential difference across the sensor is, at
constant current, a measure of the temperature. This potential difference is then amplified by
an operational amplifier to give a voltage which can directly drive a display. The sensor and
operational amplifier may be incorporated on the same silicon chip. Sensors are discussed in
Chapter 2 and signal conditioners in Chapter 3. Measurement systems involving all elements
are discussed in Chapter 6.

4.3 Control systems

A control system can be thought of as a system which can be used to:

1. Control some variable to some particular value, e.g. a central heating system where the
temperature is controlled to a particular value.
 2. Control the sequence of events, e.g. a washing machine where when the dials are set to, say,
‘white’ and the machine is then controlled to a particular washing cycle, i.e. sequence of
events, appropriate to that type of clothing.
3. Control whether an event occurs or not, e.g. a safety lock on a machine where it cannot be
operated until a guard is in position.

Figure 4.3: Block diagram of a control system.

There are basically two types of control system:

1. Open – loop control system
2. Closed – loop control system
Open – Loop Control System

Figure 1 Open loop control system block diagram

As shown in Figure 7, a system in which output is dependent on input but controlling action
of input is totally independent of the output or changes in output of the system is called an
“open-loop system”.
Here input is applied to the controller which generates the actuating signal required to control
the process when the controlled process is giving out the necessary desired controlled output.
Example: Traffic Light Controller
A traffic light control system used on roads is time – dependent. The traffic on the road becomes
mobile or stationary depending on the duration and sequence of lamp glow. The sequence and
duration are ensured by relays which are predetermined and not dependent on the rush on the
road. A typical traffic light is shown in Figure 8.
 Figure 2 Traffic Light showing open loop control system

Advantages
1. Open – loop systems are relatively simple and consequently low cost.
2. They are more convenient when output is difficult to measure.
3. Their maintenance is easy.
4. Good reliability.
5. Generally these are not troubled with the problems of stability.
Disadvantages
1. Cannot sense variations in the external environment.
2. Cannot sense internal disturbances in the system.
3. To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration of the controller is necessary time to
time.
4. Optimization in control is not possible.
5. Inaccurate system.
Closed – Loop Control System
A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on the output or
changes in output is called “closed-loop system”. To have dependence of input on the output,
these systems use the feedback property.
Feedback: It is the property of the system by which it permits the output to be compared with
the reference input so that appropriate action can be decided. Here output or a part of the output
is feedback to the input for comparison with the reference input applied to it.
The feedback is said to be negative when the signal which, is the feedback subtracted from
the input signal that is required to control a system. Positive feedback occurs when the signal
feedback adds to the input signal.
Example: DC Motor Speed
The DC shunt motor is used when field current is kept constant and armature voltage is changed
to obtain the desired speed. The feedback is taken by speed tachometer. This generates voltages
required to the desired speed. This difference is used to change the input to the controller which
cumulatively changes the speed to the motor as required. A typical block diagram of a DC
motor is shown in Figure 9.
 Figure 3 DC motor closed loop control

Advantages:
1. Accuracy of these systems is always very high.
2. Senses environmental changes.
3. Senses internal disturbances.
4. Reduced effect of non - linearity & distortion.
5. Operating frequency (bandwidth) for these systems are high.
Disadvantages:
1. Complicated system.
2. Greater chance of breakdown as a consequence of the greater number of components.
3. Time consuming from design point of view.
4. System is expensive.
5. Low reliability.
A comparison between an open loop and a closed loop control system is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparison between Open and Closed Loop System

Open – Loop Control System Closed – Loop Control System

Any change in output has no effect on the Changes in output affects the input which is
input, that is, feedback control exists. possible by use of feedback
Output measurement is not used for Operation measurement is necessary
operation of system.
Feedback element is absent Feedback element is present.
Emf detector is absent Emf detector is necessary.
Highly sensitive to the disturbances. Less sensitive to the disturbances
Highly sensitive to the environmental Less sensitive to the environmental changes.
changes.
 Bandwidth is small. Bandwidth is large.
Simple to design and cheap. Complicated to design and more costly.
Highly affected by non - linearities. Reduced effect of non - linearities.

4.4 Programmable logic controllers

In many simple systems there might be just an embedded microcontroller, this being a microprocessor
with memory all integrated on one chip, which has been specifically programmed for the task
concerned. A more adaptable form is the programmable logic controller (PLC). This is a
microprocessor-based controller which uses programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting and arithmetic to control events and
can be readily reprogrammed for different tasks. Figure 1.19 shows the control action of a
programmable logic controller, the inputs being signals from, say, switches being closed and the
program used to determine how the controller should respond to the inputs and the output it should
then give.

Programmable logic controllers are widely used in industry where on/ off control is required. For
example, they might be used in process control where a tank of liquid is to be filled and then heated
to a specific temperature before being emptied. The control sequence might thus be as follows.

1 Switch on pump to move liquid into the tank.

2 Switch off pump when a level detector gives the on signal, so indicating that the liquid has reached
the required level.

3 Switch on heater.

4 Switch off heater when a temperature sensor gives the on signal to indicate the required
temperature has been reached.

5 Switch on pump to empty the liquid from the container.

6 Switch off pump when a level detector gives an on signal to indicate that the tank is empty.

See Chapter 14 for a more detailed discussion of programmable logic controllers and examples of their
use.

Figure 4.4: Block diagram of a Programmable logic controller.

4.5 Sensors - Displacement, Position and Proximity sensors
Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which some object has
been moved.

Figure 4.5: Diagram of a Displacement sensor

Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some object in relation to
some reference point.

Figure 4.6: Diagram of a Position sensor

Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved
to within some particular critical distance of the sensor. They are essentially devices which give on/off
outputs.

Figure 4.7: Diagram of a Proximity sensor

Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types: contact sensors in which the
measured object comes into mechanical contact with the sensor, or non-contacting where there is no
physical contact between the measured object and the sensor. For those linear displacement methods
involving contact, there is usually a sensing shaft which is in direct contact with the object being
monitored. The displacement of this shaft is then monitored by a sensor. The movement of the shaft
may be used to cause changes in electrical voltage, resistance, capacitance or mutual inductance. For
angular displacement methods involving mechanical connection, the rotation of a shaft might directly
drive, through gears, the rotation of the transducer element. Non-contacting sensors might involve
the presence in the vicinity of the measured object causing a change in the air pressure in the sensor,
or perhaps a change in inductance or capacitance.
4.6 Actuators - Hydraulic and Pneumatic.
Pneumatic signals are often used to control final control elements, even when the control system is
otherwise electrical. This is because such signals can be used to actuate large valves and other high-
power control devices and so move significant loads.

The main drawback with pneumatic systems is, however, the compressibility of air. Hydraulic systems
can be used for even higher power control devices but are more expensive than pneumatic systems
and there are hazards associated with oil leaks which do not occur with air leaks. The atmospheric
pressure varies with both location and time but in pneumatics is generally taken to be 105 Pa, such a
pressure being termed 1 bar.

4.6.1 Hydraulic Systems

With a hydraulic system, pressurised oil is provided by a pump driven by an electric motor. The pump
pumps oil from a sump through a non-return valve and an accumulator to the system, from which it
returns to the sump. Figure 4.8(a) illustrates the arrangement. A pressure-relief valve is included, this
being to release the pressure if it rises above a safe level, the non-return valve is to prevent the oil
being back driven to the pump and the accumulator is to smooth out any short-term fluctuations in
the output oil pressure. Essentially the accumulator is just a container in which the oil is held under
pressure against an external force, Figure 4.8(b) showing the most commonly used form which is gas
pressurised and involves gas within a bladder in the chamber containing the hydraulic fluid; an older
type involved a spring-loaded piston. If the oil pressure rises then the bladder contracts, increases the
volume the oil can occupy and so reduces the pressure. If the oil pressure falls, the bladder expands
to reduce the volume occupied by the oil and so increases its pressure.

Figure 4.8: (a) Hydraulic power (b) Accumulator

Commonly used hydraulic pumps are the gear pump, the vane pump and the piston pump. The gear
pump consists of two close-meshing gear wheels which rotate in opposite directions (Figure 4.8(a)).
Fluid is forced through the pump as it becomes trapped between the rotating gear teeth and the
housing and so is transferred from the inlet port to be discharged at the outlet port. Such pumps are
widely used, being low cost and robust. They generally operate at pressures below about 15 MPa and
at 2400 rotations per minute. The maximum flow capacity is about 0.5 m3 min. However, leakage
occurs between the teeth and the casing and between the interlocking teeth, and this limits the
efficiency. The vane pump has spring-loaded sliding vanes slotted in a driven rotor (Figure 7.2(b)). As
the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the contours of the casing. This results in fluid becoming trapped
between successive vanes and the casing and transported round from the inlet port to outlet port.
The leakage is less than with the gear pump. Piston pumps used in hydraulics can take a number of
forms. With the radial piston pump (Figure 7.2(c)), a cylinder block rotates round the stationary cam
and this causes hollow pistons, with spring return, to move in and out.

The result is that fluid is drawn in from the inlet port and transported round for ejection from the
discharge port. The axial piston pump (Figure 7.2(d)) has pistons which move axially rather than
radially. The pistons are arranged axially in a rotating cylinder block and made to move by contact with
the swash plate. This plate is at an angle to the drive shaft and thus as the shaft rotates they move the
pistons so that air is sucked in when a piston is opposite the inlet port and expelled when it is opposite
the discharge port. Piston pumps have a high efficiency and can be used at higher hydraulic pressures
than gear or vane pumps.

Figure 4.9: (a) Gear Pump (b) Vane Pump (c) Radial Piston pump (d) Axial Piston Pump with swash plate

4.6.2 Pneumatic Systems

With a pneumatic power supply (Figure 4.10) an electric motor drives an air compressor. The air inlet
to the compressor is likely to be filtered and via a silencer to reduce the noise level. A pressure-relief
valve provides protection against the pressure in the system rising above a safe level. Since the air
compressor increases the temperature of the air, there is likely to be a cooling system and to remove
contamination and water from the air a filter with a water trap. An air receiver increases the volume
of air in the system and smoothes out any short-term pressure fluctuations.

Figure 4.10: (a) Single acting, single stage, vertical, reciprocating compressor

(b) Rotary vane compressor (c) Screw compressor

Commonly used air compressors are ones in which successive volumes of air are isolated and then
compressed. Figure 4.10(a) shows the basic form of a single-acting, single-stage, vertical, reciprocating
compressor. On the air intake stroke, the descending piston causes air to be sucked into the chamber
through the spring-loaded inlet valve and when the piston starts to rise again, the trapped air forces
the inlet valve to close and so becomes compressed. When the air pressure has risen sufficiently, the
spring-loaded outlet valve opens and the trapped air flows into the compressed-air system. After the
piston has reached the top dead centre it then begins to descend and the cycle repeats itself. Such a
compressor is termed single-acting because one pulse of air is produced per piston stroke; double-
acting compressors are designed to produce pulses of air on both the up and down strokes of the
piston. It is also termed single-stage because the compressor goes directly from atmospheric pressure
to the required pressure in a single operation. For the production of compressed air at more than a
few bars, two or more stages are generally used.

Normally two stages are used for pressures up to about 10 to 15 bar and more stages for higher
pressures. Thus with a two-stage compressor we might have the first stage taking air at atmospheric
pressure and compressing it to, say, 2 bar and then the second stage compressing this air to, say, 7
bar. Reciprocating piston compressors can be used as a single-stage compressor to produce air
pressures up to about 12 bar and as a multistage compressor up to about 140 bar. Typically, air flow
deliveries tend to range from about 0.02 m3 min free air delivery to about 600 m3 min free air delivery;
free air is the term used for air at normal atmospheric pressure.

Another form of compressor is the rotary vane compressor. This has a rotor mounted eccentrically in
a cylindrical chamber (Figure 4.10(b)). The rotor has blades, the vanes, which are free to slide in radial
slots with rotation causing the vanes to be driven outwards against the walls of the cylinder. As the
rotor rotates, air is trapped in pockets formed by the vanes and as the rotor rotates so the pockets
become smaller and the air is compressed. Compressed packets of air are thus discharged from the
discharge port. Single-stage, rotary vane compressors typically can be used for pressures up to about
800 kPa with flow rates of the order of 0.3 m3 min to 30 m3 min free air delivery.

Another form of compressor is the rotary screw compressor (Figure 4.10(c)). This has two
intermeshing rotary screws which rotate in opposite directions. As the screws rotate, air is drawn
into the casing through the inlet port and into the space between the screws. Then this trapped air is
moved along the length of the screws and compressed as the space becomes progressively smaller,
emerging from the discharge port. Typically, single-stage, rotary screw compressors can be used for
pressures up to about 1000 kPa with flow rates of between 1.4 m3 min and 60 m3 min free air
delivery.

Examples:
Xerox machine
Engine management system:

The ignition timing in a multicylinder engine mainly depends on the crankshaft position which
in turn depends on the speed of the engine. Thus the variables tor ignition timing control are,
speed and position of the crankshaft. A feedback is also essential to indicate when the actual
ignition has occured in each of the cylinder. Thus, to control the ignition timing the input
variables are: crank Shaft speed, crankshaft position and spark timing feedback as shown in
Fig. For ignition timing the crankshaft drives a distributor which establishes the electrical
contact for each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel. This timing wheel generate pulses to
indicate the crankshaft position. The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high
voltage pulses are Sent to the distributer so that the spark occur at the right time.
The air-fuel mixture is controlled by controlling the air flow and the quantity of fuel injected.
Based on the throttle valve position and the engine temperature the microprocessor controls
the opening of the intake valve. The amount of fuel injected is controlled by a sensor which
determines the mass flow rate and from other measurements the microprocessor controls
the amount of fuel injected into the engine cylinder.
 ROBOTICS
4.9 Automation

Figure 4.12: Illustration of automation.

Automation is “the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operate

automatically.” We define automation as "the creation and application of technology to monitor and
control the production and delivery of products and services.”

The automation profession includes “everyone involved in the creation and application of technology
to monitor and control the production and delivery of products and services”; and the automation
professional is “any individual involved in the creation and application of technology to monitor and
control the production and delivery of products and services.”

Automation crosses all functions within industry from installation, integration, and maintenance to
design, procurement, and management. Automation even reaches into the marketing and sales
functions of these industries.

Automation involves a very broad range of technologies including robotics and expert systems,
telemetry and communications, electro-optics, Cybersecurity, process measurement and control,
sensors, wireless applications, systems integration, test measurement, and many, many more.

Automation systems are classed into three different types:

1. Fixed automation.
2. Programmable automation.
3. Flexible automation.
 Table 4.2. Comparison between different automation systems

Each of these subsystems consists of only five basic components:

(1) Action element,
(2) Sensing mechanism,
(3) Control element,
(4) Decision element, and
(5) Program.
Action elements are those parts of an automated system that provide energy to achieve the desired
task or goal.

Figure 4.13: Components of an automation system

4.10. Merits and demerits of automation

Automation Advantages
1. Reduction in production time – having a machine that is automated definitely speeds up the
production time since no thinking is needed by the machine, there is better repeatability, and
less human error.
 2. Increase in accuracy and repeatability – when an automated machine is programmed to
perform a task over and over again, the accuracy and repeatability compared to an employee
is far greater.
3. Less human error – no one is perfect, and we are all prone to making mistakes. Which is why
a machine that performs repeated tasks is less likely to make mistakes than an employee.
4. Less employee costs – by adding automated machines to an operation, means less employees
are needed to get the job done. It also indicates less safety issues, which leads to financial
savings. With having less employees, there are numerous costs that are diminished or
reduced such as payroll, benefits, sick days, etc.
5. Increased safety – having automated machines means having less employees who perform
tasks that can be dangerous and prone to injury, which can make the work environment safer.
6. Higher volume production – investing in automated equipment creates a valuable resource
for large production volumes, which in turn, will increase profitability.
7.
Automation Disadvantages
1. Less versatility – by having a machine that can perform a certain task limits to the flexibility
and variety of tasks that an employee could do.
2. More pollution – different types of machines operate using motor which may require gases or
chemicals in order to operate. This can cause an increase in pollution in the workplace.
3. Large initial investment – automated machines can be one of the most costly operating costs
for a company. With automated machines running anywhere between thousands and millions
of dollars depending on the type and degree of automation.
4. Increase in unemployment – by increasing the amount of automation, there are less
employees required causing high unemployment rates.
5. Unpredictable costs – there can be several unpredictable costs that may exceed the actual
cost saved by the automation itself. Some of these costs could include research and
development costs of automating a process, preventative maintenance costs, and the cost of
training employees to operate automated machines.

4.11 Nomenclature of an Industrial Robot

Definition of Robotics

A reprogrammable multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,

tools or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of
variety of tasks.

The word reprogrammable distinguishes a Robot from Computer Numerically

Controlled Machines. The level of sophistication of reprogram ability is significantly higher in
an industrial Robot. The sophistication is in the concept of implementation of Feed Back
control.

Feedback control allows the execution of the programmed motion with the required
accuracy in spite of small changes in the Robot or the environment, thus improve the
performance of Robot.

Robot Applications

Modern Industrial robots are used in variety of places and situations.

This can be broadly classified in to three categories

i. The Environment that is hazardous for Human to operate

1. Handling of fuel and radioactive material in nuclear power plant.
2. Experimental payloads in the space shuttle are removed from the cargo bay by
robots
3. Exploration of planets like mars is done by robot like Sojourner and spirit and
opportunity
4. Under water operations like deep sea exploration
5. Robots are extensively used in ultra clean rooms in the electronic industries.

ii. Environment Where tasks are Back breaking and boring for human being

1. Painting and welding of vehicle bodies in an automobile industries.

2. In general manufacturing where Robots are used for loading, unloading of
materials, parts and tools from other machines.
3. Assemblage of components such as electric motors and computer peripherals.

iii. Environment where the products or the models are frequently changing
1. Inspection and testing of new products.
2. Television sets, cameras, mobiles ....where Robots are ideally suited for these
industries. Because of their ease of re programmability.
Robot Classification
Many robots are patterned after Human arm therefore they are generally referred as
Robotic arms or Robotic manipulators.

Classification Based on Drive technologies

1. Electric
Normal manipulator which does not lift heavy weights. It uses DC servo motor or DC
stepper motor
2. Hydraulic
It is basically a high speed manipulator with substantial load bearing capacity.
3. Pneumatic
It is basically meant for holding and gripping of delicate materials.
Types of joints in Robotics: Revolute joint and Sliding joint.

4.12 Cylindrical, Cartesian, Articulated, SCARA and Spherical robot

 1. Cartesian robot
Cartesian robots, which are also called linear robots or gantry robots, are industrial robots that work
on three linear axes that use the Cartesian Coordinate system (X, Y, and Z), meaning they move in
straight lines on 3-axis (up and down, in and out, and side to side).

It is also called rectangular co-ordinate robot.

In this Robot there are three sliding joints corresponds to moving the wrist up and down, in
and out and back and forth.
The work envelope is a rectangular box.

Figure 4.15: Cartesian robot and its workspace

Cartesian robots are both suitable and ideal for a large number of industrial automation
applications. They are ideal for applications like:

• Pick and place

• Material handling
• Loading and unloading
• CNC machine tooling
• Packaging automation
• Palletizing and depalletizing
• Storing and retrieving
• Product placement
• Cutting, scribing and sorting
• Process-to-process transferring
• Dispensing agents
• Precision spot welding
• Part assembly
• Stacking

The primary advantage of cartesians is that they are capable of moving in multiple linear directions.
In addition, cartesians are able to do straight-line insertions into furnaces and are easy to program.
Cartesians have the most rigid robotic structure for a given length, since the axes are supported at
both ends.

The main disadvantage of cartesians is that they require a large volume of space to operate in, though
the whole space is not used. 'A cartesian takes up as much space as the X-axis.

2. Cylindrical Robot

As a differentiator to conventional industrial robotic arms, Cylindrical Robots have a primary arm
that moves up and down rather than pivoting on a series of axis. Built within the robotic arm is a
cylinder that creates this motion by extending and retracting itself.

If the first joint of a Cartesian coordinate robot is replaced with a revolute joint this produces
cylindrical coordinate Robot.
The Revolute joints swings the arm back and forth about a vertical axis. The sliding joints then
move the wrist up and down along the vertical axis and in and out along a radial axis
The work envelope generated by this joint configuration is the volume between two vertical
concentric cylinders.

Figure 4.14: Cylindrical robot and its workspace

Cylindrical robots can be used for varied tasks, including:

1. Spot Welding
2. Handling of die-casting machines
3. Machine handling equipment in general
4. Procedures for grinding
5. Assembly operations
6. Palletizing
7. Loading and unloading of machines
8. Investment casting
9. Applications in the foundry and welding
10. Manipulation and storage of unique payloads
11. Packing meat
12. Applications for coatings
13. Injection moulding
 14. Assembling of packages and products in the manufacturing and packaging industry

Cylindrical Robot Advantages

Cylindrical Base Robots can travel between required points faster than Cartesian Robots, which is an
advantage, mainly when these two points are in identical radius. In that case, two of the three
movements are in parallel to each other.

Cylindrical Robot Disadvantages

There are several drawbacks of cylindrical robots few of them are listed below:

• Since robots with a rotary axis must counteract the object’s inertia while spinning, their total
mechanical rigidity is decreased. Their repeatability and precision are both limited in the
direction of the rotary action. A more sophisticated control scheme is needed for cylindrical
configurations than for Cartesian configurations.
• The overall mechanical rigidity is lesser because this robot’s rotatory axis must overcome the
object’s inertia during its rotation.
• The repeatability and accuracy are also less in the direction of rotation.
Another major drawback of this system is that changing directions from the Cartesian coordinate
system to the cylindrical coordinate system usually required a significant amount of time and a more
sophisticated control system.

3. Spherical Robot configuration

Polar Robots, or spherical robots, have an arm with two rotary joints and one linear joint connected
to a base with a twisting joint. The axes of the robot work together to form a polar coordinate, which
allows the robot to have a spherical work envelope.

If the second joint of the cylindrical co-ordinate robot is replaced by a revolute joint this
produces a Spherical coordinate Robot.
Here the first revolute joint swings the arm back and forth about vertical base axis, while
second revolute joint moves the arm up and down about an horizontal shoulder axis. The
sliding joint moves the wrist in and out.

Figure 4.18: Spherical robot and its workspace

 Polar or spherical robots have been used for a variety of industrial automation applications
including:
• Machine tool tending.
• Spot welding automation cells.
• Assembly operations.
• Casting and material handling automation applications.
• Diecast process tending.
• Gas welding applications.
• Arc welding automation.

Advantages

They are believed to have several benefits, such as, locomotion with minimal friction, constrained
spaces, omni- directions movement without ever overturning and so on. These advantages provide
the spherical robots with stronger viability than the traditional mobile robots

Disadvantages

The Spherical Robot has a lower profile than other commercial robots, one of the main drawbacks.
The robot’s work envelope is also limited due to the Z-axis’s lack of a linear actuator.

4. Articulated Robots
Articulated Robots mechanical movement and configuration closely resembles a human arm. The arm
is mounted to a base with a twisting joint. The arm itself can feature anywhere from two rotary joints
up to ten rotary joints which act as axes, with each additional joint or axis allowing for a greater degree
of motion.

If the last remaining sliding joint is replaced by the revolute joint it produces an Articulated
Robot. This Robot closely resembles a human arm
First revolute joint swings the Robot Back and forth second revolute joint moves the robot
arm up and down. Third revolute joint moves the fore arm up and down about horizontal
elbow axis

Figure 4.16: Articulated robot and its workspace

 Most Articulated Robots utilize four or six-axis. Typical applications for Articulated Robots
are assembly, arc welding, material handling, machine tending, and packaging.

Articulated Robot Advantages

6-axis articulated robots are easy to align to different planes, are straightforward to control and
manage, and can be quickly redeployed for plastic injection molding automation on a variety of
types and sizes of injection molding machines, as well as for a variety of upstream and downstream
applications.

Articulated Robot Disadvantages

The speed of these robots is one of their disadvantages. They are not as effective as other kinds of
robots that can perform tasks at a high rate. Because of their various joints and degrees of freedom,
this robots require complex kinematics to control their motion. They also have a higher component
density, which creates an inertial barrier that must be resolved with any direction transition. If speed
is an essential consideration in a factory’s cost-benefit study, so this type of robots may not be the
best option.

4. SCARA Robot-
A SCARA robot (full form is “Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm” or “Selective Compliance
Articulated Robot Arm”) is an industrial robot. Its arm is partially compliant in the X-Y direction but
fix in the ‘Z’ direction due to the SCARA’s parallel-axis joint configuration, hence the term:
Compliance in robotics refers to a robot’s ability to move one or more joints. A compliant robot can
yield to your touch if you press it. It isn’t going to fight back or stay there. SCARAs are flexible in the
X-Y direction but stiff in the Z. This allows them more stability, which is especially helpful for
assembly tasks that need obedience, such as putting a peg in a hole.

The SCARA’s second feature is its jointed two-link arm structure, which is identical to our human
bodies. Thus the word “articulated.” This function allows the arm to stretch into tight spaces before
retracting or “folding up” and out of the way. This is useful for moving pieces from one cell to another
or loading and unloading enclosed process stations.

Figure 4.17: SCARA robot and its workspace

Applications

• Workpiece Sort/transfer Cell. System configuration. Layout. Outline of operation. ...

• Small Parts Mounting Cell. System configuration. Layout. Outline of operation. ...
• Loading/Unloading Workpiece onto/from Working Machine. System configuration. Layout. Outline of
operation.
•
Advantages of SCARA robots

The SCARA robot is most commonly used for pick-and-place or assembly operations where high speed
and high accuracy is required. Generally a SCARA robot can operate at higher speed and with optional
cleanroom specification. In terms of repeatability, currently available SCARA robots can achieve
tolerances lower than 10 microns, compared to 20 microns for a six-axis robot. By design, the SCARA
robot suits applications with a smaller field of operation and where floor space is limited, the compact
layout also making them more easily re-allocated in temporary or remote applications.

Limitations of SCARA robots

SCARA robots, due to their configuration are typically only capable of carrying a relatively light
payload, typically up to 2 kg nominal (10 kg maximum). The envelope of a SCARA robot is typically
circular, which doesn’t suit all applications, and the robot has limited dexterity and flexibility
compared to the full 3D capability of other types of robot. For example, following a 3D contour is
something that will be more likely fall within the capabilities of a six-axis robot.

4.13 Performance terminologies - Accuracy, Precision, Compliance

Accuracy

Robot repeatability is a measure of the robot's ability to return to a known position. High robot
accuracy during manufacturing ensures that parts are precisely manufactured with predictable
results, even after changes are made to the process.

Precision

“Precision, also referred to as repeatability [in robotics], is the ability of an industrial robot to bring
its end effector to the same position and orientation, over and over again,”

In industrial robotics, the term compliance refers to flexibility and suppleness. To define what
compliance is, the definition of non-compliance is useful. A non-compliant (stiff) robot end effector is
a device which is designed to have predetermined positions or trajectories.

4.15 Applications, Examples - Pick and place, Welding, Painting and Inspection.

1. Pick and place robots

Pick and place automation speeds up the process of picking up parts or items and placing them in
other locations. Automating this process helps to increase production rates. Pick and place robots
handle repetitive tasks while freeing up human workers to focus on more complex work.
Typically mounted on a stable stand, pick and place robots are positioned to reach different areas to
perform work. They use advanced vision systems to identify, grasp and move objects from one place
to another. With a variety of design options available, pick and place robots can be configured with
various end-of-arm tooling options for use in different applications, such as assembly, packaging or
bin picking. For example, pick and place robots may be used to pick up items for an order and place
them in a box for packaging, or they may be used to pick up parts needed for assembly and move
them to the next location.

Pick and place robots can be:

• An articulate or scara robot (fixed with rotary arms on three vertical axes)
• A spherical robot providing and one linear and two rotational movements
• A cylindrical robot providing movement in horizontal, vertical and rotational axes

Figure 4.19: Pick & place robot

Applications for pick and place robots

Pick and place robots are often used in manufacturing but are also used in applications such as
packaging, bin picking and inspection. Here’s a look at a few of the most common applications for pick
and place robots and how they’re used.

• Assembly – Pick and place robots used in assembly applications grab incoming parts from one
location, such as a conveyor, and place or affix the part on another piece of the item. The two
joined parts are then transported to the next assembly area.
• Packaging – Pick and place robots used in the packaging process grab items from an incoming
source or designated area and place the items in a packaging container.
• Bin picking – Pick and place robots used in bin picking applications grab parts or items from
bins. These pick and place robots typically have advanced vision systems allowing them to
distinguish color, shape and size to pick the right items even from bins containing randomly
mixed items. These parts or items are then sent to another location for assembly or packaging.
• Inspection – Pick and place robots used for inspection applications are equipped with
advanced vision systems to pick up objects, detect anomalies and remove defective parts or
items by placing them in a designated location

2. Welding Robots
One of the most common types of robotic welding is the arc process. In this method, an electric arc
generates extreme heat, up to 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit, which melts the metal. Molten metal joins
parts together, solidifying into a stable connection after cooling.

Figure 4.20: Welding robot

Applications

Automotive, fabrication, and metal industries incorporate automated technology for welding to
reduce cost, save time, and deliver better welding quality. This technology also enhances the efficient
use of working space and improves the supply chain performance in end user industries

3.Painting Robots

1.) APPLY PAINT EVENLY

We program robots to apply industrial paint evenly to parts and equipment. Since robots are precise,
they don't leave behind drips or other imperfections. Instead, each piece of equipment is sprayed
evenly with just the right amount of paint for a flawless finish.

Industrial robots are able to recognize what areas to paint by using software, algorithms, sensors, and
cameras. By recognizing patterns, your robotic painting systems are able to paint with high accuracy
and comply with your specifications. Best of all, you'll be able to reduce waste by making sure each
product coming out of the painting assembly line is ready for the next step.

2.) SAVE FLOOR SPACE

A slim robotic arm can be installed on a wall, shelf, or rail. Our industrial painting robots can reach
farther than their predecessors, giving you more floor space in your factory. We understand that you
have a limited amount of space to put robots and industrial machinery. Fortunately, our industrial
painting robots are able to fit in tighter spaces because of their slim design.

3.) ACCESS AND PAINT MORE PARTS

A robotic arm is slim enough to reach more nooks and crannies. In the past, it would take time for a
human worker to cover every surface with paint. Today, industrial robots are programmed to
recognize the edges of equipment so they can apply an even spray without wasting paint.

4.) PROTECT HUMAN WORKERS

Many of the companies we work with say their employees are their best assets. Before implementing
automation technology, make sure your employees understand their new roles working alongside
industrial robots. While robots still require human supervision, they significantly reduce your team's
risk of injury or illness.

In the past, industrial paint exposed workers to carcinogens, iso-cyanides, and VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds). Fortunately, our automated paint systems are specifically designed for painting. Even if
the worse happens, robotic arms are built to survive explosions. The same can't be said of human
arms, which is why we highly recommend industrial painting robots. Robotic automation systems are
also more precise while painting, which means you'll end up needing to dispose of less hazardous
waste.

5.) CUSTOMIZE AUTOMATION

Factory floors are busy with limited floor space, which is why we highly recommend industrial painting
robots. By using anti collision software, we can create a team of industrial robots that work in close
proximity. This means that you don't have to worry about painting robots crashing into each other
and needing repair. When you add more than one industrial painting robot, you'll notice your
productivity drastically improve.
 Figure 4.21: Painting robot

Applications

Robots are used to paint all different sized automotive parts because they can help provide
consistent finish from one part to another. They are used for large exterior parts like doors, hoods,
wheels, or bumpers, and also used on small interior components like knobs, consoles and glove boxes.

4. Inspection Robots
The robotic form of “go/no go” inspection utilizes a camera mounted on the robot's arm,
which is moved around to check the presence of different features on a part. Robots are also
used to measure items. Modern robotics enables reviewers to conduct inspections entirely
remotely. They can deploy remote monitoring robotic systems into various types of locations
to perform varied kinds of checks. These bots can operate with varying degrees of autonomy.

Figure 4.22: Inspection robot

Applications:
Widely used in manufacturing to identify errors or defects that may occur with goods
produced. These processes were once only completed by humans, but the advancement of
robotic vision systems has led to the development of robot based inspection
applications. Industrial robots integrated with visions systems are able to take over inspection
tasks from workers, increasing quality control measures with the capability of microscopic
detection. Robotic inspection systems can be used to flag defective parts, measure parts, or
verify that all parts are assembled correctly. Inspection robots are being deployed across
numerous industries including the automotive, aerospace, and oil and gas industries.