MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF PITEŞTI
FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, LETTERS, HISTORY AND ARTS

AGENCE UNIVERSITAIRE DE LA FRANCOPHONIE

ALLIANCE FRANÇAISE DE PITEŞTI

CENTRE DE RECHERCHE SUR L’IMAGINAIRE IMAGINES

CENTRUL DE REUŞITĂ UNIVERSITARĂ

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

EUROPEAN LANDMARKS OF IDENTITY
__________________________________________________

LANGUE ET LITTÉRATURE
REPÈRES IDENTITAIRES EN CONTEXTE
EUROPÉEN
__________________________________________________

LIMBA ŞI LITERATURA
REPERE IDENTITARE ÎN CONTEXT EUROPEAN
SELECTED PAPERS OF THE 16th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE
FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, LETTERS, HISTORY AND ARTS
Piteşti, 22-23 October 2021
No. 28/2021
University of Piteşti Press

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DIRECTOR / DIRECTEUR DE PUBLICATION: Ștefan GĂITĂNARU
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF / RÉDACTEUR EN CHEF: Liliana SOARE
ASSOCIATE EDITORS-IN-CHIEF / RÉDACTEURS EN CHEF
ADJOINTS: Valentina STÎNGĂ, Adriana APOSTOL

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE / COMITÉ SCIENTIFIQUE

Liliana AGACHE, “I. Iordan – Al. Rosetti” Institute of Linguistics, Bucharest,

Romania
Petre Gheorghe BÂRLEA, “Ovidius” University of Constanța
Didi-Ionel CENUŞER, “Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Romania
Gheorghe CHIVU, The Romanian Academy, University of Bucharest, Romania
Francis CLAUDON, Paris XII University, France
Luc COLLÈS, The Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
Jean-Louis COURRIOL, “Jean Moulin” University, “Lyon 3”, Lyon 3, France
Dan DOBRE, University of Bucharest, Romania
Cécile FOLSCHWEILLER, INALCO, Paris, France
Daniela FRUMUŞANI, University of Bucharest, Romania
Alexandru GAFTON, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Romania
Ravil GARIPOV, Bachkire State Pedagogical University, Russia
Ştefan GĂITĂNARU, University of Piteşti, Romania
Corina-Amelia GEORGESCU, University of Piteşti, Romania
Yvonne GOGA, “Babeş-Bolyai” University, Romania
Brian IMHOFF, Texas A&M University, USA
Andrei IONESCU, University of Bucharest, Romania
Andres Kristol, Neuchâtel University, Switzerland
Diana LEFTER, University of Pitești
Lucie LEQUIN, Concordia University, Canada
Milena MILANOVIC, The Institute of Foreign Languages FLS, Belgrade, Serbia
Alexandrina MUSTĂŢEA, University of Piteşti, Romania
Nasser Rashidi, Shariz University, Iran
Cristiana TEODORESCU, University of Craiova, Romania

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PEER-REVIEW COMMITTEE / COMITÉ DE LECTURE

Marinela BURADA, “Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania

Diana CÂMPAN, ”1 Decembrie 1918” University, Alba Iulia, Romania
Rodica-Gabriela CHIRA, “1 Decembrie 1918” University, Alba Iulia, Romania
George CONSTANTINESCU, University of Craiova, Romania
Simona Diana CONSTANTINOVICI, West University, Timişoara, Romania
Oliviu FELECAN, North University of Baia Mare, România
Mihaela Dana GHEORGHE, “Transilvania” University of Braşov, Romania
Luminiţa HOARŢĂ CĂRĂUŞU, „Al. I. Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania
Adrian IANCU, “Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Romania
Gina MĂCIUCĂ, “Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania
Ileana MIHĂILĂ, “University of Bucharest, Romania
Ioan MILICĂ, “Al. I. Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania
Cristinel MUNTEANU, “C. Brâncoveanu” University, Piteşti, Romania
Steluţa STAN, “Dunărea de Jos” University, Galaţi, Romania
Dumitru TUCAN, West University, Timişoara, Romania
George Bogdan ŢÂRA, West University, Timişoara, Romania

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE / COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION

Lavinia GEAMBEI
Diana-Adriana LEFTER
Marina TOMESCU

The conference took place under the high patronage of the Agence Universitaire
de la Francophonie, and the proceedings were published with its financial
assistance.

La conférence s’est déroulée sous le haut patronage de l'Agence Universitaire

de la Francophonie, qui a financé la parution des actes.

ISSN 2344-4894
ISSN-L 1843-1577
University of Piteşti Press
Târgul din Vale Street, 1, 110040, Piteşti, Romania
Tél.: +40 (0)248 218804, int. 149,150

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 CONTENTS

ROMANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE / LANGUE ET

LITTÉRATURE ROUMAINE

Lavinia Magdalena BĂNICĂ

The Perception of Time and Space in the Romanian Medieval
World……………………………………………………………………… 7
Ionela-Cristina BOGDAN (SANDU)
The Use of Forced Possessive and the English
Calques……………………………………………………………………. 13
Roxana Florina CĂPRESCU (NICUȚ)
Duiliu Zamfirescu, Reading References………………………………. 16
Gabriela COMĂNESCU
Caractéristiques morphologiques de la langue de Dimitrie
Bolintineanu dans Călătorii……………………………………………….. 25
Marilena Filofteia COSTESCU
The Portrait of Leucaida in Asachi’s Vision………………………….. 30
Nicoleta CRÎNGANU
Escaping into a Selfcreated World in Michael Ende’s Neverending
Story……………………………………………………………………….. 36
Adina Elena DUMITRU
Semantic Deviations in Contemporary Mass Media Discourse………... 42
Nicoleta Laura ENACHE
The Specifics of the Picaresque Narrative in the Novel Donna Alba by
Gib I. Mihăescu…………………………………………………………… 47
Mirela FILIP
Literature and Cinema – Kaleidoscopic Worlds………………………. 52
Ana-Maria FLOROIU
Idea Versus Poetic Imagery in Panait Cerna’s Vision………………… 57
Ştefan GĂITĂNARU
The Pragmaliterature and the Diversity of Speech……………………. 61
Lavinia-Ileana GEAMBEI
Le tissu des plans narratifs dans le roman Sonia ridică mâna de Lavinia
Branişte…………………………………………………………………… 70
Elena Marilena NĂSTASE (MIHAIL)
Purality of Wordview and Existence in Lucian Blaga’s Work………… 78
Victoria Norma PETRE
Ion Barbu : l’originalité des visions poétiques dans le cycle
Uvedenrode……………………………………………………………….. 84

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Romulus Marius SĂLĂGEAN
Double Language or Perceived Literary Text Kaleidoscopics. A
Mirror-Backed World…………………………………………………….. 90
Luiza-Venera SÂRBU
Realisme socialiste ou realites socialistes dans le roman Mitrea
Cocor ?......................................................................................................... 97

COMPARATIVE LITERATURE. COMMUNICATION AND

CULTURAL STUDIES / LITTÉRATURE COMPAREE.
COMMUNICATION ET ETUDES CULTURELLES

Bogdan ALEXANDRU, Pompiliu ALEXANDRU

L’intelligence artificielle dans la pratique médicale française :
utilisations et freins………………………………………………………. 101
Odette ARHIP, Cristian ARHIP
Kaleidoscopic View of the World…………………………………………. 111
Gabriela BOANGIU
The Conception of the “Cosmos” and “Anthropos” in The Rural
Space – Approach to the Writings of Ernest Bernea……………………… 116
Nicolae BRÎNZEA
Creation between Temporal and Timeless……………………………. 122
Horia DUMITRESCU
Cosmology in the Work of Saint Basil The Great…………………….. 129
Maria- Cătălina GHINEA
The Eclectic Conjuncture on the Representation of the Icon up to the
19th Century from a Historical and Stylistic Point of View……………….. 136
Gheorghe GÎRBEA
The Teaching on Creation in the 4th Century………………………….. 146
Valentina MARINESCU
Integrating Utopia and Dystopia into Food Studies. Some Key
Elements for a Future Narrative Analysis………………………………… 157
Dan Florin OBROCEA
Biblical Cosmogony – The Human Being as a Gift of God……………. 166
Marius-Sorin RADOMIR
The Human Creation of Man and Woman……………………………. 171
Ines RAZEC
L’individu technologique et le développement de l’identité
numérique………………………………………………………………… 177
Roger Cristian SAFTA
The Worldview in Origen’s Thinking…………………………………. 185

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 ROMANIAN DIDACTICS / DIDACTIQUE DES ROUMAINE

Cristina Loredana BLOJU

Le développement du langage au niveau préscolaire – une façon de
découvrir le monde / l’environnement…………………………………….. 191
Florentina BUCUROIU, Cristina DUMITRU
The Benefits of E-Flashcards for Learning Romanian as a Foreign
Language…………………………………………………………………. 198
Nicoleta CRÎNGANU
New Challenges in Developing Literacy Skills………………………… 203
Aurora-Tatiana DINA
Practical Techniques to Improve the Romanian Pronunciation and
Speaking Fluency of the Foreign Students Enrolled in the Preparatory
Year……………………………………………………………………. …. 209
Adriana Elena GEANTĂ
The Project Method - an Innovative Method of Teaching – Learning –
Evaluation…………………………………………………………………. 217
Ancuța IONESCU
Methods and Procedures Used in Oral Communication………………. 222
Ancuta IONESCU, Marius Valeriu GRECU
Didactic Strategies for Enriching the Vocabulary of Small School
Children……………………………………………………………………. 230
Ana Cristina LEMNARU
Spontaneous-Based Learning: Understand How International Students
Learn Romanian as a Foreign Language………………………………… 237
Sorin MAZILESCU
Training Skills – Interdisciplinary Perspectives...................................... 241
Magdalena Dănuța PRUNEANU
The Development of Oral and Written Communication Skills in
Teaching Romanian as a Foreign Language………………………………. 246
Ruxandra Viorela STAN
Traditionnel et moderne dans l'evaluation des activites d'education
langagiere en education prescolaire………………………………………. 250

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 THE PERCEPTION OF TIME AND SPACE IN THE ROMANIAN
MEDIEVAL WORLD

Lavinia-Magdalena BĂNICĂ*

Abstract: The 17th century brought to the inhabitants of Europe a life of agitation unknown
before that time. The grand geographical discoveries generated a fierce battle for the possession
of the riches found in the new territories; on the other hand, the economic crisis, excessive taxes,
confessional conflicts, and diseases decimated a significant portion of the population, most of the
victims being peasants. People in medieval Christian Europe believed that the terrestrial paradise
was still on earth. It was, of course, inaccessible, girthed by fire, guarded by a sword-bearing
cherub, yet it had not vanished. Maps located it somewhere in a remote corner of the East. Travelers
tried to reach it and Renaissance explorers believed that they had found places that still preserved
elements and traces of the privileged conditions in the wonderful garden of Eden.
Keywords: paradise, garden, nostalgia, imago mundi

Nostalgia for the aetas aurea was one of the characteristics of the Renaissance,
one that acquired new dimensions as it became associated with evading into utopic
realms. One of the topoi which sustained utopia was the garden – the Middle Ages had
their nostalgias, of course, but they were related to a different kind of imagination. The
ideal garden of the medieval West was, first of all, a hortus conclusus, an enclosed space;
for a long time, the notion of enclosure was based on the classic translation of the Song
of Songs: “A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse, a spring shut up, a fountain sealed.”
Saint Jerome says that the image of the hortus conclusus is evocative of Mary, a mother
and virgin. That explains the numerous representations of Mary in the middle of an
enclosed garden, either holding baby Jesus in her arms or kneeling before Him. A refuge
in the Christian view, a land of happiness shielded from the ugliness of the sin-tainted
world, the enclosed garden merged with the humanist aspiration for cultivating otium
(recollectedness) away from the commotion of cities, from the misery and sins of the
world and with the aspiration for the vita contemplativa. In 1522, Erasmus imagined a
hortus conclusus according to the words of Eusebius, who stated that not only is nature
not dumb, but it speaks to the man contemplating it, offering many teachings. Rustic
landscapes appear as isolated environments where spirits can recollect themselves. Yet
the enclosed garden is also a place for love, protected by crenelated walls, which makes
its way into 17th-century literature under Oriental influence.
To medieval thinking, earthly paradise means a pure conscience, virginity,
monastic life, the heavenly Jerusalem.
The great innovation of the Renaissance was the open garden, theorised in 1452
by Leon Battista Alberti in De Re Edificatoria. His (new!) idea was that the garden and
the home should be treated as a whole. European Renaissance gardens were grandiose
and had three major components: the first was the bosco – a small constructed forest, the
second consisted in aquatic effects in the form of waterfalls, canals, fountains, and the
third was spatial organisation using plays on perspective. In order to elicit wonder and
enchantment, artificial elements were enhanced; technology triumphed over nature, the
garden thus becoming a setting for pomp and ceremony. From the Renaissance onward,
mazes were cultivated more and more frequently, as a reminiscence of the fact that,

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

7
following the original sin, man’s path has become hard and it takes struggle to bring a
rebellious, titanic and turbulent nature to submission. Flowers started moving further and
further into the area of human sensitivity, preference for them being the effect of their
cultivation in monastery yards, as well as of the rediscovery of Antiquity with its pagan
symbolism for flowers such as the lily, the carnation, or the rose.
The 16th and 17th centuries put forward the notion of the Fountain of Youth, the
water of which could allegorically signify a symbolic means of spiritual regeneration.
During the Renaissance, such a fountain acquired an erotic element. Now one dreams of
happiness, fulfilment, Arcadia (naturally, humanism had borrowed the ethos of
Theocritus’s Idylls and Vergil’s Bucolics). The Renaissance evokes that ‘once’ when
peace ruled, when only natural instinct prevailed. In his Dial of Princes, Antonio de
Guevara says: “each man saw to his land; he planted trees and sowed wheat; each
harvested grapes from his vineyard and fruits; they all lived without doing any harm to
one another…”
Although, in terms of their apprehension of the same topos (the garden), the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance stand starkly apart, the two ages of humanity do come
together in their desire for a nostalgic escape into innocence and purity, for a return to
origins and myth.
In the 17th century, human sensitivity would be shaken by a radical transformation
of the perception of destiny in general and of individual life. During the next century and
a half, the enthusiasm of the Renaissance would turn into profound pessimism. Many of
the pillars of humanist thinking changed their function, some of them contributing to the
emergence of the disquietude of the Baroque, according to Al. Ciorănescu: “The origins
of doubt must be sought in the general uncertainty of the European spirit, at a time in
history when, following the humanist Renaissance and the Reformation, the principle of
authority disappeared, leaving the individual, who was not prepared for this new function,
with not only the possibility, but also the freedom to make use of his own free will.” (Al.
Ciorănescu, 1980, p.411) Thus, the freedom that man could now exercise would only
from a certain point of view constitute a liberation, while, from another, it would become
a form of abandonment.
The 17th century brought to the inhabitants of Europe – we will disregard the social
background of individuals in this instance – a life of agitation unknown before that time.
The grand geographical discoveries generated a fierce battle for the possession of the
riches found in the new territories; on the other hand, the economic crisis, excessive taxes,
confessional conflicts, and diseases decimated a significant portion of the population,
most of the victims being peasants. Increasing prices, epidemics, and poverty made for
an extremely hard life for ordinary people. From that to distrust and suspicion regarding
their earthly destiny there was but a step. In shock at his own existence, the man of the
17th century will have lost his optimism. In a very interesting (and veracious!)
presentation of the people of the Baroque in their various capacities (statesman, soldier,
preacher, missionary, witch, scientist, artist), Rossario Villari captures an age
characterised by oddity and novelty, by revolt, amazement, grandeur, an age of great
tensions, oppression and intrigue, disorder, and an upending of hierarchy. The Baroque
Period is seen here as a stage in history when issues, situations, and human typology
change – the chapter dedicated to the Witch reveals an acute need for order, which is
actually an obsession of the 17th century stemming from the awareness of the fact that the
old order had collapsed. Witches became the symbol of chaos and disorder, victims of the
neuroses of the ruling elite and the popular classes and, we might add, victims of religious
wars and the reinstatement of Church authority. As early as the end of the previous

8
century, the Church attempted to impose a type of dictatorship similar to that of the
Middle Ages. The instrument it operated with was the Counter-Reformation, a movement
which aimed to purify the information that Renaissance philosophy and science had
assimilated from pre-Christian thinking. Thus, free will, a notion won by the man of the
Renaissance, was abolished by the Counter-Reformation (a phenomenon also dubbed the
Counter-Renaissance).
The beginning of the 17th century in Europe coincided with the deepening of the
abyss between the physical universe and the intangible. In 1609, Galileo Galilei invented
the astronomic telescope, thus opening the path for the scientific study of the sky. This
moment marked a radical change in the system governing the relationship with a divine
power. The results subsequently registered by the Italian scholar, to which Giordano
Bruno added his theory of the infinity of space, constituted the beginning of the
desacralisation of the universe, a phenomenon which triggered a veritable
epistemological shock during the Baroque Era. The effect of this fundamental split is the
inner disintegration of the baroque spirit, giving rise to a sense of the perishability of the
world (the motif of fortuna labilis would enjoy a glorious ‘career’ in baroque literature),
of insecurity and instability. To be or not to be became the dual truth of the baroque spirit:
“Use human means as if divine ones did not exist and divine means as if human ones did
not exist”. (B. Gracian, 1994, p. 330)
Christian imagination outlined an intermediary space between heaven and earth
where the righteous awaited the Last Judgment. For centuries on end, Christians believed
that earthly paradise had truly existed, yet certain differences appeared within this general
view. Some thought that heaven, in its primordial form, lay in a very remote place on
earth, attainable only by the good and righteous, namely those endowed with
extraordinary moral qualities, under the guidance of an angel. According to others,
paradise had drifted away from earth after the first sin was committed and headed towards
the sky (without merging with it).
The onset of the Early Middle Ages saw the disappearance of this space from the
representations entertained by the Christian mindset, while preserving the belief that the
Promised Land had not vanished from the earth, but had merely become inaccessible.
This notion was joined by another (a bolder one that served as compensation for the loss
of earthly paradise) according to which, somewhere far away, there still existed wonderful
places that offered happiness and wealth to those daring enough to reach them.
Towards the end of the 15th century, Romanian scholars were able to read a
translation into Slavic of a work titled Christian Topography, written by Kosmas
Indikopleustes –in the 4th century, however. Kosmas’s treatise rejects Ptolemy’s claim
and that of other ”contrivers of fairy tales” that the earth was a sphere surrounded by the
celestial orb. According to him, the tent that God showed Moses on Mount Sinai is the
real imago mundi and the earth has an elongated, not a round shape. The terrestrial surface
is not horizontal, but rises from the south-east to the north-west, so that the territories in
the West and North rise like a wall after sunset. Such a layout explains why the Nile runs
more slowly (because it flows from the south to the north), while the Euphrates and the
Tigris are faster (since they descend southward). In Kosmas’s view, the Earth is
surrounded by an Ocean on all sides and beyond that Ocean lies the land where God
placed Adam. According to the Holy Scriptures (Genesis, 2:8), this land stretches towards
the east: “And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden.” Thus, the stretch of
ocean water is the obstacle that renders earthly heaven inaccessible. Following the
original sin and the expulsion from Paradise, Adam and his first descendants lived in this
place until the Flood, when it took Noah one hundred and fifty days to reach human-

9
inhabited land. Kosmas stresses the fact that, after the moment of salvation, it is
impossible to cross the ocean and just as impossible to ascend to the heavens so long as
we are mortal.
The Paradise planted by God, which has become inaccessible, has not disappeared
and continues to feed the four rivers that spring thence: “Now a river went out of Eden to
water the garden, and from there it parted and became four riverheads. The name of the
first is Pishon; it is the one which skirts the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold…
And the name of the second river is Gihon; it is the one which goes around the whole land
of Cush. The name of the third river is Hiddekel; it is the one which goes toward the east
of Assyria. The fourth river is the Euphrates” (Genesis 2: 10-14). For Kosmas, the rivers
are called the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Pison (the Ganges) and the Gihon (the Nile). Thus,
these waters were the ones that ensured the connection between the two realms.
The terrestrial paradise gradually began to be located somewhere in the distant
lands of Asia. In the 12th century, Honorius of Autun assures us that Asia begins in the
east with paradise, yet the image of a rectangular earth is phased out and the one of a
spherical earth surrounded by the primordial elements is outlined (later on, Anthimus of
Iberia would embrace this representation and present it in a sermon). The most famous
location of the land of paradise (in Asia, of course), found in most Western writings of
the 12th century, is the kingdom of priest John. On Romanian territory there circulated a
translation of the hagiography called The Martyrdom of Saint John the New, written by
Varlaam, who, however, changed its title (the saint is rendered autochthonous) and
location: “Towards the east, in a land called Anatolia, lies a great and famous city, which
all the ships of the sea seek to reach, due to the plentifulness and wealth found therein, a
city called Trapezonta”. (Varlaam, no year of publication)
In an Asia that had become almost mythical and that found itself in the immediate
vicinity of the earthly paradise, anything became possible to the imagination of the time.
Reality and fantasy were intertwined, the uncanny awaited around every corner. Jean
Delumeau recounts that, in the view of the Western world, in Asia “pigmies do battle
against cranes, giants, and gryphons. There are people with dog’s heads that bark and
grunt; headless people, people with their eyes in their bellies… the geography of Asia
situated Islam beyond the Christian world, and beyond Islam, in the utmost confusion, it
placed the land of Amazons, the land of Gog and Magog, the kingdom of priest John and,
finally, far far away, on a great height, the earthly paradise” (J. Delumeau, p.77)
All of these lands are found in the Romanian folk imagination, particularly in the
most beloved folk book of the 17 th century, Alixăndria. According to the Romanian text,
Emperor Alexander and his conquering army enter fantastical realms (the chapter called
Despre multe ţinuturi minunate (On Many Marvellous Lands)). First, they come across
wild women with pig hair and stars for eyes; then they meet man-eating ants, dwarves
invaded by cranes, whom they teach how to make bows and arrows. From India, he takes
his armies into the land of the Amazons, followed by the legend of Gog and Magog. Then,
naturally, the hero comes to the gates of heaven: “So Alexander looked toward the east
and saw the gates of heaven and burning fires before them and heaven lay high like a
mountain and one could see the trees in heaven rise tall like no others.” (Alexandria, 1966,
p. 63) Yet entry into paradise is denied him, so he will be guided back into the world by
angels: “Behold four rivers coming out of heaven: one is the Tigris, another the Euphrates,
another the Filon, another the Geon; it is the Euphrates you must follow and it will lead
you out into the world and you will see other miracles, too, yet here you shall not linger.”
In the late 17th century, Costea the Teacher/Cantor of Şcheii Braşovului inserts two
cosmography fragments into a manuscript containing folk books, namely Povestea ţărilor

10
şi a împărăţiilor câte-s în pământul Asiei (The Story of the Countries and Empires
throughout the Land of Asia). Dan Horia Mazilu points out that it was not Costea the
Cantor who translated the fragments, as their rendition into Romanian dates from the
second half of the 17th century. The two texts constitute a legendary and mythological
geography.1 The names of the great rivers of India coincide with those of the waters that
spring from, the earthly paradise, and the land called the rich Arabia resembles the place
where the garden of Eden was supposed to be found.
In the second half of the 17th century, Nicolae Milescu wrote the Description of
China, a work comprising 59 chapters recounting the spatharios’s journey into the Far
East. Milescu reveals to a reader fascinated with the exotic the unusual character of Asia
as compared to other realms: “...it is in Asia that God made heaven and that is also where
the first humans, our ancestors Adam and Eve were created, where their kin lived until
the flood... it is in Asia that the Saviour of humanity, by His own grace, was incarnated,
lived and died for mankind and it is thence that our Christian salvation began.” The
scholar stresses the fact that that is also the place where writing and learning originated,
as well as the erection of cities.
Radu Popescu would also be fascinated by his encounter with the Orient and
would create a symbiosis of lay and church history – this is what he says about the city
of Nakhchivan: “where the Holy Scriptures say that Noah’s ark stood after the flood and
where they say to this day that there are signs and remains of this ark.”
The subterraneous flow of the four rivers that spring from the earthly paradise (a
potential mundus subterraneus evocative of a labyrinth) does not fail to feature in
Dimitrie Cantemir’s Hieroglyphic History. Cantemir imagines a miraculous garden on
the plains crossed by the Nile, a garden of delights, for that space emanates colour and
olfactive stimuli…. suspends the inhabitants’ cares and ensures a heavenly existence.’ 2
People in medieval Christian Europe believed that the terrestrial paradise was still
on earth. It was, of course, inaccessible, girthed by fire, guarded by a sword-bearing
cherub, yet it had not vanished. Maps located it somewhere in a remote corner of the East.

1“Seeing that land all too abundant in everything: bread, wine, oil, beasts of all kinds, and fruitage
of all likenesses, which are not to be found elsewhere, gold, silver, gems of all sorts aplenty’.
Descriptions of places common in depictions of the Orient are, naturally, found here as well: ‘...
write that there is a bird called a phoenix, which lives 660 years... some write how it flies be it to
Egypt, be it to India’; on eyots there are ‘all manners of creatures: elephants, camels, horses with
man’s heads, snakes with gold scales, leopards and many other creatures”. Cătălina Velculescu,
Viorel Guruianu, Povestea ţărilor Asiei. Cosmografie românească veche (The Story of the
Countries of Asia. Old Romanian Cosmography), Bucharest, Vestala Publishing House, 1997, p.
77.
2 “And on the fields of that plain, on both the water’s one side and the other, on the fiels of green

aftergrass and as far as the eyes can see as well, there always seemed to be a sheet of emerald, on
which flowers, sprouted by nature, sown as if by a hand in a garden in turn and with judgment, were
scattered decorously and, when the zephyr, the western wind, wafted, it roused all manners of sweet
and wholesome scents from the flowers… And upon the banks of the river grew all kinds of fruit-
bearing branches and all manner of leafy and umbrageous trees all in line, as if strung on a thread
and equally spaced one from the other as if they had been neatly planted with compasses. And their
shade did half lie on the smooth waters of the Nile and half hoverd over the enchanting countenance
of the plain. As for the fruits of the trees, neither Asia has seen nor Europe has tasted such beauty
and such sweetness. For, on one and the same tree, there were buds bursting, leaves unfolding,
flowers opening, fruits forming, growing, ripening and withering all at once, as harvests did not
follow the seasons, but, at all times all fruits were found both ripe and unripe” (Dimitrie Cantemir,
op. cit., p. 163).

11
Travelers tried to reach it and Renaissance explorers believed that they had found places
that still preserved elements and traces of the privileged conditions in the wonderful
garden of Eden.

Bibliography
Ciorănescu, Al., Barocul sau descoperirea dramei, trad. de Gabriela Tureacu, Cluj, Ed. Dacia,
1980.
Curticăpeanu, D., Orizonturile vieţii în literatura română veche, Bucureşti, Ed. Minerva, 1975.
Delumeau, J., O istorie a paradisului, Bucureşti, Ed. Humanitas, 1997.
Gracián, B., Cărţile omului desăvârşit, Bucureşti, Ed. Humanitas, 1994.
Mazilu, D. H., Barocul în literature română din secolul al XVII-lea, Bucureşti, Ed. Minerva, 1976.
Velculescu, C., Povestea țărilor Asiei. Cosmografie românească veche, Bucureşti, Ed. Vestala,
1997.
Villari, R., Omul baroc, trad.de Dragoş Cojocaru, Iaşi, Polirom, 2000.

12
 THE USE OF FORCED POSSESSIVE AND THE ENGLISH
CALQUES

Ionela – Cristina BOGDAN (SANDU)*

Abstract: This study aims to discuss about the influence that English has on the Romanian
language, but also about the aggressive loans of English words or phrases. The use of the full form
of the possessive adjective also proves to mark a damaging influence of the English language. One
of the English calques is the phrase “to make sense’’, which is literally translated into Romanian
as “a face sens” and not “a avea sens’’.
Keywords: forced possessive, calques, influence.

1. The invasion of the English calques

Recently, the "territory" of the Romanian language seems to have been invaded
by Anglicisms and not only the language in the media, the press, but also literary
translations have suffered for this reason. And although this phenomenon does not start
only from translators, it turns out to be a serious one and it grows quite quickly, having
the ability to affect the vocabulary, grammar and stylistics of the current Romanian
language.
In order to avoid possible reproaches and negative repercussions, but also to justify
in a certain way this phenomenon of connotative lexical borrowing, unjustified
semantically or pragmatic, which can even lead to a usurpation of meaning, translators
choose to call adaptation the use of this anglicized vocabulary in their translations. Some
examples of barbarisms or Anglicisms could be: „Redăm mai jos transcriptul interviului
acordat de președintele sirian (…) jurnalistului C.R. 1”(„Lumea”, nr. 3/2016, p. 20);
„eventualitatea unui program color-blind care poate fi interpretat ca fiind favorabil
albilor” („Lumea”, nr. 3/2016, p. 30); „în accepțiunea serviciilor de intelligence”
(„Lumea”, nr. 3/2016, p. 62) etc.
Whether we are talking about semantics or syntax, the mechanism of calquing is
part of the process of Anglicization of the contemporary Romanian language.
At the level of semantics, word formation, syntax and phraseology, Romanian
language suffers from superficial translations, emphasizing the elements that determine
the realization of these translations that contain even abusive calques, such as: „și, în
extremă instanță, să facem ce am făcut în Vietnam, Afganistan și Irak: atacuri de
stricăciune (spoiling attack)”( p. 45) or „în loc de denunțarea neefectivă a violențelor
fizice și simbolice – the expression is equivocal and comes from the wrong translation of
the Eng. effective “efficient” - p. 30).
The transition of any element of expression from a donor language to a receiving
language, by borrowing or by calque, supposes a process of adoption, therefore of
acceptance, but also a process of adaptation, of integration of foreign forms in the system
of the respective receiving language.
Translators choose to call adaptation the use of this Anglicized vocabulary in their
translations, an adaptation that can even lead to the usurpation of meaning.

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

1 With all examples excerpted from the “Lumea” magazine, no. 3/2016, only the page was indicated.

13
 2. The use of forced possessive
With the evolution of language, translations have also begun to change, and this
need to adapt to the rules of translation has become more of a way of introducing mistakes
in the language.
Regarding the phraseological aspect, another negative influence of the English
language on the Romanian language is given by the use of the whole form of the
possessive adjective, in statements where the expression seems a little forced. For
example, in a recent movie, the phrase “Be ready to receive your punishment” was
translated as „Fii gata să primești pedeapsa ta”, instead of „Fii gata să-ți primești
pedeapsa”.
Another example could be a book published in 2017, a book called Lie with me
(with the Romanian title Încetează cu minciunile tale), by Philippe Beson and whose
translation was done by Laurențiu Malomfalean.
Also, a mall in Brăila had a marketing campaign, with the following slogan:
„Găsește destinația ta de vacanță în mijlocul naturii”. It would have been appreciated if
the promoters of that campaign had opted for the form: "Găsește-ți destinația de vacanță
în mijlocul naturii".
Therefore, although is not a serious mistake, the use of the forced possessive
adjective in translation marks a negative influence of the English language, thus leading
to the distortion of the Romanian language system by assigning redundant meanings,
creating unnecessary lexemes or establishing unnatural grammatical relationships to
literary language.
Another factor that leads to distorted communication and at the same time to a
superficial, half–made translation is the use of English terms in translation or incorrect
translation of so-called "false friends". This way, translators express their need for
linguistic globalization and at the same time to adapt to the “new” translation norms.
Sometimes, the direct source of mistranslation can be the translator’s specialized training.
Also, misadaptation comes from a negligent attitude to the act of adaptation.
Unfortunately, there is a great number of cases of literal translation where the translator’s
lack of preparation is obvious.
Whether we are talking about semantics or syntax, calque is a phenomenon that
actively participates in the Anglicization of the contemporary Romanian language.
Calque is seen as a means of enriching vocabulary, but also as a regressive, degrading
process.
It can be easily noticed that Romanian language is very exposed to English
calques. English calques or false friends are those English words that are very similar in
terms of phonetic form to Romanian terms, which is why their translation is done
incorrectly, resulting in a usurpation of meaning.
A few examples of false friends are: ’actual’ (translated ’actual’ when its meaning
is ’real, true’), ’adept’ (translated ’adept’, but the term refers to an ’expert’), ’novel’
(translated as ’nuvelă’, when its meaning is ‘roman), ’pathetic’ (translated as ‘patetic’,
but its meaning is actually ‘jalnic’).
Also, the English ‘deception’, which means ‘înșelare, înșelătorie’ or even
‘viclenie’ was translated as ‘decepție’ by a specialized website. Instead of ’Secretele
înșelării’ (Secrets of Deception), the title of a film has been translated as ’Secretele
decepției’. Even if the title of the movie has been translated incorrectly, from its
Romanian translation ’deception’ means ’înșelare’: „Eddie Green află că soția sa, o
femeie frumoasă și mai tânără decât el, îl înșală cu un bărbat care le este vecin”.

14
 One of the most calqued phrases is ’to make sense’, often literally translated as ’a
face sens’ and not ’a avea sens’, like a normal translation would be. Another example is
’to take a shower’ (’a face (un) duș’) literally translated as ’a lua un duș’ or ’to take a
course’ (’a urma / a face un curs’), whose literal (and wrong) translation is ’a lua un
curs’.
Other calqued phrases are: ’You don’t want to know’ (Mai bine să nu știi),
literally translated as ’Nu vrei să știi’, ’You don’t want to go there’ (’Nu e bine/ nu e
recomandat să mergi acolo’), translated as ’Nu vrei să mergi acolo’ or ’She is happy with
her job’ (’Ea este mulțumită de locul ei de muncă’), whose translation is ’Ea este fericită
cu locul ei de muncă’
Overall, the calque phenomenon has started to grow during the recent years, as a
result of globalization and, more precisely, the increased impact of English on other
languages. However, it is difficult to distinguish between different types of false friends,
as some words or phrases are quite difficult to differentiate from semantic calques, while
others are getting closer to popular etymology. The question, then, is whether it may be a
matter of semantic enrichment, influenced by semantic calques, or a misuse of semantics,
started by the formal resemblance between two or more words.

3. Conclusions
The main conclusion is that the expert’s expectations should be between the
language norms and the absolute laxism, that permanently invokes the current use and the
natural character of the language, which is in a continuous process of change and
development.

Bibliography
Bantaș, Andrei, English and Contrastive Studies, T.U.B, 1978.
Bassnett, Susan,Translation Studies, London, Routledge, 1992.
Dimitrescu, Florica, Dinamica lexicului românesc, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Clusium, 2000.
Hristea, Theodor, Probleme de cultivare și de studiere a limbii române contemporane, București,
Academia Universitară Athenaeum, 1994.
Longman’s Dictionary of Contemporary English, Harlow, Longman House, 1998.
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, London, Macmillan Publishers Limited,
2002.
Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008.

15
 DUILIU ZAMFIRESCU, READING REFERENCES

Roxana Florina CĂPRESCU (NICUȚ)*

Abstract: The comparison between the reading benchmarks of the time and those of today
highlights the perennial elements of the work of Duiliu Zamfirescu, who, a rather uneven writer,
remained in the history of Romanian literature as a precursor of the Romanian novel. The present
study highlights those features of the work that can be validated by the mutation of aesthetic values.
Keywords: folklore, affection, collective psychology.

1. Duiliu Zamfirescu, a versatile writer, with creations well represented in almost

all literary genres, has remained in Romanian literature through his remarkable
contribution to the development of the Romanian novel, especially through the first two
achievements of his narrative pentalogy (Ciclul Comăneștenilor), Viața la țară and
Tănase Scatiu.
But Duiliu Zamfirescu was a very prolific author, gifted, like Ion Pillat, with a
great facility for versification, passing, like the latter, through the Parnassian phase of
formal perfection and the neoclassical one (especially during his 18-year stay in the
diplomatic service in Italy, the land of Torquato Tasso, Giacomo Leopardi and Giosuè
Carducci). He was thus able to respond very well to requests from the many periodicals
of the time in which he published, as if it were the effect of "social commands" (Adam,
2001: p. 14).
He also had a great dexterity of digression, publishing in periodicals art chronicles,
memoirs, scenes and portraits, physiognomies and, of course, novels. But of the many
prose texts, the ratio of occasional digressions to proper novellas, with actors and
narrative structures, is far to the disadvantage of the latter, which can barely pass through
the fingers of one hand.
This thematic versatility and ease of stylistic appropriateness are very common in
advertising. Representative in this respect is the section De las palabras (later Las
Palabras), totalling 22 texts, which almost establishes a new literary species (words,
chatter), which nevertheless benefits from the author's very neat language and intellectual
approach. The energy of digression, of rambling is reminiscent of the style of Alexandru
Odobescu, less of his argumentative strategies and logical control of demonstrations.
The author was eager for popularity, which he never gained by working in this
way, being placed, rather unjustifiably, among those who wanted to make a living from
writing. When he had success with his novels, he wanted to mark the change, expecting
the same popularity, and abandoned his early work. For these, he "finds, towards the end
of his life, the verdict severe, but essentially just: worthless" (Ibid.).
But although by 1922 (the year of his death), his novel Viața la țară had an
impressive print run of over 50,000 copies, the writer complained that literary critics
(even his mentor Titu Maiorescu) ignored him and that he did not feel close to his readers.
He thus paid not only the price of his nonconformity and his conflictual nature, but also
of the mistake (it had happened to Macedonski with Eminescu) of denying the value of

* University of Pitesti, [email protected]

16
some of the greatest writers of the time, who were already well anchored in the public
consciousness (V. Alecsandri, I. Slavici, I. L. Caragiale, G. Coșbuc, O. Goga).
2. Poetry. Eugen Lovinescu questions the authority of Duiliu Zamfirescu to issue
aggressive value judgments and lessons in poetics (as he had done, in addition to those
mentioned above, with St. O. Iosif, C. Pavelescu and even with Dimitrie Anghel),
pointing out that "he represented an aesthetic conception fatally limited in time and
therefore, a point of passage towards the new aesthetic, towards which, misunderstanding,
he took a hostile attitude" (Lovinescu, 1981, p 107). He who so virulently combated
folklore, "was therefore also unsympathetic towards even newer poetry" (Ibidem, p. 108).
The definition assigned by Duiliu Zamfirescu to poetry derives from a cult of
traditional dichotomies (poetry-life; poet-man, thought-affectivity). Leaving affectivity
and suggestiveness in the background, it is rather the programmatic projection of a late
Parnassianism evolved into a modern classicism. Hence the reservations of Eugen
Lovinescu. In today's poetics, in which the affective and the rational can work together in
an area of interference, that of emotional intelligence, such a definition could also leave
room for epic poems. Duiliu Zamfirescu believes that: "Poetry is, like mathematics,
mental matter and is of purely abstract origin. Our emotionality, however strong it may
be, does not become poetry, i.e.. a work of art, unless creative power intervenes, which,
whether it be called combinatory fantasy or invention, is a mental operation of the same
nature as comparison in mathematics" (according to Adam, 1979, p. 185). It is
reminiscent, in theory, of the Parnassian stage of the creation of Ion Barbu: "Poetry is the
algebraic formulation of the human soul; let no one read it who does not know what
mathematics is" (Ibidem).
The problem starts when these definitions are translated into the actual poems,
which do not rise to the level of definitions. In the case of Duiliu Zamfirescu, they
function as in the Parnassians as metrical casings, which the poet fills with fragments of
experiences, with various reflections of his poetic culture, without achieving the semantic
coherence of an inner flow. The lesson of Titu Maiorescu about the essence of poetry had
not been understood by the writer of Viața la țară.
The dexterity of imagistic combinations, a certain dynamic of language games
and, above all, the great ease of versification gave Duiliu Zamfirescu the illusion of great
poetry. He realised that this was an illusion after having to note the lack of adherence of
critics and even readers to his versified constructions.
Duiliu Zamfirescu did not elaborate, like Eminescu, I don't know how many
variants for a poem, he did not look for the word that expresses the truth of inner
experience, he did not have his own complex of subjectivity, a universe reconstructed
under an imaginative aspect. This has been pointed out by literary critics: "But the
imagination of Duiliu Zamfirescu is fragile (...) he is not the demiurge of an imaginary
universe" (Adam, 2001, p. 11).
3. As a novelist, Duiliu Zamfirescu defines his orientation in the Preface to the
volume of Novele published in 1888, which completes a long exercise before his great
narrative creations. Now he is asking himself the problem, unrealistic in itself, of a
thematic division, of the delimitation, in the landscape of Romanian literature, of its own
path, different from that of the lower areas. Thus, he considers that the world of the village
is represented, inter alia, by the writings of Ioan Slavici, and the lower part of the cities,
the world of the slums, by I. L. Caragiale. This is how the two strong manifestations in
the area of literature proper are signalled: "The great layer of the peasant, on Slavici, the
layer of the slums and provincial towns, on Caragiale" (according to Săndulescu, 1988,
p. 348). The generous evaluations of the two (the representative character) and also the

17
qualification of the popular language of the peasants, "rich and vigorous, which neither
fashion nor passing circumstances have changed" (Ibidem) are noted. In Caragiale,
linguistic realism was monumentalized by the author's talent.
Duiliu Zamfirescu, in this thematic division, was the "upper layer", of the cultured
people, of the refined landowners, full of demophilia, of the notaries, of the officers, of
the magistrates...
The author records: "I think it is a just longing to try a literary form for more
chosen exchanges of thought and feeling" (Ibidem, p. 349).
Duiliu Zamfirescu tried, it seems, to foreshadow a new literary direction,
complementary to folklore (narodnicism, populism), namely aristocratism. This idea,
which in his literary ideology was not a secondary one, followed him all along, but he did
not succeed in imposing it as a program, as it would have been difficult to assimilate in
the context of Romanian literature; moreover, the author, by the features of his personality
(nonconformism, conflictual character) could not coagulate a collective of followers
through/with which to promote it. He could not generate appeal either to peers or (and
this is a disservice to the work as a whole) to its avid readers. He is just trying to impose
the term in his acceptance speech at the Romanian Academy, entitled Folklore in
Literature, as a way of setting himself against it. With reference to the alleged primary
author of Miorița, for example, he states: "he is an aristocrat in every sense of the word,
aristos, the best"(Speeches, 1980, p. 49).
The term itself did not catch on, however, it circulated a lot at the time, as early as
1903, the expression "It smells of literary ciocoism" launched by Ilarie Chendi, in issue
II of the magazine Sămănătorul (according to Chendi, 1976, p. 120).
In this speech, which has stirred up a lot of controversy, long time after his support,
he tries to reinforce the "top layer" theory, considering that: "the nineteenth century
belongs entirely to this aristocracy of birth and talent" (Ibidem, p. 54).
Although Duiliu Zamfirescu did not create, in all his work, any novel of the value
of Moara cu noroc or O făclie de Paște (Maiorescu had warned him that the latter was a
very valuable novel), the evaluations recorded later on about Ioan Slavici and I. L.
Caragiale are derisory, capable of contradicting everyone.
About Caragiale: "what about the novel of Caragiale? I find it weak, with an
absurd invention and a total lack of aesthetics (Zamfirescu, 2021, p. 279). And about the
heroes of Ioan Slavici's prose, it is stated: "Their way of being, anemic and unnatural,
makes me pity them" (Chendi, 1976, p. 52).
As we have seen, under the title Novele, Duiliu Zamfirescu recorded many prose
texts that do not fit the genre. The critic Al. Săndulescu, who republishes the work after
a century (1988), notes four texts in the entire volume with a more systematized narrative
structure, which, in the diversified multitude of texts, could, with enough indulgence,
confer on the author the quality of novelist: Locotenentul Sterie, Conu Alecu Zăgănescu,
Subprefectul, Noapte bună (according to Săndulescu, 1988, p. 350).
Of those that appeared later, even fewer stand out: Frica, Furfanto, Spre Costești
(Ibidem: p. 361).
Many of the other texts are nothing more, in the words of Pompiliu
Constantinescu, than "pieces that in no way exceed the character of literary exercises"
(Constantinescu, 1976: p. 156). The same could be said of the first volume of poetry and
prose, from 1883, entitled Fără titlu: "Almost nothing of the 1883 volume can be read
today, except the evocations entitled Din Dobrogea" (Manolescu, 1976: p. 203).
4. The Novel. In the manner of the time (Don Juanii de București of Radu Ionescu
had appeared between 1861 and 1862 in several issues of the newspaper Independența),

18
Duiliu Zamfirescu first novels (Viața la țară and Tănase Scatiu) also appeared in
Convorbiri literare in 1894 and 1895, respectively.
The fame of mystery novels was still alive (in 1862, Mistere din București by I.
M. Bujoreanu appeared, in which Matei, "back from his studies in Paris" (according to
Vargolici, 1963, p. 106, 107) and Tincuța, the granddaughter of Slătineanu, the skinner,
with many emotional availabilities, were meeting).
In the meantime, Ciocoii vechi si noi (1863) by Nicolae Filimon and Dan (1894)
by Al. Vlahuță (according to Regneala, 1987, p. 2, 7, 11).
Before the cycle of the Comăneștenilor, as he would later confess in the preface
to the volume of Novele (1888), he had intended to launch himself into the city novel,
publishing the volume În fața vieții (1884). The reactions of some prominent writers
(Delavrancea and Vlahuță) are, as an interpretation, negative, even placed in a ridiculous
register. Two years later, Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea analyses the novel in a wide-
ranging study-pamphlet entitled Pesimistul de la Soleni (according to Dobrogeanu-
Gherea, 1976: p.106-117). This did not lead Duiliu Zamfirescu to give up the novel, but
theorizing about the "top layer", which he felt called to write about, he practiced, as we
have seen, primarily in short stories.
For a decade, it seems, he came to understand that a novel cannot constitute itself
in its breadth if it does not take from its own experiences, as a condition of coherence, the
sincerity commitment of verisimilitude. He also understood, for these experiences, the
need to return to the origins. He was the son of the tenant farmer Lascar Zamfirescu, with
whom he had spent his childhood in the country, and not the descendant of the Lascarids
of Nicaea, as he had tried to show by the blazon of Byzantine imperial descent (according
to Adam, 2001, p. 7).
Duiliu Zamfirescu conception of the novel was a modern one, but it was not
unified. His ideas, in some respects, as George Călinescu points out "are in some respects
more intelligent than those of his contemporaries, than those of Maiorescu, for example,
revealing for our literature a true pioneer" (Călinescu, 1976, p. 162). In other important
parts they are, in the critic's words, "utterly puerile" (Ibidem).
As he confesses in his letters, he had extensive readings of the prose novels of
world literature, distinguishing the Latin side from the Slavic and Anglo-Saxon. The
author's undisclosed intention was to take the poetics of the Slavonic novel and apply it
to his writings in a Latin orientation. In this regard, he undertakes an extensive study (with
many quotations), entitled Leon Tolstoi, published at the insistence of the Junimists, in
issues 4, 5, 6 and 7 of 1982, in Convorbiri literare.
In Tolstoy he seems to have found confirmation of the top layer theory: "we are
forced to admit that his genius basked in the highest spheres of ideality and only there did
he create" (O, V, 1982, p. 381).
After many comments on the text and analyses, the study remained unfinished,
precisely in its most important part, in which the synthesis was supposed to capture the
major directions of this poetics, but above all, the elements of the two particularities: the
specificity of the poetics of the "Slavic race" compared to the others and, importantly, the
way in which Tolstoy was individualized by the originality of his creation, compared to
the other novelists.
The desire to write himself was apparently stronger: "the prose writer is
increasingly preoccupied with his new novel, Pe arătură (the forthcoming Viața la țară),
with clearly defining the specificity of the work in relation to the overwhelming Tolstoyan
epic" (Adam, 1982, p. 639).

19
 The critic Garabet Ibrăileanu does not exclude an influence from the Russian
novelist: "It is possible that our writer also studied at Tolstoy's school. A writer is the
apprentice of the whole literature (...). And there is nothing Russian about Sasha"
(Ibraileanu, 1976: p. 148). Except the name should be added.
Later, when the novel În război appeared, the writer himself disavowed a possible
Tolstoyan influence. But the gap in value between the Latin and Slavic novels (War and
Peace) precluded the comparative discussion assumed by the author.
Before addressing the poetics of the novel as conceived by Duiliu Zamfirescu, a
few clarifications are necessary regarding the relationship between the author and the
reality of his novels.
In the first issue of Evenimentul literar in 1893, the writer Spiridon Popescu, a
relative of Constantin Stere, wrote several letters of a poporanist nature, entitled Viața la
țară, which, evoking the world of the villages, presented "scenes from the world of the
village, oppressed by misery and darkness" (Micu, 1961, p. 37). But Duiliu Zamfirescu
direct contact with the real problems of peasant life had taken place ten years earlier,
when, in 1883, in his capacity as a journalist, the later novelist had taken part in the
tormenting and horrifying investigation of the rebellious peasants of Prahova, recording
the atrocities committed by the gendarmes (according to DGLR, 2009: p. 488, II; also
according to Adam, 1979: p. 71).
The following year, 1884, he also made an intervention in the Chamber of
Deputies, in a letter to M.A. Stolojan, later published under the title Le domaine de la
Couronne, in the journal L'indépendance roumaine, VII. In this he makes many
arguments against a donation to the Royal Crown, to the detriment of "the poor peasant
whom we all exploit in every way" (O, V, 1982: p. 311).
From these and many others it is clear that the accusations levelled at this
aristocratic writer of hating the peasants did not correspond entirely to the truth.
Critics and literary historians have, since the author's lifetime, analysed his modern
ideas about the novel, considering them, by their complexity and subtlety, superior to the
ideas of literary theory of the species developed by his contemporaries. However, many
discontinuities have also been reported, which proves that the theorist Duiliu Zamfirescu
had not managed to put together a well-articulated and coherent system with the ideas
taken from his multiple readings. However, for this lucid creator, literary critics have
failed to find those cracks in the system that justify the fundamental downgrades of the
work. Titu Maiorescu, for example, expressed reservations even about Viața la țară, even
though he had directly monitored its creative process; other critics have noted many a
progressive decline in the value of the Zamfirescian pentalogy (Viața la țară, Tănase
Scatiu, În război, Îndreptări and Anna; the same applies to the last novel, Lynna, which
is not part of the cycle).
Duiliu Zamfirescu did not notice that what he reproached the seading peasants and
folklorists for, namely the limitation, as a value projection (the keepers of the ancestral
traditions, of the national specificity, of the ethnic essence of the Romanian people), of
the transfiguration of life only at the level of the lower states, could be reproached to
himself, who operated a similar limitation at the level of the upper state. In a literary work,
these two states had to remain, as in life, complementary.
But Duiliu Zamfirescu has, in this matter, a very clear theory, used as an argument
in the anti-folklore polemics: "In the unfolding of events, the peasants move only as a
collective mass, because that is how I find them interesting, that is how they are a power,
and that is how their psychology can give the characteristic note of a peasant. Otherwise,

20
individually, they cannot form the subject of a novel" (Zamfirescu, 2021, p. 422;
according to Gafita, too, 1970, p. LIII).
A novel which, it is said, deals only with the top layer, cannot achieve the
verisimilitude of life so often claimed by Duiliu Zamfirescu. In life, the layer above is
interdependent with the others below it, the configuration of each depends on that of the
others, and together they make up the “true”, complete picture of life.
Duiliu Zamfirescu paradoxical performance was that he wanted to describe
country life without peasants: "we are in the country (...), but not among peasants" (Gafița,
1970, p. XLVII), where oases of civilization are described in the middle of the field.
Without knowing the peasants directly, the author has and applies, as we have
seen, prejudices according to which, as inferior beings, the peasants do not have their
existential universe reflected in their consciousness, their social behaviour being
gregarious.
The consequence was that, wanting to transfigure a vertically delimited sector of
reality, to write only about the rural aristocracy and the urban bourgeoisie, "life often
remained in schemes, condensed into portraits, veered towards caricatures or
conventional compositions" (Constantinescu, 1976, p. 158).
George Călinescu also notes that "The novel suffers from a lack of mediocrity. Its
length is that of a novella. The heroes live temperamentally, through a few captured
gestures, but lack the sustained and complex hold that gives rise to true life (Călinescu,
1976, p. 173).
The cyclical character, under the conditions of this division and delimitation of
transfiguration, also suffers and is hardly supported only on "the Tolstoyan suggestion of
the family clan" (Manolescu, 2008: p. 482). This is because "Novels only communicate
with each other externally and a hero never really moves from one volume to another.
There are as many small novels as there are volumes" (Călinescu, 1976, p. 167).
Basically, a family should have been traced through all its generations by means of the
causes that determine the "qualitative" changes, in this case its degeneration.
5. The poetics of transfiguration with which Duiliu Zamfirescu worked in his
creative laboratory is described by him in an epistolary text, in one of the moments of
sincerity that he allowed himself towards his mentor, Titu Maiorescu.
Transfiguration into a work of art, as Duiliu Zamfirescu points out in his letters,
implies the passage of reality into the artist's consciousness, its processing in the creator's
imaginative universe and its return as a secondary reality, through the illusion of reality,
in the work: "Beauty in art is the illusion of reality. Any corner of nature, any scene of
lived life, any feeling, if it is passed from reality to the soul and from there rendered into
reality, becomes art" (according to Călinescu, 1976, p. 163). The first phase of the process
seems a normal and simple process of knowledge. The second phase in creation is only
carried out by those who have the talent to illustrate reality and sensitize emotions
(according to Ibidem). Other people can go part of the way, but only when reading the
book.
Of course, in the particular case of the novel, the question was whether the author
opted for the active or contemplative type of processing, but analysts were surprised to
find that Duiliu Zamfirescu poet's nature is oscillating, generating divisions on segments
of the novel or from one novel to another. Consequently, it has been concluded that "the
prose writer does not go from reality to vision, but by an error not at all singular in the
age, tries to subordinate reality to vision, to cast it in the mould of a preconception"
(Adam, 1979, p. 27).

21
 From this can be deduced many of the shortcomings of the author's Romanian
constructions. They have been listed often: "He does not radicalize the analytical realism
for which he has affinities, he has no epic imagination with which to impose a coherent
vision (...) lacking depth (...), sacrificed is depth" (Ibidem: p. 63).
These interpretative schemes do not determine by the poetics of the Zamfirescian
novels and their special qualities, those parts of them that have been commented by most
critics, of all ages, to superlatives.
The truth is that the narrative substance of the text is primarily related to the
author's life experience and, in these parts of the creation, the direction is from reality to
fiction, the affective component of the experience being in fact decisive. These parts of
the novel are written, to use a once fashionable expression, with the soul. The other events
in the narrative syntax of the novels are more or less artificial, schematic constructions.
The danger here is different. In his poetics, in theory, Duiliu Zamfirescu is a
proponent of art for art's sake: "we must take care in art to leave aside the immediate
morality of the world and to give only the immediate beauty, in order to arrive at complete
aesthetic feelings, which raise us into ideal spheres" (O, V, 1982: p. 641). This belief is
justified by all the authentic parts of his prose and not only of this one. When the novel
lacks the combustion of its own experiences (affective chemistry), the author has to
establish the creative tension through something and then falls into tendentialism. Thus,
it was noted, about the novel In War, in which the author compares himself to Tolstoy,
that "The writer does not have the capacity for transfiguration and epic vision (...),
everything remains cold, of a didactic patriotism, out of place" (Călinescu, 1976, p. 176);
About the novel Îndreptări, the same critic pointed out that the author "falls into an
idealism appropriate in an educational book, snoring in a novel" (Ibidem). The hardest
part is that the versatile Duiliu Zamfirescu finds a justification for this too: "I'd like to
know who tried to do anything serious in prose without a determined purpose" (according
to Adam, 1979, p. 22).
6. In order to understand the areas of beauty in Duiliu Zamfirescu novels, one must
determine the elements of authenticity of his own experiences, metamorphosed into
novels. There are three: the beauty of nature admired as a child, when he lived in isolation
from the peasants who toiled on the land leased by his father; his own erotic experience,
which, if nothing else, proliferates in his later novels; and his late experience, as a
journalist, with the torment of the peasants of Prahova.
6.1. It can be said that when he breaks out of the narrative scheme and loads the
message with the sensitivity of nature descriptions, his texts become true prose poems.
Lovinescu himself pointed out that "Viața la țară is a poem of country life" (Lovinescu,
1976, p. 139). Ioan Adam, considered that in describing the village of Ciulniței, the author
"paints it from above, with a pen more furious than Odobescu's" (Adam, 1979, p. 64):
The lark was swaying in the cool of the morning (...). The stretch unfolded in an unspoilt
summer silence. On one side, a cornfield was moving the tips of its nervous leaves, giving
the sky a green reflection... (O, II, 1970, p. 35). Nor is there a lack of cosmic dimension
in the nocturnal landscape that appears in front of the peasant Micu.
Duiliu Zamfirescu is so sincere in his experiences that he sometimes abandons the
perspective of his characters and, on many occasions, in his letters to Maiorescu, he
evokes the beauty of the Italian landscapes, even managing to suggest the intensity of his
experience. Thus, in Scrisoarea 16, he describes the Port of Anzio as follows: Nature has
gone mad. Sap flows in the vines of trees and flowers with extraordinary life force (...).
The sea unfolds on the horizon under the canopy of the sky like a long illusion of plain
(Zamfirescu, 2021, p. 265).

22
 But it should be pointed out that very beautiful descriptions can also be found in
the poems of Zamfirescu, especially in the role of setting (see O noapte în pădure, O, I,
1970, p. 179) and also in the novels. The descriptions in the novella Subprefectul, for
example, announce in the depth and breadth of their emotional vibrations those in the
novels: The sun rises, young and auspicious, in the cold morning sky, penetrating, like
the eye of a beautiful boy, all souls. The woodpecker... (Zamfirescu, 1988, p. 119).
6.2. If the author is sensitive to beautiful harmonies in the topographies, the aspects
of love appear in at least three important juxtapositions: the classical, balanced, fulfilled
love of the Sasa-Matei couple; the romantic, heartbreaking love (Tincuța-Mihai) and the
conjunctural "loves", especially those in the last two novels of the cycle, in which
sentiment descends into debauchery. The author gathers a lot of energy from his own
experiences, which he translates into novels, thus constituting their most solid side.
G. Călinescu considered that "The most original aspect of Duiliu Zamfirescu
novels is the intention to note the intimacy between fine souls, the moments of erotic
ecstasy" (Călinescu, 1976, p. 172). The theme of love, which is praised by almost all
literary critics, has also generated the most powerful female character in Romanian
literature, Sașa Comăneșteanu: "A charming mixture of diffidence and deliberation, of
initiative and restraint, of sentimentality and good sense, of delicacy and calm happiness,
weaves one of the most original figures in the female gallery of our novel"
(Constantinescu, 1976, p.157).
In the last novels, the poet tries the formula of absolute "love", to save it from
immoralism, in which the male character recomposes from female diversity (Mia, Anna,
Berta, Urania, Elena Milescu...), "like so many features harmonized according to a
delicate canon (...), the being of femininity itself, in its perfume outline" (Negoițescu,
1976, p. 197).
6.3. It seems that the author's life experience takes precedence over his ideological
orientations. An avowed anti-folklore, "this wilful and snobbish descendant of tenant
farmers" (Adam, 1979: p. 61), saw the peasant only as a participant in a collective
psychology. He has, however, from personal experience (he had witnessed, as we have
seen, the mistreatment of the rebellious peasants of Prahova) the knowledge of their
dramatic existence. That's why we find them in two such situations. First of all, as the
saviour of the landed gentry, by revolting against Tănase Scatiu. Literary critics have
noted the author's mastery in capturing collective psychology. Thus, Tudor Vianu states:
"Remarkable is then (...) the painting of the crowd states, so long before Liviu Rebreanu
developed widely the possibilities of this motif" (Vianu, 1988, p. 150).
Second, the collective character is used in the novel În război which "really has
only one hero: the people" (Adam, 1979: p. 120). However, it is captured indirectly "by
the addition of sketches, of physiognomies brought to the foreground for a moment and
then abandoned in favour of others (...). The most enduring pages of the book are those
that capture the psychology of the crowd" (Ibidem).
7. The current reading references confirm the conclusions of George Călinescu
regarding the general evaluation of his work, which established him in the general
landscape of Romanian literature as "a brilliant precursor" (Călinescu, 1982, p. 541).
Above the average of his contemporaries, Duiliu Zamfirescu excelled in texts in which
he was a character himself, namely in the epistolary genre.

Bibliography
Adam, I., Introducere în opera lui Duiliu Zamfirescu, București, Editura Minerva, 1979
Adam, I., Argument, note, indici, în, O, V, București, Editura Minerva, 1982

23
Adam, I., Oglinda și modelele. Ideologia literară a lui Duiliu Zamfirescu, București, Editura
Gramar, 2001
Călinescu, G., Duiliu Zamfirescu romancier, în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de, București, Editura
Eminescu, 1976
Călinescu, G., Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, București, Editura Minerva,
1982.
Chendi, Il., Duiliu Zamfirescu: În război; Tănase Scatiu, în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de,
București, Editura Eminescu, 1976
Constantinescu, P., Un prozator distins, în în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de, București, Editura
Eminescu, 1976
DGLR, Simion, E., (coordonator), Dicționar general al literaturii române, București, Editura
Univers Enciclopedic, 2009
Discursuri, Păun, O. (Editor), Discursuri de recepție la Academia Română, București, Editura
Albatros, 1980
Dobrogeanu-Gherea, C., Pesimistul de la Soleni, în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de, București,
Editura Eminescu, 1976
Gafița, M., Prefață la Duiliu Zamfirescu, Opere, II, Romanul Comăneștenilor, București, Editura
Minerva, 1970
Ibrăileanu, G., Duiliu Zamfirescu. La moartea lui. O muză și Viața la Țară. în Duiliu Zamfirescu
interpretat de, București, Editura Eminescu, 1976
Lovinescu, E., Istoria literaturii române contemporane, I, București, Editura Minerva, 1981
Manolescu, N., Nuvelele lui Duiliu Zamfirescu, în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de, București,
Editura Eminescu, 1976
Manolescu, N., Istoria critică a literaturii române, Pitești, Editura Paralela 45, 2008
Micu, D., Poporanismul și „Viața românească”, București, Editura pentru Literatură, 1961
Negoițescu, I., Anna și stilul academic, în Duiliu Zamfirescu interpretat de, București, Editura
Eminescu, 1976
Nicolescu, G., C., Duiliu Zamfirescu, București, Editura Eminescu, 1980
O, II, Zamfirescu, D., Opere, II, Romanul Comăneștenilor, București, Editura Minerva, 1970
O, V, Zamfirescu, D., Opere, V, Publicistică, București, Editura Minerva, 1982
Regneală, M., (Editor), Poetica romanului românesc, București, Editura Eminescu, 1987
Săndulescu, Al., Postfață, în Duiliu Zamfirescu, Nuvele, București, Editura Minerva, 1988
Vârgolici, T., Începuturile romanului românesc, București, Editura pentru Literatură, 1962.
Vianu, T., Arta prozatorilor români, București, Editura Minerva, 1988
Zamfirescu, D., O, II, Integrala corespondenței, București, Fundația Națională pentru Știință și
Artă, 2021.

24
 CARACTÉRISTIQUES MORPHOLOGIQUES DE LA LANGUE DE
DIMITRIE BOLINTINEANU DANS CĂLĂTORII

Gabriela COMĂNESCU*

Abstract: Dimitrie Bolintineanu's five travel books, printed between 1855 and 1865,
provide valuable linguistic material for the historical picture of the evolution of literary language
in the nineteenth century, demonstrating the author's contribution to the cultivation of the written
language. The language of Dimitrie Bolintineanu's travel writings presents the characteristics of
the language spoken in Wallachia, the writer being aware that the Romanian literary language
must be based on Wallachian speech. In this paper, we aim to analyse at the morphological level
the five travel texts belonging to Dimitrie Bolintineanu, following the inflectional patterns of noun
and adjective, cases, degrees of intensity and comparative structures, formal variations of
pronouns, structure of verbal forms, the use of prepositions and conjunctions.
Keywords: travel literature, flexion forms, morphology.

Dimitrie Bolintineanu (1819-1872), voyageur tenace, a écrit cinq livres de voyage,

imprimés de son vivant:Călătorii la Ierusalim și Egipt (1855), Călătorii în Moldova și
Călătorii pe Dunăre și în Bulgaria (1858), Călătorii din Macedonia (1863), Călătorii în
Asia Mică (1865). Il s'est approché du mémorial de voyage avec un but de formation et
une valeur documentaire.
Pour Bolintineanu, le voyage est une route d'exil et ses pages sont souvent
caractérisées par un patriotisme vibrant, avec de nombreuses comparaisons avec son pays,
plein de nostalgie et de tristesse. Il évoque la répression de la révolution de 1848 en
Valachie, les aventures des chefs de la révolution, la misère des villes turques, la cupidité
des moines du Mont Athos. Son regard porte moins sur les paysages que sur les
physionomies, qui suscitent un large éventail de sentiments, de l'ironie à la compassion.
Une particularité des écrits de voyage de Bolintineanu est le caractère didactique donné
par les nombreuses digressions documentaires, d'ordre historique ou ethnographique.
En fait, de nombreuses études et recherches ont établi la place de l'écrivain dans
le développement de la littérature roumaine, mais l'étude de la langue de Bolintineanu, en
particulier dans ses écrits de voyage entre 1855 et 1865, a moins attiré l'attention des
linguistes.1 Cependant, il convient de noter qu'en plus de leur valeur documentaire, les
cinq carnets de voyage fournissent un matériau linguistique précieux pour le tableau
historique de l'évolution de la langue littéraire au XIXe siècle, démontrant la contribution
de l'auteur à la culture de la langue écrite. Les écrits de voyage de Bolintineanu sont
apparus dans une période caractérisée par une diversité de tendances, parfois même
contradictoires, mais de la confrontation desquelles sont tirées les normes fondamentales
de la langue littéraire roumaine en général. La langue des écrits de voyage de Dimitrie

*Université de Pitești, [email protected]

1Dans Studii de limbă literară și filologie, tome III, Maison d'édition de l'Académie de la
République Socialiste de Roumanie, Bucarest, 1974, Magdalena Georgescu, dans l'étude Aspecte
ale procesului de unificare lingvistică a operelor lui Dimitrie Bolintineanu, analyse les
particularités linguistiques de la langue de l'écrivain en 8 volumes (dont deux de voyage), regroupés
selon des critères chronologiques et locaux : éditions publiées à Bucarest avant 1850, éditions
publiées à Iasi entre 1852-1856 et éditions publiées à Bucarest entre 1856-1858.

25
Bolintineanu présente surtout les caractéristiques de la langue parlée en Valachie,
l'écrivain étant conscient que la langue littéraire roumaine doit être basée sur le parler
valaque.
Parce que la morphologie est un chapitre qui a subi de nombreux changements
dans la langue littéraire du XIXe siècle, nous nous concentrerons dans ce qui suit sur cet
aspect, en analysant au niveau morphologique les cinq textes de voyage appartenant à
Dimitrie Bolintineanu. Nous suivrons les formes grammaticales de ce genre, en les
rapportant à la langue ancienne et à la langue littéraire actuelle.
Le nom. Dans la morphologie du nom, une série de tendances de la période
précédente continuent de se manifester. Dans les écrits de voyage Bolitiniens, les schémas
flexionnels, la classification des genres, le marquage des cas connaissent les
caractéristiques suivantes :
- Des forms plurielles de flexion feminine ă-e émergent : strade („stradele sânt
necurate” – DBD: 5; „stradele strimte și deșarte” – DBD: 17); boale („căutându-i de
boale ce nu aveau” – DBD: 10). Le modèle de flexion ă – e est parfoisen concurrence
avec le modèle de flexion ă-i : aripă-aripe/ aripă-aripi („părul neguros îi cădea pe umeri
ca aripele unui corb” – DBD: 9, „dar amorul are aripi” – DBD: 11).
- De nombreux neologisms neutres se terminent en-uri : staturi, pașaporturi
(„veni administratorul de la Giurgiu cu pașaporturile” – DBD: 1; „să plecăm înainte prin
staturile Austriei, dupe coprinderea pașaporturilor noastre” – DBD: 27; „supuse staturile
cele mai mici ce găsi într-această țară” – DBD: 39).
- Certains noms connaissent des variantes qui apparaissent dans des contexts
neutres, plus anciens que les contre parties féminines aux quelles ils ont été fixés par la
suite : period („periodul istoriei domnilor români” – DBD: 39; „în cursul celor dintâi
perioade” – DBD: 40); favor („în favorul țărei”- DBD: 24).
- Il existe des formes qui présentent les flectifs -ei au génitif-datif féminin
singulier : iernei (câțiva fulgi de ninsoare ne anunțară începutul iernei”- DBD: 7);
Dunărei („în mijlocul Dunărei se afla o insulă”- DBD: 5); vieței ( să vă spui cine sunt eu
sau mai bine istoria vieței mele” – DBD: 8); lumei („de la începutul lumei și până astăzi”
– DBD: 10); țărei („a meritat osânda legilor țărei” - DBD: 13); cărței, („în explicația
asupra cărței” – DBD: 16); cetăței („zidurile cetăței sânt dărăpănate” - DBD: 17);
răcoarei („din cauza răcoarei și a tulburărei morale în care ne aflam” – DBD: 19); nopței
(„pe la miezul nopței, plecarăm în șapte trăsuri” – DBD: 28), femeiei („îi vorbea neîncetat
de frumusețile femeiei sale” – DBD: 131), limbei („se află la marginea limbei de pământ
ce înaintează în mare” – DBD: 138).
- Pour suivant la situation dans l’ancienne langue, le génitif avec a apparaît à côté
d’un nom articulé défini : „urmarea a unui asemenea fapt” (DBD: 7).
- Il existe de rares cas où le génitif est exprimé analytiquement, à l'aide de la
préposition de : „un șeic de beduini ne dete un cavaler...” (DBD: 219).
Le verbe. Dans le sens de l'établissement de la norme unique, l'imposition de
certaines particularités populaires et régionales détermine certains changements dans la
flexion verbale. Parmi les particularités concernant le verbe dans les écrits de Dimitrie
Bolintineanu, nous listons les plus importantes :
- A l'indicatif et au subjonctif,la conjugaison I et la conjugaison IV, sont
enregistrées des formes verbales sans suffixe au présent : („ca să serve de retrasă la
întâmplare de nevoie” – DBD: 43; „oamenii ce guvernă vor înțelege misia lor” – DBD:
113; „ nu lucră pământul niciodată”- DBD: 219). Cependant, on trouve aussi des formes

26
du présent faible, avec le suffixe en -ez, qui ne se sont pas imposées dans la langue
actuelle („dacă m-ai întreba ce regretez” – DBD: 80).
- La préférence pour l'utilisation de la forme verbale "a voi" qui a plus
d'occurrences que "a vrea" („acesta nu voiește să mi-l dea”- DBD: 81; „voiră să
dovedească” – DBD: 218; „voiră poate să mai ia și alții” – DBD: 218).
- Utiliser l'infinitif au lieu du subjonctif („nu ne lasă a cuvânta” – DBM: 8; „urma
neapărat a forma lumea” – DBM: 9; „ căutară a-i învinge” – DBM: 12; „ avură rușinea a
se zice români și primiră a fi renegați” – DBM: 12; „ceea ce trebuie a zice înainte de
toate...” – DBM: 13).
L'adjectif. La classe des adjectifs se caractérise par une intense dynamique
lexicale dans la période où Bolintineanu écrit ses œuvres de voyage. Les particularités de
la morphologie de l'adjectif identifiées dans les écrits analysés sont :
- La plupart des adjectifs sont variables, les classes de flexion étant les mêmes que
dans la langue courante („un june dalmat cu maniere amabile și cu sentimente delicate”-
DBD: 30; „într-un interes arheologic și pitoresc” – DBD. 68; „atât în istoria veche, cât și
în cea nouă” – DBD: 132; „un vânt dulce și ușor”- DBD: 133, „văzurăm o mulțime de
case de piatră vechi”- DBD: 135; „ziduri deșarte și umede”- DBD: 208).
- Les degrés de comparaison sont construits avec les marques qui se sont imposées
dans le langage courant: mai, mai puțin, tot așa (de)/tot atât de pour la comparaison ; cel
mai, cel mai puțin pour le superlatif relatif ; foarte, foarte puțin pour le superlatif absolu
(„începură din ce în ce să ia o fizionomie mai tristă, mai sălbatică”- DBD: 213; „călugării
intrară în mai mare curiozitate”- DBD: 206; „era una din scenele cele mai fioroase ce am
văzut în viața mea”- DBD: 67; „ar fi putut face cadrul cel mai interesant”- DBD: 67;
„mâna cea mai frumoasă și cea mai albă, legată de brațul cel mai perfect”- DBD: 86;
„vederea acestor locuri, cele mai triste ce pot să fie”- DBD: 228; „țipetele lor, ce sunt
foarte triste”- DBD: 180; „atunci numărul hagiilor era foarte mare”- DBD: 212; „pe cai
arăbești foarte frumoși”- DBD: 217; „tărâmul în vecinătate cu această monastire este
foarte curios”- DBD: 247). Ces morphèmes d'expression de la gradation sont généralisés,
ce qui prouve qu'ils sont à un stade avancé de grammaticalisation.
- Les adjectifs démonstratifs apparaissent dans les formes populaires („pe când cu
ceialtă mână ținea o pușcă”- DBD: 214; „astă dată sclava luă vălul”- DBD: 85, „vorbesc
în contra acei opinii”- DBD: 127; „se află în ceialtă parte a golfului”- DBD: 137) et
littéraires („acești doi ofițeri”- DBD: 164).
- Les adjectifs possessifs se confondent souvent avec les noms auxquels ils sont
proches, en conjonction („pe când Isus zicea mume-sei”- DBD: 190).
- La forme fiece de l'adjectif pronominal indéfini apparaît fréquemment („niște
imagini răpite ce-și schimbau forma pe fiece secundă”- DBD: 133; „fiece închinător este
îndatorat să numere douăzeci și patru de lei turcești” – DBD: 208; „fiece pelerin era dator
să plătească”- DBD: 209).
Les pronoms. Concernant les pronoms, on note que certains types ont un caractère
plus stable (pronom personnel, pronom possessif), tandis que d'autres (pronom relatif,
pronom indéfini, pronom démonstratif) ont des changements importants :
- Les pronoms personnels ont les formes que nous reconnaissons dans le langage
contemporain („Cine sunt eu, măi, de vii asupră-mi cu bastonul?”- DBD: 182; „țipetele
lor”- DBD: 180; „noi răspunserăm la toate întrebările”- DBD: 206; „ei se înturnară mai
încurcați de cum veniră” – DBD: 206).
- La tendance à généraliser la forme invariable du pronom de renforcement însuși
se poursuit („protestanții ei însuși au intrat în această luptă”- DBD: 247).

27
 - La forme du génitif pluriel tutulor, du pronom indéfini et de l'adjectif pronominal
indéfini, crée par analogie avec le pluriel des noms articulés défini, apparaît fréquemment
(„voi recomanda două lucruri tutulor” – DBD: 12; „este proprie tutulor ființelor
viețuitoare”- DBD: 218; „vederea tutulor se oprea pe niște arabi de ritual oriental”- DBD:
232). La forme tutulor, bien qu'initialement un phénomène régional de Munténie, a été
normalisée par Ion Heliade Rădulescu en 1828.
- Le pronom démonstratif enregistre une variété de formes, plus anciennes ou plus
récentes („celalt să-l dăm turcului”- DBD: 67; „aceștia sunt cei mai lați din cetatea mea”-
DBD: 77; „acesta nu voiește să mi-l dea”- DBD: 81; „ceialți se dau la beduini”- DBD:
212).
- La forme la plus courante du pronom négatif est nimica („nimica încă nu se
vedea”- DBD: 55; „nimica nu mă supărase mai mult”- DBD: 55; „nu are nimica de
pitoresc”- DBD: 212).
- Oscille l'utilisation de formes variables ou invariables du pronom négatif („ a
cării avangardă descălecase la porțile Cotrocenilor” ”- DBD: 18; „ puse sub suzeranitatea
sultanului, cu același condiții cu cari se pusese Valahia” – DBD: 39; „nu a găsit încă o
rivală în mâna cării să-l depuie”- DBD: 126; „munții între carii se află această vale sunt
înalți”- DBD: 216, „nefericiții călători carii plăteau toate cheltuielile procesiei”- DBD:
216; „văzurăm un monument, pe care toți călătorii îl înseamnă”- DBD: 190).
Préposition et conjonction. On note que certaines prépositions et conjonctions se
retrouvent dans des variantes phonétiques et que Bolintineanu les utilise soit dans des
schémas anciens, fixes, soit sans observer de règles strictes :
- La préposition composée de pe connaît la variante după („cei păcătoși vor cădea
după punte în iad”- DBD: 148) ou la variante dupe („astă dată sclava luă vălul dupe fața
bolnavei – DBD: 85).
- A son tour, la préposition după connaît la variante dupe („dupe ce cotropi capul
fetei” – DBD: 11; „nu putu dupe război să se extermine tot”- DBD: 36; „Traian, dupe ce
învinse Dacia...”- DBD: 36).
- La conjonction dacă est en concurrence avec la forme daca, celle-ci apparaissant
surtout dans les écrits après 1860 („și daca trebuie a o zice” – DBM: 8; „aceste țări ar fi
niște provincii grece, daca printr-o lege...” – DBM: 12; „Voiam să văd cu ochii daca acest
popor există, daca păstrează limba” – DBM: 14).
Conclusions. La langue des notes de voyage de Dimitrie Bolintineanu reflète
certains des aspects les plus importants de l'évolution de la langue littéraire au milieu du
XIXe siècle, démontrant la contribution de l'écrivain à la culture de la langue écrite. On
note, au niveau morphologique, que les particularités valaques prédominantes coexistent
avec les moldaves, que les deux normes recommandées à l'époque comme celles
littéraires et régionales s'appliquent, un fait naturel, compte tenu de la période à laquelle
Călătorii de Dimitrie Bolintineanu sont écrits, une période dominée de recherches et
d'efforts pour compléter le processus de modernisation de la langue littéraire roumaine.

Bibliographie
Chivu, Gh., Pană Dindelegan G. (coord.), Studii de istorie a limbii române – Morfosintaxa limbii
literare în secolele al XIX-lea și al XX-lea, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2015.
Cruceru, C., Limba și literatura scrierilor lui D. Bolintineanu, în Studii de istoria limbii române
literare. Secolul al XIX-lea, Editura pentru literatură, București, 1969.
Georgescu, M., Aspecte ale procesului de unificare lingvistică a operelor lui Dimitrie Bolintineanu
în Studii de limbă literară și filologie, Vol. III, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România,
București, 1974.

28
Munteanu, ŞT., ŢÂRA, V., Istoria limbii române literare, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti, 1983.
***Dicționarul literaturii române de la origini până la 1900, Editura Academiei Române,
București, 1979.
Sources
DBD = Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Călătorii pe Dunăre și în Bulgaria, Călătorii la Ierusalim în
sărbătorile Paștelui și în Egipt în Călătorii, I, Editura pentru Literatură București, 1968
DBM = Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Călătorii în Moldova, Călătorii din Macedonia, Călătorii în Asia
Mică în Călătorii, II, Editura pentru Literatură București, 1968

29
 THE PORTRAIT OF LEUCAIDA IN ASACHI’S VISION

Marilena Filofteia COSTESCU*

Abstract: The epic volume, Leucaida is built from over thirty sonnets dedicated to Asachi
Bianca Milesi. The sentimental dimension between Bianca Milesi (Leuca) and Asachi (Alviro
Corintio-Dacico) is described in all the songs that make up Leucaida. Laura of Petrarca, Beatrice
of Dante or the brown lady of Sakespeare is called Arcadian Leuca de Asachi, and the love for her
is sung in verses flooded by the auroral air of Italian origin, giving Romanian literature a new
lexical, thematic, imagistic and prosodic beginning. Asachi's sonnets are highlighted in Romanian
literature by spiritualizing love, overcoming the common, prosaic by fixing an astral destiny to his
beloved, continuing the idea of Dante and Petrarca who saw an angel in a woman in a spiritualized
archive. Although Asachi’s Leucaids in italic style are not entirely perfect, they established
themselves as a founding act, constituting a starting point for great poets such as Eminescu and
Alecsandri. Without requiring the subject to be exhausted, the work aims to outline the portrait of
Asachi’s Leucaida that has imprinted bright traces in Romanian and Italian literature. Activating
in a period full of convulsions, Gheorghe Asachi must be appreciated in the historical context of
the era in which he performed, after the real contributions that lasted through time and gave the
start of modern literature in his homeland, giving him the well-deserved place in the most valuable
writer of his time.
Keywords: pioneer, contribution, portrait, sources, early sonneteer

The nineteenth century brings a new process of emancipation in national culture

and spirituality, being the century when the first scholars break ties with the past, when a
new ideological climate turns its face to Western culture. Under these circumstances,
personalities of those time such as Gheorghe Lazăr or Gheorghe Asachi become the
representatives of the "new times". (Ibrăileanu, 1984: 39).
Emblematic personality of the time, the son of the clergyman Lazăr Asachievici,
a man of perfect moral rectitude, Gheorghe Asachi was a man with a strong will, being
well-educated in Lemberg, Lyon, Vienna and Rome. Ancient vestiges, monuments, the
bond with art in the land of Italy determine the personality of the young Asachi through
the revelation of love and art. Asachi inserts the mystery of classical art and lives the
euphoria of shared, but also platonic love, for a young woman whose delicate image,
magnified by memory and constantly kept alive by the petrarchist reminiscences, will
guide him all his life. At the same time with the euphoria of love, Asachi discovers in
these lands the Latinity and the beauty detached from the world of ineffable
transcendences embodied in stone, color or word. Firstly, a scientist, secondly, a polyglot
humanist, Asachi has a real belief in the national idea in the service of which he puts his
entire existence through unique achievements for that period of cultural revival (first
engineering course, newspapers, calendars, translations, theatre, school organizer,
painting, lithography, etc.). Being a speaker of Greek and Latin, but also of modern
languages (Russian, English, Polish, French, German, Italian), Gheorghe Asachi has the
chance to pass throughout the representative universal literature, from antiquity to the
contemporary period, from which he selects models to imitate so he uses them to define
a modern literature in his own country, by respecting the European standards.
The Enlightenment beliefs of Asachi regarding the construction of culture and the
evolution of modern Romanian literature are clear, admitting that the Romanian language,

* University of Piteşti, [email protected],

30
like all languages, can be remarked in poetry "because the feeling, being his mother, can
be early visible in people, when knowledge is achieved by making huge efforts" (Asachi,
1991: 58). Asachi explains his classicist belief, balancing personal experience, explaining
that for a work of art, poetry is a sinuous path, that it takes "classical parables", "nature
of language", in a word of imitation because the poem "is the product of thought through
elevated feeling, who resonates with elegant and harmonious sayings, so that by being
processed, the language will once be able to look worthy of its place, as the Italian one"
(Asachi, 1991: 58).
In the field of poetry, the high education received by Asachi in Rome, far exceeded
the level of his contemporaries due to direct contact with the classicists of that time. Even
if we cannot speak of a cult of originality, which, moreover, we will find neither in the
Văcărești poets, nor in Conachi, only a deep and disinterested knowledge of Asachi’s
literary activity, which spreads for a period for over four decades, can give back to the
great scholar their well-deserved place in the history of modern Romanian literature. The
disclosure of Asachi’s individuality must be made from within, from the angle of his
intimate construction.
Gheorghe Asachi must be reanalyzed, judged and appreciated in the context of the
era in which he performed, judged by the real contributions that defeated the time and
facilitated the beginning of a new era in Romanian culture and spirituality. In the early
years of the nineteenth century, four poets, Ion Budai-Deleanu, Iancu Văcărescu,
Gheorghe Asachi and Costache Conachi expressed their work, each illustrating different
literary currents, different cultural traditions, different stylistic manners.
Asachi’s culture in this sphere has a solid foundation outlined during the years of
study in Italy (1808-1812), when the poetry of the Italian Renaissance, the sonnet, was
highly valued by both artists and those in touch with the spirituality of the time. Although
it had been promoted long before, during the Middle Ages, before Dante or Petrarca,
Renaissance poets rediscovered new aspects of the sonnet. The creators of sonnets
decided that the final verse should concentrate the entire poem or explain the meaning of
the text and have a gnomic character. In this sense, Lamartine's statement that it is enough
to read the final verse of the sonnet to understand its full beauty is certainly exaggerated.
Instead, Lucian Blaga admitted that the final verse can be the basis of the entire text: "The
sonnet is built like a house: from the bottom to the top ".
Ancient universal literature offers Horace and Anacreon as models. While the
work of the first Văcărești artists or Costache Conachi are dominated by sensuality,
Asachi's anacreontics have a predominant moralizing character, proving one more time
that this is the product of a superior institution. Learning from his studies with pre-
romantic literature, Asachi’s evolution towards romance is difficult. In the poetic texts
of his youth, we see some romantic notes such as love for nature, for idyllic life, for the
historical past, for heroism, etc. and after 1850, Asachi romantically treats various
subjects in historical short stories, imitating pre-romantics such as Young, Ossian, Gray
and romantic masters such as Lamartine, Schiller, Byron, Victor Hugo.
Thirsty for knowledge, Asachi does not limit to this. Italian and French literature
represented by Metastasio, Parini, Dante, Petrarca, Boccaccio Ossian, Lamartine,
Vicenzo Monti or Vitorio Alfieri is representative for Asachi’s training, but he passes
through many other sectors of European culture and art. The years of training in Lemberg
and Vienna introduce the young Asachi to Greek and Latin literature, but he does not
ignore the classical or modern writings. In addition, the romantic Asachi has mastered the
science of versification since 1813, he was, at that time, the author of a rhyming
dictionary, Rimario Moldavo, discovered by Petre V. Haneș, which clearly means that

31
since the beginning of the second decade, he has gained an interest in verse in his national
language, without ignoring aspects of poetical art. With all these influences, we cannot
speak of an uncommon vision which actually, we will not find neither in the first poets of
Văcărești, nor in Conachi. The writings of Asachi, published in the first part of his life
are not well known, the manuscripts being destroyed in the fire of 1827. The deeply
patriotic character of the poems dedicated to the significant events of Moldova
emphasizes the meaning of the moments, proving the militant character of Asachi’s
writing. The love for the country or glory, brought back from the past are fervently
promoted by Asachi, in a romantic way, outlining in his conception a real literary
program, worthy of being followed by contemporary poets.
Asachian poetry is flooded by the auroral air of Italian origin, offering Romanian
literature a new lexical, thematic, imagistic and prosodic beginning. Rome’s influence is
present in Asachian poetry, and its Italic-style processing imposed itself as a founding
act, providing a starting point for Eminescu and Alecsandri. Asachi’s work is not always
original. The neoclassical structure of Asachi’s poetry takes on certain subjects from
Horace, Anacreon, Martial, Petrarch, Ossian, Tasso, Gray Lamartine, Schiller, Byron,
Boileau, Mickiewicz and Krasicki. Throughout his poetry, both in Italian origins and
later, the idea of imitating is fundamental for Asachi, which is accepted in the beginning
because of the lack of experience.
In addition to this, Asachi assumes in his work "Preface to the Collection of
Poems, Iasi, 1854" his classicist beliefs in his poetry, trying to justify the imperfection of
the verses "incomplete, like every beginner work", having an unquestionable argument:
"lacking classic models in the Romanian language of the various compositions, I
followed, as much as possible, the rules of Italian poetry, which are more similar with our
language." (Asachi, 1991: 59). This opinion was also resumed in "Proimiu" at "Collection
of poems, part II, Iași, 1854": "the study of Italian classics convinced me that no other
language, except from Italian could facilitate and develop literature and Romanian
poetry". Asachi admits that "for my first work I took as a model the Italian verse and its
various constructions, so that the sonnet, the ode, anacreontica, the verses called sdruciole
(rhytmic) and so on, for me the first influences were used in Romanian poetry" (Asachi,
1991: 60). The obvious signs of classical literary ideology in Asachi's work can be seen
from his belief that there is the protocol of language "elegant and harmonious sayings",
the model, imitation, the dominance of reason or the rule (Asachi, 1991: 59). The erotic
vision through Platonism dominates his entire work through the conceptualization of
images and the spiritual experience of feelings.
Having an advantage over the Enlightment compatriots from his time because of
the chance to be schooled in a classic Italian environment that offered him models to
imitate, Asachi has the opportunity to start modern literature in his homeland. Although
the writings of Asachi’s youth are not well known, because the manuscripts were
destroied in the fire of 1827, Asachi’s poetic debut is analysed by the compositions in
which Italy and Bianca Milesi are venerated. Despite the fact that the texts, firmed by the
author, were written in Italian, the poems in Romanian were published later than the debut
of Cîrlova, Heliade or Alexandrescu.
Therefore, the model for his work is taken from Italian literature that is full of
Greco-Roman myths. In fact, the study of Italian classics led Asachi to consider that the
Italian language can positively influence the development of poetry in Romanian. His
first sonnet translated into Italian was published in "Giornale del Campidoglio" on
December 26, 1811, being published only in 1854 in Romanian. Upon his return to
Moldavia in 1812, Asachi, who was heartbroken because he had to leave, wrote one of

32
the most sensitive sonnets, "Il vaticino" (The Prophecy) in a deeply elegiac manner.
Returning to his country, at a time when Moldavia needed a pioneer in various areas of
activity, Asachi –the poet is quickly replaced by Asachi –the patriotic, interested in
"enlightening" people in several activities: education, theater, press, painting, etc. The
manuscript named "Alăuta" by Alviru Dakian, the poet of Arcadia in Rome, from 1820,
proves that Asachi composed Romanian verses during this period, making his creation an
extraordinary literary event of the time and, of course, giving it the well-deserved place
among the most valuable creations of his time.
During the period he fell in love, Asachi wrote sonnets, being the first sonnetist in
the history of Romanian poetry. The sonnet, the innovation of Italy in the 13th century,
is well known to Asachi, and Petrarca’s influence is easily recognized in his sonnets both
in the technique of versification and in the routine of create the image. For Gheorghe
Asachi, as well as for Francesco Petrarca or Dante Alighieri, literature was an instrument
of knowledge. The representative period of Asachi’s poetic creation is represented by his
sonnets written in Italian and translated by him later, dedicated to his muse, Bianca Milesi,
for whom he always felt a uncomparable love. His unforgettable girlfriend Leuca, Bianca
Milesi, is considered to be the absolute woman for Asachi, that highlights the grace of the
spirit, the high nobility of soul, the candor of the heart, the radiations of eternal youth.
Asachi adopts the Italian form of the sonnet: fourteen lines arranged in two parts of four
lines with the arrangement of the rhyme abba abba or abab abab followed by two parts
of three lines with various rhymes like aba bab, cde edc, cde cde, cde ecd, cde dce etc.,
all of them completing each other. The rigorously structured ensemble of the sonnet,
speaking of rhyme and rithm contains 154 syllables, and the primary element of the sonnet
is the endecasyllable rhythm, which gives it sobriety, depth and finesse.
La Leucaide d’Alviro Corintio-Dacico, Roma, il di 8 aprilie 1913 (Leucaida lui
Alviro Corintio-Dacico, Roma, 8 aprilie 1812), the manuscript found at Drobeta-Turnu-
Severin, in the archive of Dr. C. I. Istrati contains 33 sonnets without title written in
Italian. 25 of these sonnets are translated and published, everything being supervised by
George Sorescu. The sonnets are dedicated to Bianca Milesi, Asachi’s muse whom she
calls Leuca. Written in Italian, in 1809-1812, the texts who were unified in this volume
have a pronounced erotic character. The original poetic structure of the Leucaida
manuscript makes Asachi a valuable poet in Italian. Laura by Petrarca, Beatrice by Dante
or, "Dark brown Lady" by Shakespeare are Asachi’s role models for Leuca, who is
considered to be better because of its way of promoting ethical values in a period of
spiritual awakening. Leuca, Asachi’s muse, depicts neoclassical beauty, the interest for
the great arts, and a powerful need of freedom and justice for everyone. Compared to
Laura by Petrarca and Beatrice by Dante who are eternal symbols of feminine beauty,
Asachi’s Leuca is an eternal symbol of feminine beauty and virtue.
Leucaida’s untitled sonnets contain an L as a title and the page number from the
manuscript, followed by a biography of Bianca Milesi, to whom, regardless of age or
social ascent, he kept being faithful, turning her into a myth over time.
The first sonnet to open the Leucaida series is marked with “L. 2." "Se in parte a
me gentile cetra fora," (If I had been given a mesmarizing citera) is a composition "in
Tuscan manner" glorifying the beautiful face of Leuca in an anacreontic style. The lines
praise the eros, the light, the joy of living in a rustic and Horatian environment. Here, the
poet sees a singer from the "zither" who glorifies the gifts of Leuca’s beauty on the fields
of Ahee, to the bright horizons of Aurora, a symbol of serenity and joy of living. The
second group of four verses creates a synthesis of the ancient Greek and Roman period
to worship a sonnet to Leuca, whose beauty is superior to Elena of Troy: "Că frumusețea

33
Elenei, care porni pe zei la luptă, / Pălește în fața strălucirii tale. // " ("And the beauty of
Helen,who made the gods start a war / Fades away in front of your view.//").
The poet’s praise is dedicated to an angelic presence, made after the Italian model:
"La Donna angelicata", a sign of deep knowledge of the poetry of Dante Aligheri and
Francesco Petrarca, singers of Beatrice Portinari and Laura. The loved one spiritualizes
the male and its feeling, purifies it, transforming its existence into one that rises in the
highest areas of spirituality as we will see later in Nicolae Labiș "I do not exist no more,
everything I am is a song". Therefore, the sonnet outline Leuca, a woman, goddess and
symbol like Laura from Petrarca.
The sonnet „L. 4." "Scorto dal raggio di propizia stella" (Guided by the ray of a
star,) talks about love, which gives mysterious joys through a synthesis of ancient culture
projected over time as a state of permanence, through the presence of Amor and Igia, as
a symbol of eternal femininity, the one that ennobles the human being and gives it the
dimension of importance in existence.
With a Horatian formula, Gheorghe Asachi imagines the shepard Alviro,
idyllically descending from the hill named to fulfil through his song the destiny of
personal love. We notice the verse "Pe care totdeauna îl cheamă o frumoasă dorință"
("Who is always called by a beautiful desire") which concentrates an invitation to define
yourself through love. In terms of leitmotif, the poet admires both Leuca's virtues and
secrets, bringing the Romanian sonnet closer to the formula of Petrarca, Laura's singer,
as a constant of the sonnets of them two.
Even in the sonnet “L. 36." "L’astro ch’il ciel, la terra e il mare indora" (The star
that conquers the sky, the earth and the sea) we can notice the way to glorify the beauty
of the beloved by using capital letters for Him and You, putting her in a Pantheon of
eternal beauty and eternal Eros. The first part of the sonnet ennobles nature with a new
beauty "new light" due to the contribution of the "noble beauty" projected as a star on the
sky, the earth and the sea.
The new element of the sonnet is made up firstly by a grandiose joy of love, the
source of a duality: happiness and pain, love and anguish, serenity and anger. The poet’s
soul goes through a new experience of knowledge, fulfilling the aspiration of communion
with the loved one: "Cereți o rază speranței mele întunecate / Spuneți că plini îmi port și
inima și ochii, / De-al dragostei venin, de multă vreme. // " ("Ask for a ray of my dark
hope / Say that my heart and eyes are full, / Of love s poison, for a long time.//")
The lyrics of the sonnet emphasize the idea that it is not only the beauties of the
earth that influence and ennoble the human being but both: " Dar colina unde locuiește
nobila frumusețe / Strălucește împodobit de o lumină nouă.//" ("But the hill where the
noble beauty lies / It shines with a new light.//")
Asachi’s sonnets stand out in Romanian literature by spiritualizing love,
overcoming the common, the prosaic, by fixing an astral destiny to the loved one, actually
continuing the idea of Dante and Petrarca who saw an angel in a woman in a spiritualized
archive.
In the sonnet “L. 38." "Il giuro per l'eterno vago lume" (I swear by the eternal,
ascendent ray), Asachi declares his sincere love by invoking a wandering ray, descending
from the eyes of his beloved one "a thousand times" to turn the prayer into a " ruthless
fire" given to the dear face.
Along with his girlfriend and his love, he places an ancient world of gods,
ennobling love through complementary elements of literature and mythology where love
was glorified. For Asachi, the spark of love means a "superhuman" thing associated with
Jupiter, the supreme god of the Romans.

34
 The end of the sonnet reveals a singer who failed to fully reach the heart of his
girlfriend: "He saw in your chest a heart of stone", but his face remaining clear as an ice
expression that separates the two selves: the poet in love with his girlfriend which delays
with the affirmative answer.
The same feeling of sadness arises in the sonnet "L. 14." "Veggio ch’al volger
d’anni in Voi rinaque" (I see that in you he was reborn, over the years). The inner pain
does not urge him to commit suicide or to give up, but transforms his serene verse into a
melancholic one loaded with the resignation of the superior existence. Asachi, aware of
the erotic futility, approves it as an ideal changed in virtue, laying in this lines his pain:
"Văd că-n tine a renăscut, cu trecerea anilor, / Madona, aceea care a fost numai Una pe
pământ,/ Pentru care Amor de lângă Sorga, cu ape umile, / Cântărețului toscan altădată îi
porni lung război.//" ("I see that in you he was reborn, over the years, / Madonna, who
was only One on earth,/ For which Amor near Sorga, with calm waters, / The Tuscan
singer once started a long war.//")
Although the Leucaids are not entirely perfect, their true meaning can be
understanded only in the language in which they were written: the Italian language, being
visible the effort of the Tuscan poet to possess strong knowledge of the language in its
authentic expression. Some of these sonnets distance themselves from the poetry of the
time through the "inovation of form", "plastified beauty" and "purity of feeling"
(Lovinescu, 1927: 113). The Petrarchist features of Asachi’s sonnets have in the
foreground the ambivalence of suffering in love, unfulfilled love, the fusion between the
representations of ancient classicism, both Platonic and mythological, and the Christian,
the description of erotic beauty. For Asachi, the technique of versification, the routine of
sketching the image and the steadfastness of love are an imitation after Petrarca, but from
which he departs through the spontaneity of feelings, renewed by his own vision.
Asachi’s opening lines are certainly composed during his studies in Rome, under
the guidance of the abbot Tarenghi in the poetic art, his debut being marked by the sonnet
in the Italian version "On the occasion of Madame Blanchard's aerostatic flight", in 1811.

Bibliography
Asachi, Gh., Leucaida, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1974
Asachi, Gh., Opere, Editura Hyperion, Chișinău, 1991
Caracostea, D., Scrieri alese II, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1988
Călinescu, G., Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, Editura Minerva, București,
1982
Densușianu, O., Opere, Editura Minerva, București, 1981
Lăudat, I. D., Gheorghe Asachi – schiţă de portret, în Gheorghe Asachi. Studii, coordonatori Marin
Aiftincă şi Al. Husar, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1992
Lovinescu, E., Gh. Asachi, viaţa şi opera sa, Editura Casei Şcoalelor, 1927
Macovei, A., Gheorghe Asachi poetul unei mari iubiri, în Gheorghe Asachi. Studii, coordonatori
Marin Aiftincă şi Al. Husar, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1992
Pahonţu, E., Începuturile vieţii artistice moderne în Moldova, Editura Meridiane, Bucureşti, 1967
Scarlat, M., Istoria poeziei românești, vol. I, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1982
Sorescu, G., Gh. Asachi, Editura Minerva, București, 1970
Zaciu, M., Papahagi, M., Sasu, A., Dicționarul scriitorilor români, Editura Fundației Culturale
Române, Bucureşti, 1995
Zeletin, C., D., Sonetul italian în Evul Mediu și Renaștere, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1970
Shakespeare, W., Sonete și poeme, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1974

35
 ESCAPING INTO A SELFCREATED WORLD IN MICHAEL
ENDE’S NEVERENDING STORY

Nicoleta CRÎNGANU*

Abstract: Confronting the death of his mother and neglected by his mourning father,
Bastian Balthazar Blux’s only option is escaping from the reality of his world. He is no hero, but
he wishes to be one so he creates his own fantasy world, Fantastica, where he can identify with the
powerful hero Atreyu, but he can also save the magic land by his own contribution. This children’s
book offers a new perspective on the outer and inner world of each child serving as an outlet for
the pain. Bastian oscillates between the real and incommodious outer world and his own one, more
attractive, building a shield world that correspond to the real one. The book is a metaphor of the
world, with its secret and magic spaces, of the childhood, with its escaping tendencies and of the
literature.
Keywords: world, fantasy, metaphor

The text is a world, and the act of constructing the text is the act of creating a
world, which is precisely the role Bastian is given in the world of Fantastica, Kath Filmer
writes in her essay about Michael Ende’s Neverending Story, underlining that not only
must Bastian restore the world of Imagination, but he must allow the Imagination to heal
the real world (Filmer, 1991:59–64).
The Neverending story is a fascinating book. From the beginning it aroused the
critics attention and many books and articles regarding this novel were written. From the
structuralist approach, to reader-response theory, to metafiction analysis, didactic,
psychological or mythical approach, the critics searched for great themes, patterns and
myths (the mother myth, the myth of death and resurrection, the myth of creation). It tells
about a Bastian, a rejected boy, mourning his dead mother, neglected by his father. His
schoolmates tease him for being plump, his teachers mock him for not being good at
school, his father doesn’t see him or his sadness. His only passion is reading and
imagining things, worlds and words. Running away from some class mates he enters
Coreander’s bookshop1, steals a magic book and goes up to the school’s attic in order to
read it. He reads about a miracle world Fantastica that should be saved by a human being
by giving a name to its’ Childlike Empress. As the empress is ill, her country is threatened
by a strange entity, called The Nothing. Bastian follows Atreyu in his quest for the cure,
and at some time he understands that he has to get into the book to save the empress. He
doesn’t know how to do it, so the Childlike Empress visits the Old Man from the
Wandering Mountain forcing the boy to name her Moon Child and enters the Fantastica.
While being in this imaginary place, he has to create the new world out of the Nothing
that destroyed it. In this quest, Bastian has to balance between his own wishes and
memories. Using the Auryn to fulfil the wishes he loses memories of childhood, parents
and so on. At the end of his journey, he even loses the memory of his name and his father.
He manages to save the world through the imagination and himself through the power of
love, the last wish he has and by giving the Auryn to Atreyu, who tells Bastian’s name
when the Water of Life demands it. Drinking the magical water, Bastian returns to the

*University „Dunărea de Jos” of Galați, [email protected]

1In the Romanian version of the novel the name of the book seller is Koreander. In this paper the
name Coreander is used, as it appears in other papers and on Wikipedia.

36
attic and to the outer world, where he reconciles to his father, confesses the book theft to
Coreander and promises the bookseller to tell more stories about his fantastic journey.
Through a metanarrative technique, Michael Ende combines several worlds,
constructing a kaleidoscopic vision: the “outer” world, where Bastian is not feeling
comfortable, rejected by his schoolmates, teachers, neglected by his father, abandoned by
his mother through her death; an “inner” world, built by his vivid imagination, where can
be a powerful hero, like Atreyu to whom he identifies at some point; possible worlds, as
not only Bastian saves Fantastica through his wishes: Coreander also did it and not only
him, but other humans that travelled into this inner magic place. By this quest Bastian
experiences an „intensely metaphysical world view” (Filmer, 1986: 34-36), as in the
world he can be Creator, Saviour, Healer. This triple hypostasis allows Bastian to explore
his spiritual and moral personality, his insecurities, his loneliness and need for love.
Therefore, the journey unveils a complex inner and outer world, privileged or rejected
spaces, painful memories, contradictions, myths and emotions.
The intricate Fantastica opposes to the small attic where Bastian reads the book. It
is unbounded and dynamic, as the boy imagination is. The attic is chilly, dark – sometimes
even obscure, as when Bastian feels that somebody breathes in the room, as he reads how
Atreyu falls off the luckdragon. At first, the attic seemed to be a secure space, as it hided
the boy from classmates and teachers, allowing him to read. As the night comes and the
story gets more tensed, the attic starts to be more threatening. Its image is the one of a
deserted space, with huge cobwebs, ink dirty desks, obsolete maps, rusty iron stoves,
stuffed animals, rotten mattresses, everything covered with dust. It is an image of chaos
and destruction, anticipating the plot of the metastory. It is also an image of Bastian’s
inner conflicts and pain which he has to transcend, in order to revive as Fantastica is by
the name given to the Childlike Empress. Both of the spaces change: as the attic becomes
more and more threatening, Fantastica – chaotic at first – becomes more and more friendly
and desirable.
The objects Bastian sees in the attic are opposite to the magic objects he receives
in Fantastica: the Auryn, that makes the wishes come true, the Sikanda sword, that
protects the hero in moments of trouble and the belt that Xayide gives him to make him
invisible. The are fairy tale objects that shape the hero and the world. Using them in his
initiatory journey, Bastian becomes the hero of his imaginated story, being able to create,
save and heal. The stuffed animals Bastian meets in the attic are symbolic: a howlet, an
eagle and a fox. The howlet is the symbol of wisdom but of the solitude and sadness as
well, symbol of death in some cultures but also a symbol of victory, with a psychopomp
meaning. The eagle, the symbol of the spiritual power, may be associated to the released
after death soul, connecting Bastian’s quest to the longing of the dead mother. Both of
them remind of the boy’s loss and sorrow, so the fox shouldn’t pe there. But the fox, as
the messenger of gods, has the power of establishing the connection between living beings
and the dead ones, therefore, for Bastian, it represents an important stage in his growth.
All the three symbols have other meanings, but for Bastian their significations are related
to the loss of his mother.
As the attic is the human well known world, Fantastica seems to be the other fairy
tale realm, where on might find magical or weird creatures. Some of the are opposite to
the howlet, eagle and fox. The first creature that Bastian creates is a lion, reminding of
Wizard of Oz, but this time the lion has to inspire with courage the boy, not himself. It is
the symbol of daylight, the sun and the power, opposite to the howlet, as a bird of night.
Alchemic symbol of spiritual gold, the lion suggests Bastian’s path to completion, as it is
the first creature that he imagines. The second creature is the Smerg dragon (opposed also

37
to the luckdragon), symbol of divine principle, malicious, the guardian of the treasure,
associated to the serpent, another divine symbol. The Smerg dragon is defeated by the
brave Hynreck. The treasure that Smerg keeps is the wisdom of stories, as Bastian tells
the story of the Amarganth library before Hynreck confronts the dragon. At some point,
Bastian rides a mule, reminding of king David, who rode a similar animal, symbol of
royalty power. Still, Bastian abandons the mule, meaning that not the royal power is what
he wants and needs, as it is shown in the scene of the moth requesting him to be their
chief. Other creatures complete the image of Fantastica world: the serpents, remembering
of Ouroboros, the serpent that eats his tail, as a symbol of cyclical rebirth of the earth, the
turtle, a suggestion in the book is in fact the symbol of stability, as in the ancient beliefs
a turtle used to support the earth.
While the creatures of the attic are related to the air and the earth, the world of
Fantastica is more comprehensive, for it brings the fire – as foremost element –through
the lion and the dragon and the water, through the serpent and Morla, the turtle. Thus,
Fantastica becomes a metaphor of the world and of the whole creation, investing Bastian
as a creator. The text becomes also a text – world: The text is a world, and the act of
constructing the text is the act of creating a world, which is precisely the role Bastian is
given in the world of Fantastica (Filmer, 1991: 59-64).
Special and symbolic places form this world. The most important is its centre, the
Ivory tower, the place of the Childlike Empress, similar to the Emerald city of Oz. The
difference is that the Ivory tower is not open at all. Only the Childlike Empress can reach
it. When Bastian, tricked by Xayide, tries to make it his own place. Nobody could build
the stairs. The myth of the out of reach place is wide spread in the world literature. One
could find it on a mountain, a tower or any kind of elevation. Beyond this, it is a desirable
place, it is out of time, is not a subject to degradation. It is a heavenly space of joy and
fulfilled desires. But Bastian cannot reach it because his space of joy is another. He
reaches there at the end of his quest, in the House of changes, where he goes back to his
early childhood. In order to re/create Fantastica he has to take a journey, a quest for the
healing name, but to save him he has to reach the inapproachable place of his mother’s
womb. Only after this regression he can take back his life and can start it over. For
Bastian’s quest is not for a mate. If it was, he could live with Childlike Empress in the
Ivory tower. His quest is for his mother, in order to heal his outer world from death.
Starting this new quest, he stays a long time in Aiuola’s House of changes. This is why
when he enters the house, he feels like retrieving his mother. Staying at Aioula’s house
he tries to find the wish that could save him, but with this last wish he loses his last
memory – that of his parents, thus the quest is not over. He has to go down to a mine –
suggestion of descensus ad infernos, as he has to confront the death and defeat it. It is not
about a personal death like in Eneida, but the fear of death and the fear of losing someone
loved through death. Because not the Auryn that leaves him without wishes, it is the death
that does it, so willing to retrieve the power of love he aims to defeat the extinction as he
defeated it by naming the Childlike Empress.
After descending in the mine, he has to drink the Water of Life, for the quest that
led to his deepest, truest wish, and the exploration of values along the way is merely the
means to this end. (Schaefer, 2008:29) to finish. Coming back into his outer world he is
ready to re/construct his from the perspective of his new identity. He seems to come back
to the ordinary world, but, in fact, he creates another space, a world of his own (text
rendered in blue fonts), he builds a comfortable home for his inner self. (Cernăuți –
Gorodețchi, 2007: 191-199).

38
 What structures the worlds in the Neverending Story is the set of oppositions
suggesting the inner contradictions of Bastian, but also a kind of universe that children’s
literature uses. From fairy tales, where the protagonist meets the antagonist, the good
meets the evil and so on, Ende’s novel antithetic concepts and characters to explore the
complexity of the world. First of all, the attic opposes to Fantastica. The attic is small,
limited, dark and cold. Fantastica has no bounds. All kind of creatures inhabit the space,
which is radiant and warm. The outer world depicted by absence: the absence of mother,
by death, the absence of neglecting father. The central space that should be filled by his
mother is empty. The inner magic world of Fantastica lives through a lot of presences: in
the centre lives the Childlike Empress; all the creatures go to or come from the Ivory
tower. All of them are concerned about the empress’s illness. The sun and the moon
enlighten the space: the sun is suggested by the creation of the lion, the moon, by the new
name of the Childlike Empress – Moon Child. Even if Atreyu and Bastian are not
protagonist and antagonist, they are still the opposite: Atreyu is the son of all, Bastian is
nobody’s; Atreyu is brave, powerful, tenacious, good leader, Bastian is fearful, weak,
lonely, but he admires Atreyu and, during his quest, he identifies with the hero. One might
say that Bastian is a sort of an anti-hero. He isn’t brave or courageous, (…) Through a
lot of help on the part of Atreyu (the hero), in the end he remembers who he is and goes
back home. (Hartshorn, 2016:159). The Childlike Empress is opposite to Aiouna, one has
to be healed, the other one heals and nurtures. While the Ivory tower is inapproachable,
the House of changes is opened and friendly. There are oppositions even in the same
species as the dragon: Falkor is a luckdragon, Atreyu rides it, the creature can sing and
cheer his master. He can advise Atreyu and is ready to sacrifice himself for him. Smerg
is a threatening dragon; even his slightest touch can kill, he haunts the world for a
thousand years, kidnaps girls.
Though the two stories are opposite, they mingle in the healing process. Thus,
Fantastica is healed by Bastian and the name he gives to Childlike Empress and heals the
boy during the quest. Bastian reads the story of Fantastica as the Old Man from the
Wandering Mountain reads Bastian’s story. This mixture is the main feature of Fantastica
world: a mixture of stories, a mixture of characters, but most of all, a mixture of values.
Nothing in Fantastica is really as the reader knows. The lion is not ferocious, the dragons
are not threatening. Even Xayide and her servants are almost harmless. The age of the
heroes has no meaning: both Atreyu and Bastian are eleven years old boys, but their
bravery, their strength and their responsibilities are far more difficult than for teenagers.
Life and death are also mixed: the same creature is dead and alive depending on the
moment of the day: the lion is an animal during the day, but it becomes a rock during the
night; in the next day it becomes lion again. Good and evil are the same: In Fantastica,
the Childlike Empress regards good and evil alike. All are creations of the human
imagination (Filmer, 1991), instead, the real evil in Fantastica is Nothing. A terrifying
threat to the world of imagination, the Nothing as a sense of absence and loss (…)
pervades the story until Bastian can enter the fictional realm (ibidem). The Nothing is
the real evil in this novel, therefore it has to be defeated.
The forces that could defeat the Nothing are the feelings. The Neverending Story
deals with a lot of emotions that nurture the imagination, and everything is connected to
the myth. Illustrating personal identity and social belonging (…) emotion has a cathartic
dimension: the reader and the audience become emotionally involved in the plot and
experience the character’s emotions and passions (Lipscomb, Losada, 2017:4). The first
emotion that Bastian experiences is fear: for loss, for loneliness, fear of his classmates
and his teachers. He also fears of the dreadful creatures he might meet in Fantastica when

39
he learns that he could save the country. Before entering the Fantastica, this fear is the
most devastating feeling, motivating his actions, like hiding in the bookshop or in the
attic. By identifying himself with Atreyu, Bastian changes his fear into bravery, like in
the scene he confronts the brave Hynreck. The second emotion of Bastian is sorrow. At
first, neither Bastian is aware of this sorrow, nor the reader. It is revealed gradually during
Bastian’s quest, when he discovers his mission of naming the Childlike Empress and
saving the empress and the country. At that very moment his sorrow turns into eagerness,
as the mission is able to tackle the Nothing. It also helps Bastian to exceed his condition.
When in Fantastica, Bastian gets the power of changing his emotions. Thus, he forgets
that he was fearful, he forgets how easy did he surrendered and becomes tenacious, like
Atreyu. He doesn’t want to be lonely anymore, so he searches for Atreyu’s friendship.
But his former feelings don’t give up so easily, so he seeks for Atreyu’s appreciation, a
lot of gestures being connected to this need: he confronts Hynrek, tells stories, but when
Xayide tries to separate Bastian from Atreyu, the boy is an easy prey, especially because
of this need for acknowledgment. Xayide tells him what he wants to hear and gradually
Atreyu and Falkor withdraw. In the same paradigm, Xayide stimulates Bastian’s vanity
which, in the context of inveterate frustrations turns into arrogance. Only Atreyu’s
friendship and loyalty can change this last behavior. Then Bastian invokes the wish of
love.
The Auryn is the amulet that protects Bastian during his quest. But it is delusive
as anytime the boy makes a wish he loses a memory, complicating the return to outer
world. But this feature of the Auryn has also a beneficial aspect: losing his memories,
Bastian is forgetting his inveterate feelings and frustrations. As he drinks the Water of
Life, after returning to the stage of a baby, he is ready to revive without them, letting the
new Bastian to arise. It is his own personal victory once the world is saved and the quest
is over.
As an image of the world Fantastica is intricate and full of colour. It gathers
together privileged spaces, various and interesting creatures, feelings and behaviours,
myths, legends, sagas and allegories. The symbols one can find in the text illustrate an
entire history of mankind way of thinking. It is said that Fantastica’s geography was
inspired by the European mountains, fields and waters. But it is much more: they convert
into an imaginative geography, a spiritual and a literary one. Besides mountains, waters
or fields, Fantastica hosts unique cultural and metaphorical spaces, like the labyrinth, the
mine, the gates or the mirrors, all of them bearing mythical charge. Thus, Fantastica is a
world of any and all times and spaces, creatures and behaviours. It is unexhaustive imago
mundi, with centre and axis mundi – the Ivory tower, with quests and heroes.
Derived from the world of fairy tales and myths, the Neverending Story is a
modern remaking of children stories, debating the reader’s status, the reading practices
and the text’s suggestions, narrative voices and symbols that give it a profound
consistency.

Bibliography
Arizpe, E., Smith, V., Children as Readers in Children’s Literature: the power of texts and the
importance of reading, Routlege, NY, 2016
Cernăuți-Gorodețchi, M., Multiple Worlds in Juvenile Fiction: Lewis Carroll, Michael Ende,
Jostein Gaarder, in „Philologica Jassyensia”, An III, Nr. 2, 2007, p. 191-199
Filmer, K., Beware the Nothing: An Allegorical Reading of Ende’s The Neverending Story, in
Mythlore, vol. 12, no. 4 (46), Mythopoeic Society, 1986, pp. 34–36,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/26813001

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Filmer, K., Religion and Romanticism: in Michael Ende's The Neverending Story, in Mythopoeic
Society, Mythlore, Vol. 18, No. 1 (67) (Autumn 1991), pp. 59-64
Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A., Dicţionar de simboluri, Bucureşti, Artemis, 1995
Hartshorn, R., Folklore, Stories, and Truth, Student Works, 159, 2016.
https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studentpub/159
Lipscomb, A., Losada, J. M., Myths and Emotions, Cambridge Scholar Publishing, UK, 2017,
Ramos, A. M., Mourão, S., Cortez, M.T., (eds.), Fractures and Disruptions in Children’s
Literature, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK,
2017
Shaeffer, T., Do what you wish or wish what you want?’ Michael Ende’s Fantastica and Rudolf
Steiner’s Moral Imagination, Papers, in Explorations into Children's Literature, Vol. 18, No. 2,
Dec 2008: 28-34
Tarantino, E., Caruso, C., Nonsense and Other Senses: Regulated Absurdity in Literature,
Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 2009

41
 SEMANTIC DEVIATIONS IN CONTEMPORARY MASS MEDIA
DISCOURSE

Adina DUMITRU*

Abstract: The present paper approaches the issue of semantic deviation in Romanian
contemporary mass media discourse, referring both to a pragmatics and a lexical perspective. The
first part of the paper presents a brief review of various aspects of the dynamics of senses, as this
represents a phenomenon which covers a set of semantic changes. Then the present paper aims to
identify and explain the most frequent forms of semantic deviations which occur in the public
discourse nowadays, with a special attention for the devices that underlie the occurrence of this
deviations, so several aspects of semantic deviations are presented in a pragmatic approach. From
a strictly linguistic view, these semantic deviations can be considered a result of a manifest internal
device for enriching lexis which gets greater and greater importance in contemporary spoken
Romanian.
Key-words: semantic deviation, denotative, metaphor, media discourse.

1. The present paper proposes an approach of several forms of semantic deviations,

consisting in altering the relation between a significant and a signifié, which often occur
especially in contemporary media discourse and in social discourse, in general, as
reflected in language use. This represents an internal device of enriching the lexicon of
any language, but, with Romanian, it becomes more and more important, as the recent
studies regarding the vocabulary used in the journalistic language during the latest three
decades.
The dynamic of meaning covers a series of semantic changes which lead either to
new denotative meanings, by means of transferring certain terms from one specialized
language to another, or to connotative meanings.
The device of connotation can be considered an illustrative parameter which
distinguishes scientific discourse from political or media discourse, as it is used
differently in these types of discourse/texts. Drawing the attention of the hearer using the
shocking novelty represents a general tendency in journalistic language, so the researches
in this field highlight an increased dynamics of meaning due to this tendency. With
political discourse the same preference for novelty, for renewing language by various
means, which can also be explained by the speaker’s intention to get the hearers interested
and to maintain their attention, as a premise for a successfully performing the persuasion
act. “An innovation noticed by all the researchers who studied the dynamics of meaning
in the journalistic texts after 1989 is the presence of stylistic (expressive) values in
political terminology.” (Stoichițoiu-Ichim, 2007: 14)
2. Specialized terms such as echidistanţă, acutizare, dezamorsare, a tensiona
occur in political discourse, although they appeared as journalists’ innovations, and this
phenomenon expands more and more because there is a permanent need for renewal, for
expressive diversification with a language which requires a major change: “In terms of
reference (the domain they appear and occur), the majority of new significations (both
denotative and connotative) are concentrated in the political, social, economic and

*
University of Piteşti, [email protected]

42
administrative domains, that is in those parts of the vocabulary which had been dominated
by the so-called ‘wooden language’ before 1989 and which were subsequently subjected
to an accelerated terminological renewal.” (Stoichițoiu-Ichim, 2007: 54)
The terms that undergo this process of semantic deviation produced by metaphor,
leading to new connotative meanings, come from various domains, such as:
-sciences and technology: Liderii etnici vor să-şi electrizeze, mă tem să nu-şi
electrocuteze electoratul cu aceste nebunii. (CD, 20.10.2008); Politica de pomeni
electorale brevetată de guvernul Năstase (CD, 30.09.2008); Bani drenaţi din licitaţii
trucate (CD, 30.09.2008); Să punem să opereze acei catalizatori de sprijin pentru
performanţa reală la scara societăţii. (CD, 23.06.2009); Derapaj economic şi social (CD,
23.06.2009); „mineriade” sindicale instrumentate politic (CD, 07.10.2008);
-military domain: Judeţul Călăraşi a fost reprezentat în Parlament de deputaţi şi
senatori paraşutaţi de la centru, aterizaţi de la Bucureşti. (CD, 07.10.2008); Doar 1%
din copiii din mediul rural ajung la o universitate, ceea ce e dramatic pentru viitorul ţării
noastre pentru că restrângem bazinul din care vor fi recrutate viitoarele elite. (CD,
30.09.2008);
-medical domain: … resuscitează un proiect al lui Dragnea, parafat de Dăncilă
și pentru a cărui soartă Daea a fost „extrem de supărat” (https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-
politic-25491979-ciuca-ciolacu-resusciteaza-proiect-lui-dragnea-parafat-dancila-pentru-
carui-soarta-daea-fost-extrem-suparat.htm); Din păcate, cu câteva luni înaintea intrării
ţării noastre în U.E., la noi încercări este supus poporul, foarte asuprit, în ultimii doi ani,
din cauza impotenţei guvernamentale. (CD, 14.11.2006); Farmaciile nu mai sunt
jugulate de un plafon (CD, 30.09.2008); Aş vrea să amintesc celor care au fost foarte
vocali pe acest subiect [...] că această ordonanţă va suferi modificări astfel încât să nu
devină toxică pentru administraţia românească. (CD, 23.06.2009); Apetitul pentru risc
al investitorilor (CD, 07.10.2008).
The expressive value is no longer manifest with those terms which occur in
phrases with a fixed structure, after their connotative meaning has been brought into use;
for example: dezamorsarea conflictului, bombă socială, epurare etnică, colaps
economic, asanare (morală) a clasei politice etc.
3. In a functional stylistic approach, the words which have developed new
meanings in mass media discourse, in general, but also in contemporary political
discourse, belong mainly to the group of neologisms: Ministerul Finanţelor Publice [...]
încurajează agenţii economici să deturneze sensul elementelor de cheltuială care... (CD,
23.06.2009) Pentru a le mai alimenta puţin iluziile românilor (CD, 23.06.2009); Totul se
contabilizează. Şi totul se plăteşte. În facturi uriaşe la gaze. (CD, 14.11.2006);
Gestionarea problemelor la APIA a scăpat de sub control (CD, 23.06.2009), Majorarea
salariilor se poate face oricând în aceeaşi manieră criminală. (CD, 13.10.2008);
Exprimare tactică deosebit de perversă, menită să zăpăcească electoratul (CD,
30.09.2008); A menţine România la periferia Europei (CD, 07.10.2008); Exodul
cadrelor sanitare (CD, 07.10.2008), exodul creierelor (eminente) (CD, 30.09.2008); Încă
o bombă socială amorsată la Iaşi (CD, 30.09.2008; (UDMR-iştii) plusează în
continuare...plusează fără limită. (CD, 13.10.2008).
However, there are words belonging to some older layers of the vocabulary that
are subjected to the same meaning deviation process:
Besides the situations when the connotative meanings have already become
‘obsolete’, considering the speedy rhythm of innovative processes with media discourse,
this type of texts include novel contexts, connotative meanings of neological terms
proving the speaker’s constant interest in using a vocabulary meant to individualize

43
him/her: Sărăcia a fost practic radiată de pe acea suprafaţă teritorială. (CD,
07.10.2008); ICA Ghimbav a scăpat până acum de mâinile rapace ale indivizilor mai
mult sau mai puţin certaţi cu legea. (CD, 20.10.2008); Îl va lipi de perete pe A.N. şi-i va
administra o bătaie cum nici mama lui nu i-a administrat-o atunci când a făcut lucruri
rele.(CD, 26.10.2004).
4. ‘Neophilia’, which is considered to be a defining feature of the ‘new wooden
language’, characterizes also the contemporary political discourse and it manifests as a
wide phenomenon including both the frequent occurrence of recent borrows, even those
that are not adapted, and the preference for the neologisms semantically deviated.
However, in contemporary media discourse a large number of words coming from
informal register occur and they are preferred as the speaker, a public figure, needs to
persuade/seduce an audience lacking homogeneity.
The familiar register, the vocabulary of informal language offers enough resources
for this type of speaker, who is a public person, to materialize his persuasive intention
and a series of terms occur with connotative meanings which are often depreciative, used
also in other contexts except those belonging to political/media discourse.
Autorităţile să-i tragă la răspundere pe lotrii codrilor. (CD, 07.10.2008); Sper să
se „măcelărească” între ei, încercând să mai apuce ce a rămas din caşcavalul ţării şi,
mai ales, din cel al Europei. (CD, 20.10.2008)
Începe marea vânătoare de mistreți. Nu de pesta porcină se tem vânătorii, ci de
mistreții care abandonează corabia. (https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/opinie-prin-politica-
la-vanatoare-de-mistreti-2389248)
o din ce în ce mai bine conturată Europă cu două măsuri
(https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/pah-despre-o-europa-cu-doua-masuri-2486353)
îi auzim pe politicieni sau pe cei ce-și duc viața în trena politicienilor, ciugulindu-le
din urmele pașilor (https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/opiniejocul-de-vietile-noastre-pah-
despre-politicieni-si-2539369)
Într-o ţară în care economia „duduie”, dar adânceşte prăpastia dintre cei bogaţi
„prin ei înşişi” şi cei care sunt „beneficiarii” modalităţii de distribuire a veniturilor,
într-o ţară aflată în veşnică tranziţie... (CD, 30.09.2008)
Preşedintele încearcă să asmută opinia publică împotriva Guvernului. (CD,
07.10.2008)
Dacă ai noştri politicieni se duc prin Spania şi Italia să se împrietenească cu
voturile celor care, dacă au plecat din ţară, au făcut-o în primul rănd datorită eşecului
acestora, care acum vin să le cerşească voturile, iată că... (CD, 07.10.2008)
Atotputernicii guvernanţi s-au spetit pentru binele tuturor... (CD, 30.09.2008)
PNL n-a fost niciodată un partid de masă, ci unul de lideri, care a supravieţuit
prin cohorte de industriaşi, moşieri sau bancheri şi prin aportul activiştilor locali,
proţăpiţi şi ei în diferite funcţii publice. (CD, 14.11.2006)
Criza economică răvăşeşte omenirea, iar valurile sale năpraznice izbesc adânc
în trupul României (CD, 30.06.2009)
Acest ospăţ indecent pe banii statului, din care se înfruptă coaliţia de guvernare.
(CD, 23.06.2009)
(Rusia) nu iartă insolenţele şi ciupiturile unor state pe care, cândva le conducea
de la telefon. (CD, 14.11.2006)
Although, in general, the most frequently used device by which new meanings are
developed is the metaphor deviation, the metonymy, a transfer of names based on relation
of contiguity, contributes to the dynamics of meanings in the contemporary
political/social discourse. Usually, the meanings achieved by this process are contextually

44
determined in a strict manner and this characteristic prevents them from being used more
largely in the public discourse, so they remain strictly to be used in the type of language
they are dependent on. Among the meanings which are due to metonymy, the names of
colours that appear on the logos of the political organizations, which become the names
of those organizations in a certain context, seem to be the most frequent: Dictatura
portocalie (CD, 30.06.2009); Cu fiecare zi ce trece, prăpastia dintre guvernarea
portocalie şi popor devine din ce în ce mai mare. (CD, 14.11.2006); O fi dânsul fericitul
membru al unui partid virat cameleonic de la albastru la portocaliu, de la stânga la
dreapta, zburat din Internaţionala socialistă şi bulucit peste popularii europeni... (CD,
14.11.2006)”; „Ca prezidenţiabil nu trebuie să ai faţă, ci obraz!” spunea T.B. Ce te faci
însă când nu ai nici una, nici alta! (CD, 01.11.2004).
`The stylistic neology` that has become manifest in the journalistic domain for
over three decades is also evident in the political discourse, so the causes for this similar
attitude of the speakers should be further researched. With respect to the pragmatic and
stylistic reasons which trigger such similitudes between political discourse and
journalistic discourse even at this level, A. Stoichițoiu-Ichim noticed that “the meaning
created by means of these devices are motivated mainly by the expressive function and
the conative function of language, which are specific to the journalistic discourse. Their
referential value is situated at a secondary level, because there are alternatives for
expressing those meanings in language” (Stoichițoiu-Ichim, 2007: 63)
Researches on the political discourses which have not even been disseminated or
largely spread by mass media (declarations in Parliament) confirm that this phenomenon,
which has been noticed in the journalistic discourse, has extended, so that the social
discourse can be considered as a whole in this respect and explaining the phenomenon
called `stylistic neology` by means of language functions is not restricted to the
journalistic register. If the connotative semantic deviations in the journalistic discourse
originates in the use of two language functions that have been mentioned before, i.e., the
expressive one and the conative one, the same functions can explain the preference for
metaphoric connotative meanings in the political discourse, mentioning that their
importance and value are reversed. Some of the figurative meanings which represent a
result of using the metaphor device have already become clichés: Se vorbește, de o bună
bucată de vreme, despre o "Europă cu două viteze". (https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/pah-
despre-o-europa-cu-doua-masuri-2486353); De la președinții țării așteptăm să fie
„jucători”, disputele politice sau constituționale „se joacă” și așa mai departe.
(https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/opiniejocul-de-vietile-noastre-pah-despre-politicieni-si-
2539369).
Still, others prove the linguistic creativity of the speaker and his/her imaginative,
even playful attitude towards language use: Un raport de ţară deloc roz (CD,
30.06.2009); Optimismul „roz” (manifestat de Guvernul Boc) (CD, 23.06.2009);
Promisiuni electorale ce pot aspira voturile cetăţenilor (CD, 07.10.2008); O să ajungem
să ne sufocăm între betoane într-un spaţiu gol de frumos, auster şi gri, reflectat în oglinzi
impersonale pe altarul şmecheriei din România. (CD, 13.10.2008); Toate măsurile şi
politicile implementate au adus doar o cosmetizare a balcanismului nostru fundamental
(CD, 14.11.2006); (Pomana electorală) – „sport” inventat cu ani în urmă de PSD (CD,
07.10.2008); Companii suple şi eficiente (CD, 14.11.2006); Să nu devenim groapa de
experienţe urât mirositoare a Europei (CD, 23.06.2009); Cineva se joacă cu bugetul
turismului românesc. (CD, 30.06.2009); Guvernul – îngenunchiat de greve (CD,
07.10.2008).

45
 5. Conclusions. The dynamics of the meanings in contemporary mass-media
discourse represents a phenomenon that involves both words from the old layers of the
Romanian vocabulary and neologisms among which there are some recent borrowed
words. Explaining the dimensions of this phenomenon has to make use of the pragmatic
tools and the researches investigate the specific of the speaker’s intention when
performing the speech act and the whole discourse. Considering all the domains of
mediatic discourse, including political discourse, it can be noticed that the persuasive
intention is dominant, so this is the main aspect that makes the speaker pay special
attention to the hearer and place him/her in a privileged position. As a result, the speaker
promotes the semantic novelty in order to capture the audience’s interest and to enlarge
the audience more and more. In contemporary mass media discourse the semantic
deviations are produced not only with great frequency, but in a way that makes a part of
them live for a short period of time, so there is a continuous need for new words to be
semantically deviated.

Bibliography
Briggs, A., Burke, P., Mass-media. O istorie socială. De la Gutenberg la Internet, Polirom, Iași,
2005.
Groza, L., Elemente de lexicologie, Ed. a 2-a, EUB, București, 2012.
Maingueneau, D., Analiza textelor de comunicare, Institutul European, Iași, 2007.
Roberts, John T., The Semantic Novelty of Theoretical Terms, available at
https://philosophy.unc.edu/files/2013/10/SemanticNovelty-FILE.doc
Stoichiţoiu Ichim, A., Creativitate lexicală în româna actuală, EUB, București, 2006.
Stoichiţoiu Ichim, A., Vocabularul limbii române actuale: dinamică, influenţe, creativitate, Ed. a
3-a, Editura Bic All, Bucureşti, 2007.
Zafiu, R., Diversitate stilistică în româna actuală, EUB, București, 2001
Sources
CD: Camera Deputaților http://cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.home
https://www.libertatea.ro
https://www.hotnews.ro/

46
 THE SPECIFICS OF THE PICARESQUE NARRATIVE IN THE
NOVEL DONNA ALBA BY GIB I. MIHĂESCU

Nicoleta Laura ENACHE*

Abstract: The lush subject of Donna Alba's novel is achieved through a subtle play of the
most diverse possibilities, combining the sensational element with psychological intuition. With a
picaresque existence, former combatant from the First World War, Mihail Aspru aspires after a
chimera, Donna Alba, symbol of the intangible, aristocratic class, on the name of the concrete
existence, less interesting, Alba Șerban, wife of a royal descendant, great lawyer of Bucharest elite.
To charm her, Aspru carries out a meticulous strategy, sometimes utopian, sometimes realistic, but
always well managed and tense.
Keywords: obsession, psychological, thrilling narration

The permanent expression of an excess is the most striking feature of Gib I.

Mihăescu's literature, respectively the manifestation in thinking and behavior of the
deformed psychologies of obsessive type. The novel Donna Alba (1935) is, in fact, the
story of an erotic obsession.
The complex action of the novel takes place at a fast pace, with a simple plot, but
a complicated case, which leads slowly and surely to a point of maximum tension. As in
the other novels, it focuses on the same erotic motif, but this time incorporated into a
wider moral and social universe, an atmosphere that feeds both on the behavior of the
characters and the inner life of the protagonist.
Orphaned by both parents during the First World War, Mihail Aspru, son of Dr.
Mihalache Aspru, from Zăreni, an Oltenian village near Drăgășani, liquidates his
ancestral heritage and goes to Bucharest to continue his studies. Reconstructing one's past,
through a special way of approaching the present, stops, first, at the memory of a
disturbing moment of demobilization, which marks a turn in the hero's existence, an
important step towards the unknown: ,,I start off on the wrong foot to demobilize - says
Mihail Aspru -, because even when I went to the front, I had a bad start [...] (Mihăescu,
2008: 819).
At the same time, the departure from home is justified by the desire to discover
some lands that he told about in MihailSadoveanu's books:
Then he talked there about the ditches and the walking bridges and many other
wonderful things that I almost wanted to see. Such wonderful things were also
found in our country, but I wanted to see them far away, because in the distance
they had to be even sadder, like this rain, and dearer. I had found two more Russian
writers who invited me to leave: Gorky and Gogol - and with them in their briefcase
and with Sadoveanu on top, I left, with 38 lei in my pocket, which, perhaps, I had
saved, maybe I had snatched them from my father's pocket to take the road,
apparently, of the school (Mihăescu, op.cit., : 821).
The complex action of the novel takes place at a fast pace, with a simple plot, but
a complicated case, which leads, slowly and surely, to a point of maximum tension. As
in the other novels, it focuses on the same erotic motif, but this time incorporated into a
wider moral and social universe, an atmosphere that feeds both on the behavior of the
characters and the inner life of the protagonist.

*University of Pitești, [email protected]

47
 Divided into four chapters, the narrative material is centered around conflicts of a
social or spiritual nature. Integrated into the novel's unity, the four parts have a different
structure, being subdivided into several seemingly independent episodes throughout the
main course of the action.
Thereby, in the first part, the hero is possessed by the romantic dream of
conquering Donna Alba's love, overcoming her ambition and indifference, through a
special event, revising the Ipsilants and saving her from the fear of poverty. The second
and third parts take place, primarily, in the house of Georges Radu Șerban and in the attic
of Preda Buzescu, but the whole narrative approach is centered around Mihail Aspru's
manoeuvres to steal the letters, to free Alba from the blackmail of the immoral print. The
fourth part knows a short time, but a more alert rhythm and with a strong dramatic smell,
which fixes the deeply tense conflicts. The important events of the action are resumed,
retold and analysed from another perspective, that of Alba, which until now were known
only from the confession of the character-narrator. Mihail Aspru's confession is combined
with that of Donna Alba, who reveals her feminine mystery, “the normal, authentic
meaning of feverish searches” (Ghiță, 2017: 270) in order to fulfil herself in the erotic
plane, discovering her great love.
In the last chapter, there is a confrontation between Mihail Aspru and Donna Alba,
“the only protagonists” (Ibidem: 269), two strong, uncompromising personalities. The
way in which the writer resonates in an absurd situation depends on the author's vision of
the world, its inner structure, and the purpose for which the character was created, the
idea that the author wanted to emphasize through his destiny. In fact, aristocracy is
fundamental in this “novel of nouveau riche” (Manolescu, 2002: 205), because the lawyer
“a careerist person” (ibidem).
Gib Mihăescu was captivated by the ideal of the inaccessible and mysterious
woman, emphasizing the myth of the “foreigner”, of the woman who comes from an
exotic world, such as “Russian” or “Donna”, both symbols of the intangible, aristocratic
class. Related to Mihnea Băiatu is also Mihail Aspru, the hero of Donna Alba, but only
in the first part of the book, in the second, getting closer to Ragaiac. The novel brings the
desire of Mihai Aspru, like that of Julien Stendhal Sorel in The Red and the Black, to
know and enter the world of a good woman whose heart was going through a multitude
of moods for more than 11 years: eleven years of desert detour ... trajectory ... asymptote
... (Mihăescu, op. cit.: 1274). The moment, the meeting is carefully described and
anticipates all the emotions and moods that Aspru will feel until he finally reaches his
ideal.
Although, for more than a decade, he is subject to a tormented expectation, but he
remains true to the dream of fulfilment next to his beloved woman. He succeeds, but when
the heroine accepts Aspru's love, the mystery around him is easily spread and the two
lovers become accustomed, and the ideal turns into a common one.
Thus, the main goal of his life is to conquer the inaccessible woman, of aristocratic
origin. The strategy of this shadow seducer is to conquer the woman through an act of
bravery, in the spirit of chivalry. After learning that Alba is being blackmailed by the
immoral prince Preda Buzescu, Aspru, as a true “Sherlock Holmes of erotica” (Călinescu,
1982: 764), infiltrates the degrading environment of the blackmailer to find out the truth
about the impossible relationship between the fallen nobleman and the enigmatic woman.
However, she wants to be released by her husband, but not for herself, but for him.
Therefore, when she decides to go to Brussels to calm down, Aspru does not know how
to make her give up, but without disclosing that he is the one who stops her. In fact, there
is the same connection between the hero and the dreamed woman, typical of Gib

48
Mihăescu novels. In fact, even she, “princess disguised as an aristocrat by car” (Baciu,
2012: 245) dreams of an ideal, chivalrous love. Basically, in Donna Alba everything is
sacrificed for the satisfaction of an erotic obsession.
Although he declares himself a fantastic, Mihail Aspru cannot exceed the limits of
a practical thinking and his hesitations, the change of decisions, the postponements have
in view the obtaining of a maximum profit, be it sentimental. Because he can't stand
Alba's fleeting and disgusted hug, determined to accept only the body he suspects of
proposing with his body, Aspru will not chivalrously hand over the compromising letters,
but will resort to what he calls “rape of the mind” (Mihăescu, op. cit.: 1211), which is
“infinitely sweeter than a banal pleasure” (ibidem), but perhaps even more reprehensible.
Overbidding with his chivalrous virtues, always imagined, he gives a real theatrical blow,
assuring Alba, the supreme act of comedy that he sometimes naively plays, offering her
the letters he only wanted to bring her release, giving and the possibility to confess
everything to her husband for his happiness and “the infinite increase of her power”
(Mihăescu, op. cit.: 1209), “through a great act of self-victory and total victory and
clarification, enlightenment” (Mihăescu, idem: 1210).
The theft is justified by Mihail Aspru, who easily solves any moral dilemma:
“Wow! I am extremely amused by this theft, which I consider legitimate and moral. [...]
It is a boundless happiness to commit pettiness in view of a wonderful, clear, moral goal”
(Mihăescu, op. cit.: 1066). As Prince Preda did not even intend to return all the
compromising letters, the aura of chivalry with which he always suggests himself seems
unbroken around Alba's beloved forehead. Not even the double play against Georges
Radu Ștefan, authoritarian to the tyrannical gesture, jealous, but honest and generous,
does not shake his conscience too much. The most obvious proof of this moral ambiguity,
despite the appearances created by the idolatrous love for this idealized woman, is related
to the nature of the relations with Alba, finalized by a lie that dispels any trace of chivalry.
At the same time, all the intelligence and energy put into play by Mihail Aspru to achieve
his goal, the conquest of the beloved woman, does not elevate him, does not ennoble him,
but we notice that everything seems disinterested, free act, complication springing from
aesthetic refinement, it is, in fact, the result of a cold, self-interested calculation, and the
goal is pursued with the utmost tenacity, but also with full moral lability. Mihail Aspru
meets Donna Alba at the aptitude test, when “serious and proud, tall and incredibly
beautiful” (Mihăescu, idem: 829) she goes through her law and, because of her emotions,
escapes the dictionaries.
Recently after graduation, Mihail Aspru meets Donna Alba again and it seems to
her that she recognized him. In order to get closer to her, she becomes the employee of
Georges Radu Șerban, Alba's husband. Thus, Aspru also befriends Radu and Raoul
Ipsilant, other employees of Georges Radu Șerban, also of noble birth, from whom he
learns that their boss had killed Tudor Buzescu in a famous duel, three years ago, another
historical name holder.
Mihail Aspru is the one who wins in the end because he is created by the real
world, tough, without impertinence, full of shortcomings. Brought into the real world, the
ideal is no longer inaccessible, it is no longer a dream, but it becomes tangible, quite
difficult, but through perseverance, seriousness, patience, it becomes accessible. “Hit by
secrets, Alba is Niculina's beautiful, beautiful and passionate, totally in contradiction with
the Russian who is transcendent, fascinating by her immateriality” (Ghiță, op. cit.: 252).
Mihăescu's favorite seems harsh and “he is not the hallucinator, the usual obsessive of
Gib I. Mihăescu. The lucid newcomer surpassed the delirious in himself” (Balotă: 1974,
235).

49
 Moreover, the critic Nicolae Balotă tries a kind of localization of Mihail Aspru's
idea of relative sorelism, following even the author's suggestions: rather a Don Quijote
dreaming of absurd adventures. And yet, this Dinu Păturică of love less than of
enrichment is as lucid as it is enslaved to a dream “(ibidem: 234).
Mihail Aspru becomes, beyond any intention of the author, “the symbol of the
elevation of the lower man to an aristocracy of work and spirit” (Şuluțiu, 1935: 77), and
his “sorelism” (Streinu, 1968: 128) is used only as analysis tool, which opens a
“possibility of orientation on the novel” (ibidem: 127), but also a path of access related to
a comparative methodology. Explaining the soul mechanism of Mihail Aspru which “is
spent in one direction” (Cioculescu, 1972: 307), mastered only by the image of the woman
he wants to approach, is the basis of a Romanian construction remarkable for its balance
and “highlighting the significant” (Cioculescu, idem: 308). intimacy with Donna Alba
and one of nobility, deciding for the latter, thus becoming a confidant of the woman.
Also, the heroine represents, like Zina Cornoiu, Eleonora, Rusoaica, Arina
Velovan the inaccessible woman, the ideal woman of the main character. Like Ragaiac,
Mihail Aspru runs after a chimera, Donna Alba, a being “surreal” (Mihăescu, ibidem
:1213), “inaccessible” (Mihăescu, op. cit: 993) and “indefinable” (ibidem), being
associated with Andrei Lazăr, Negrișor or Mihnea The boy, who is also a bovar character,
characterized with a deep analytical clarity in the interwar conditions, but “unlike the
other heroes of the writer, he brings a victorious internal robustness” (Crohmălniceanu,
1972: 519).
Representing the ideal, wonderful, intangible and, finally, fatal woman, Donna
Alba is still a real being, and the obstacles that stand in the way of her conquest are only
of a social nature: “Alba - says Mihail Aspru - was no longer for me a story form, a candid
and ideal dream embodiment; she had suddenly become the palpable and desirable
woman; the slow and prolonged accounts of her body lingered lasciviously in my
thoughts” [...] (Mihăescu, op. cit: 1195).
The paroxysmal idealization of the beloved woman, to which he is driven by a
strong desire, is the means by which the central character of the novel resists an
unnaturally long temptation, by ingenious and endless complication of the strategy of
approaching her. Mythical accomplishment, “Donna Alba is, like the heroine from
Rusoaica, an unstable crowning of the eternal feminine” (Cioculescu, op. cit.: 308). At
the same time, by “trying to paint our aristocracy in its caste spirit” (Călinescu, idem:
764) the essential merit of the novel is discovered and, in this sense, Gib I. Mihăescu
surpasses Duiliu Zamfirescu, because his aristocrats, they are more subtle, closer to
reality” (ibidem).
The epic possibilities of the novelist, who knows how to concentrate and direct the
facts, skilfully prolonging the wait, achieve a unique and continuous “movement towards
a goal” (Şuluțiu, 1935: 110). The idea of waiting merges with that of distance, being,
moreover, the fruit of imagination, and is indispensable “for the obsessions of
imagination” (Balotă, op. cit.: 234), as are all the heroes of Gib I. Mihăescu. In Mihail
Aspru's effort to cover this “enormous distance” (ibidem: 234), the writer consumes a
remarkable epic inventiveness, the novel imposing itself, over some decreases, as “a
triumph of fantasy and ingenuity” (ibidem: 234). What is more resistant in this series of
dramatic events is related to the author's ability to create characters and the atmosphere
of the novel itself, which is “the tension of Aspru's obsession” (Cioculescu, op. cit.: 307).
Apart from the social framework, in this novel we are dealing with “that a priori
acute psychology of people without external existence” (ibidem: 765), remarks G.
Călinescu, finding that in this respect Gib I. Mihăescu is related with Camil Petrescu. The

50
novel remains to live from the “casuistic delirium” (ibidem: 765), put by the author,
through the character that represents him, in the shoulder of a “supposed purpose”
(ibidem), that is, invented. The writer's ability lies in the fact that he succeeds, proving to
be a “strong case study dialectician” (ibidem).
In his novels, through Ragaiac, Mihnea Băiatu and Mihail Aspru, Gib I. Mihăescu
undertakes “the study of bovine psychology” (Crohmălniceanu, idem: 516).

Bibliography
Baciu, Andrei, Opera lui Gib Mihăescu, Editura Aula Magna, București, 2012.
Balotă, Nicolae, De la Ion la Ioanide, Editura Eminescu, București, 1974.
Călinescu, George, Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, Editura Minerva,
București, 1982.
Cincă, Stelian, Psihanaliză şi creaţie în opera lui Gib I. Mihăescu, Editura Scrisul Românesc,
Craiova, 1995.
Crohmălniceanu, Ov. S., Literatura între cele două războaie mondiale, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti,
1972.
Diaconescu, Mihail, Gib I. Mihăescu, Editura Minerva, Bucureşti, 1973.
Ghiţă, Florea, Gib. I. Mihăescu, Monografie, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucureşti,
2017.
Mihăescu, Gib I., Opere III, Romane, Editura Academiei Română, București, 2008.
Philippide, Al. A., Scriitorul și opera, 1935, în Adevărul literar și artistic, nr. 777.
Stoicescu, Emil Gib I. Mihăescu, Editura Silviana, Râmnicu-Vâlcea, 2010.
Şuluţiu, Octav, Scriitori şi cărţi. Gib I. Mihăescu, Donna Alba”, în Familia, Oradea, an II, 1935,
nr. 78, p. 75-78.
Vianu, T., Arta prozatorilor români, Editura pentru literatură, Bucureşti, 1966.

51
 LITERATURE AND CINEMA – KALEIDOSCOPIC WORLDS

Mirela FILIP*

Abstract: Literature and cinematography make up kaleidoscopic worlds. From this

perspective, we analysed two masterpieces of Romanian literature, “Moara cu noroc”, by Ioan
Slavici and “Patul lui Procust”, by Camil Petrescu, which were adapted and screened. The article
aims to look through the lens of the camera, through the lens of directors, writers, even those who
have played roles in the film.
Keywords: kaleidoscopic worlds, literature, set design, film, show, character

The art of the word - the performing arts

In the current context, referring to all the changes that take place in social, cultural,
technological, climatic, biological and medical, we can say that the world is a
kaleidoscope: it is changing, it is constantly changing, the same thing has several angles
depending who looks at it or differs depending on the time period we are referring to.
Cinematography and literature were the pioneers of these changes because they offered,
from the very beginning, kaleidoscopic worlds. Whether consecrated works have been
staged or scripts written specifically for theatrical and cinematographic art have been
performed, literature, theater and cinematography have, on the one hand, presented as
many presences as the reader imagined, or as many. presences that were conceived in a
certain directorial vision, on the other hand.
The two arts intertwine, become interdependent and influence each other.
Therefore, the world is kaleidoscopic in general, and the theatrical and
cinematographic arts as well as literature propose situations, typologies, similar,
congruent, concentric, but which are received and presented differently, from one art to
another, from a creator. or receiver to another.

Camil Petrescu between the art of the word and the performing arts
We intend to record some kaleidoscopic forms of the same character: Emilia
Răchitaru from “Procust’s Bed”, by Camil Petrescu. Let’s look at the same character
through the eyes of the readers, the writer, the director, but also the actress who played
the role of Emilia in 2001.
Emilia Răchitaru sums up a kaleidoscopic world herself. She is perceived
differently from the other characters: if for Ladima she is the center of the universe, the
woman of her dreams, full of qualities, talented, but not favored by the situation, for Fred
Vasilescu she is a vulgar, well-maintained, talented actress. Some quotes from the novel
are eloquent: for Fred Vasilescu, she has a “calligraphic” beauty: “blonde, or more
washed out, fat and vulgar”, and in terms of acting talent: “She kept her shoulders straight
and did not raise her arm until at their height”; she moved like a queen, full of infatuation,
although the role she played was that of a seamstress who was “looking shyly for work.”
For Ciobănoiu, Emilia is “a soulless woman, an actress, a naughty person, in whose flesh
only the eye of the” devil “blossomed, as the difference in perception of Emilia of two of
the characters pointed out very well,” two people of different temperaments: the poet
Ladima and the diplomat Fred, and Eugen Lovinescu in “History of contemporary
Romanian literature”:

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

52
 “The way this uninteresting woman is seen at the same time by the two men, how
her gestures are reflected contradictorily in their conscience, idealizing one and
trivializing the other, in a word the technique of treating a life in two different planes, the
cheek and the mask contain in it a precious element of interest and flavor.” (Lovinescu
Eugen, 1989, p. 247).
Thus, another literary critic, Pompiliu Constantinescu considers Emilia “of
lithographic beauty”, a cultivator of the “good world”. (Constantinescu Pompiliu, 1989,
p. 137).
The author of the novel looks at Emilia with a slight malice, deliberately paints
her with a lack of sympathy, thus building this character, perhaps to put him in antithesis
with the other female character, the fascinating Mrs. T. In an interview with Eugen
Jebeleanu in “Literary Romania”, no. 51 of 1933, Camil Petrescu says that “each
character has his criminal record and folder”, referring to the detailed documentation he
made in order to capture the atmosphere of the early twentieth century.
Emilia says of herself that some men “took more advantage” of her, being aware
of her condition as a supported woman, but she is not overwhelmed by any regrets when
she remembers her fiancé who was not given because she forced him to, she goes to
church, and her sister, Valeria, tells him that the theater director dishonored her.
It is also interesting to note how this female character was received by the actress who
played him. In this sense, the distinguished Mrs. Tania Popa offered some impressions
about how she perceived Emilia Răchitaru. I quote: “she was far from what I represented
and I represent in real life”, but as a talented actress she is, Mrs. Tania Popa got very well
into the skin of the character, she interpreted it credibly “as if the words came straight
from my mouth”. Literature and cinematography present the same character, passed
through different filters, different angles. The novel was adapted for screening, and Ms.
Tania Popa says that she first read the screenplay, then the novel, due to the fact that until
1990 she studied in the Republic of Moldova, and Camil Petrescu was not studying at
that time, there. Normally, certain aspects have been changed, but the essence has
remained the same.
Another thing worth mentioning is that the director’s vision happily coincided
with that of the actress, because, indeed, if there were no unity of vision, the rehearsals
would probably be more difficult. I quote Tania Popa again: “The couple Viorica Meșină
and Sergiu Prodan were superlative. They knew exactly what they wanted from this
movie, and things came naturally to me. The directors guided me so nicely and so easily.
In my case, it was really a composition”, says the actress, taking into account the
metamorphoses she has mastered: from the physical aspect to the behavioral aspect.

Slavici and the art of cinematography

Another kaleidoscopic vision is presented by Ioan Slavici through his short story
“Moara cu noroc”, a short story that aroused the interest of filmmakers. If in 1955, the
director Victor Iliu screened Slavici’s work in a classic way, close to the writer’s vision,
in 2015, Marian Crișan wrote the screenplay and directed the film “Horizon”, adapted
from the short story of the Transylvanian writer. In fact, the action takes place, as in the
short story, near Ineu, about 30 km from Salonta, the birthplace of the director who
proudly placed this place in the topos of the action, as the director himself mentioned that
during high school he was proud to finds that the mentioned locality was inserted in
Slavici’s work, a work to be studied for the baccalaureate.
The short story deals with a common theme in Romanian and universal literature,
a theme inspired by the everyday reality of the historical time in which the author lived:

53
the desire to learn, honestly or less honestly, the aspiration for better by overcoming some
limits, but this aspect it produces an imbalance at the level of consciousness, when the
limits of the normal are exceeded, favoring dehumanization, with the notes of the
pathological, obviously. Thus, the stages of involution are followed one by one: from the
loving husband and father, responsible head of the family, concerned with the welfare of
the family, to the position of murderer, going through the stage of lies, corruption,
tormented by the desire to stay on the line dictated by conscience and slipping from this
path. The moralizing and psychological character of the short story is captured in both
screenings: the brain of the human conscience, the old mother-in-law of the man, the
keeper of moral values and good manners, remains a landmark in both films, the
quintessence of the quote from the beginning of the short story remains ubiquitous. The
directors did not deviate from the moralizing character of the short story. Like Slavici’s
work, the two screenings make the audience think, reflecting on what is really important
in life: “not the wealth, but the peace of your hut makes you happy.”
Sixty years later, the two directors screen the work written at the end of the 19th
century, capturing the idea differently depending on the social, political and economic
context of the times. Slavici writes about the emotional turmoil of the innkeeper Ghiță
due to his desire for enrichment at a time when capitalist relations had just entered our
country, at a time when only the truly visionary became entrepreneurs, all the more
surprising for a shoemaker who was ragging. the shoes of the villagers, and Victor Iliu
remains a tribute to the short story, illustrating almost exactly the atmosphere created by
the writer.
The black-and-white screenplay, common for that time, makes the climate even
closer to the idea of the book. The economic context is changed in Marian Crișan’s
“Horizon”: the place of the mill is taken by a boarding house, the pigs who lead the lands
with Sămădăul are replaced by illegal loggers, as a result of the changes in the mercantile
society.
Regardless of the period in which the three works were conceived, the literary and
the cinematographic ones, their creators have in common, in addition to the approached
topic, the origin: Slavici is a Transylvanian, born near Syria, of Al. Struteanu and Titus
Popovici, the last Transylvanian, also, and Marian Crișan was born in Salonta. This aspect
contributes to the exact understanding and rendering of the local atmosphere, to the
artistic representation of the mentality of the local people, which someone outside the
community could not have caught so faithfully.
Slavici’s story is reinterpreted in Marian Crișan’s film, and the title is very
suggestive: “Horizon”. It is the name of the pension that Lucian Manea, together with his
family, rents from a Dutchman. The name “Horizon” is chosen because this guesthouse
is at the crossroads, bordering the horizon. On the other hand, symbolically, the name
brings to mind the infinite possibilities that can be glimpsed on the horizon. Chances of
winning.
In fact, the modern vision, adapted to the times, shows that the two spouses worked
on a cruise ship, also for a better life, although the ancestral words of the man’s mother-
in-law become a leitmotif in this other kaleidoscopic approach of Slavici’s short story:
“Not the money, but the peace of your hut makes you happy.” The older woman remains
a tribute to the traditions, she suffers like any man you uproot: “I was given, now, in my
old age, to sleep in hotels and not at home.”
The place of the pigs is taken by the illegal wood cutters, and the dreaded Sămădău
is replaced by Zoli, who, in turn, self-characterizes: “I am Zoli. I walk during the day at
noon and no one stops me. I go to the city and talk to the gentlemen, the mayors and they

54
listen to me when I talk to them. I have four crests in my care and no one dares to steal
from me. That’s what I want to know: who comes, who leaves, if they have a sign on the
wood “. His people characterize him: “This is Zoli: he calls you from here and in a second
he is in Vienna”, meaning he is omnipresent, ubiquitous, omniscient. Zoli’s people eat,
drink and do not pay: leave or not leave… wood, depending on the instructions given by
their boss. Provisions intended to subdue the “innkeeper” slowly but surely. Initially, the
protagonist tries to oppose the power manifested by Zoli: “It is not our job to write down
who is coming and who is leaving”. As in the original work, he takes precautions: he buys
a large guard dog, gets along well with the mountain gendarmerie, and a woman works
at the boarding house, which the spectator finds out is infiltrated by gendarmes.
At first, according to the well-known scheme, things are going very well: the
pension administrator earns good money. In the evening, when he counts them with his
family, his wife tells a warning to their son: “Don’t get your hands on the money, because
they are dirty. Who knows who else got their hands on them?” In a modern vision, the
characters are caught watching the horoscope on a TV show, and the young wife is guided
by universally valid laws of common sense, she is pleasantly impressed by what the
presenter of the show says: “This world will be better when power love will replace the
love of power”.
The woman and the child who died in a “road accident”, this time, became victims,
because the accident is considered an act of revenge, because “The deceased was involved
in the purchase of forest land”. The forester is trampled and the forest district is burned.
The owner of the boarding house is made to swear on the Bible and declare what he
knows, in a lawsuit. The administrator’s wife discovers the broken banknote he once saw
in the woman killed in the car accident and becomes suspicious. In a final rescue attempt,
Luci wants to cooperate with the police, with the gendarmes, but the naivete of the simple
man is surprised by the director, when the man addresses a police station in Cluj, believing
that those there know who he is and with Zoltan Cociș, especially since the protagonist
addresses the police on Easter night.
From naivety, Lucian Manea goes to murder. The well-known ending of Slavici’s
short story, reprised exactly in the 1955 screenplay, is now changed, moreover: it remains
an open ending: as a last step of dehumanization, Lucian descends to the point where he
reaches murder: disappointed by family relations, on the one hand, and the impotence of
the authorities, on the other. There are no excuses and justifications for the murder, but
the director lets the viewer match the effect with the cause: the crime with which he
determined it. Against the background of the church song “Christ is risen!” the odious
incident takes place, which is also attended by his wife, after which the two go, quietly,
as if nothing had happened, to the church to attend the Resurrection service. On the way,
they intersect with the police cars and ambulances that go to their boarding house that
was burning as a result of the fire set by the administrator to erase the traces. The director
intervenes very interestingly in the unfolding of the events, he keeps a good part of the
known subject, but he changes the ending in a surprising way, surprising especially for
the informed reader, for the one who knew the outcome respected by Radu Iliu. Was the
perpetrator caught? It is a question that every spectator can answer as they see fit. Does
the character process his conscience? He seems calm and unaffected by the murder.
Hilarious now seems to be the scene in which Lucian does not cross the railway at night,
although he has time (the train does not come) and no one sees him. He considers that
this is exactly the idea: no one should see him or not: he does not cross the railway because
it is a rule that he respects without being constrained by possible fines, punishments. The
action also takes place in “Orizont” throughout the year: from St. George to Easter,

55
religious holidays that frame the deeds of the characters, so as to better highlight their
lack of morality and spirituality.
Valerian Sava’s observation (source: http://aarc.ro/en/articol/norocul-si-
nenorocul-morii-cu-noroc) can be a point of support for our argument: Iliu did not have
the presumption of the “ballad film” that he never talked about and could not do, he who
cared so much about the autonomy of the work on the screen. In Cinema magazine from
1964, the director himself talks about the relationship between film and ballad: Film (...)
must have autonomy, become independent of the literary source, be completely detached
from it, so it must be a complete show, which does not need any complementary reference
to the source that generated it.

Open conclusions
The world is a kaleidoscope. We see the same phenomenon in different ways. How
many perceptions, so many realities. It is interesting to note how reference works in
Romanian literature are passed through various filters of readers, screenwriters and
directors who give different interpretations, especially after a long period from the
appearance of the original readings, when things change: from 1881 to in 2015 there is a
considerable distance. One thing remained constant: the desire of people to push their
limits, regardless of the means, mentality transposed kaleidoscopically by the creators of
the art of cinema.1

Bibliography
http://aarc.ro/en/filme/film/la-moara-cu-noroc-1956
Sava, Valerian, Norocul şi nenorocul “Morii cu noroc” in FILM, the quarterly film magazine
(source: http://aarc.ro/en/articol/norocul-si-nenorocul-morii-cu-noroc)
Vulcănescu Pop, Rodica, All about Romanian cinema, “La Moara cu noroc”, film chronicle in
FILM, quarterly cinema magazine (source: http://aarc.ro/en/articol/la-moara-cu-noroc-cronic- the
movie)
Welsh, J. M. and P. Lev (eds.), The Literature / Film Reader. Issues of Adaptation. Toronto,
Plymouth, The Scarecrow Press Inc., 2007
Modorcea, Grig, The cinematographic dictionary of Romanian literature, Cartea românească
Publishing House, 2003
Claire, Rene, Reflections on Film, Meridian Publishing House, 1968

56
IDEEA VERSUS POETIC IMAGERY IN PANAIT CERNA’S VISION

Ana-Maria FLOROIU*

Abstract: Generally speaking, imaginary poetics defines its own presence by updating
certain structures that exist in the imagination of humanity. Poetic imagination reflects on the one
hand the imagination of humanity while revealing some national paradigms, and on the other hand,
the imagination of a poet’s creation as a whole. Cerna’s poetic language generates meanings that
refer to fundamental images. They help the poet rediscover the roots of the world, the creative being
thus returning on the path of enciphering the essence (Floare și genune: 92). The poetics of a
literary text allows for various interpretations/reinterpretations of how man perceives the world in
an archetypal sense through primordial images, focusing on the earth, water, air, fire, numen forces
that have led to the birth of the universe (Ruga pământului: 124).
Keywords: idea, poetic imagery, imagination

Imaginary poetics claims its own presence within the space of a literary text
through poetic language as an autonomous language having an ontological function, with
artistic imagery becoming the fundamental principle of poetic language as ”it depicts
something else because it depicts it dissimilarly”. (Bargos, 1988: 27-28). An image does
not imply something that has already been seen or felt, but: ”it is an expression of reality
never lived before, not referring to anything else before itself and creating a language
being that adds to reality and makes sense.”(ibidem: 28). And it ”depicts things
dissimilarly” insofar as a reader deciphers the deep structure of a text, at the same time
becoming the ”active subject” of the text being written. Text reality means artistic reality
that sets a new ratio of words with things, thus being in a permanent opposition between
linguistic structure and poetic structure. In this respect, a poetic image is in a constant
pressure field generated by the former’s presence between the phenomenal and essential
levels. While a linguistic image shapes a referent, a poetic image has the function of
freeing itself from the referent, going beyond conceptualization.
On the way it goes from notional meaning (the man Jesus) to the connotative one
(Jesus as an exponent of divinity), the image of Jesus in the poem entitled the same
(Cerna, 1968, Isus, p.4) builds a new reality because, as Wunenburger says, ”an image is
not a thing itself but its sensitive representation and neither is it the proper meaning of a
discourse, since it refers to another by the same (metaphor, analogy).” (Wunenburger,
2004: 248). In the lines: Un om, un om, prin patimile tale!/Și, totuși, cât de sus, lumina
mea,/Te-a înălțat răbdarea sfântă-a ta!/De mila ta, la glasul tău de jale,//Atâta timp, cât
lutul n-o să crescă/Copii, poetul asemeni chipului tău sfânt;/Atâta timp cât liniștea
cerească/ Nu se coboară-n inimi pe pământ;/(ibidem), one notices the lyrical pressure of
artistic imagery that is measured both by it being able to respond to denotative demands
that convey meaning and also to connotative promises that open up to the depth of
meaning for a subject.
Inside the image-meaning ratio, an image generates on the one hand the creator’s
observation in discovering the hidden numen meaning of the world, with the poet trying
to go beyond what is shown on the outside (Un om, un om...) and to suggestively define
the essence of the world: Și, totuși, cât de sus, lumina mea,/Te-a înălțat răbdarea sfântă-
a ta!//, …lutul n-o să crescă/Copii, poetul asemeni chipului tău sfânt, (Isus: 6) and on the

*University of Pitești, [email protected]

57
other hand, the poet becomes the creator of new worlds with imagery turning into the
”dynamic principle of creating a new universe” (Irimia, 1979: 346).
Through imagery one goes beyond perceptible reality, thus making up a new
relationship with the real by means of the imaginative function: Atât de mult vei auzi
jelire/Și rana ta va sângera mereu-/Îmblânzitor de oameni prin iubire,/Tu ți-ai ales
destinul cel mai greu! (ibidem). From such a perspective, imagination means within
creation a function by which the human being perceives “unreality” - another hypostasis
of reality or an immanence of reality.
According to Bachelard’s view of the relation of imagination-imagery-imaginary,
imagination is the function of creating images or more precisely of distorting the images
provided by perception, of deconstructing language: Arcaşi îndemânateci, semeţi, cu paşi
de lei,/Doi fulgeri smulşi din noapte-mi erau copiii mei;/Şi parcă-i văd ş-acuma în faptul
dimineţii,/C-un strigăt de izbândă, dând zbor nebun săgeţii,/Şi cum se pierd cu turma în
zarea purpurie,/Făcând din largul lumii imensă-mpărăţie.../Sau cum se-ntorc agale,
zâmbind şi mână-n mână,/Buni, fericiţi ca mine, pe când eram ţărână... /Iar Eva lăcrăma.
(Plânsul lui Adam: 13)
”Through imagination, one leaves the usual path of things. Perceiving and
imagining are as antithetical as are presence and absence. Imagining means being absent-
minded, launching oneself into a new life” (Bachelard, 1999: 7). In the good running of
poetic language, an image is a way to penetrate, to reveal transcendence. The poetic image
is a form of openness, a liberation from the real while constantly revealing hidden
meanings. An image that is not built, that becomes fixed and purely descriptive leaves the
realm of the imaginary behind. In this respect, in its relation with reality, poetry, as
Humboldt believes, does not confine to merely representing the real but “captures reality
in its sensitive manifestation as it is perceived inside and outside, but it is not concerned
with what makes it so, but rather intentionally rejects that feature of reality. Poetry blends
sensitive manifestations by providing them with imagination and then, by its force, it
leads one to the intuition of ideal artistic wholeness” (Humboldt, 2008: 216): Luceafărul
senin răsare,/Umplând de vis văzduh și mare…// Pătruns de focul lui cel blând,/Un strop
s-aprinse, tremurând;/Și stropul, lacrimă-nstelată,/Vorbi spre Steaua depărtată:/«Aş
vrea să mă înalţ la tine,/Dar lumea ta e sus, prea sus,/Şi -n noaptea undelor
haine/Rămîn cu dorul meu, nespus .…(Ideal: 17)
If an image is a finite form in common language, or a result of description
perceived by the senses, poetic imagery excessively values novelty by building the world,
building the being. The role of poetic imagery is to ”place one at the roots of the speaking
being”(Bachelard, 2003: 16) ,says Bachelard. That is why a poet is, as Valéry regards
them, ”constantly engaged in the struggle with verbal matter”(Valéry, 1989: 589)as the
poet ”borrows language” (ibidem) in order to create the ”poetic” mood which makes the
reader ”inspired”: De-aș avea eu coiful din poveste,/Să colind prin lume nezărit,/M-aș
opri la voi fără de veste,/Să citesc în sufletu-ți iubit.//Coiful mi l-aș smulge cu grăbire/Ș-
o poveste nouă s-ar urzi/Îngerul tău paznic cu uimire/Ochii tineri și-ar acoperi.(De-aș
avea eu coiful din poveste: 181).
Therefore, “the poet himself highly succeeds in giving words a direct effect and
soul resonance, forcing them to enter the service of his own imaginative intuitions. Words
do not exist only for themselves, but they serve the poet as material which he uses to
sketch intuitions, images and inner forms” (Cerna, 1974: 22).
As far as poetic language is concerned, an image, the product of poetic
imagination, is the one governing meaning. A distinction must be made between a literary
image which describes a certain image as being beautiful and a literary image that

58
penetrates the essence of matter, of the world, which suggests more than it describes. ”So,
G. Calinescu states for many, a poem is beautiful if it contains beautiful images of nature
or if it is sincere, if it abounds in true feelings. The poetry of nature imitation leads to
description, so to pastel” (Călinescu, 1973: 94).
There are pastel elements in poems such as Cântec de martie: A fugit din lume
faur,/Trist şi nejelit –/Cu săgeţile-i de aur,/Martie l-a gonit...//Albi plutesc şi roşii
norii/Peste munţi şi chei,/Parcă sufletu-aurorii/A rămas în ei...//Gârlele şi-ncep
fanfara,/Şi, pornind şuvoi,/Strigă-n lume: primăvara/A sosit la noi! (Cântec de martie:
179), and Noapte de vară: ...Lacul tremura în roate,/Formele treptat învie:
/Phoebe tremura pe toate/Răsărirea ei târzie ...//Ce artist, ce geniu faur/Smulse clipei
trecătoare/Luna, idolul de aur/Al perechilor în floare?”(Noapte de vară : 189). The poet
finds himself in a special or complicated state of mind and greatly meditates on it ”until
a ray of light illuminates his object”(Cerna, op. cit., : 56). The imaginative function lies
in the ability to symbolize images which ensures their ontological status, not to render
already existing images: “To a poet, it is not essential to say that it is raining. You have
to…”create rain” (Valéry, op. cit., : 834).
In the context of poetic creation, imagery has its own dynamics because imagery
reveals the inner meaning of the world. Reading the imaginary content of a text
necessarily involves exploring its space perceived in its reality and understood in its
virtuality. Therefore, the reader must “simultaneously try to sympathetically live its true
becoming and remotely examine its so-called truth” (Burgos, op. cit.: 250). Thus,
imaginary poetics generally defines its existence by updating some structures that are
found in the imagination of humanity. Poetic imagination reflects on the one hand, the
imagination of humanity revealing national paradigms, and on the other hand the
imagination of the poet’s creation as a whole.
G. Călinescu, in his Universul poeziei, in a dialogue of aesthetic ideas, decides
upon the words having poetic force in poetry: the elements whose “sense” is recovered
by the poet after being lost by the modern man: “It is a fact that we, modern people, have
lost the sense of elements. To ancient man, fire, water, and air were primordial things,
genuine numen forces. And there is no doubt that if one looks at the universe in innocence
(and a poet must possess candour), one notices that the multiple phenomenal event is
narrowed through a continuous metamorphosis process down to elements that also
facilitate communication. Evaporating water turns into air, air ignites and flashes,
combustion residues drop like ashes and turn into earth” (Călinescu, op. cit.: 119-120):
Subt stânca fulgerată de la limanul mării,/Nu-i undă să nu ştie cuvintele pierzării;/Şi
numai aripi negre bat apele ce sună,/Numai chemarea morţii răsare din furtună...(…)Dar
uneori se face lumină-n slava toată,/De pare c-ar surâde toţi îngerii deodată. (Legenda
unei stânci: 34).
There is the symbolism of betyl (Durand, 2000: 129) (a sacred stone that was
believed to be a godly abode in ancient times) which illustrates the principle according to
which “the most insignificant ridge is endowed with talent in the eyes of those who collect
their dreams from nature” (Bachelard, op. cit.: 384). Therefore, since they are genuine
archetypes of imagination, by their double nature of images-archaic ideas, elements
become “thought-generating roots attesting to the speculative creativity of fundamental
images” (Wunenburger, op. cit.: 266). Moreover, imaginary poetics opens up
interpretation ways for elements’ poetics, by integrating the four principles that ensure
the dynamics and organization of the world.
Bachelard’s phenomenological critique is based on material imagination that goes
deep into the imaginary force, with elements being the germs of imagination or

59
“hormones of imagination” (Bachelard, op. cit.: 15), because they mobilize image groups
that become hidden forces of the real and organize poetic imagination.
Additionally, Cerna’s poetic language undoubtedly generates meanings that refer
to fundamental images. Hence, the poet rediscovers the roots of the world, with the
creative being thus reversing the path of enciphering essence: Alături de genuni răsai, o,
floare,/Şi pari a fericirilor icoană.../Ce mână te-a sădit, încrezătoare,/Pe margini de
prăpastie duşmană?(…)Ca un răspuns al lumii pământesti/La zâmbetul de stele al
tăriei,/Tu te ridici din lumea vijeliei,/Priveşti văzduhul, cerul - şi-nfloreşti...(Floare și
genune: 92). The scheme of ascension and the verticalizing symbols are par excellence
“axiomatic metaphors” (Durand, op. cit : 127), they are the ones that “engage” the entire
psychism more than any others do, says Bachelard. “Isn’t it so that any improvement is a
verticalization” (Bachelard, op. cit.: 18)? Thus, the flower becomes a symbol of man’s
upright posture that he learns with so much effort.
The poetics of a literary text allows for various interpretations/reinterpretations of
the way man perceives the world in an archetypal sense, through primordial images
centered on earth, water, air, fire, numen forces that have led to the birth of the universe:
De când sˈa rupt de trupul lui de foc/Aceea ce cu el fusese una,/De când și-a fost găsit în
cer un loc/Regina roiului de stele, luna - //Trist ca un suflet fără de iubire,/Și singur ca
un îngropat de viu,/Pe drumul lui, de-a-pururea pustiu,/Călătorea pământul în
neștire…//Cu aripi două: una de lumina,/Și alta de ˈntunerec înstelat,/Asemeni unui
demon ne ˈmpăcat/Sbura prin gol, necunoscând hodină –/Și din vuirea mării, din
furtune,/Din glasul norilor cu foc tiviți,/Se lămurea un plâns, o rugăciune: «Copiii mei,
de ce mă părăsiți?…» (apud Cerna, 1942, Ruga pământului: 124)
Poetry recovers the idea of an existing universe which, by its nature, is a living
being in the context of understanding the world as part of the Cosmic Wholeness. The
starting point is ancient philosophy. Besides other material forces that are at the core of
all things, Empedocles also identifies two spiritual forces, principles of movement which
have the role of uniting or dividing the elements. The unifying principle is Philia or
Philotes, love symbolized in Cerna’s poetry by the wing of light, and the contradictory
dividing principle is Neikos, hatred or enmity also recovered by Panait Cerna as the wing
of darkness, with the wing being an “ascending tool par excellence”, a “symbolic means
of rational purification” (Durand, op. cit.: 131). In fact, the poet owes it to Heraclitus’s
conception that fire is the fundamental substance, that everything, just like the flames of
a fire, is “born by the death of something else” (Russel, 2005: 42-58) (the moon separating
from the earth’s “fire body” in Cerna’s poetry).

Bibliography
Bachelard, G., Aerul și visele, Univers Publisher, 1999
Burgos, J., Pentru o poetică a imaginarului, Univers Publisher, 1988
Călinescu, G., Universul poeziei, Minerva Publisher, 1973
Cerna, P., Floare și genune, Editura pentru Literatură Publisher, 1968
Cerna, P., Poezii, Minerva Publisher, 1976
Cerna, P., Poezii, Minerva Publisher, 1981
Cerna, P., Lirica de idei, Eseuri, Univers Publisher, 1974
Durand, G., Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului”, Univers Enciclopedic Publisher, 2000
Irimia, D., Limbajul poetic eminescian, Junimea Publisher, 1979

60
 THE PRAGMALITERATURE AND THE DIVERSITY OF SPEECH

Ştefan GĂITĂNARU*

Abstract: The ratio between language and speech falls within the typology of the relations
that are established between essence and phenomenon, between static structures and the processes
developed through their dynamization. The present study shows that this dynamization also implies
a diversification of the facts of language in communication, up to those artistically determined,
studied by pragmaliterature.
Keywords: context, locutionary, plausibility, synchrony, pragmaliterature

1. The language-speech correlation. Between 1907 and 1911, the Swiss linguist
Ferdinand de Saussure taught general linguistics at the University of Geneva. After the
professor's death, three of his disciples (Charles Bally, A. Sechéhaye, A. Ridlinger)
published the famous Cours de linguistique générale in 1916.
In the first part of the course there are approached some of the fundamental
oppositions of the language theory: synchrony - diachrony; arbitrary - motivated,
language - speech ...
Similarly, the English linguist John. L. Austin (1911-1960), as a professor of
philosophy, taught language philosophy in 1955 (Harvard) and 1958 (Berkeley), a course
in which he developed the theory of the speech acts. Two years after the professor's death,
in 1962, one of his disciples, J.O. Urmson published the texts of these lectures in a volume
entitled How to Do Things with Words (1962, 1975. Oxford), Quand dire c'est faire
(Paris, 1970), How to do things with words (Pitești, 2003).
J.L. Austin's preoccupations with the speech acts date back to 1955, when he began
the courses on this subject at Harvard.
Between 1955-1956, Egeniu Coșeriu, a linguist who had also been granted a PhD
diploma in Philosophy in Milan in 1940, published in the journal of the University of
Tucumán and then in 1959 in the Circulo Linguistico de Valparaiso, the famous course
Determinación y entorno. Dos problemas de una linguistica del hablar. (Determination
and setting. Two problems of a linguistics of speaking).
It is to be noticed that at the beginning of the 20th century (Saussure) the speech
was analysed by relating it to the language.
The language is a set of rules that underlies the functioning of verbal
communication; it has an abstract, systematic character, comprising theoretical
descriptions. It is said that this set of rules is usually included in the grammar of each
language; but also the other two sectors (phonology and vocabulary) are part of the
compulsory composition of the language (cf. Slama Cazacu, 1959, p. 56).
The speech (which should not be confused with the oral manifestation of
communication) includes all the ways by which the rules are concretely manifested in the
process of communication, by relating the words to each other in sentences, but also by
relating their relation to the reality that they express.
The relation of a word to all the other words of the statement in which it appears
presupposes similar relations between the units of the language at all their levels of

*University of Pitești, [email protected]

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manifestation. The units of language are: the phoneme, the morpheme, the syntheme, the
syntagm, the clause, the sentence, the paragraph, the text.
The statement is an intermediate unit, which has as its limit the sentence, but which
can also refer to smaller units, that communicate a message and are delimited by a dot.
The paragraph, which is transfrastic, is the minimal unit of a text. It usually
contains two or more sentences (statements).
At the level defined by the phoneme and morpheme, it is constituted the meaning;
at the level of the syntheme and syntagm, it is constituted the syntactic function; at the
level of sentence and clause it is constituted the logic (the truth or plausibility achieved
by relating the units), manifested at the level of communication by the rule of
compatibility (the concordance between meaning and relationship). Thus, a sentence like
Pisica doarme pe canapea și miercuri este a treia zi a săptămânii (The cat is sleeping on
the couch and Wednesday is the third day of the week) is not part of the inventory of
statements of a language, the two clauses of the sentence are not compatible. In the same
way, a syntagm like capra citește (the goat is reading) is not functional either. But the
rule of compatibility is also manifested at an inferior level, between the grammatical
meanings. Thus, no associations between such lexemes and morphemes as: acturi,
succesuri, fratul, lupe... are possible.
All the rules, by which the well-formed units of a language can be distinguished
from the wrongly-formed, non-functional ones, ultimately compose the language of an
idiom, its abstract, theoretical projection. In fact, it refers to the linguistic competence of
a speaker, even of a speaker who does not study grammar, but holds the rules by taking
them from the way the community in which he lives uses them.
Because in the generative-transformational linguistics the concept of competence
is obligatorily correlated with that of performance, the latter can be understood as the
sector of language in which it is possible to act without restrictions in communication (to
generate or recognize, within the limits of correctness, clauses, sentences, texts). For
example, an ordinary philologist cannot form a large number of texts in which to use the
medical language (the architectural, the technical one ...). In the same way, a 6-7 year old
child cannot generate texts that contain adverbial clauses of opposition, of concession, of
exception (he cannot achieve this performance), as they presuppose a more complex
development of thinking.
Now the concept of speech can be understood in a more direct way. On the one
hand, by competence one owns a larger or smaller sector of micro-units of the language,
on the other hand, one also acquires the rules of forming much larger units. The speech
means putting all these entities into action / make them function together; it means the
way in which the elements are combined at different levels of complexity: morphematic,
syntagmatic, propositional, frastic and transfrastic levels (paragraph, text). Therefore,
speech means the action by which well-formed structures are realized and the control (in
yourself or in the others) by which the wrongly- formed ones are excluded. At the level
of speech, there are created both the creativity and the otherness of language (cf.
Munteanu, 2019, p. 63).
2. The conception of Eugeniu Coșeriu. In his famous study Determinare și
cadru. Două probleme ale lingvisticii vorbirii. (Determination and setting. Two problems
of a linguistics of speaking) from 1956, the Romanian linguist analyses the theoretical
dichotomy (language-speech) suggested by Ferdinand de Saussure in his Cours de
linguistique générale.
In fact, in the Saussurean correlations, it was the first term that was granted the
right of linguistic affiliation. Thus, the linguistic research had to deal mainly with the

62
synchronous functioning of the language (synchrony- diachrony), with only the language
(language-speech) and to be based only on the arbitrary character of the linguistic sign
(arbitrary-motivated).
All these “absolutizations” of Saussure represented many subsequent challenges
for the linguistics studies.
2.1. In 1957, in the scientific journal of the University of Montevideo, Coșeriu
published an analysis of the synchrony-diachrony correlation: Sincronia, diacronia e
historia. El problema del cambiolinguistico.
In this study, which was later considered by the Romanian linguist his most
important work, there are established the base sof the concept of integral linguistics in
which it is made the distinction between synchrony and diachrony, but it is also to be
found that they cannot be separated: “In the language reality, in speech, these two
moments represent only one moment: one moment seen as functioning, the other seen as
development, as a new fact on the timeline (...) we should conceive the system as a
dynamic system and understand that the language is formed, is constituted diachronically
and it works synchronously all the time and that these two moments represent only one
moment” (Lingvistica integrală, 1996, p. 30).
2.2. The fact that Saussure considered that the only object of linguistic was the
language and not the speech (language-speech) did not prevent the Italian linguist
Pagliaro (A. Pagliaro, Glottologia. Parte speciale. Linguistica de la parola, Rome, 1955)
from establishing a new science called glottology, which was considered the linguistics
of speech. This would be, in essence, the subjective attitude of the speaker, his way of
using the system of rules in order to create the text (cf. Coșeriu, 2009, p. 199).
The first question that Coșeriu asks is whether language can be separated from
speech so that there can be different theoretical approaches, or, as Saussure considered,
linguistics could study language in itself or for itself.
It is true that in the history of linguistics there were discovered texts (for
example, entities of the speech of an unknown Tharic, Hittite language) and on their basis
it was later constituted, more or less exactly, a language, a grammar of them. Or, for
example, although the old Italian language was known from Boccacio's time, Tzvetan
Todorov composed Gramatica Decameronului (The Grammar of the Decameron) from
a semiotic perspective. On the other hand, it is unlikely that the description, even a partial
one, of such a language has ever been discovered and, based on it, one should have
resorted to writing some texts (the authors of universal artificial languages such as
Esperanto etc. could relate something about the mechanism itself).
In order to signal the compulsory character of the connection between the two
aspects, Coșeriu made some equivalences of some ancient concepts (ἕρϒον, ἕνέρϒεια) in
the conception of the speech as a product and as an activity, not agreeing with Saussure's
equivalence: language/synchrony-speech/diachrony. This represents even more because
“The speech as a product is in particular the text itself, and in the historical plan it is again
identified with the language” (Coșeriu, 2009, p. 201).
It is also shown that the language and the speech denominate two non-overlapping
realities: “the speech is more comprehensive than the language: while the language is
entirely contained in speech, the speech is not entirely contained in the language”
(Coșeriu, 2009, pp. 202).
In order to organize the concepts, it is used the notion of language: “the object of
linguistics (“the science of language”) can only be represented by the language, in all its
aspects” (ibidem). However, starting from this, it could be deduced a fact which the
linguists would never agree with, that language and speech are the two parts of the

63
language. The observation is that it is about the human verbal language and not about the
other types of non-verbal languages: the language of the first articulation of the animals
and the others (musical, gestural, clothing, cosmetic, traffic signs etc.).
In terms of generative linguistics, any grammar starts from a lexicon (there are
also infra-lexical levels of the language) and from a grammar, which contains rules of
transcription, transformation, construction (cf. Golopenția - Vasiliu, 1969). They make
up the domain of language.
The activation of the lexical units through rules (the speech considered as an
activity, as a process) and also the inventory of texts, as a result or product, represent the
speech.
In reality, beyond the concepts and theories, things can be imagined more easily
if we take into account the fundamental nature of language as an effect of the double
articulation.
At the first articulation, the language of the animals, with a finite and relatively
small number of elements, achieves a small number of combinations, which are repeated.
The human language, the product of the double articulation, starts from a fixed,
larger number of elements, through which it is obtained a quasi-infinite number of
combinations at the lexical level (which is limited by semantic investments), elements
with which, at more complex structural levels, there are obtained: an infinite number of
clauses, an infinite number of sentences, an infinite number of texts.
But the language of one ethnic group is only one. The phonemes of a language,
the morphemes, the lexical units, the grammatical units, the categories and classes, the
types of relations, even if some belong to the universals of the language, are uniquely
described (sometimes by polemical interpretations) for the respective language.
On the other hand, the speech, as a text production activity (as a process) and,
especially as a text inventory (as a result), is much more extended, or even quasi-infinite,
if we take into account the power of the continuous generation and the evolutionary
character of languages.
The theoretical presentation of the two aspects of the human verbal language is
done through two different activities, expressed through different verbs: to explain and to
exemplify. This fact can be noticed in any book of descriptive grammar: a rule is explained
on a theoretical level and is practically exemplified (it proves its validity) by a fact of
language or by several, from classical / modern authors or from spoken language.
This coincides with what Coșeriu stated: “This means that the whole linguistics
has always been and is still a linguistics of speech and that, in reality, there is no other
linguistics” (p. 202); The language “is for the linguist a system deduced from speech”
(ibidem).
The fact that some of the speakers (some of them future linguists) noticed the
repeatability of some phenomena in speech and deduced rules, or that the first verbal
manifestations started from some involuntary intuition, does not matter at the moment,
because, as Saussure showed, in any language, and no matter how much we go back in
time, the first moment was never established, so the language will always appear to us as
a legacy of the previous generations. The relationship is the same as that between the
essence and its phenomenon.
3. The relationship between linguistics, pragmalinguistics and
pragmaliterature
The pragmatists have noticed that the communication process is not like in the
mechanical dolls: the speakers are not concerned with the communication itself: knowing
units, rules and types of combinations and implementing them, gaining competence and

64
producing performance. They do this because, through such combinations, they want to
achieve some important goals of their life, to achieve certain social relationships, to
constitute and determine (moral, scientific, artistic, political, religious) behaviors.
Perhaps it is also worth mentioning Saussure's conception, according to which the
language is the basis of the society, since social relations are mainly realized through
language (hence the perspective opened to sociolinguistics by A. Meillet, who was from
the same Structuralist School in Geneva). It is achieved through the language manifested
phenomenologically, through the speech acts or language facts.
The speech, as a form of language manifestation in the communication process,
involves the development of some methods, variants, combinations, selections etc. From
this ratio between constancy and variety it is to be noted that the speech, not (only) the
oral one, is afield in which the speakers are distinguished and individualized at the same
time. An area of functional styles, among which the belletristic style has a special place.
This style is accounted for by pragmaliterature.
3.1. The transposition of language into speech does not imply a qualitative or
quantitative hierarchy. Coșeriu, as shown above, stated that “The speech is more
comprehensive than the language: while the language is entirely contained in speech, the
speech is not entirely contained in the language” (Coșeriu, 2009, p. 202). This argument
remains interesting only if we put aside the illiterate texts, on the one hand, and the rules
formulated inadequately to the reality of the language, on the other hand. In addition, the
literary language and the literary speech should be distinguished from the other variants
(dialectally or historically determined, as these speeches have their own system of norms
with which they correspond).
Although quite widespread, the non-literary way of expressing (non-compliant
with the norms) is not always a strong argument either, given the fact that many of the
“mistakes” have become the norm, and the norm has become a mistake. For the Romanian
language, by confronting in time the normative works, many examples can be given.
The transposition of language into speech involves conforming to several
principles that are closely related to each other: the principle of plausibility, according to
which there are identified the functional styles; the principle of participation according to
which there are described the speech acts and the taxonomic principle that highlights the
typology of the texts.
3.1.1. The principle of plausibility starts from the fact that the communication
process involves two levels. First, the abstract level of language. The ordinary speaker,
with the intuitive possession of the linguistic competence, doesn't have objects in his mind
(the objectology in modern poetics referred to symbolical objects), but abstract concepts,
abstract procedures (rules, restrictions, conditionings ...), types of relationships that are
manifested through connectors etc.
The concepts were formed over time, starting from the concrete perception of the
sets of objects: their grouping into classes according to the common features (intention).
In time, they came to know the concepts as a whole, as sets of objects, i.e. as the sphere
of the notion (extension). As one could see, we started from the observation of each object
and came to the subsequent recognition of it as being part of the class defined by the
common features of the whole. The recognition itself is called reference, and the object,
defined by its class, is called referent. (There are many other denominations for these two
terms, due to the extended availability of the relationship of denomination. The closest
ones: meaning-significance, extension-intention, denotation-connotation).
The most important question is how the entities are reduced from the abstract
(mental) level of language to the level of speech (updating in discourse), so that the

65
created text becomes plausible (to state something about a fact from reality). As one
cannot formulate the sentence Capra citește (The goat is reading.), in the same way, the
sentence Ce soare și senin e afară! (What a sunny and clear day is outside!) cannot be
stated either when outside it's cloudy and it's raining. (As it can be noted, at the
macrostructural level of the sign, the rule of compatibility is applied, while the arbitrary
character is denied).
In principle, this update in discourse can be done in three ways: by strict
plausibility (which characterizes the technical-scientific language, the artificial one:
mathematical, logical etc.); by assumed plausibility that characterizes the natural
language of the ordinary communication (the assumption tends to go beyond the
imperfections of natural language: ambiguities, synonymous series, polysemies etc.); by
suspended plausibility that characterizes the artistic language (the speech), in which the
dominant technique is that of dissimulation, of recreating a universe more or less related
to the reality, through the affective intelligence of sensitivity (the esthesis).
3.1.2. The principle of participation is defined by the relationship that is
established in the communication between the speaker and the interlocutor through the
proposed message. Based on this, it is established the impact of the communicators with
the things, with the referents. The fundamental work in the field of the speech acts is that
of J. L. Austin, How to do things with words (Pitești, 2003).
The theory of speech acts (language, discourse) represents a fundamental part of
the pragmatic studies and has involved multiple developments in terms of the logical,
philosophical, linguistical aspects.
John L. Austin described their typology and the conditions for a successful
communication in the case of the texts with assumed or suspended plausibility. The
conditions for the success of the texts with strict plausibility (scientific, philosophical,
religious texts) consist in the way in which the text (the discourse) relates to the truth,
depending on the sector of the laws of nature (or of the divine nature) with which it deals.
Austin's theory of the speech acts (of language) was anticipated by Reinach's
studies (the theory of social acts which was later equated with the theory of the
illocutionary language acts) and also by the study of Gardiner and Grice.
Reinach: the act of language - the fact of saying something, of manifesting oneself
at the level of language. However, social or language acts are not simple statements, but
are those that generate a system of rights and obligations.
Gardiner – denominates the speech by using the term discourse (text) and, like
Coșeriu, shows that the study of the linguist should start from the practical achievements
(from discourse) to the theoretical ones. In Gardiner's opinion (the linguistics of the
transfrastic had not yet appeared), the discourse has two fundamental components: the
sentence and the word, the first defining the discourse and the second one, the language.
There are identified four types of sentences: statements, requests, questions and
exclamations.
In his works, Austin makes a typology of the statements and speech acts.
In characterizing the statements, he starts from combating the descriptive illusion,
according to which any statement has the purpose of describing a state of affairs and of
being compliant or non-compliant with them (true or false). However, there are
statements whose message lies in their value of truth = constative/ ascertaining. In
addition, there are also reported sentences with the value of successful or unsuccessful
statements (performatives).

66
 A statement like Maria citește (Mary is reading) is true if and only if Mary is
really reading. Instead, a statement like Promit să-ți aduc albumul (I promise to bring
you the album) is based on the success or failure of the promise.
The ascertaining statements, constructed with the help of ascertaining verbs,
usually describe (state) a state of reality, being, most of the time, constructed with verbs
in the third person.
In contrast to the previous statements, the performative statements are constructed
in the first person with the help of performative verbs. They simultaneously designate an
action with different indications about its chances of realization (to affirm, to order, to
command, to apologize, to invite, to promise, to thank ...).
Their meaning is intentional or, as it will be seen, illocutionary. If the
circumstances of the illocutionary statement are appropriate, the action that they express,
will be carried out. Thus, a statement like I-am promis că voi veni (I promised him that I
would come) has two sequels: și iată am venit (and here I am); dar am avut pană (but I
had a flat tire.). These two sequels show that the action stated in the first version is
successful and unsuccessful in the other.
Austin compiled the list of conditions for the success of the actions included in the
typology of the performative statements. From this point of view, there are explicit
performative statements, for which it is necessary to have conventional procedures that
lead to a certain effect-result in some circumstances.
The implicit performative statements contain ambiguities that imply different
circumstances. A sentence like Promit că plec (I promise to leave) is explicit (without
ambiguities), while a statement like Voi veni (I will come) can be decoded as: a threat, a
promise, a prediction.
The speech acts that are to be found in the structure of an argumentative text
explain the typology of the sentences through their pragmatic component, present to a
lesser extent in the statements.
There are three types of such acts, depending on how the principle of participation
is manifested: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary speech acts.
The locutionary speech acts are composed of utterances in which the words are
used with their usual meaning, the speaker being concerned with the transfer of a meaning
based on the elements of its structure. They are usually constative.
The illocutionary speech act also contains its intentionality, the intention that the
speaker wants to convey to the interlocutor.
The conditions for success define the perlocutionary act, which records the effect
itself of the previous communication.
The three components (locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary) are
sometimes complementary in the communication of a single statement.
Thus, a statement like E cald aici în cameră (It is hot here in the room) is primarily
locutionary (it is detected the high temperature in the room and this fact is transmitted to
the people nearby); the illocutionary component conveys the need to take action (through
intonation and a certain rhythm of speech); the perlocutionary component expresses one
of these measures through possible continuations: deschideți fereastra; să ne dezbrăcăm
de sacou; dați drumul la ventilator; să mergem afară (open the window; let's take off our
jackets; turn on the fan; let's go outside).
There are also some other descriptions of the speech acts made by H. P. Grice,
John Searle, P. F. Strawson, that complete and nuance the Austinian theory.

67
 3.1.3. The taxonomic principle refers to the typology of texts in each field of
communication (science, philosophy, religion ...) and also imposes classification and
subclassification criteria for each type of text (cf. Jean-Michel Adam, 2009).
With reference to the literary text, it is highlighted the relationship from genus to
species, also involving the modes of exposure.
In the case of the literary text, the genus-species relationship is determined by the
level of generality of the message, according to which the participation of the actors also
takes place. In essence, it is about a logical classification (the classification of judgments
in modern / Kantian logic).
This theory was stated before the modern logic and was transmitted as a fact of
tradition to today's theory of literature. This does not excuse its imperfection. It is a
discussion about the epic, lyrical and dramatic genre.
Kant's classification of judgments, a commonplace in logics of any kind,
establishes the three levels of generation and manifestation of the meanings that form the
message of any text. Thus, there are general (universal) judgments, which refer to all
objects (actors), particular or existential judgments, which refer to a part of objects, and
singular or individual judgments that refer to a single object.
At the general level, in literature it is created the paremical text (proverbs, maxims,
phrases) that uses the gnomic function of the language.
At the next, existential level, there appears the epic genre which involves the
presentation of the message through a larger or smaller number of characters. This type
of text is subclassified into two subtypes, depending on how the text is highlighted. In its
indirect presentation there appear: a) the narrative text, in which the characters are
intermediated by the author and by the reading performed by the reader and b) the
dramatic text, in which the characters appear, with the help of the actors, directly on the
stage, in front of the audience; the reading is replaced by the direct performance (by direct
attention). Therefore, the narrative and the dramatic text belong together to the epic genre.
The lyrical genre is the genre manifested at the individual, singular level of the
meaning.
According to the modes of exposure, the texts are of several types and are related
to narration, description, dialogue etc. (cf. J.M. Adam, 2009).
4. The double articulation of the verbal human language meant, as it can be
noticed, not only a progressive engendering starting from micro-units to texts, but also a
diversification of them, from the logical-scientific ones to those intended for cognitive-
affective messages.

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Universității din București.
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Coșeriu, E., Lingvistica integrală, Interviu realizat de Nicolae Saramandu, București, Editura
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Coșeriu, E., Omul și limbajul său, Iași, Editura Universității “Al. I. Cuza”, 2009.
Coșeriu, E., Lingvistica textului. O introducere în hermeneutica sensului, Iași, Editura Universității
“Al. I. Cuza”, 2013.
Dragoș, El., Introducere în pragmatică, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, 2001.
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J. Dubois ș.a., (Grupul μ), Retorica generală, București, Editura Univers. 1974.

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O. Ducrot, J.M. Schaeffer, Noul dicționar al științelor limbajului, București, Editura Babel, 1996.
L. Ionescu Ruxăndoiu, Narațiune și dialog în proza românească, București, Editura Academiei,
1991.
L. Ionescu Ruxăndoiu, Limbaj și comunicare, București, Editura All, 2003.
Moeshler J., Anne Reboul, Dicționar enciclopedic de pragmatică Cluj-Napoca, EdituraEchinox,
1999.
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integrale, Iași, Editura Universității “Al. I. Cuza”, 2019.
Slama-Cazacu, Tatiana, Limbaj și context. Problema limbajului în concepția exprimării și a
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69
 LE TISSU DES PLANS NARRATIFS DANS LE ROMAN SONIA
RIDICĂ MÂNA DE LAVINIA BRANIŞTE

Lavinia-Ileana GEAMBEI*

Abstract: Lavinia Branişte is a young story writer, "top name in the new wave" (Iovănel,
cover IV) or "the most important name in the prose of the 2010s" (Iovănel, 2021, p. 420). She
started as a novelist in 2016, with Interior zero, followed by Sonia ridică mâna in 2019, a novel
which received "Thoreau’s Nephew" Award 2019, Ateneu Magazine Prose Award, 2020 edition,
Sofia Nădejde Award for Literature Written by Women, 2020 edition, Prose section. The film script
on which the protagonist of the novel is working, inspired by Zoia Ceausescu’s life, the daughter
of the dictatorial couple, and which will remain an "abandoned" project, becomes in fact a pretext
for a series of forays into the past, both in Romania's recent past and in Sonia's. The novel is
characterized by a skilful texture of the narrative plans. These plans correspond to "searches"
which remain unsolved until the end of the novel. Everything remains under the sign of mystery,
similar to life itself. First, there is a narrative plan that focuses on communism, through the
investigations of the protagonist Sonia, from which derives that interesting past-present
relationship. Then, a family relationship plan is developed, by relating Sonia to her mother, to the
"absent" father for many years of her life and to Claudia, her step-sister from her father's second
marriage. There is also a plan for "gender relations", built mainly by relating Sonia to Paul, her
boyfriend who pretends to be a feminist, and to Vlad, the producer. As Mihai Iovănel observes,
"almost all the men in the novel are in fact hypocrites or indifferent, clones of the emotionless
father" (Iovănel, 2021, p. 423). But most of all, there is a plan built on the binomial Sonia and
herself. Based on these premises, this paper aims to analyse the way in which h these narrative
plans are combined in the novel, to show how Sonia's searches about Romania's recent past
inspiring her in writing Vlad’s script coincide with the search for self, with the desire to understand
herself and her own life.
Keywords: narrative plan, communism, past, investigation

Lavinia Branişte est une jeune prosatrice, « un nom de pointe de la nouvelle

vague » (Iovănel), ou bien « le nom le plus important de la prose des années 2010 »
(Iovănel, 2021, p. 420), qui a débuté comme romancière en 2016, avec Interior zero, suivi
par Sonia ridică mâna, en 2019, roman qui a remporté le prix « Nepotul lui Thoreau »,
2019, le Prix pour Prose de la revue Ateneu, 2020, le Prix Sofia Nădejde pour littérature
de femmes auteurs, édition 2020, section Prose.
Le roman Sofia ridică mâna est narré à la troisième personne, mais il se caractérise
par subjectivité, car la narration suit de près la perspective de la protagoniste (c’est
pourquoi le style indirect libre apparaît souvent), une milléniale née près de la Révolution,
caractérisée, comme tous les personnages de Lavinia Branişte, par une volatilité accrue.
Sonia est collaboratrice à une station de radio obscure, elle « génère » des textes pour un
blog et, à la proposition du réalisateur Vlad Petre, elle travaille à un scénario de film
s’appuyant sur la vie de Zoia Ceauşescu, la fille du couple dictatorial, en suivant surtout
la vie amoureuse de celle-ci et sa relation avec sa mère. Ce scénario, qui à la fin va rester
un projet « abandonné », devient en fait un prétexte pour une série d’incursions dans le
passé, tant dans le passé récent de la Roumanie, que dans celui de Sonia.
Sonia est une jeune fille approchant de sa trentaine, élevée par une mère seule,
souffrant à cause de son passé qu’elle ne comprend pas et à cause de l’absence du père
de sa vie.

* Université de Pitesti, [email protected]

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 Les recherches de Sonia sur la vie de la famille Ceauşescu et sur le communisme
sont variées : elle en lit différents livres, interviewe différentes personnes ayant vécu
« avant » (y compris de sa famille), elle espère et elle tente d’avoir accès aux archives
CNSAS, mais elle n’y parvient pas.
Le roman est caractérisé par un habile tissu des plans narratifs. Tous ces plans
correspondent à des « quêtes » qui restent irrésolus jusqu’à la fin du roman. Tout reste
sous le signe du mystère, comme la vie même. D’abord, il y a le plan narratif se
concentrant sur le communisme, à travers les investigations de Sonia, dont va dériver une
intéressante relation passé-avenir. Ensuite, on développe un plan des relations familiales,
à travers les rapports de Sonia à sa mère, au père « absent » depuis longtemps de sa vie,
au grand-père paternel et à la belle-sœur, du second mariage de son père, Claudia. Aussi,
y-at-il un plan des « relations de genre », construit surtout à travers le rapport de Sonia à
Paul, son petit ami, qui fait mine de féministe, et Vlad, le réalisateur. Comme l’observe
Mihai Iovănel, « presque tous les hommes du roman sont, en fait, des hypocrites et des
insouciants, des clones du père indifférent » (Iovănel, 2021, p. 423). Mais on développe
aussi un plan construit sur le binôme Sonia et elle-même. En fait, les quêtes de Sonia sur
le passé récent de la Roumanie, des quêtes qui doivent l’inspirer dans la réalisation du
scénario pour Vlad, coïncident avec la quête du soi, avec le désir de se comprendre elle-
même et sa propre vie.
Sonia ridică mâna est, comme l’affirme Mihai Iovănel, « l’un des meilleurs
romans sur le communisme, même si le communisme n’y apparaît que de façon imprécise
et en passant, à travers des témoins auxquels on saurait se fier très peu (les livres écrits
par Mitică Dragomir ou par de divers proches des Ceauşescu, que Sonia lit ; des
discussions peu concluantes avec deux anciens membres de la police politique etc.).
Finalement, le roman n’est pas tellement sur le communisme, mais plutôt sur
l’impossibilité d’écrire sous le communisme. » (Iovănel, op. cit., p. 422).
Il y a même au début du roman un fragment suggestif à cet égard, où le style direct
et le style indirect libre s’entrelacent et qui exprime les tourments de Sonia dès avoir
accepté la proposition de Vlad, celle d’écrire un scénario sur Zoia Ceauşescu et sa mère,
avec des histoires sensationnelles, avec Zoia poursuivie par la police politique « car elle
se voyait avec des hommes et sa mère haïssait cela ». Étant obligée de se retourner vers
le passé récent de la Roumanie, Sonia se rend compte qu’elle ne sait pas d’où commencer,
« fiindcă Vlad i-a zis că le doreşte în film pe Zoia şi Elena, acea Elena, deci subiectul
trebuie cercetat, trebuie adus în film un grad de adevăr care să-i permită lui Vlad să susţină
că e despre acea Elena (= car Vlad lui a dit qu’il voulait dans le film Zoia et Elena, cette
Elena-là, donc le sujet doit être recherché, il fait apporter dans le film un degré de vérité
qui permette à Vlad de soutenir qu’il s’agit de cette Elena-là.) » (p. 13-14)1. Donc, Sonia
se rend compte qu’elle ne sait rien sur ce qu’il y avait avant qu’elle naisse, même si elle
connaît, elle aussi cet imaginaire-là de la Révolution, construit à l’aide de la télévision:
« Cunoaşte foarte bine imaginile care se tot dau la televizor în fiecare decembrie, imediat
după ziua ei, discursul, fuga, execuţia, televiziunea liberă... (=elle connaît très bien les
images qui ne cessent de passer à la télé chaque décembre, immédiatement après son
anniversaire, le discours, la fuite, l’exécution, la télévision libre…) (p.14). Il s’agit des
images qui se sont si bien fixées dans les souvenirs des gens, dans leur mémoire, mais qui
leur ont été offertes toutes faites, c’est pourquoi Sonia avoue elle aussi avoir parfois
l’impression que ce sont ses propres souvenirs, qu’elle avait vu elle-même en direct ces

1On mentionne que toutes les citations du roman, qui surgiront à travers cet article, sont de l’édition
citée en Bibliographie.

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images-là quand elle était enfant. Mais, comme Sonia le comprend, communisme signifie
beaucoup plus que ça, pas seulement ces images de la Révolution, répétées chaque année
à la télé : « Când aude vorbindu-se despre înainte, îi vin în minte imaginile alea şi cam
atât. Asta înseamnă înainte. Dar înainte de înainte ce-o fi fost? (=quand elle entend parler
d’avant, il lui vient dans l’esprit ces images-là et c’est tout. C’est ça qu’avant signifie.
Mais avant d’avant, qu’était-il ?) (p.14).
D’ailleurs, dans un dialogue avec son petit ami, Paul, doctorant en histoire des
arts, on met en discussion ce problème. Paul, qui traite cet aspect de façon grave, en est
irrité et pose une question rhétorique quant à la démarche du réalisateur Vlad : « Şi cine
l-a autorizat pe individul ăsta să facă un film despre comunism ? (= et qui est-ce qui a
autorisé cet individu à faire un film sur le communisme ?) » (p. 19). Mais Sonia lui répond
de façon claire, lui montrant qu’elle comprend qu’il est difficile de trouver et d’exprimer
la vérité sur cette époque-là : « E o poveste, nu e un film despre comunism. Nici măcar
nu ne interesează tot adevărul (=c’est une histoire, non pas un film sur le communisme.
On n’y est pas même intéressé par la vérité entière)» (p. 19).
S’efforçant de commencer à travailler au scénario, plusieurs idées surgissent à
Sonia : de rechercher des histoires de policiers politiques, ce personnages « exotiques
faisant des choses hallucinantes » et dont quelques-uns vivaient peut-être encore. Ensuite,
elle essaie d’en apprendre davantage de sa mère. C’est pourquoi, dans une discussion
téléphonique, elle la prie de lui raconter quelque chose de 1974. La réponse de sa mère
lui fait voir que l’imaginaire communiste chez les Roumains, quelle que soit la décennie
à laquelle ils se rapportent, inclut inévitablement la crise alimentaire : « Îmi amintesc că-
mi era poftă de măsline şi nu se găseau şi aşteptam să plece unchiul Tudor în delegaţie la
Bucureşti să aducă măsline (= Je me souviens que j’avais envie d’olives et on n’en
trouvait pas et j’attendais que l’oncle Tudor parte en délégation à Bucarest et qu’il en
apporte des olives » ) (p. 15). Après que Sonia lui fait remarquer que cette crise
alimentaire avait été dans les années 80, comprenant que la mémoire pouvait lui jouer des
trucs, la mère accepte que, peut-être, l’envie d’olives aurait été « plus tard », et Sonia
comprend que sa mère avait été trop jeune en 1974, ayant seulement 9 ans, par conséquent
elle ne pouvait pas avoir des souvenirs qui puissent lui être utiles.
Ensuite, Sonia s’enthousiasme en pensant qu’elle pourrait lire les dossiers dressés
pas la Sécurité (= police politique, n. trad.), car chez le CNSAS les dossiers étaient,
théoriquement, libres, mais ce n’étaient que les pétitionnaires et les chercheurs qui y
avaient accès. C’est pourquoi elle ne parvient pas à y avoir accès.
Une autre méthode qu’emploie Sonia est de discuter avec des gens ayant vécu leur
jeunesse en communisme. A travers son copain, Dani, elle rend visite à monsieur
Nichifor, ancien professeur d’histoire de la langue aux Lettres, récemment retraité. Le
professeur est un homme qui aime raconter son passé communiste, des fois avec
amertume, des fois avec nostalgie et même avec humour, surtout que, pour une période,
il avait aussi été professeur de roumain dans un village. A partir des histoires de monsieur
Nichifor, on reconstruit une partie de l’imaginaire communiste : des défilements lors des
jours de fête, les détachements d’élèves, la participation aux travaux agricoles avec les
élèves, le plus souvent à la récolte de maïs, le plaisir de manger du maïs cuit à la fin de la
journée de pratique agricole. Sonia se rend compte qu’il est très difficile de synthétiser ce
que le professeur raconte, surtout qu’il y a, mélangés, les sentiments, les tons, les attitudes
envers le passé. C’est pourquoi elle en conclut : « Trecutul este un loc la fel de incert şi
de haotic precum viitorul (= le passé est un endroit aussi incertain et chaotique que
l’avenir) » (p. 92). A la question de Sonia « Était-il mieux avant ? », le professeur répond
par un aphorisme : « Ce n’était pas mieux, mais on vivait mieux. » (p. 93). Plus tard dans

72
la discussion, Sonia découvre que le professeur nourrissait des sentiments variés envers
Ceauşescu, mais qu’il détestait clairement Elena, partageant la conviction générale que
c’était elle la mégère et que c’était à cause d’elle que tout était parti à vau-l’eau. Le
professeur insiste que Ceauşescu n’avait pas été un mégalomane, car il n’avait pas eu de
statue, argument absurde pour Sonia. Cette affirmation donne l’occasion à la narratrice
de montrer, une fois de plus, qu’à présent, le communisme est utilisé comme marchandise,
il est « exploité » de façon ridicule. Parce que, en sortant de l’appartement du professeur
en étant encore éblouie du fait que Ceauşescu n’avait pas eu de statue, Sonia en fait une
recherche sur Google et elle trouve « o singură imagine, un bust enorm şi hidos, amplasat
la umbra unei sălcii, la intrarea în Scorniceşti. Localnicii speră ca statuia să-i stârnească
curiozitatea lui Gigi Becali, pentru ca acesta să vină în vizită la ei în comună şi să le facă
o donaţie (= une seule statue, un buste énorme et hideux, planté à l’ombre d’un saule, à
l’entrée en Scorniceşti. Les habitants espèrent que la statue éveille la curiosité de Gigi
Becali, pour que celui-ci vienne visiter leur village et leur fasse une donation.) » (p. 93).
L’épisode de la visite rendue au professeur Nichifor est une séquence narrative
suggestive pour la manière dont on fait le passage d’un plan narratif à l’autre, pour la
manière dont les quêtes de Sonia pour découvrir et pour entendre le passé récent de la
Roumanie mènent aux quêtes pour entendre son propre passé et pour entendre elle-même,
et c’est pourquoi elle va chez le psychothérapeute pour un temps. Sonia essaie
d’appréhender vraiment sa relation avec sa mère, avec son passé dont son père est absent,
de surpasser ses peurs et son anxiété. Ainsi, après s’être rendue compte que le professeur
avait vingt-cinq ans en 1974, c’est-à dire quelque quarante ans avant, Sonia commence
avoir des doutes concernant les souvenirs de celui-ci, ses opinions et ses gestes de cette
époque-là, car elle se retourne immédiatement sur elle-même, approchant sa trentaine, et
s’analyse avec lucidité : « Simte că se schimbă mult între douăzeci şi treizeci de ani, se
apropie de treizeci şi are o puternică senzaţie că pe partea cealaltă o să se simtă în
siguranţă. [...] Dacă treci cu bine peste douăzeci-treizeci, începe să se facă lumină, să
meargă mai uşor, cineva, cumva, unge nişte mecanisme (= elle sent beaucoup changer
entre ses vingt et ses trente ans, elle approche sa trentaine et elle a une forte sensation
qu’au-delà elle se sentirait en sécurité. […] Si on passe bien ses vingt-trente ans, les
choses commencent à s’éclaircir, à fonctionner plus lestement, comme si quelqu’un,
d’une certaine façon, avait oint quelques mécanismes » (p. 89). Elle se souvient ensuite
avoir éprouvé une crise lors de ses vingt-cinq ans, quand elle voulait à tout prix avoir un
enfant, car sa mère l’avait eu à cet âge et elle se rend compte que son esprit avait pris ce
repère. A partir de là, elle parvient à analyser sa relation avec sa mère dans des gestes,
dans les manifestations extérieures, comprenant quelles ne sont pas « bécoteuses et
sentimentales » l’une envers l’autre, et dans leurs beaux moments elles sont polies et
souriantes. Elle continue se rappeler deux situations spécifiques : l’envoi d’un message
texte où elle écrivait à sa mère un simple « je t’aime » et sa plainte sur le blocage dans
l’élaboration de la thèse de dissertation, avec toutes les angoisses que suppose une telle
crise. C’étaient des moments qui avaient beaucoup effrayé la mère, croyant que Sofia
était dans un moment de vulnérabilité extrême et qu’elle allait se faire du mal. Ce qui a
choqué Sonia, qui pensait que sa mère ne la connaissait pas du tout « Atât de puţin mă
cunoaşte? s-a gândit. N-ar fi făcut niciodată aşa o mizerie în jur (= c’est si peu qu’elle
me connaît ? Pensa-t-elle. Elle n’aurait jamais fait ça autour d’elle) » (p. 90). Ensuite, elle
s’aperçoit que sa mère prend en compte la possibilité du suicide car il y en avait deux cas
en famille, un cousin et une nièce maternelle. Après ces événements tragiques, pour ceux
restés derrière, « l’inimaginable devient imaginable » (p. 90).

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 Après le premier brouillon du scénario, Sonia reçoit de Vlad le conseil d’écrire
« en mettant là quelque chose d’elle-même », « en retrouvant l’émotion ». Sonia avoue
empathiser avec le personnage Zoia, c’est pourquoi Vlad lui conseille de chercher quelque
chose de la relation avec sa propre mère et de faire transférer ce « quelque chose » dans
l’histoire écrite, dans la relation entre Zoia et Elena Ceauşescu. Mais elle a du mal à le
faire. C’est pourquoi les propos de Vlad continuent à la hanter « Trebuie să te coste! Dacă
nu te costă, n-are cum să aibă valoare (= mais il faut absolument que ça te coûte ! Si ça
ne te coûte rien, c’est que ça n’a pas de valeur) ». Il lui est difficile de parvenir à un geste
de générosité dans cet acte artistique, car Sonia craint constamment l’erreur, elle a peur
d’évaluer la période de façon erronée. Elle est consciente que, malgré le fait que l’histoire
du scénario insiste sur l’histoire d’amour de Zoia, sur l’intrusion de la mère, tout cela se
passe dans un environnement et dans une époque qu’elle ne peut vraiment comprendre.
Par conséquent, si, elle assume des risques. Cependant, elle ne renonce pas à l’idée de
savoir davantage sur cette période-là : « Dar Sonia nu are nici amintiri vii, nici balast
memorial şi se gândeşte că ce-ar putea s-o coste ar fi asta: să-şi asume o variantă a
trecutului, aşa cum a reuşit ea să şi-l reprezinte cu toată bunăvoinţa de a înţelege corect,
şi s-o prezinte pe aceea, fiind totodată pregătită să fie contestată, corectată, judecată sau
dispreţuită.
Da, să ai o părere ar putea să te coste.
Dar trebuie să ai o părere.
Balastul trebuie cunoscut. (= mais Sonia n’a ni souvenirs vivants, ni ballast
mémorial et elle pense que, ce qui pourrait la coûter serait ça : assumer une variante du
passé, tel qu’elle a réussi à s’imaginer avec toute la bienveillance de le déceler
correctement, et représenter cette variante-là, tout en étant prête à être contestée, corrigée,
jugée ou méprisée.
Oui, avoir une opinion ça pourrait te coûter.
Mais il faut que tu aies une opinion.
Le ballast doit être connu) » (p. 78).
Donc, comme on l’affirmait ci-dessous, du premier plan narratif on décèle la
relation passé-avenir, Sonia étant préoccupée des effets du communisme sur le présent :
« Unde e prezentul în discuţiile astea despre trecut? (= où est-il, le présent, dans ces
discussions sur le passé ?) » (p. 97) et observant avec indignation la continuité entre
communisme et post-communisme, l’impact des anciens communistes sur le présent.
Dans de telles séquences narratives, construites en style indirect libre, on peut observer
l’ironie défensive et dépourvue de conséquences de la protagoniste : « Câte chestii despre
comunism se întâmplă ! Aproape ca în calendarul creştin ortodox, sărbătoare după
sărbătoare, sfinţi după sfinţi, care cu cruce roşie, care cu cruce neagră, ai de unde să-ţi
alegi preferaţii, sunt slujbe în fiecare zi! Dar nu se discută ce e mai important, şi anume
că cei de azi sunt din aceeaşi specie. (= combien de choses sur le communisme il arrive !
C’est à peu près comme dans le calendrier orthodoxe, fête après fête, saints après saints,
tel à croix rouge, tel à croix noire1, on a plein d’options à choisir ses saints, il y en a des
messes chaque jour ! Mais on ne discute pas ce qu’il y a le plus important, à savoir que
ceux d’aujourd’hui sont de la même espèce » (p. 97). Et l’ironie continue, dans un
véritable jeu de mots avec les homonymes morphologiques passé (substantif) et passé
(verbe) : «La toate aceste evenimente....vin şi vorbesc despre trecut de parcă ar fi

1 Dans le calendrier orthodoxe, les saints « très importants » sont marqués d’une croix rouge, les
saints « moins importants » sont marqués d’une croix noire et les saints « peu importants » ne sont
marqués d’aucune croix. (n. trad.)

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trecut (lors de tous ces événements, ils viennent et ils parlent du passé comme si c’était
(du) passé) » (p. 97). On raconte ensuite un débat sur le communisme auquel prennent
part des intellectuels de marque, mais spécialisés en anecdotes, qui viennent raconter
comment on faisait la queue et ils s’attendent que le public en rie. En effet, les plus jeunes
en rient. D’autres jeunes, mais un peu plus âgés, ayant des conflits en famille à cause des
parents nostalgiques, se remplissent de rage. Dans cette séquence est aussi inséré
l’énoncé-titre :
« Sonia ridică mâna să pună o întrebare, dar adevărul e că n-o ridică prea sus. Ar
vrea să-l întrebe pe intelectualul jovial următorul lucru:
– Nu vi se pare obscen să povestiţi lucruri amuzante de pe vremuri într-o dezbatere
despre comunism? Nu vi se pare deplasat să veniţi aici ca să ne faceţi să râdem? (= Sonia
leva la main pour poser une question, mais la vérité est qu’elle ne la leva pas très haut.
Elle voudrait demandes à l’intellectuel jovial la chose suivante :
- Ne vous semble-t-il pas obscène de raconter des choses amusantes de l’époque
dans un débat sur le communisme ? Ne vous semble-t-il pas déplacé de venir ici et de
nous faire rire ?) » (p. 98).
La phrase initiale, qui contient aussi le titre, représente, comme le montre aussi
Mihai Iovănel, « une synthèse tant du profil psychologique de Sonia, que de la tactique
des petits pas à travers laquelle Sonia fait avancer ses pièces et qu’elle occupe la scène –
sans cris ou tirades sur le communisme, sans symboles prétendant tout dire » (p. 422).
Toujours en essayant de mieux connaître le passé communiste, mais aussi le sien,
Sonia se rend pour la première fois chez son grand-père paternel, dans une ville de
province, où elle va rester quelques semaines. Elle apprend que le vieux morose, qui pour
elle tient aussi la place du père qui l’avait quittée depuis qu’elle était très jeune et qui
venait de mourir, que celui-ci avait été un policier politique très redouté. La parraine de
la famille lui raconte des histoires effrayantes, qu’elle ne sait pas si elle peut croire ou
non : à l’époque de Ceauşescu, son grand-père s’était occupé d’arranger une visite du
dirigeant communiste dans la ville, peu après l’ouverture de la fabrique de meubles, et il
avait fait de sorte que « deux éléments hostiles soient fait interner à la psychiatrie », dans
un hôpital du chef-lieu. Ou bien : le grand-père s’occupait à recruter des élèves dans les
lycées, pour la Sécurité (= police politique, n. trad.), surtout sous la menace, de sorte que,
l’été 88, un garçon de seize ans, Ionuţ, qu’il avait essayé de racoler, s’était suicidé. C’est
une occasion pour la narratrice de montrer avec quels ressentiments sont restés les
Roumains de la même génération, car la marraine dit à Sonia : « Moşul a fost securist,
clar. El n-o să-ţi mai recunoască în veci, dar toata lumea ştie. Ce-şi imaginează el, că,
dacă se preface că a uitat, acum se şterg toate cu buretele? Dacă iese cu tava la biserică,
acum e credincios? (= le vieillard a été sécuriste (policier politique, n. trad.), c’est clair.
Il ne va jamais te le reconnaître, mais tout le monde le sait. Qu’est-ce qu’il s’imagine, que
s’il fait semblant de l’avoir oublié, maintenant tout cela va être effacé avec une éponge ?
S’il sort avec le plateau1 à l’église, c’est qu’il est un croyant, maintenant ?) » (p. 229). Ou
bien : « Tac-tu mare e un nenorocit, să ştii. Un ordinar. Un animal sinistru (= Sache que
ton grand-père est une salope. Un ordinaire. Un animal sinistre) » (p. 231).
Sonia vit fortement le sentiment de la propriété, elle souhaite vivement avoir une
habitation, « la plus petite », mais que ce soit à elle, même si cela n’est pas dans ses
moyens. D’ailleurs, la littérature de Lavinia Branişte met en évidence des fantasmes sur
la propriété, des fantasmes qui hantent ses personnages. C’est pourquoi Mihai Iovănel

1« le plateau à l’église», c’est générique pour le plateau à colivă ( = gâteau fait de grains de blé, de
noix et de sucre, à la mémoire des morts, dans la religion orthodoxe) (n. trad.)

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considère que « entre la vieille bourgeoisie, pour laquelle la propriété, à savoir la propriété
immobilière, avait été le mot d’ordre, et la classe de la pauvreté post-industrielle
représentée par Lavinia Branişte il y a un gouffre qui s’ouvre » (Iovănel, op.cit., p. 420).
De l’impuissance de s’assouvir ce désir, Sonia se tourne vers le passé communiste, où
elle avait appris que les gens obtenaient plus facilement une habitation propriété privée.
Mais elle a la force de comprendre que la difficulté de la vie en communisme naissait
d’autre chose. « Dar, dacă ar fi trăit înainte şi ar fi avut o casă, ar fi fost infinit mai rău
atunci (= mais, si elle avait vécu avant et qu’elle eût une habitation, cela aurait été
infiniment pire alors.) » (p. 211). Et elle se rappelle les conditions de l’époque,
« l’alimentation rationnelle de la population », la famine, le froid, la peur : « Din multele
lecturi şi din toate pseudodocumentarele de pe internet la care s-a uitat avidă, a rămas în
primul rând cu asta: foamea şi frigul la coadă – uneori, citind, le simte fizic. Interdicţiile.
Frica (= des nombreuses lectures et des pseudo-documentaires sur l’Internet qu’elle a
suivis avidement, c’est avec ça qu’elle est restée, en tout premier lieu : la famine et le
froid en faisant la queue – parfois, en lisant, elle les ressent physiquement. Les
interdictions. La peur.) » (p. 211). Sonia comprend qu’elle doit garder sa lucidité dans
l’analyse comparative du passé et du présent, savoir à quoi se rapporter du passé pour
comprendre qu’à présent, malgré les difficultés, on a avancé d’un pas. Ainsi, elle
comprend que la souffrance d’alors était différente et beaucoup plus puissante : « O
înstrăinare mai adâncă. O singurătate mult mai înfricoşătoare. Şi multă, multă umilinţă, o
umilinţă evidentă, la vedere, nu umilinţa de acum, de care numai unii sunt conştienţi (=
un éloignement plus puissant. Une solitude beaucoup plus effrayante. Et beaucoup,
beaucoup d’humiliation, une humiliation évidente, pas l’humiliation de maintenant, dont
seulement certains se rendent compte) » (p. 212). Ensuite, elle se rend compte qu’elle ne
saurait prétendre être capable d’écrire une histoire qui offre une image correcte de
l’époque, même si c’est une histoire de famille, parce que ceux avec lesquels elle en a
discuté ne lui en avaient pas donné une image correcte. Sonia est un esprit interrogatif,
elle est désireuse de connaître et de comprendre son propre passé et le passé récent de la
Roumanie : « Ea are multe întrebări greu de articulat, greu de pus una după alta pentru a
da naștere unor explicații coerente (= elle a bien des questions qu’il est difficile à articuler,
difficile à poser l’une après l’autre, pour mener à des explications cohérentes) » (p. 236).
Mais finalement elle comprend que, tout comme le passé communiste de la Roumanie,
son passé non plus ne peut être entièrement récupéré, ne peut être expliqué de façon
cohérente, ne peut être changé, bien qu’elle y fouille. C’est pourquoi elle peut très bien
l’accepter tel qu’il est, avec l’absence de l’affection paternelle, avec la mère qui avait pris
la décision de la tenir à l’écart de son père pour la protéger, avec le grand-père qu’elle ne
connaissait pas très bien et qu’elle ne comprend pas, mais dont elle ressentait cependant
quelque connexion.
En conclusion, Sonia comprend qu’il est presque impossible de parvenir à la vérité
sur la période communiste, car il n’y a pas qu’une vérité mais, comme le montre Mihai
Iovănel, « le communisme est passé, et pour ceux qui n’en avaient pas été témoins directs,
sa réalité reste fondamentalement floue » (Iovănel, op.cit., p. 422). A travers le style
indirect, on apprend que c’est à cette conclusion que Sonia parvient après toutes ces
expériences de presqu’une année : « o intrigă faptul că trecutul care o interesează n-a
trecut chiar de mult şi cu toate astea e îngropat adânc şi nu poate fi dezgropat ca ceva
întreg şi coerent, nu pot fi dezgropate decât cioburi foarte, foarte diferite (= ce qui
l’intriguait, c’était que le passé qui l’intéressait n’était passé depuis très longtemps et,
cependant, il était profondément enterré et il ne pouvait être désenterré comme un tout
entier et cohérent, on n’en peut désenterrer que des tessons très, très différents) ». Tout le

76
tissu habile des plans narratifs met en évidence l’impossibilité d’écrire sur le
communisme de façon objective, ayant une unique perspective. Aussi, ces recherches de
Sonia mènent-elles à la conclusion que le passé est un chaos, que l’humanité ne peut se
mettre d’accord qui sanctionner, qui démoniser : « Sunt lucruri care nu se leagă, nici din
trecutul lor mărunt, nici din trecutul mai mare, cel al cărui deznodământ se dă la televizor
în fiecare decembrie și care fixează amintiri (= Ce sont des choses qui ne se lient pas, ni
à leur menu passé, ni au passé plus grand, celui dont le dénouement passe à la télé chaque
décembre et qui fait fixer des souvenirs) » (p. 236). Le roman est mélancolique et
puissant, mais la fin en est optimiste car, en ce qui concerne sa propre vie, Sonia va
découvrir que c’est en elle-même qu’elle doit chercher les ressources pour poursuivre son
chemin.

Bibliographie
Branişte, Lavinia, Sonia ridică mâna, ediţia a II-a, Iaşi, Editura Polirom, 2021.
Iovănel, Mihai, Istoria literaturii române contemporane 1990-2020, Iaşi, editura Polirom, 2021.
Iovănel, Mihai, coperta a IV-a de la BRANIŞTE, Lavinia, Sonia ridică mâna, ediția citată.

77
 PURALITY OF WORDVIEW AND EXISTENCE IN LUCIAN
BLAGA’S WORK

Elena Marilena NĂSTASE (MIHAIL)

Abstract: The kaleidoscopic vision of Blaga’s work reveals the Faustian relationship
between light and darkness, silence-word, Fârtat-Nefârtat(God-Devil). In the same context, as in
Eminescu’s case, the descent to the origins illustrates the intensity of the existential feeling. The
main objective of the current study is to present the cosmic and cosmogonic dimension from Lucian
Blaga’s perspective, containing the same theme that can be found in Eminescu’s work, as well. But,
a poet of light, Blaga confers Mioritic serenity and greatness to the human fall, to the rejection by
the Great Anonymous. For Lucian Blaga, to dive into the original light means a return to the
mythical land of Dacia. Both the moment of genesis and the apocalyptic moment predominate in
the works of the above-mentioned writers, Blaga considering that the apocalyptic represents a
predominant value of the world.
Keywords: cosmogony, The Great Anonymous, transcendental censorship.

The Concept of Cosmogony

Over the course of time, both the genesis and the apocalyptic moment have
determined multiple literary, philosophical interpretations. In the case of the writer-
philosopher, Lucian Blaga,
we can notice that the emphasis on the apocalyptic is seen as a primordial
essence of the world: Reality is apocalyptic, we know it because the author
himself pointed out, namely it takes place in revelations of a divine absurdity,
in which, in a flash, you can guess a meaning that is difficult to grasp. The
apocalyptic tends to become for me a central, original, fundamental notion - as
for others it was the substance, the idea, the will, the unconscious or the creative
duration (Blaga, 1973: 289-290).
The return to the period of Mioritic Dacia is equivalent to the moment of origins,
because “Dacia is the land of beginnings, invaded by dewy grass and haloed light, pagan,
overwhelmed by fierce, Dionysian instincts. It is a world that persists, marked by mystery,
at the border between reality and legend” (Cimpoi, 1997: 98-99).
In Blaga’s work the life-giving light, the primary one, is correlated with the feeling
of love. Adherence to the light represents the identification with the Goethean world of
mothers. This metaphor borrows some of the cosmogonic attributes, in an erotic
confession: “Is not the light that floods my heart when I look at you / a speck of the light
/ made on the first day?” Love is born of cosmic turmoil, outlining absolute longing and
integration into universal living.
The pleasure of light and founding love has similarities with the cosmic
projections of eros in Eminescu’s creation. From the cosmogonic picture, the poet returns
to the individualization of the eternal feminine, placed in conjunction with the force of
light and love to plasticize beauty (Boldea, 2005: 352).
Along with Liviu Rusu, we notice that “a cosmogonic eros characterizes Blaga's
entire work, as it characterizes Goethe's, Shelly's, Eminescu's and how we find it so richly
infiltrated in our popular poetry” (Rusu, 1981:179). The Romanian writer thinks

 University of Pitești, [email protected]

78
cosmically, he feels how plants grow, how elementary energy materializes. Nature is not
presented through a pictorial language, as in Eminescu, but ontologically. “The universe
is a single living being, whose mysteries are evoked by the poet, transfiguring them
transcendently” (Livadă,1974: 41).
“The cosmic energy that the poet feels he is flooded with delights him as an original
phenomenon, as an incarnation of the divine logos from the Gnostic doctrines ... // The
orgiastic intoxication of the game allows, perhaps, the god of man to breathe freely and
not to murmur - I am a slave in prison” (Crohmălniceanu, 2003: 142-143).

The Cosmogonic Vision in Lucian Blaga’s Work

Lucian Blaga is aware that modern civilization alienates man, removes him from
his essence. Therefore, he will use metaphor, myth and symbol to restore to the human
being its metaphysical freedom and lost transcendence.
In the volume The Poems of light (Poemele luminii), the expressionism is fully
manifested by the frenzy of living, by the telluric fusion, by the dissolution of the ego.
The lyrics of the poem Heart (Inima) are relevant to the spiritual transformation of
material forms.
Oh, heart: / mad, when it struggles into the wild game, / then, / then it tells
me that from its clay / the vessel was once made, / in which Prometheus
descended from heaven / the burning embers, which he stole from the hearth
of gods, / while the dawn rose over Olympus ... // Oh, heart: when it breaks
our chest with / leaden beats, / then it shouts boldly / that over long, empty
and desolate centuries, / when God urges himself, / to make another world /
and a humanity / of great nations of gods, / the good master will then mold
from its clay / the new Adam// . (Blaga, 1978:182)
The metaphor of the “corolla of wonders” (corolei de minuni) suggests the
corolla of existence, in which each object is loaded with the mystery of life:
I with my light increase the secret of the world - as the moon with her white
rays / does not diminish, but shimmering / intensifies night’s mystery. / I do
myself enrich the dark horizon / with shivers, great shivers of sainted secret,
/ and what’s not comprehended / becomes even more incomprehensible /
under my own watching//. (ibidem:124)
The corolla, the sphere symbolizes the perfection of the beginnings that Plato was
talking about. Solomon Marcus, researching the conceptions regarding Divinity, claims
that the Greek philosopher equated Divinity with the metaphor of perfection (Marcus,
2011: 148,149).
The Orphic vision of the cosmos emerges from the poem Biography: “Where and
when I came into light I don’t know; / from the shadows I tempt myself to believe / that
the world is a chant. / A smiling stranger-enchanted, climbing / in its middle - I fulfil
myself wondering//.” (Blaga, op.cit:312)
It is not the harmony of the musicality of the spheres from Eminescu’s lyrics, but
the mathematization of the sounds specific to Aristotle that the Romanian writer knew.
Sounds direct the relations of the soul, and the distance of the planets from the earth is
assimilated to the intervals between sounds ... and all the matches they could discover in
order to reveal them, between numbers and harmony, on the one hand, and between the
states and parts of Heaven and between the making of the Whole, on the other hand,
gathered them together, composing them in a system (Aristotel, 1996 :436). The
Romanian mathematician makes references to the modern period, emphasizing the fact

79
that the metaphors of Divinity are diaphoric, never epiphoric, implying the idea of
circularity (Marcus, op. cit: 150,151). despite the fact that these concepts were known to
him, Blaga rather manifests a heretical vision in which the Divinity ties in with the Devil
(bogomilism) in the game between life and death. “Maybe, after their eternal war, / God
and Satan thought it wiser to clasp hands / that each might thus be greater. So they’ve
made peace / in me: together they have dripped into my soul / faith and love, doubts and
lies.” (Blaga, 1991:16)
In the lyrics of the poem The Oak (Gorunul), the feeling of death is received with
the same silence typical of Eminescu, because it implies the withdrawal into the living
nature: “Oh, who knows? - From your trunk / they might soon cut / my coffin / and even
now I seem to feel / the peace / that I shall taste between its boards: / I feel it dripping
into my soul / by your leaf //” (idem,1978:134)
With the volume In Praise of Sleep (Laudă somnului), we discover sleep as a
creative element, because through it man retreats to the world of essences, as Faust had
done it before. “Glory to seeds, past, present and forever1 / A thought of strong summer,
a great heaven of light / is hidden in all of them as they sleep.” Thus, we remember
Mephisto who leads his hero into the world of the original elements. The landscape is
now defined by dematerialization, and Blaga
experiences a new demonism in which he knows that he will get lost in the
search and which will reveal the stories of the long-forgotten blood. A cosmic
symbol, sleep becomes an element that encompasses the universe. “ Night.
Under the spheres, the great spheres / The monads sleep. / Compressed
worlds, / soundless tears in space, / the monads sleep. / Their motion - the
praise os sleep.” (ibidem:342)
The same Goethean origin can be noticed in the good-evil duality confessed by
Mephisto: “I am part of that power which eternally wills evil and eternally works good.”
The Transylvanian writer continues Eminescu’s trajectory, developed in the
Faustian climate of Romanian spirituality. The Faustian dimension refers to that creative
longing, to the integral shaping of the world, as we find it in The Morning Star
(Luceafărul), Memento mori, The Story of the Magician Travelling Among the Stars
(Magul călător în stele), Mureșan.
But, the Faustian cosmopoeia, as Goethe typically represents it, does not
settle for perceiving the cosmos in its vague aspects, but it is more
concerned with the fate of man in the bosom of this cosmos. The
relationship between the individual and the great whole is in the
foreground, while the problem of the individual as an integral part of the
totality and the totality as an essential force that is expressed in individual
forms and varieties is eagerly scrutinized (Marcus,2011 : 167).
The thirst for knowledge characterizes the Faustian man, the thirst for essences
that transcends the concrete world. “Get up and run! Out into the open”, Faust exclaimed
in his tight cell. Although the mythical-realistic conception of our people regarding the
telluric reality appears, Blaga states in The Hermit (Pustnicul) “to be earth and to shine
like a star”. It is this burning due to passions and ardor that will mark Blaga’s dramas.
The above-mentioned dramatic poem highlights some Faustian beings: Lucifer, the
Theologian, the Spirit of the earth. The latter shows us the turmoil in the depths of the
world, from which the desire of the earth rises towards the brightness of the sky.
The whole Blagian work, even the dramatic creations, outlines the bond between
heaven and earth, through a permanent fusion and conditioning at the same time.

80
 The antagonistic pulsations determine the creative spirit, as we observe in the
drama Master Manole. The man becomes a partaker of the world's desire to transcend
itself. The light of creative destiny is the same as the cosmogonic light. The master's
monologue illustrates the tension between heaven and earth, a tension as if at the
beginning of the world:
Inside a void opens - a grief without questions. Above the darkness
closes - the despair of endless trials. My sleep and blood are being
consumed. I should close my eyes, but my eyelids do not part me from
the world. Inside a demon cries out: build! The earth stands against, and
cries out to me to make the sacrifice! Ah, Lord, everything is still
incarnate. Down the waters rise against the cold stones. Above the
elements rise against, eternal laws. Deep winds begin to moan.
(Blaga,1991:19)
There is in this drama a statement of the abbot Bogumil which was considered an
exponent of the mythical Bogomil dogma: “What if God and the fierce Satan are brothers
forever? And if they change their deceptive masks, that you don't know when one is and
when the other is? Maybe one is serving the other. I, a faithful abbot, do not say that it is
so, but it could be”. (Ibidem:16-17)
The pantheistic conception of Blaga’s poetry continues in Zamolxis, the drama that
brings to the fore a character similar to Decebalus in Eminescu’s work. “And maybe this
blind god of his is something else other than this kind of the Being’s and that of the
Dacians - wild, tormented, blind, strange, eternally tried?”.The Great Blind can be found
in the many appearances of nature, being carried by the hand by each of the individuals.
“I told them:
We are the seeing,” / …while God is an old blind man. / Everyone is
his child - / and we each carry him by the hand. / For it is not you, God,
the misunderstood blind, / who touches his path among the thorns? /
Not even you know whence you come nor where you go. / You are the
tormented thought crushed into space.” As Mihai Cimpoi observes,
“the conflict between Zamolxis and the Wizard, between Zamolxis and
the crowd appears, in Blaga’s case, as a conflict typical of Eminescu,
between the genius and the narrow circle. … //(idem,1986:4)
Moreover, what, in Eminescu, is pure return to the origin, in illo tempore, in Blaga
is an act of sacralization:
Jesus blooms in cherries, Zamolxis brings God himself, and Pan
unravels the mysteries of Nature, the light of flowers that are lost halos
on the field of the saints of the past and deciphers the sibylline meaning
of the eternal shadows. The drama of the modern world is generated by
the death of this god(Cimpoi,1997 :100,101).
The metaphysical desire to raise the earth to the sky is also outlined in the
Children's Crusade (Cruciada copiilor). The children’s walk symbolizes the search for
original purity, becoming the tragedy of unfulfilled desire. Like another Mephisto, the
monk Theodosius embodies the fanatic caught between the torments of hell and the
longing for paradise. The identification with the archetypal essences or the spirit of the
earth results from the dramatic play Ivanca. The character is surrounded by a gallery of
embodied descendants. “All these weak-minded speaking the truth, they must be
ancestors of mine: a whole garnish, motley, filthy, glorious. It's like being between two
mirrors and seeing myself countless times.” (Blaga,1986:265)

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 In Faust, Mephisto admits that he tends to evil, but he does good. We find the
same idea in the play Noah's Ark (Arca lui Noe), in which the concept of destroying
humanity through a flood coexists, but also the possibility of the rebirth of a nation,
guided by saving the world through pure life. “Your ark will carry the seed of the new
world over the precipices.”
Unlike the other dramas dominated by emotional turmoil, Blaga illustrates through
Noah the conviction that he is on the right path: “I have no choice. Higher command. I
have to obey. …I'm no longer mine; I belong to the Old Man.”. The meeting between The
Old Man and the Devil reminds of the dialogue between God and Mephisto, from the
prologue of the work Faust.
However, the image of the negative character, The Devil, belongs to our popular
mentality, thorough its playful features. According to the popular belief, the Devil would
love “girls’ traditional skirts (crătințele) and he sneaks through doorways. Like God, the
devil shows itself to people as a local peasant, interfering in their lives. He confesses that
he accompanies the Old Man, as a dark projection of him, coming “from here and far
away”. Even Noah observes that there is a resemblance between the Devil and The Old
Man. “The resemblance is not an identity, but it results from a doubling of the One in its
opposite, which has the consciousness of doubling“ (Todoran, 1985: 238)
We also notice that the ultimate experience of death brings Eminescu closer to
Blaga. The dialectic of being and non-being in Ode (in ancient meter) – Odă (în metru
antic) extends into The Morning Star - Luceafărul. Regaining the original unity is
possible by merging the ego with the self. “May all tempting eyes vanish from my
pathway / Come back to my breast, you indifferent sorrow! / So that I may quietly die,
restore me / To my own being!”
Reinforcing and deepening the vision of his predecessor, Blaga asserts the
permanent life-death circuit, the two concepts deriving from each other. Death,
emphasizes Emil Cioran, does not shatter our identity except to facilitate our effort to
reach and restore it; it only makes sense if we confer it all the attributes of life
(Cioran,1992: 91). Manole’s Ana becomes the woman-church through which the
transcendent descends, thus outlining Blaga’s Sofian perspective (Blaga, 1991 :102). It is
not the attitude of the believer inspired by divine revelation, but the condition of the artist
possessed by creative passion.
Also, the two mentioned poets exploit the cosmic gaps through their creative
existence. Blaga himself claimed in “The Elan of the Island” (Elanul insulei), that only
creation offers him the right to exist in this universe well organized by the Great
Anonymous (Idem, 1977:203). Although the latter imposes its transcendental censorship,
the ontological mutation does not actually imply abandoning the real, man continues to
live in the concrete, but for his consciousness the immediate loses its absolute value
becoming the sign of a beyond, the symptom of mystery (Cheie Pantea, 1998: 94).

Bibliography
Aristotel, Metaphysic, IRI Publishing House, Bucharest,1996.
Blaga, L., The Hourglass, neat edition, preface and bibliography of Mircea Popa, Dacia Publishing
House, Cluj-Napoca, 1973.
Idem, The Sofian Perspective, in vol. The Trilogy of Culture II, The Mioritic Space, Humanitas
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1994.
Idem, The Elan of the Island, Dacia Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 1977.
Idem, Works. Theater, vol.3, Critical edition by George Gană, Minerva Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1986.

82
Idem, Works. Theater, vol.4., Critical edition by George Gană, Minerva Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1991.
Idem, Works. Theater, vol.5, Critical edition by George Gană, Minerva Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1993.
Idem, Poems of light, translation by Paul Miclău, Minerva Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978.
Boldea, I., The Didactic History of Romanian Poetry, Aula Publishing House, Brașov, 2005.
Cheie-Pantea, I., Literature and existence, Excelsior Publishing House, Timisoara, 1998. .
Cimpoi, M., Lucian Blaga. The Paradisiac. The Luciferic. The Mioritic, Critical Poem, Dacia, Cluj-
Napoca, 1997.
Cioran, E., The temptation to Exist, translation by Emanoil Marcu, Humanitas Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1992.
Crohmălniceanu, Ov.S., Romanian literature between the two world wars, vol. II, Universalia
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003.
Livadă, M., Introduction to the Poetry of Lucian Blaga, Cartea Românească Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1974.
Marcus, S., The Metaphors of God in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, in Universal Paradigma,
Integral Publishing House, Pitești, 2011.
Rusu, L., From Eminescu to Lucian Blaga, Cartea Românească Publishing House, Bucharest, 1981.
Todoran, E., Lucian Blaga. Mitul dramatic, Facla Publishing House, Timișoara, 1985.

83
ION BARBU : L’ORIGINALITÉ DES VISIONS POÉTIQUES DANS
LE CYCLE UVEDENRODE

Victoria Norma PETRE*

Abstract: Ion Barbu imposed himself in Romanian literature through the originality of his
lyricism, his poetic creation being thus one of hermeticism and pure poetry. Barbellian hermeticism
is predominant in the Uvedenrode cycle. The transition to a new type of lyricism begins with the
poem După melci whose cryptic message is that naivety can kill. The poem contains sequences in
which language has an expressiveness, without precedent in our poetry, obtained through its so-
called maximum contortion. The poem Oul dogmatic is appreciated by the literary critic G.
Călinescu in whose vision the egg is an airtight symbol that suggests microcosmic germination, but
also macrocosmic germination in equal measure. And the message of the poem Riga Crypto și
lapona Enigel must be interpreted in a symbolic way, suggesting the incompatibility between beings
belonging to different kingdoms. The cycle ends with the poetry Uvedenrode, a term with Germanic
resonance, invented by Ion Barbu due to its euphonic qualities, in the center of which is the snail
motif, symbol of the uncreated, self-sufficient being that sends, in G. Călinescu vision, to Platonic
hermaphroditism.
Keywords: hermetism, snail, uncreated

Ion Barbu (1895-1961), né à Câmpulung Muscel sous le nom de Dan Barbilian,

poète et mathématicien, se consacre à la littérature pendant une dizaine d’années, puis
opte pour les mathématiques, après 1930 écrivant que rarement de la poésie
occasionnelle.
« Le mathématicien perdu parmi les poètes et les critiques a souvent étonné
quelques-uns par la connaissance de son métier et, en même temps, par ce vélétarisme
culturel, notamment philosophique, que l’on remarque chez de nombreux savants qui
n’appartiennent pas aux sciences humaines ». (Manolescu, N., 2008 : 687)
Ov. S. Crohmălniceanu attire l’attention sur le fait qu’il faut distinguer entre
l’hermétisme (le terme vient du nom du dieu Hermès Trismégiste, le transmetteur des
enseignements occultes hellénistiques) et la poésie pure. Tandis qu’une écriture
hermétique cherche à transmettre un certain enseignement, une vérité ultime, dans un
langage cryptique, à travers des symboles qui nécessitent une initiation et qui ne
deviennent accessibles qu’aux esprits, aux intelligences supérieures, aux élus, la poésie
pure demande et elle rend l’intellectuel et demande des efforts pour révéler ses
significations, mais ils peuvent être multiples, « le lecteur étant invité à collaborer avec
l’auteur » (Crohmălniceanu, Ov. S., 1974 : 454), concluant que «la poésie pure a
emprunté de nombreux éléments d’hermétisme » (Crohmălniceanu, Ov. S., 1974 : 454),
mais les termes ne se chevauchent pas et ne doivent pas être confondus.
Il est difficile de tracer une ligne entre les deux, le lyrisme barbien évoluant vers
la formule de la poésie pure, du cycle Joc secund, en passant d’abord par celui
hermétique, fortement marqué dans le cycle d’Uvedenrode.
Les poèmes écrits entre 1920 et 1924, inclus dans les cycles Uvedenrode et Isarlâk,
se distinguent des autres écrits antérieurs et postérieurs par « leur caractère narratif et
pittoresque » (Vianu, T., 1970 :14), dit Tudor Vianu.

* Université de Pitesti, [email protected]

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 Le passage à un autre type de lyrisme a commencé avec le poème După melci,
dans lequel il sublime artistiquement un souvenir d’enfance, tout en errant dans les forêts
autour du village de Stâlpeni, Argeș. Le poème est dédié à « Mon oncle, Sache Șoiculescu,
dont j’y emprunte la voix » (Barbu, I., 1997 :10-20). L’histoire de l’enfant innocent qui
enchante plein de candeur, l’escargot, le trompe et le dérange par l’ordre de la nature, lui
cause la mort, a un substrat symbolique, étant un drame de la connaissance, de la
maturation de celui qui trouve que la naïveté peut tuer. On assiste aux effets
catastrophiques d’un acte magique, pour lequel l’enfant n’a pas été initié. L’escargot est
là et le symbole de l’incréé, alors l’éveil à la vie, par enchantement, entraîne
inévitablement la mort, « Car tous sont nés pour mourir » (Eminescu, M., 2000 : 672-
684), comme la rappelait le Démiurge au Luceafăr. Șerban Foarță a dit « que l’hybris, la
faute tragique n’est pas de l’escargot, un être inférieur, qui croyait au mot faux, mais de
l’enfant, de l’objet connaissant ». (Foarţă, Ș., 1980 :30)
Le déplorant comme le mythique Dyonisos, l’enfant exprime ses regrets pour son
acte, mais il ne peut pas annuler l’effet de l’acte magique :
«Şi pe trupul lui zgârcit/ M-am plecat/ Şi l-am bocit:/ -Melc, melc, ce-ai făcut?/
Din somn cum te-ai desfăcut?/ Ai crezut în vorba mea/ Prefăcută... Ea glumea!/ Ai crezut
că plouă soare,/ C-a dat iarbă pe răzoare,/ Că alunu-i tot un cântec... // Astea-s vorbe şi
descântec!/ Trebuia să dormi ca ieri,/ Surd la cânt şi îmbieri,/ Să tragi alt oblon de var/
Între trup şi ce-i afar'.../ Vezi?/ Ieşişi la un descântec;/ Iarna ţi-a muşcat din pântec.../ Ai
pornit spre lunci şi crâng,/ Dar pornişi cu cornul stâng,/ Melc nătâng,/ Melc nătâng!»
(După melci) (Barbu, I., 1997 :10-20)
Il va sans dire qu’Ion Barbu n’a pas choisi par hazard comme devise du cycle
d’Uvedenrode une citation d’un poète anglais, les poètes de l’île attirant son attention
depuis le 19 juin 1921, lorsqu’il a publié, dans Nouvel Roumanie, Vers sur la poésie
anglaise. La devise ressemble à ceci dans le langage de Shakespeare: «For its tones bu
turns were glad/ Sweatly, solemn, wildly sad Longfellow (The slave singing at midnight)
»1 en traduction: Longfellow (Sclavul cântând la miezul nopţii).
À propos d’Uvedenrode, qui, comme la plupart de ses créations, en connut
plusieurs versions, Ion Barbu dit qu’il s’agit « d’une tentative toujours répétée de
m’élever dans le mode intellectuel de la Lire. Le fait poétique initial : la couronne et la
lire. A cette pureté aérienne, dans laquelle les poètes anglais semblent tous siéger, suivant
un seul instinct, de la chanson, nous voulons inviter notre poésie [...] instruisant dans les
choses essentielles, se délectant de visions paradisiaques ». (Aderca F. : De vorbă cu Ion
Barbu, apărut în Viaţa literară, 1927, apud Ion Barbu, Versuri şi proză, 1984 :138-139)
G. Călinescu a vu dans le cycle d’Uvedenrode « une lyrique d’essences, une
lyrique de grande tension cette fois hermétique au sens supérieur du terme […] qui
s’appuie sur des symboles, […] des images qui expriment à la fois ordre du temps dans
le microcosme et ordre dans le macrocosme » (Călinescu, CG. 1986 : 893). Le grand
critique et historien de la littérature valorisait particulièrement la poésie Oul dogmatic car
« L’oeuf est un symbole hermétique, car par là nous entendons une voie de germination
terrestre, mais aussi l’image de germination macrocosmique [...] être informé que les deux
sont toujours conjugués ». (Călinescu, G., 1986 : 893) Goûtez les paroles « très belles,
d’une brièveté enchanteresse inoubliable ». (Călinescu, G., 1986 : 893)

« Cum lumea veche, în cleştar,/ Înoată, în subţire var,/ Nevinovatul, noul ou,/
Palat de nuntă şi cavou.// Din trei atlazuri e culcuşul/ În care doarme nins albusul/ Atât

1 Pentru că tonurile erau, pe rând, vesele, / Solemne, îngrozitor de triste

85
de galeş, de închis, / Cu trupul drag surpat în vis.// Dar plodul?/ De foarte sus/ Din polul
plus/ De unde glodul/ Pământurilor n-a ajuns/ Acordă lin/ Şi masculin/ Albuşului în
hialin:/ Sărutul plin» (Oul dogmatic). (Barbu, I., 1997 : 37-39)
La devise du poème est d’origine biblique : « Dogme : Et le Saint-Esprit fut
emporté au-dessus des eaux » (Barbu, I. 1997 : 37-39). Dans ce poème, Ion Barbu
capitalise sur le mythe de l’oeuf et célèbre le motif de l’incréé, priant pour la «la sainte
paix de l’incréé ». (Vianu, T., 1970 : 63)
« Îl lasă - în pacea - întâie-a lui, // Că vinovat e tot făcutul,/ Şi sfânt, doar nunta,
începutul” (Oul dogmatic), (Barbu, I., 1997: 37-39)
Riga Crypto și Lapona Enigel, le seul poème sous-titré « ballade » (Barbu, I., 1997
: 32-36), bien connu aujourd’hui pour entrer dans les manuels scolaires, a été ignoré par
de nombreux critiques, étant considéré par Dinu Pillat « le chef d’oeuvre de poèmes
fabuleux avec des éléments de figuration naturelle » (Prefaţă la volumul Ion Barbu, 1984
: XIII).
Publiée en 1924, cette balade est, selon Tudor Vianu, « une vieille chanson de
mariage » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 46), appellée «stins, încetinel, / La spartul nunţii, în cămară
de un Mult îndărătnic menestrel, la cererea unui nuntaş fruntaş» (Barbu, I., 1997: 32-36).
L’histoire, avec une fin triste comme l’était le ménestrel, se concentre sur Ryga Crypto,
qui régnait sur les éponges et tombe amoureuse de la Lapone Enigel, la bergère qui,
emmenant ses rennes De l’hiver au pâturage, s’arrête une nuit dans le monde à Crypto,
le marié de la prairie. Le dialogue entre les deux se déroule dans un rêve. Crypto la tente
de rester dans son monde :
«- Enigel, Enigel,/ Ţi-am adus dulceaţă, iacă./ Uite fragi, ţie dragi,/ Ia-i şi toarnă-
i în puiacă» (Barbu, I., 1997: 32-36).
Enigel refuse fermement d’oublier son but : «În somn fraged şi răcoare» (Barbu,
I., 1997:.32-36), ses valeurs étant différentes: «Mă-nchin la soarele-nţelept,/ Că sufletu-i
fântână-n piept,/ Şi roata albă mi-e stăpână,/ Ce zace-n sufletul-fântână.// La soare, roata
se măreşte;/ La umbră, numai carnea creşte/ Şi somn e carnea, se dezumflă,/ Dar vânt şi
umbră iar o umflă... » (Barbu, I., 1997: 32-36).
Pour tenter de convaincre Enigel d’être son épouse, Crypto est en retard et est pris
au soleil, qui :
« Se oglindi adânc în el;/ De zece ori, fără sfială,/ Se oglindi în pielea-i cheală.//
Şi sucul dulce înăcreşte!/ Ascunsa-i inimă plesneşte,/ Spre zece vii peceţi de semn,/ Venin
şi roşu untdelemn/ Mustesc din funduri de blestem;» (Barbu, I., 1997: 32-36).
La poésie peut être lue, à un premier niveau, comme une légende qui explique
l’apparition de champignons vénéneux, appelés fous. Vianu a recommandé qu’il soit «
compris de manière symbolique » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 48).
Mircea Scarlat considère que « L’essence du poème réside dans la folie de la riga,
étant fermée (suggestion étymologique), ne peut s’intégrer dans un autre domaine. [...]
La folie du Riga Spân est la condamnation barbienne des aspirations injustifiées »
(Scarlat, M., 2004 : 203).
L’idée que Riga Crypto și Lapona Enigel soient un Luceafăr de retour est devenue
courante, comme Ion Barbu lui-même nous a suggéré d’interpréter la poésie. Ion Barbu
croyait que l’univers était homogène et équilibré, organisé selon des lois mathématiques,
leur violation étant synonyme de chaos, le mariage entre des êtres de royaumes différents
était donc impossible car une déviation suffirait à rompre l’équilibre.
Şerban Foarţă a rappelé que la raison des « mariages ratés » (Foarţă, Ș., 1980 :32)
est connue dans le folklore, dans les ballades sur l'amour impossible entre le Soleil et sa
sœur la Lune, qu’on chantait aux mariages.

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 Ritmuri pentru nunţile necesare, initialement intitulé Jazz band pentru nunţile
necesare, a une devise provocante :
„Când planuri sună a cădere/ Şi găzduieşti în rea putere,/ La neagra Damă
Miriam/ În bande încinsă, de dinam” (Barbu, I., 1997: 39-42).
Le poète disait, en 1927, à propos de cette poésie : « Le thème transcendant [...]:
le sens féminin de Hypérion, l'initiation intellectuelle, dissociative, du cercle de Mercure,
également dans la domination triomphante du Soleil, est d'un hellénisme de décadence.
Mais un élément moderne qui est ajouté est le ton épais et bouffe dans lequel une partie
de la pièce est écrite. L'écho de l'acte créateur enregistré avec un rire nasillard du
démiurge ! » (Aderca, F. : De vorbă cu Ion Barbu, apparu en Viaţa literară, 1927, apud
Ion Barbu Versuri şi proză, 1984: 138).
Tudor Vianu voit dans ce poème, construit sur un schéma astronomique, le chemin
de l'âme en trois étapes cosmiques, de l'âme vers la perfection spirituelle, qui part du
cercle de Gèa, passe par le cercle de Vénus et de Mercure, les deux planètes qui séparent
la Terre du Soleil, pour atteindre le seuil du grand mystère de la lumière. Pour Vianu,
l'arrêt dans le cercle de Vénus, symbole d'amour, «se déroule dans un rythme grotesque
» (Vianu, T., 1970 : 58), rappelant les danses lascives de Domnișoara Hus, car « l'homme
possédé par l'amour est désormais ressenti par le poète comme un simple être instinctif,
un fantoche ridicule mise en mouvement par des ficelles qui ne se trouvent pas dans ses
mains » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 59).
„Înspre tronul moalei Vineri/ Brusc, ca toţi amanţii tineri,/ Am vibrat/ Înflăcărat://
Vaporoasă/ Rituală/ O frumoasă/ Masă/ Scoală!/ În brăţara ta fă-mi loc/ Ca să joc, ca
să joc,/ Danţul buf/ Cu reverenţe/ Ori mecanice cadenţe”1 (Barbu, I., 1997: 39-42),
(Ritmuri pentru nunţile necesare).
Il faut mentionner que Vianu nie à Ion Barbu la qualité de poète de l'amour,
identifiant le thème seulement dans trois poèmes du volume Joc secund: „Păunul vision
concise et sagittale d'une passion capricieuse et violente, dans Înfăţişare, sous la forme
d'un penchant qui se complaît à la pénombre annonçant une grande libération dans la
lumière et en Uvedenrode, dans l'incarnation d'une sensualité qui erre dans l'absurdité»
(
Vianu, T., 1970: 59). Dans le même ouvrage, il dit que dans les poèmes de début Ţi-am
împletit, « avec l'évocation de l'aimée s’élevant vers l'Accord Pur » et Peisaj retrospectiv,
l'amour « prend la forme d'événements cérébraux », étant « dédiés à l’amour comme
révélation » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 88). Revenant aux Ritmuri pentru nunţile necesare, disons
que, dans l'interprétation de Vianu, « Mercure, supérieur à Vénus, est le symbole de
l'intelligence, de la recherche et de la connaissance, mais sa pureté étant amoindrie par le
côté luciférien » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 60):
„O, Mercur,/ Frate pur/ Conceput din viu mister/ Şi Fecioara Lucifer,// Înclinat
pe ape caste
În sfruntări iconoclaste, / Cap clădit/ Din val oprit/ Sus, pe Veacul împietrit,/ O
select/ Intelect
Nunta n-am sărbătorit...”2 (Barbu, I., 1997: 39-42). (Ritmuri pentru nunţile
necesare)

Afin d'atteindre „ceasul alb, concis al minunii” (Barbu, I., 1997 : 39-42), la pleine
connaissance du micro et du macrocosme, la destination finale est le Soleil, la source de

87
lumière, l'absolu, Dieu lui-même. Ce n'est que În cămara Soarelui se déroule le mariage
idéal :
„Să ospătăm/ În cămara Soarelui/ Marelui/ Nun şi stea,// Abur verde să ne dea,/
Din căldări de mări lactee,/ La surpări de curcubee,/ - În Firida ce scântee eteree”.
(Barbu, I., 1997 : 39-42), (Ritmuri pentru nunţile necesare)
Le titre du poème Uvedenrode, qui conclut le cycle avec le même nom est un mot
à résonance germanique inventé par Ion Barbu, en visant à atteindre l'euphonie, se laissant
guider, comme le mythique Orphée, par l'instinct de la Chanson. Vianu, qui considérait
ce poème « un jeu, dans lequel les mots sont appelés d’après les affinités sonores [...] une
arabesque sonore » (Vianu, T., 1970 : 76-77), qui échappe à la logique, restant obscure,
se limitait à dire que, dans la psychanalyse freudienne, l'escargot est un symbole sexuel,
et Călinescu a ajouté que les escargots, «par leur froideur et leur translucidité éveillent
l'idée de la sexualité pure et de l'hermaphrodisme platonicien» (Călinescu, G.,1986: 893).
Crohmălniceanu va expliciter l’affirmation de Călinescu relative à
l'hermaphrodisme platonicien, en disant que « l’escargot, une créature hermaphrodite,
représente pour la tradition ésotérique une créature parfaite, car il ne connaît pas
l'incomplétude des natures monosexuels » (Crohmălniceanu, Ov.S., 1974 : 454).
L'escargot, indifférencié sexuellement, indivisé, devient un symbole de l'unité
primordiale, du magique un, auquel aspire Ion Barbu. Chez Ion Barbu, l'escargot devient
aussi un symbole de l'incréé, car il ne se marie pas, restant hors de la mode et du temps :
„La râpa Uvedenrode/ Ce multe gasteropode!/ Suprasexuale/ Supramuzicale;//
Gasteropozi!/ Mult limpezi rapsozi,/ Moduri de ode/ Ceruri eşarfă/ Antene în harfă;//
Uvedenrode/ Peste mode şi timp/ Olimp!/ Ceas în cristalin/ Lângă fecioara Geraldine !/
Dantelele sale/ Ca floarea de zale,/ Prin brațele ei/ Ghețari în idei,/La soarele sfânt,/
Egal- acest cânt:”(Uvedenrode), (Barbu, I., 1997: 46-47).
Mircea Scarlat continue l'idée des précurseurs en disant que « Râpa Uvedenrode
est un jeu, second, une réplique de l'Olympe mythologique, purifié par l'absence de
passions » (Scarlat, M., 2004 : 226).
Les gastéropodes suffisent, comme dans le cas de Nastratin, qui ne se laisse pas
corrompre, mais „Sfânt trup şi hrană sieşi, Hagi rupea din el” (Barbu, I.,1997 : 48-51).
Concernant l'univers de la poésie de Barbu, Pompiliu Constantinescu précisait que
c'est « un univers abstrait ; poésie anti-musicale, tendant à tuer la rhétorique, la poésie de
M. Barbu, dans son aspect le plus frappant, réalise une série de tableaux mentaux »
(Constantinescu, P., 1974 : 118).
L'originalité des visions poétiques est soutenue par l'originalité du langage
poétique: „Ordonată spiră,/ Sunet/ Fruct de liră,/ Capăt paralogic,/ Leagăn mitologic,/ Din
șetrele mari/ Apari: O cal de val/ Peste cavală/ Cu varul deasupra-n spirală!/ Încorporată
poftă,/ Uite o fată, Lunecă o dată,/ Lunecă de două/ Ori până la nouă,/ Până o-nfășori/ În
fiori ușori,/ Până –o torci în zale/ Gasteropodale;/ Până când, în lente/ Antene atente/ O
cobori:/ Pendular de-ncet,/ Inutil pachet,/ Sub timp,/ Sub mode/ În Uvedenrode” (Barbu,
I., 1997: 46-47).
Marin Micu a souligné l'idée que Ion Barbu, en tant que poète, «pratique
l'opération de translation du réel dans ces formes d'expression, appelées "textes par
permutations" subtiles de la syntaxe poétique, de sorte que la poésie ne peut plus être le
résultat d'une inspiration spontanée, mais une sommation progressive d'une conscience
méta-textuelle qui sera à l'origine du mouvement littéraire post-moderniste, qu'il a
identifié sous le nom de textualisme au cadre de la génération des années quatre-vingts »
(Micu, M., 2017: 276).

88
Bibliografie
Aderca, F., De vorbă cu Ion Barbu, apărut în Viaţa literară, 1927, apud Ion Barbu Versuri şi proză,
Minerva, Bucureşti, 1984.
Barbu, I., Joc secund, Editura Litera, Chișinău, 1997.
Barbu, I., Poezii, Editura Minerva, 1976.
Calinescu, C., Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, Minerva, Bucuresti, 1986.
Constantinescu, P., Poeți români contemporani, Minerva, București, 1974.
Crohmălniceanu, Ov. S., Literatura română între cele două războaie mondiale, vol. II, Minerva,
Bucureşti, 1974.
Eminescu, M., Versuri lirice, Muzeul Literaturii Române, București, 2000.
Foarţă, Ș., Eseu asupra poeziei lui Ion Barbu, Facla, Timişoara, 1980.
Manolescu, N., Istoria critică a literaturii române, Paralela 45, Pitești, 2008.
Micu, M., Ion Barbu, în O panoramă critică a poeziei românești din secolul al XX-lea, Pontica,
Constanța, 2017.
Scarlat, M., Istoria poeziei româneşti, vol III, Teleormanul liber, 2004.
Vianu, T., Introducere în Opera lui Ion Barbu, Minerva, Bucureşti, 1970.

89
 DOUBLE LANGUAGE OR PERCEIVED LITERARY TEXT
KALEIDOSCOPICS. A MIRROR-BACKED WORLD

Romulus Marius SĂLĂGEAN

Abstract: The literary text itself represents a somehow strange world by its splendour.
Perfect even, from an artistic point of view, the work of art, literature mirrors a fictional paradigm
of "immediate reality" (Max Blecher) with a pronounced curative function. The specialized or the
unsighted reader penetrates with wonder into a mirror room, into the concave-depth structure of a
world with still jaw shapes. Gradually the wave of Isis will move aside and the receiver of the
literary text will see what the demon of those pages wanted to shatter in a moment of inspiration.
The diegetic universe also captures a world, reflects it in the lecturer's consciousness, the latter
being able to distinguish the nuns and even participate in the recreation of the original text by an
unseen love for literature. We can imagine a suite of lecturers, each wanting to replay what was an
ideatical "disorder" for him. It is a record that the literary work will be perceived as kaleidoscopic
as in parabola with orbits and elephant. And through the contributions of the text's pictorial, with
a vast of literary fetish, the narration will be metamorphosis in a "Aerta work". And because
literature reconstitutes still unshocked worlds in a beautiful Creator's mirror, we would try to
imagine that: “life is written to us in mirrors as in a palimpsest in which, layer of layer, everything
that was written once died and somehow not ...” (Petru Creția)
Keywords: Mirror, double language, literary fetish, kaleidoscopic, false.

In the track of the Baroque literature in France, with reference to Circe and the
Peacock, the singular work belonging to Jean Rousset, meeting the concepts of "doubles
and deduplications" (Rousset, Jean, 1976: p. 66-67) at the level of tragic-comedy. The
well-known symbolism of the "world as theater" predominantly present in the Elizabethan
era is attested by Shakespearean genius. And if the world is a theater, and the theater
seems like a vast humanity with the necessary quirks, the tribulations of the self give birth
to an uncertain surface that we must pass through anyway. In a sincere analysis, the
human being is full of uncertainties related to the ontological path. Who am I really? In
what mirror, in what room of mirrors do we parade in this existence?
Octavian Paler, the one who managed to rehabilitate this mythical character -
Narcissus, moreover, is having the intuition to place him in another orbit of knowledge
to restore his stolen brilliance, challenges us to inner contemplation in the novel A Lucky
Man (1984).
The axial character outlined in this book, which is not only a parable, but also an
exciting prose with unusual situations, - Daniel Petric, followed since childhood by a
double in a family context, casually recounts his inner adventure. The "Hall of Mirrors",
(Paler, Octavian, 1984: p. 244) a real narcissistic space, but at the same time an irradiating
center of self-illusion as a modus vivendi, offers Daniel Petric a duplication
unprecedented experience.
The character finds himself viewed "from all sides" (Paler, 1984: p. 244) by a
double of his own, surrounded by a multitude of faces identical to his own.
A Narcissus imprisoned in a "hall of mirrors", fed by a suite of the Self, illusory
pouring into the dizzying luster, even narcotic. In his first novel Life on a Platform (1981),

 University of Pitesti, e-mail: [email protected]

90
Octavian Paler sets the compositional chessboard of his epic differently. The narrative is
much denser and with an explicit philosophical and soteriological charge. A sui-generis
hermit, the Professor can be saved through a perpetual process of consciousness, through
a lucidity of the spirit. Even the expectation, in vain in itself, acquires a particular nobility.
And here is the reason for the double in the episode of the passage of the fantastic train
in the color of the reddish sand existing in the desert assumed by the Professor and the
evanescent Eleonora. At the moment of the appearance of the vehicle driven by obscure
shadows, at one of the windows of the train, the Professor sees his double, which is true
in a more youthful posture.
Returning to Jean Rousset with his “disguise and deceptive appearance” (Rousset,
Jean, 1976: p. 66-67) we will point out the following interpretation: “Doubt about own's
identity leads to a new illusion: the loss of the self through doubling; at the same time
himself and another [...]” (Rousset, Jean, 1976: p. 66-67). We will reiterate the fact that
the young Narcissus, following that coup de foudre, will physically try to get closer to the
fascinating stranger in front of him. He will later realize the otherness of his identity,
which will cause him a great deal of trauma. The torture to which Narcissus is subjected
seems to be assumed from an as yet unexplored point of view. Robert Graves points out
a nuance, showing that Narcissus "found pleasure in his torments, even if hisother self
would remain faithful to him, no matter what."(Graves, Robert, 2018: p. 244) Graves'
statement seems superficial, at least a risky one, because we fail to accept that Narcissus
would also feel pleasure in that punishment received from the goddesses (Nemesis or
Artemis). We are told that he endures torture, which we accept because failure to perform
an erotic gesture produces obvious trauma. Pleasure, however, depends on an "archetypal
representation" (Jung, C.G., 1997: p. 513) such as the Self. What remains unclear is this
corridor of Narcissus' total confidence in "his other self" (Graves, Robert, 2018: p. 244)
as Graves puts it.
Why would Narcissus have this inclination toward his self-projected into the
undisturbed mirror of water? Breaking that taboo revealed by Tiresias' prophecy, the
young man finally wants to complete his knowledge. He is in full force because "the
legend necessarily demanded a young and beautiful Narcissus"(Paler, Octavian, 2017:
pg.272). Otherwise, the story would not have had substance, and the "suicide of an old
Narcissus" (Paler, Octavian, 2017: p. 272) would have been echoed, not impressing
anyone. Beyond this digression, the self in the definition of C.G. Jung also appears under
the rule of Asian spirituality, being a "combination of yang and ying, the pair of brothers"
(Jung, C.G., 1997: p. 513). This symbolism of yang and ying manages to clarify the
statement that Narcissus would have shown full confidence in "his other self." (Graves,
Robert, 2018: p. 245) In the end, what he saw, eluding physical attraction was a
continuation of him, another facet of the same coin. Only by crossing this border of
genuine spring water could Narcissus have completed his knowledge. One part of the
Being senses a complementarity and one hand tries in vain to catch the other hand which
turns out to be a reflection, an illusory image. Regarding the two recognizable ying and
yang characters and in the sphere of the Self, in Jung's sense we notice a detail that our
demonstration unreservedly accepts: “Ying and yang exist only in relation to each other.
They are inseparable, and the rhythm of the world is the very rhythm of their alternation
[...]” (Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Allain, 1993: 484-485). It seems doubtful that
Narcissus' encounter with the other sealed his fate.
Octavian Paler, who is belongs to the phrase "the slanderous Narcissus" (Paler,
Octavian, 1986: 30), sincerely confesses that his obsession with the young hero of Greek
mythology is correlated with the idea of suicide, which in turn became a scoundrel of his

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writings, from a certain period. We understand that the suicide act actually preoccupied
the writer. The writer Octavian Paler had tried in his youth to make a real compendium
of suicides. What confuses this thoughtful scholar is precisely the act itself ex abrupto,
seemingly incomprehensible to a person who does not possess the necessary courage or
has serious dogmatic doubts. Referring to Albert Camus, his favorite in the context of
French writers with a penchant for philosophy, Paler reveals a peremptory aspect with
reference to this morbid phenomenon. He rightly considers the suicide to be spontaneous
and belongs to the inner life of the unfortunate candidates for the kingdom of Hades. It
has nothing to do with philosophy, concludes the essayist: "I assume that none of those
who, at some point, decided to end their lives did not feel like philosophy." (Paler,
Octavian, 2017: 269). I remembered these findings of Octavian Paler because the myth
of Narcissus would draw its juice, even in a reflection of the unconscious, from the
incomprehensible attraction, from adolescence of the writer, for a series of "famous
suicides from antiquity to the present day.” (Paler, Octavian, 2017:269)We consider that
these marginal notes offered by the late essayist are not at all illogical. On the contrary,
we are put in a position to understand that the disappearance of Narcissus in the steady
mirror of the spring, his suicide, does nothing but sublimate his existence. In fact, to give
him the mythical breath, in the absence of which he would have remained a strange and
handsome young man. Son of the nymph, Liriope and Cephisus. Only that. The stated
idea appears explicitly in "the marginalized in the myth of Narcissus": "suicide is the only
important fact in the legend of Narcissus."(Paler, Octavian, 2017:269) Not coincidentally,
in the same margins, the obsessive image of the mythical character is projected in a faded
mirror in which the devastating time grins. Essayist Octavian Paler resorts to such an
eloquent dose of subjectivism, taking on the mask of a Narcissus in old age, whose "tired
of life" (Paler, Octavian, 2017:269) face, with his body moving relentlessly, would
hypothetically end up in a clearing near the fountain - the magic eye of knowledge -. Very
attentive to nuances, the writer does not hesitate to let himself be carried away by that
centripetal force of his opus, returning to the detestable self that he assumes anytime and
anywhere. "I'm coming back to Narcissus. So, how as an old Narcissus would have
looked, like me, for example” (Paler, Octavian, 2017:269). Octavian Paler's voice often
transcends the narrative itself, managing to captivate us, because we resonate with it. The
human condition in its desolate precariousness is reflected for a moment "in the fountain
of clear water." (Paler, Octavian, 2017:269).
It is an almost anamorphic image that the writer sums up in a few words but
remaining in the consciousness of every representative of humanity: "A face devastated
by wrinkles with faded eyes and rough skin like a tree bark." (Paler, Octavian, 2017: 269)
The narrative discourse of this restorer of prominent figures and pronounced mythical-
archetypal, we refer to Octavian Paler, continues on the same bed of "physical decadence"
(Paler, Octavian, 2017: 269), whose humility is contrasted with a brilliant age precisely
through bodily perfection. Indeed, the myth of Narcissus would not have conquered any
cultural, philosophical, or archetypal redoubt if the character had been at a venerable age
or beauty had completely circumvented him by condemning him to anonymity without
glory. In love with the exemplary myths that have shaped us in the nominal world, the
essayist seeks sibilant ideational paths and manages to bring Narcissus closer to another
daredevil whose improbable flight has condemned him to eternity.
If Narcissus plunged into the liquid abyss in search of a double that could have
given him, hypothetically speaking, the brightness of the road to himself, Icarus overcame
his telluric condition by clinging his wax-clad wings to his shoulders. Octavian Paler
infers (concludes) that the end of Icarus is also a suicide with the mention that posterity

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did not restrain him in this way, considering him, rather, a living in a utopia or a splendid
reckless. Fearless or just naive, Icarus manages with his impossible flight to propel
himself directly into myth. Octavian Paler dissociates the iconic representation specific
to the myth of Narcissus from the "reckless zeal" (Paler, Octavian, 2017: 269) that would
define Icarus. Surprisingly, in the same "margins on the myth of Narcissus", the writer
mise en scene and the tragic ending unfolded in the case of Socrates.
Octavian Paler resorts to that dubious rhetoric, turning the principle of the great
philosopher on all sides. The fact that he did not want to expatriate or retract what he had
said in front of the judges is really a proof of courage and dignity. The nuance that the
essayist is looking for is that of a disguised suicide. What would be the connection with
the myth of Narcissus? None, even the writer admits. Only the degrading physical reality,
Socrates' old age is antithetical to the splendor of the young Greek whose fascination led
to the onset of a cultural hysteria. And not only that, it is becoming increasingly clear that
the story of a mirror, the myth in all its splendor, has an evolutionary emergence.
Narcissism is as much admonished as it is present in modernity with increasingly
alienating forms. The verbs to see and admire, the reflection with any risk in the eyes of
others, the loneliness supported by the increase of physical perfection are the order of the
day. Avoiding the pathological area, narcissism is so present that sometimes you wonder
why it is still treated as a moral crime. Even those who embrace this aspect arrange their
faces in the mirror, with the certainty that they are perfect. It's just a thought, but it haunts
them as a legacy of "the much-vaunted Narcissus," (Paler, Octavian, 2017:177) as
Octavian Paler put it. In his artisanal manner, the essayist considers that "the whole
process of Narcissus is based on a reading gap."(Paler, Octavian, 1986: 23).
Gaston Bachelard takes advantage of true noetic facts, showing that it is not by
chance that this paradigm of self-love and of course the reception of the human face under
the rule of seduction has been reached. Psychoanalysis is the responsibility of the myth
and the story of Narcissus "the love of man for his own image, for his face as it will be
reflected in a calm water." (Bachelard, Gaston, 1999: 25) Regarding the human face as
"an instrument of seduction" (Bachelard, Gaston, 1999: 25), we will find reverberations
of the myth of Narcissus in Eminescu's famous poem: Călin (pages from the story). The
unleashed lyrical imaginary that consecrates the singular creator of the chimerical dream
also demands an obvious reflection. The lake, the spring, the sea invokes a liquid universe
in which angelic faces of ladies and gentlemen or daughters of the emperor are reflected
in a frenzy of Eminescu adoration. In Călin (pages from the story), the narcissistic pattern
can be seen from the preamble called gazel.
Interestingly, the heroine, in an erotic trance, mirrors herself endlessly waiting for
the Flying Man. Eminescu's confession in verse foreshadows a Narcissus in a feminine
hypostasis: „But she is like those loved by herself and / And Narcissus seeing her face, /
In her mirror, the spring, / He alone was the beloved, /He alone is the lover /[...]”
(Eminescu, Mihai, 1978:61) Through an ideational translation, we will get closer to
Gaston Bachelard’s vision, an integrative one, by the way. The world in its splendor,
eluding the area of shadow, of abjection can be a reflection or reflection of the Beauty of
divine origin. The French thinker brings to our attention Joachim Gasquet whose
prototypical work on Narcissus magnifies this cultural and mythical pattern alike. We are
witnessing a "cosmic narcissism" (Bachekard, Gaston, 1999: 28) in the wake of "selfish
narcissism," (Bachekard, Gaston, 1999: 28) as Bachelard remarks.
Joachim Gasquet's statement that "[The world is a huge self-thinking Narcissus]"
(Bachekard, Gaston, 1999: 29) surprises us with its distinctive note with reference to
pancalism. Regarding the binomial sensitivity and emotion but also an art of looking, the

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dreams mentioned by Gaston Bachelard near the water, the river are present in a mythical-
poetic heritage recognizable in various ways. In "The Lake" by Mihai Eminescu we delve
into a reverie with hedonistic notes, disregarding a seemingly banal chromatic that still
contributes to the creation of a privileged space of beauty in culmination. In the
hypothetical meeting placed by the poet on that lake, the imaginary with pronounced
romantic notes is responsible not only for the dream but also the dreamy through the entire
lyrical orchestration deliberately created by combining the unreal. The apogee of the
Eminescu climate, the beauty of the evoked world is not far from a reflection, the
mirroring being made by means of the light of the selenic star: "Let us float with charm /
Under the light of the gentle moon / Wind in the reeds gently rustle, / The wavy water
sounds! /" (Eminescu, Mihai, 1978: 35). Obviously, the water and the lake are not just
any decoration. "Jumping in white circles" (Eminescu, Mihai, 1978: 35) or whispering
through the waves, the lake is a character who claims a disturbing beauty. Of a whole
world.
Gaston Bachelard concedes, par excellence, to this "reverie in the face of the
reflection of water" (Bachelard, Gaston, 1999: 30), developing the paradigm of a
narcissism of the whole universe. Here is how this brilliant representative of
psychoanalytic and archetypal criticism expresses himself: “By the river, its reflections,
the world tends towards beauty. Narcissism, the first consciousness of a beauty, is
therefore the germ of a pancalism. " (Bachelard, Gaston, 1999: 30). Now outlining the
image of the mythological character - Narcissus - we notice that what was obstinately
imputed to him, egotism is a modus vivendi for the young generations. Narcissism has
become a constant in the current evolution of humanity. Who doesn't prevail in the end?
Octavian Paler, who considered the idea of egotism rudimentary, argued that lovers of
their own "are not in the habit" (Paler, Octavian, 2017: 178) of leaving the scene through
a brutal act such as suicide with a dagger.
We know that the myth-eater who was Octavian Paler managed to rehabilitate the
slandered Narcissus by updating the maxim nosce te ipsum, this knowledge often proving
imperfect and uncomfortable. The road to Self, the stages of becoming are not accessible
to everyone. Essayist Paler claims that "unfortunate confusion between self-thirst and
self-love." (Paler, Octavian, 2017: 178).
Vasile Dem. Zamfirescu, the author of the volume In Search of the Self, narrates
this journey towards himself, being of course in the proximity of the archetypes
consecrated by Jung. We are confronted, if we want, with a double language of the visible
through which we understand the conscious and the unconscious through the prism of its
imaginary activity. The archetype of the Self cannot be conceived without “reuniting the
opposites that I also encountered in C.G. Jung” (Jung, C.G, 1997: 476). We find very
interesting the way in which Vasile Dem. Zamfirescu looks at a deepening in the abyss
of the unconscious, an underground world that Octavian Paler also mentioned in a literary
way, calling it the secret life. Dreams, fantasies or obsessions considered at the level of
the visible moral crimes float in a latent but exciting universe at the same time. A
reference to the specular world seems possible given the unknown trapped between the
frames of a mirror that keeps in a play of light and shadow autonomous and provocative
images. Let's not shy away from the fact that the mirror assumes a somewhat foreign eye
and the remanence of some images creates various identity hypostases: "Our life is written
in mirrors as in a palimpsest in which, layer by layer, everything that was once written
has perished and somehow still not ...” (Creția, Petru, 2010: 101).
Returning to the writer Octavian Paler, we notice that he manages to be credible
by launching the hypothesis according to which at the end of his inner adventure

94
Narcissus understood something shocking. The mirror is disturbed and the adored young
man remains upset. In the hurried circles of the water he realizes "what will no longer
be."(Paler, Octavian, 2017:183) Reiterating the moment of mirroring the young Greek,
we find that although he wanted to enter the path of those exposed on the frontispiece of
the temple erected in honor of Apollo in Delphi, Narcissus is reckless. "This error has
lost him." (Paler, Octavian, 2017: 174). In the same register, connecting by a transparent
bridge the imaginary land of the unconscious with the strange world detected by Octavian
Paler in the volume Desert Forever (2001) we will descend into the realm of Asybaris,
an ambivalent topos with reference both to the Romanian creation and to the dark, infernal
part of the human being. The volume itself Desert Forever has this quality of being
perceived kaleidoscopically, each reader receiving nonchalantly the message of the
Creator of Beauty, the demiurge of the text, in our case the writer Octavian Paler. With
the mention that in a suite of specialized readers who will participate in the recreation of
the literary text as in a mirror, through the pure act of reading, you can find as many
interpretations after the removal of the veil worn by Isis. The decoding of the literary text
is similar to a ritual related to noetic facts, including here the mental representations of
each and the imaginary, referring to the images that the reader will use in order to invade
the space of fiction. The novel in this case with a title that presupposes an emotion of
Paler's writing: The desert forever can be suspected of a perfect narrative technique.
Apparently, a mixture between the autobiographical reflection that determines the
narcissistic profile of Octavian Paler and the story of Dr. Luca, the narrative flows
casually, the two compositional plans coexisting without additional effort.
In the epic, autobiographical area, we recognize an autodiegetic narrator, invested by the
writer to relate absolutely everything, thus becoming a credible narrator. In Asybaris,
where Julius' dialogues with Dr. Luke predominate, the story is told with the help of a
heterodiegetic narrator. There are also pages in which the bridge between the two sections
of Octavian Paler's prose works, noticing that surprising interference in a utopia of
Romanian creation: “Monsignor's pendulums and Dr. Luca's monologues are, like
memories, a kind of wall. I'm trying to forget about the disease." This double language
used by the writer, beyond the narrative artifice, conspires to create an exciting diegetic
universe. Seen, perceived kaleidoscopically, the literary text analyzed in the novel -The
Desert Forever- acquires a distinctive, obvious note. The versatility of Paleri's writing
gives it an asset, something worthwhile. The chimerical land of Asybaris, which also
houses a forbidden sea, because there it is wasted "for millennia, the ashes of the dead
gods", (Paler, Octavian, 2001:79) having an explicitly infernal side in contrast to the naive
childhood, remains an original topos created by the writer. On the other hand, Asybaris
is also described as a punitive presence "In the subconscious of all those who are not
satisfied with the ordinary world."(Paler, Octavian, 2001: 79). We learn that Asybaris is
found when nothing can be done. The autobiographical novel that coexists with the
improbable story of Dr. Luca is in turn full of fantasies and dreams but attests to a fragile
time of confession. The writer insists that he is in a medically critical condition. The
imminence of "heart surgery"(Paler, Octavian, 2001: 79) is imminent. We somehow
understand that the essayist is in the position of resident in that Asybaris, being one step
away from the daredevils there in search of an illusory desert. The transition from one
autobiographical fiction to another fiction within the literary text is transparent. It seems
like a world recreated in the mirror, considering that the writer confesses to us that he was
going to go to a place (unspecified) to have heart surgery. We dare to approach the
concept of mise en abyme again and why not adopt the terminology of Linda Hutcheron,
called "narcissistic narrative” (Blanaru, AnaMaria, 2014: 52).

95
 .
Bibliography
Bachelard, Gaston, Water and dreams, Ed. Univers, București, 1999.
Blanaru, AnaMaria, Contemporary metafiction, Ed. Adenium, Iași, 2014.
Blecher Max, Events of immediate unreality, Ed. Corint. București, 2016.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Allain, Dictionary of symbols, Ed.Artemis, București, 1993.
Creția Petru, Mirrors, Ed. Humanitas, București, 2010.
Eminescu, Mihai, Poems, Literary Prose, Ed. Cartea Românească, București.
Graves, Robert, The Myths of Ancient Greece, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2018.
Jung, C.G., Psychological types, Ed. Humanitas, București, 1997.
Paler, Octavian, A Lucky Man, Ed. Cartea Românească, București, 1984.
Paler, Octavian, A museum in the maze, Ed. Cartea Românească, Bucrești, 1986.
Paler, Octavian, Desert Forever, Ed. Albatros, Bucuresti, 2001.
Paler, Octavian, Mythological slanders, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2017.
Rousset, Jean, the Baroque literature in France, Circe and the Peacock, Ed. Univers, București,
1976.

96
 REALISME SOCIALISTE OU REALITES SOCIALISTES DANS
LE ROMAN ‘MITREA COCOR’ ?

Luiza-Venera SÂRBU*

Abstract: The Romanian novel after the Second World War subscribes to a popular-
socialist ideology of profound Soviet influence, during the proletarian period. This current
manifested itself as an ideological roller coaster of an aggressive communism, eager to transform
language and artistic and literary expression into a manipulative-ideological technique. Contrary
to the mentality of the founders of socialism, of easy separation from the past, in the case of post-
war Romanian literature of Soviet inspiration, the harsh Leninist model of promoting open
resentments against former “exploiters” was applied. The social and political levelling was
extended in literary and artistic terms, being imposed as a mirror and spokesman of the new society,
“of the new type of man”.
Keywords: socialism, ideology, language.

L’idéologisation par l’art et le langage est le phénomène qui se produit dans tout
changement politique et social d’une société. Elle vient façonner et fixer dans la
conscience des individus la nouvelle forme de leadership, comme une alternative
supérieure à celle jugée « dépassée », « obsolète » et « anachronique », voire «
réactionnaire ».
La période de l’après-Seconde Guerre mondiale est pertinente à cet égard, quelle
que soit l’appartenance à l’idéologie communiste ou capitaliste.
L’Occident a appliqué la politique de marginalisation sociale, professionnelle et
économique de ceux qui « n’ont pas compris ses valeurs », complétée, le cas échéant, par
des poursuites pénales, l’emprisonnement et, très souvent, par la coercition directe
comme la « chasse aux sorcières » à laquelle sont tombées victimes de nombreuses
personnalités de la société américaine, hommes politiques, scientifiques ou culturels.
L’Est a réalisé l’idéologisation à l’aide de l’application de peines plus sévères,
déportations ou exécutions justifiées par des procès sommaires, également soutenus
idéologiquement.
Le roman Mitrea Cocor est la première création idéologisée et idéologique,
publiée en 1949 par un grand écrivain aux anciennes origines roumaines, la période
prolétarienne locale étant créée principalement par des écrivains d’origine ou d’influence
étrangère, pour la plupart soviétiques et qui n’est pas restée dans l’histoire de la littérature
roumaine comme précieuse.
Le roman Mitrea Cocor est considéré par la critique socialiste de l’époque comme
la première grande œuvre qui se dresse à côté de la force la plus avancée de la société.
Sadoveanu a subi une influence idéologique, certains passages étant même réalisés par
une équipe d’idéologues du parti, et son « effort » et compromis littéraire ont été
récompensés par le prix Lénine de la paix en 1961. L’activisme socialiste de Sadoveanu
s’est également manifesté dans les volumes « La lumière vient de l’est » (1945) et
« Kaléidoscope, impressions de voyage de l’U.R.S.S. » (1946).

*
Université de Pitești, [email protected]

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 Le but de propagande et le caractère de thèse du roman sont évidents ; on peut
même parler d’hypocrisie, car la société égalitaire que revendique l’auteur dans ses écrits
est en dissonance avec le type bourgeois de la vie quotidienne qu’il menait. Membre du
Parti communiste roumain, il est nommé président de l’Assemblée des députés, étant l’un
des cinq membres du Présidium provisoire de la République Populaire Roumaine, organe
qui a repris l’État après l’abdication du roi Michel Ier.
Le monde de Mitrea Cocor est dépassé et déshumanisé, divisé idéologiquement
selon le schéma de l’époque, en « exploités » et « exploiteurs » : « Nous nous battons sur
le dos, car nos dos sont lourds. Et les gros se battent sur le ventre. » (Mihail Sadoveanu,
Mitrea Cocor, 2e édition, E.S.P.L.A., Bucarest, 1955, p.113). Sadoveanu fait appel à la
mémoire de l’histoire, opposant « les Turcs pires que la peste », « les ciocoï (parvenus)
pires que les Turcs » (ibidem, p. 40), plaçant ainsi ces derniers dans un panthéon
démoniaque, et les bourgeois deviennent les démons de la nouvelle société. Des phrases
telles que « Ils feront des lois justes (…) ils diviseront la terre », « Que cesse l’exploitation
de l’homme par l’homme » (ibidem, p. 201) ou des paragraphes décrivant les pauvres
paysans de Malu Surpat qui « dépérissent à l’ombre du passé. La révolution doit être
menée sur eux. L’ancienne structure devrait être complètement renversée. L’État
socialiste ne tardera pas à mettre tous les pouvoirs de la science à la disposition des
anciens esclaves, pour que là où il y avait autrefois des boues et des huttes, les routes et
les maisons éclairées électriquement apparaissent ; où la sécheresse hantait, que la joie de
l’eau vienne sur les canaux; là où l’homme travaillait dur, les voitures pour faciliter son
travail. » (ibidem, p. 240) dirige le lecteur vers une fin logique et nécessaire, l’émergence
de la nouvelle société socialiste salvatrice.
Sadoveanu divise les personnages du roman en deux typologies, négative et
positive. La première comprend le propriétaire foncier du manoir Dropii, Cristea Trois-
Nez, et le frère grand et laid de Mitrea, Ghiță le Long–le propriétaire du moulin, et la
seconde typologie comprend les paysans exploités et Mitrea Cocor, pauvre et beau mais
têtu, trait de comportement mis en évidence depuis son enfance, qui devait évidemment
façonner son futur caractère révolutionnaire. Ainsi : « Le huitième a été Mitrea. Celui-ci
a vécu. Le bretzel mâché dans la bouche, et le pavot, et la rougeole, et le vomi ont
également prévalu. Il n’a pas brûlé quand il a versé le chaudron d’eau bouillante. Les
cochons ne l’ont pas déchiqueté quand ils l’ont trouvé dans l’abreuvoir à l’arrière de la
maison, mouvant ses petits pieds et ses petites mains comme un scarabée et les grognant
dessus. Il ne périt ni du ragoût de raisins crus, ni de la bouse de cheval versée par les
vieilles du village dans sa bouche, lorsqu’il eut la coqueluche. Il a osé rester dans ce
monde pécheur. » (ibidem, p. 9) Les caractéristiques négatives sont renforcées de manière
descriptive par Sadoveanu, par exemple, le surnom Trois-Neza son origine dans le fait
qu’« il avait une pomme de terre de forme étrange au milieu de son visage », et « les gens
de Malu Surpat l’ont surnommé Cristea Trois-Nez. Ils ne le nommaient pas d’une autre
manière ; ils avaient oublié son nom de famille » (ibidem, p. 25). Le frère aîné de Mitrea
est « petit et noyé dans le suif. Glabre, aux paupières rouges cerclées. Son nez avait rougi
trop tôt à cause de l’eau-de-vie. Il aimait cette boisson ;il la buvait avec modération : un
quart le matin. » (ibidem, p.15).
La faute idéologique est illustrée par Sadoveanu aussi par l’opposition de Mitrea
avec des segments représentatifs de l’oppression : les gendarmes combattants, les
officiers agressifs et illogiques, le maître humiliant et violent. Si au départ les deux frères
sont présentés comme une symbiose des classes exploiteuses, celui qui commence à
façonner l’esprit révolutionnaire de Mitrea est le forgeron communiste Florea Costea, qui
lui apprend l’Internationale et l’alphabétise : « Découvre, mon ami Mitrea, que ce n’est

98
pas loin le moment où le parti régnera également dans notre pays. (…) On fait tomber les
seigneurs, on partage la terre aux laboureurs ; nous enlevons les exploiteurs des industries,
l’Etat reprend les usines et nous préparons, pour vous, les laboureurs, les machines et les
outils. En suivant les enseignements et les inventions de la science, sur place, nous
formons nous aussi un nouveau pays. » (ibidem, p.141). Florea et Mitrea découvrent les
avantages du nouvel ordre socialiste lors de leur emprisonnement dans la « terre sainte de
l’Union soviétique » : « Des milliers d'années plus tard, les bolcheviks leur ont appris à
apporter de l'eau pour l'irrigation du désert, et les bergers errants sont venus à la vie
agricole. La capitale de leur république est maintenant un jardin florissant. Des ruisseaux
coulent des deux côtés des rues, nourrissant des chapelets d’orangers et de figuiers. Les
nouveaux villages ont des écoles ; ils ont des médecins et des instructeurs. Le monde a
changé au Kazakhstan. » (ibidem, p.126) Un vrai paradis communiste, n’est-ce pas ?
« Convaincu » ou « endoctriné » - selon de quel côté de la barricade historique
serait le critique littéraire, le têtu Mitrea depuis l’enfance, le révolutionnaire mature rentre
chez lui et devient le leader de la réforme agraire qui divise démocratiquement les terres
du propriétaire Cristea Trois-Nez. « Je ne suis pas venu te tenir pour responsable de la
faim ou de tes moqueries. Tu ne demandes que la punition, toi qui te vantes d’avoir
travaillé ici. Rejoins-nous pour le sillon ! (…) Toi aux bœufs (n.n. Ghiță le Long) et le
ciocoï à la charrue, il lui a dit comme un coup de foudre. Prends-les! » (ibidem, p.238).
Nous ne pouvons qu’espérer, grâce à un exercice d’imagination, que Mitrea a également
connu les réalités de la collectivisation forcée dans quelques ans qui, ironie de l’histoire,
a annulé tous ses efforts pour diviser la terre des riches aux pauvres et nombreux.
Ce serait le schéma perçu par la critique de l’époque concernant le roman de
Sadoveanu. Acceptant le compromis idéologique du grand romancier, une analyse
actualisée du héros principal révèle, cryptée, un personnage semi-lettré, presque sans
esprit, motivé uniquement par des clichés idéologiques imposés et facilement acceptés,
passés par aucun filtre personnel. Mitrea devient un communiste insuffisamment formé,
capable de promouvoir les bienfaits de ce système idéologique. Contrairement à d’autres
futurs personnages, d’autres écrivains, agitateurs ou militants de parti hautement
qualifiés, comme les présidents de collectifs agricoles, les jeunes ingénieurs, les
enseignants ou les médecins qui assument les défis et les difficultés des zones rurales afin
de construire le nouvel ordre socialiste et le nouveau type d’homme, Sadoveanu minimise
le sien en lui rendant un caractère innocent mais, en réalité, primitif. Ce n’est que sur de
tels personnages que la langue de bois peut être dirigée de manière convaincante, avec
des formules simples et utopiques, mais psychologiquement efficaces.
Peu importe comment il serait considéré, par les conservateurs comme un agrarien
convaincu, par les libéraux comme un progressiste, membre du Parti libéral ou du groupe
royaliste, par les socialistes nostalgiques comme un idéologue de premier plan d’une
période utopique et idyllique où la démocratie triomphait, malheureusement pour une trop
courte période, ou par des nationalistes extrémistes comme un traître aux valeurs
roumaines, Mihail Sadoveanu reste dans les premières pages de l'histoire de la littérature
roumaine.
Réévalué et analysé de nouveau, Mihail Sadoveanu n’a utilisé le compromis
idéologique que pour toujours bénéficier d’un statut confortable, qu’il croyait justifié et
mérité, le roman historique étant sa manière d’exprimer le patriotisme roumain.

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Boia, L., Miturile comunismului românesc, Editura Nemira, București, 1998

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Călinescu, G., Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, Editura Minerva, București,
1986
Cioroianu, A., Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc, Editura Curtea
Veche, București, 2005
Mihăilescu, F., De la proletcultism la postmodernism, Editura Pontica, Constanța, 2002
Vasile, C., Literatura și artele în România comunistă. 1948-1953, Humanitas, București, 2010
Vianu, T., Scriitori români, Vols. I-II, Editura Minerva, București, 1970

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 L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE DANS LA PRATIQUE
MEDICALE FRANÇAISE : UTILISATIONS ET FREINS

Bogdan ALEXANDRU, Pompiliu ALEXANDRU

Abstract: The development of Artificial Intelligence in our society has a deep impact in all
aspects. Health care is a field who needs the presence of AI in all medical fields, both surgical and
non-surgical. In this work, we will first try to show some examples where AI is already used
intensively, and then we will highlight different obstacles to its use. The aim of this reasoning is to
try to understand what are the obstacles that can limit the integration of AI in medical practice and
to try to see and determine the legal, deontological and ethical frame. It will lead in the future to
determine how deep are the fears in the society, how to bypass them and allow to enable medicine
to use AI in an enhanced way to provide quality care for all individuals. Our topic concern an
ethical and sociological point of view. We search a response to this issue: How the professional
field (medicine) reacts in front of technology govern by IA? There are limits in this rapport between
medicine and IA; the social imaginary consider that the IA can and must replace the physician, but
this is impossible because the human being – as patient and physician – cannot be reduced at a
mechanical concept of living.
Keywords: artificial intelligence, medical ethics, sociology of care.

Introduction
L’utilisation de l’intelligence artificielle est grandissante dans tous les domaines
économiques existants et le domaine de la santé ne fait pas exception. Les propriétés de
l’IA épaulent les professionnels dans leur démarche d’assurer des services rapides et de
qualité en mobilisant une immense quantité d’informations mises à la disposition de
l’humain. Son aspect robotique assure une finesse d’exécution, de précision qui augmente
le rendement et la sécurité du service proposé. La médecine ne fait pas exception ; l’IA
est de plus en plus utilisée dans tous les domaines médicaux qu’ils soient chirurgicaux ou
non.
En France, l’exploitation de tout le potentiel de l’IA est conditionnée par certains
aspects législatifs, éthiques et déontologiques. L’usage de l’IA est devenu majeur dans le
schéma de traitement de l’individu et indispensable pour le professionnel de santé qui
doit s’y fier. Dans les dernières 15 années en France, le monde médical a pris conscience
de l’importance de ces ressources informationnelles et des dérives qu’elles pourraient
engendrer.
Dans ce travail, nous allons essayer de montrer dans un premier temps quelques
exemples où l’IA est déjà utilisée de manière intensive puis dans un second temps nous
allons mettre en avant différents freins à son utilisation. Le but de ce raisonnement est
d’essayer de comprendre quels sont les freins qui peuvent limiter l’intégration de l’IA
dans la pratique médicale ?
Ce travail est structuré en trois parties : une première partie dédiée au déploiement
de l’IA dans le monde médical actuel, une deuxième partie s’intéressera aux freins
sociologiques et psychologiques soulevés par la société moderne concernant l’utilisation

 Conseil Départemental de l'Ordre des Masseurs-Kinésithérapeutes de la Manche – Normandie,

[email protected]
 Universitaté „Valahia”, Târgoviște, [email protected]

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de l’IA dans l’acte médical, puis une troisième partie portera sur les freins déontologiques
et éthiques soulevés par la société moderne concernant l’utilisation de l’IA dans l’acte
médical.
Le besoin de répondre à ce questionnement est de permettre de poser le cadre dans
lequel on pourra envisager une inclusion encore plus significative de l’IA dans la pratique
médicale. Cela permettra le début d’une réflexion encore plus large sur l’omniprésence
des freins dans la société française actuelle.

Déploiement de l’IA aujourd’hui dans le monde médical

L'IA, d'une forme ou d’une autre, est une partie intégrante de la société mondiale
dans tous les domaines (économique, transports, tourisme). Il est tout à fait raisonnable
d'envisager un impact sur le monde médical.
Certains secteurs médicaux utilisent maintenant des formes de technologies qui
permettent une vue et un diagnostic plus précis. La technologie a permis au monde
médical une évolution et un saut important dans la connaissance du corps humain, une
avancée sur la création des vaccins et l'analyse du génome humain et animal en sa totalité.
Les applications au monde de la santé peuvent être extrapolées pour combattre des
pandémies, la famine, les maladies liés à la vieillesse.
Après plusieurs années de tests et d’analyses de données, la place de l'IA est
acquise et est devenue quasi inévitable dans de nombreux secteurs médicaux
(chirurgicaux ou non). Les secteurs où l'impact a été le plus important sont la chirurgie
viscérale oncologique, l’obstétrique gynécologie, la cardiologie, la neurochirurgie, la
psychiatrie et l’imagerie médicale1.
En oncologie par exemple, les résultats étudiés sur les opérations à la suite de
carcinomes hépatocellulaires ont démontré une plus grande efficacité par rapport à des
interventions dites classiques. Cette technique a permis le développement des
interventions mini-invasives au niveau de la veine porte, transplantation hépatique in vivo
et une amélioration de prédictions de récidives chez le patient par une cartographie unique
et spécifique pour chaque individu. L'intervention effectuée directement dans le corpus
cellulaire cancérigène a permis des résultats rapides. Une lecture efficace des paramètres
cliniques et/ou des biomarqueurs a permis des interventions préventives directement sur
le tissu susceptible. En plus de tout cela, les temps d'hospitalisation se sont réduits grâce
à la nature mini-invasive de ce type d'intervention.
En obstétrique-gynécologie, pour la préparation des futurs chirurgiens il existe des
simulateurs en RV (réalité virtuelle) qui permettent le perfectionnement des gestes,
méthodes, actes médicaux dans un espace physiologiquement étroit et soumis à une
multitude de pathologies et éventuelles complications. La simulation apporte une sûreté
de l'acte chirurgical qui peut aller de l'accouchement standard à l’hémorragie post-partum,
application instrumentale (forceps), coagulation intravasculaire diffuse, embolie de
liquide amniotique, hémorragie massive dans le sac Douglas, fœtus en « siège » etc. Le
perfectionnement des chirurgiens a permis la réduction des infections en postopératoire,
une nette augmentation des chances pour la mère et l'enfant.
En cardiologie, l'utilisation de l'IA a eu des conséquences fastes en termes de
réussite dans les interventions dites « à cœur ouvert » mais aussi dans la prévention des
maladies cardiaques. Depuis l'appui de la technologie dans les temps opératoires, des

1 Intelligence artificielle et santé - Des algorithmes au service de la médecine, article publié par
INSERM, le 06/07/2018 modifié le 11/01/2022 (https://www.inserm.fr/dossier/intelligence-
artificielle-et-sante/)

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affections qui dans le passé semblaient être fatales, sont maintenant traitées avec plus
d'aisance. Dans le cadre d'un « by-pass », où le cœur doit être arrêté pendant plusieurs
dizaines des minutes, la ventilation sanguine s'effectue en extra-corporel. L’hypertrophie
ventriculaire qui est à la base des coronopathies et des arythmies cardiaques est prise en
charge rapidement, avec des gestes mini-invasifs. La laparoscopie permet des actes
chirurgicaux salutaires pour le patient.
En neurochirurgie, la présence de l'IA est impérative et peut-être dans sa
complexité. En dehors du scalpel radio-guidé, l’IA a son côté analyse et diagnostic peut-
être le plus marqué en temps réel. Depuis l'introduction des interventions sous imagerie
guidées, le nombre d’erreurs a diminué, mais aussi le côté diagnostic est plus efficace.
Les séquelles observées sont plus rapidement prises en charge.
En psychiatrie, l’IA est notamment utilisée dans le champ de la prévention. En
France, le projet PsyCARE porté par Mme Krebs (clinicienne et chercheuse à l’Université
de Paris) vise notamment au développement d’une IA permettant de détecter précocement
une schizophrénie ou une psychose chronique afin de mettre en place une prise en charge
psychiatrique préventive et personnalisée. Pour identifier les personnes à risque, l’IA
interviendra notamment via la modélisation des connaissances autour de la schizophrénie
et l’identification d’un ensemble de biomarqueurs utilisés via un algorithme
d’apprentissage.
On retrouve l’utilisation de l’IA en imagerie médicale. A partir du XXème siècle,
l'intégration de l'imagerie a permis une vue plus précise et a augmenté la précision de
diagnostic. L’évolution de l'imagerie, avec l'apparition de l’échographie, le scanner, le
computer tomographe, l’écho-Doppler, la scintigraphie etc. a affiné encore plus la
capacité du médecin à apprécier l’état du patient. Dans cette optique se sont développées
des techniques encore plus efficaces, plus spécialisées dans le même but. On peut
énumérer l'ECG (électrocardiogramme), myogramme, analyse dynamique musculaire
écho-dynamique, analyse dynamique globale, analyse posturale-graphique, analyse du
déplacement, mesure de la capacité pulmonaire, fréquence cardiaque, volumétrie
pulmonaire, sérologie etc.
Tous ces nouveaux moyens sont apparus pour répondre aux besoins des médecins
de comprendre, traiter et réhabiliter les patients. L'IA dans ces domaines a démontré son
efficacité majeure. Même si son rôle initial a été de recueillir des données, son aide a eu
un impact majeur sur la santé. L’effet sur le médecin de l'IA en ce domaine a eu aussi des
conséquences contradictoires : une meilleure prise de conscience et un diagnostic plus
précis mais en contrepartie une baisse des capacités de l'humain de contourner la
technologie dans sa prise de décision. La palpation est passée en plan second, les repères
anatomiques sont de plus en plus ignorés dans certaines spécialités médicales. Le médecin
a tendance à se fier beaucoup sur les éléments proposés par l'IA. Parfois, le caractère
subjectif d'un examen d'imagerie est mis en cause/discussion.
L’idée que l'intelligence artificielle soit un outil utilisé par les médecins dans leur
profession au service des patients demeure un sujet sensible dans la société dans la mesure
où ce dernier est devenu un acteur majeur de l’acte thérapeutique. Quels sont les différents
freins soulevés par son utilisation ?

Les freins sociologiques et psychologiques soulevés par la société moderne

concernant l’utilisation de l’IA dans l’acte médical
Pour estimer les limites de l’intégration de l’IA dans la pratique médicale, il faut
tenir compte des freins sociologiques, déontologiques, éthiques et psychologiques
opposés par la société moderne. La perception du concept de l’IA dans la société semble

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être faussée ou mal comprise. Pour la majorité des usagers du système de santé, l’IA
ressemble à un “super-outil” doté de “pouvoirs extraordinaires”.
Dans un premier temps, il faut vulgariser le concept d’intelligence artificielle afin
de le rendre accessible au plus grand nombre. À tout moment, il faut considérer l’IA
comme un outil sur lequel l’humain s’appuie pour améliorer une prise en charge médicale,
pour mieux lutter contre les pathologies et pour réduire les temps de soins jusqu’à la
guérison complète. Un autre aspect important dans le traitement de l’IA est celui de la
prévention. Celui-ci est peut-être le plus appréhendé par la société parce qu’il s’agit du
l’utilisation d’un nombre considérable de données personnelles par un logiciel capable
d’évoluer par lui-même (deep learning). Cet aspect est très proche de la frontière entre la
vie privée qui doit être préservée et le besoin impératif de créer cette bibliothèque de
données nécessaires en vue d’améliorer l’acte médical.
En partant de l'idée que l'IA est mono-tâche, qu'elle ne peut pas changer de
missions en dehors de celles attribuées par l'humain et que la prise d'initiative est
impossible pour elle, il faut enseigner à la machine en vue d'une réponse adéquate. Pour
arriver à cela, il faut fournir d'abord une quantité immense de données qui vont être
stockées et interprétées par la machine.
Ce côté de l'IA est moins palpable par le praticien et le patient mais néanmoins, il
a une importance capitale dans le bon fonctionnement du schéma thérapeutique. Dans
d'autres domaines où l'IA est présente, il est connu sous le nom de BIG DATA. C'est lui
qui permet le recueil, la classification des données et la modulation de celles-ci.
L'interprétation et le diagnostic se reposent sur les algorithmes. Dans la médecine, le
domaine de la bio-ingénierie est responsable de la création de ces « bibliothèques
virtuelles », de la cartographie du génome humain, de l'intégration des données
physiologiques et pathologiques sur chaque maladie, chaque système, chaque appareil
organique. Le rôle principal des algorithmes est de fournir des informations précises sur
une pathologie et sur l'état du patient à l’instant « T », d'anticiper d’éventuelles
conséquences, récidives et projeter une évolution dans le temps de la condition du patient.
Les algorithmes représentent une source immense d’informations nécessaires aux
praticiens dans leur travail. Les « banques d'informations » permettent une vue claire,
précise sur l'état à l’immédiat sur un individu/population et l'aspect prédictif est une
ressource importante dans la compréhension et l'anticipation des pathologies futures.
L'avancement dans la recherche se base essentiellement sur le recueil permanent des
données. L'étude moléculaire a permis une avancée dans l'antibiothérapie allopathe, les
vaccins et, a donné la possibilité de manipuler le génome pour arriver à éradiquer des
maladies.
D’un point de vue psychologique et social, il faut déterminer où le patient place sa
confiance. Historiquement, la figure du médecin est placée au centre de la confiance du
patient par sa position et son rôle majeur dans le maintien de l’équilibre de sa santé
physique et mentale. Ce rôle, malgré son évolution, reste fixe dans la relation de confiance
avec le patient. Le médecin ordonnateur devient le médecin partenaire en conservant la
position d’expert dans la maîtrise de son art. Ainsi, lorsque le patient est invité/confronté
à l’utilisation de l’IA dans son parcours de soins, il ne remet pas en cause le besoin de
l’intervention d’un outil extérieur car ce dernier a été jugé nécessaire par le praticien.
Il y a eu une évolution du rapport entre le patient et l’utilisation de l’IA. D’abord
une méfiance face à un outil inconnu, non humain, qui s’est vite dissipée en partie grâce
à une introduction progressive et surtout grâce à la confiance placée en l'humain
superviseur de l’IA. Ainsi, le patient ne remet pas en question l’utilisation de l’IA dans
son parcours de soin car c’est le professionnel expert qui l’a jugée nécessaire. Cette

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confiance a cependant une limite : garantir la sécurité des données personnelles et
médicales, afin de garantir le respect de la vie privée.
Peut-on considérer que l’outil peut recueillir les données sans limite ou bien cette
obligation du respect de la vie privée doit-elle l’en empêcher ?
Pour mettre en avant ce questionnement, nous nous sommes intéressés à un article
publié en octobre 2020 dans la revue scientifique BMJ OPEN, intitulé “Conditionally
positive : a qualitative study of public perceptions about using health data for artificial
intelligence research.”1 écrit par Melissa D McCradden, Tasmie Sarker, P Alison
Paprica.
L’objectif de cette étude est de comprendre la « vision de la population générale »
sur l’intérêt d’utiliser les données de santé pour développer l’Intelligence Artificielle.
En effet, la plupart des études publiées se concentrent sur le point de vue du patient
et non sur celui du public. Ce sont les limites de ces études.
C'est pourquoi il est important de présenter le point de vue des populations
générales. Il est important de comprendre la perspective de la société par rapport à celle
du patient car les recherches de l'intelligence artificielle dans le domaine de la santé
utilisent une énorme quantité de données - non seulement celles concernant la maladie
mais celles concernant les personnes en bonne santé.
Cette étude qualitative a été réalisée sur 41 participants d'une moyenne d'âge de
40 ans. Elle est séparée en 4 parties distinctes :
La première partie est consacrée au partage du point de vue général de chacun,
suivie d'une brève présentation de l'IA et de quelques exemples.
La 2ème partie est centrée sur la discussion autour de 3 scénarios réalistes mais
non réels, sur l'IA dans le domaine de la santé suivi d'un temps pour les questions. Ces
interactions ont été menées par un modérateur externe qui n'a aucune connaissance de
l'IA. L'objectif était de créer un contexte le plus neutre possible, pour faciliter les échanges
entre les participants.
Premièrement, nous pouvons voir dans cette analyse beaucoup de divergences
d'opinions concernant l'IA en général et l'IA dans le domaine de la santé. Les avis sont
plutôt négatifs quand on se réfère à l'IA en général, car la perte d'emploi est l'argument le
plus utilisé, ou la perte d'humanité à cause des « machines à moyens ». Une autre direction
qui est devenue claire après ces discussions était la crainte que nous ne puissions pas
savoir comment l'IA changerait notre mode de vie et la société dans sa forme. Cependant,
lorsque les discussions se sont tournées vers l'IA dans les soins de santé, les retours ont
été positifs : les gens font confiance au robot concernant la pratique médicale.
Dans un second temps, lors de la présentation des scénarios, les avis des
participants pourront être divisés en 2 volets : espoir et avantages vs/ peur et
inconvénients.
1/ Espoir et avantages
Des avantages épistémiques - la combinaison des données de santé et de
l'utilisation de l'IA pourrait générer des conséquences énormes pour la plupart
inaccessibles pour les humains - et des avantages pratiques comme l'analyse en temps réel
pour la génétique.
2/ Peur et inconvénients
Après les interactions entre les participants, nous avons remarqué une grande

1 McCradden MD, Sarker T, Paprica PA - Conditionally positive: a qualitative study of public

perceptions about using health data for artificial intelligence research, BMJ OPEN, octobre 2020
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33115901/)

105
crainte concernant l'utilisation ou la vente des données dans d'autres domaines que la
santé.
De même, l'impossibilité de garantir la confidentialité des données est aussi un
argument de ceux qui ont peur. Aussi, le manque de confidentialité, surtout lorsque de
grandes entreprises volent, traitent et utilisent les données de la population.
Mais surtout, l'IA pourrait nous conduire à une perte de contact humain et une
éventuelle diminution des qualités humaines, créant une dépendance à l'Intelligence
Artificielle et en même temps, une diminution de l'emploi.
Les participants se disent tous d'accord avec l'IA sous certaines conditions telles
que la garantie des données personnelles, la protection de la vie privée et la visibilité de
toutes les utilisations des données personnelles. Il semble crucial d'utiliser des contrats
avec une explication simple et compréhensible pour la population.
Si nous analysons cette étude, les termes d'espoirs et de craintes sont plus
appropriés que ceux d'avantages ou d'inconvénients pour décrire comment les gens voient
l'IA. La plupart des participants ont approuvé l'utilisation des données dans les soins de
santé comme une grande opportunité pour la société. Mais nous devons garder à l'esprit
les préoccupations concernant la confidentialité et l'utilisation des données. L'IA doit
rester un outil pour l'humain, notamment en médecine, où la décision finale doit être prise
par le médecin et non par un ordinateur.
Le problème est maintenant de savoir comment diffuser l'information sur l'IA à
grande échelle afin de recueillir les peurs ou d'enrayer une partie de la dérive. Cette façon
de questionner conduit à bien d’autres points de vue sur les bases de l’utilisation des
données, la bioéthique et plus encore…

Les freins déontologiques et éthiques soulevés par la société moderne concernant

l’utilisation de l’IA dans l’acte médical
L’IA peut représenter en dehors d'un outil de travail performant une source
inépuisable, voir illimité, des informations complexes dans des domaines sensibles et
difficiles comme la santé. En plus, par son côté deep-learning, l’intelligence artificielle
peut analyser, faire des projections dans l’avenir, développer des schémas logiques. Le
cerveau humain reste celui qui contrôle l’ordinateur, mais il va être vite dépassé par la
technologie. Là où l’IA mobilise 20-27 notions complexes simultanément, le cerveau
humain est capable d’en mobiliser 4-6. Cependant, l’humain est celui qui épaule
l’ordinateur dans toutes ses actions : il fournit les "bibliothèques virtuelles”, il donne les
bonnes informations dans les logiciels de deep-learning, il vérifie chaque décision prise
par l’IA1.
Quand un outil devient si important dans le schéma thérapeutique et avec des
résultats rapides et très satisfaisants, le praticien va s’appuyer régulièrement dessus dans
sa pratique. Rien ne dit que l’IA n’est pas faillible. C’est pour cela que de nombreuses
questions se posent de plus en plus concernant soit la responsabilité engagée en cas de
mal praxis, soit concernant la déontologie médicale. Le rôle du médecin est-il réduit à
celui d’un opérateur avec certaines connaissances médicales ou reste-t-il maître de son
art ? A partir de ces questionnements, nous avons introduit l'éthique.
L’éthique c’est s'interroger en amont du droit sur ce qu'en tant que société l’on
juge souhaitable ou ce que l’on juge devoir être évité. Pour répondre à ce domaine, en
France comme ailleurs dans le monde, de nombreuses études ont été organisées pour

1 Darrell M. West - L’intelligence artificielle a besoin d’éthique, 27/12/2018.

106
sonder la population sur cet aspect1.
Par exemple, chargée par loi pour une République numérique de mener une
réflexion sur les questions éthiques et de société posées par les nouvelles technologies, la
CNIL s’est naturellement tournée vers le thème des algorithmes à l’heure de l’intelligence
artificielle.
Le rapport s’appuie sur les résultats d’un débat public ouvert et décentralisé que
la CNIL a animé de janvier à octobre 2017 : 3 000 personnes ont participé à 45
manifestations qui se sont tenues à l’initiative de 60 partenaires en France (Ax les
Thermes, Bordeaux, Caen, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Paris, Toulouse) et à l’étranger (Etats-
Unis). Une concertation citoyenne a également été organisée à Montpellier le 14 octobre
pour compléter la démarche2.
Médias, vie publique et politique, éducation, culture, santé, justice, sécurité et
défense, banque et finance, emploi et recrutement ont été abordés comme champs
d’exploration des algorithmes et de l’intelligence artificielle par les partenaires : des
instituts de recherches (CREOGN, CNAM, ENSC, INSA), des institutions publiques
(ministères, universités et grandes écoles), des fédérations professionnelles, des
syndicats, des ordres d’avocat, des hôpitaux, des think tanks, des entreprises, etc.
Pour Mme la Présidente de la CNIL, Isabelle Falque-Pierrotin, le but de ces
réunions publique est « L’objectif de ce débat est de garantir que l’intelligence artificielle
augmente l’homme plutôt qu’elle ne le supplante et participe à l’élaboration d’un modèle
français de gouvernance éthique de l’intelligence artificielle. Nous devons collectivement
faire en sorte que ces nouveaux outils soient à la main humaine, à son service, dans un
rapport de transparence et de responsabilité »3
Dans l’aspect déontologique, nous pouvons partir de la définition même de celle-
ci. Si le point de départ est que le devoir (deontos), ou dans son sens courant l’obligation,
est la base pour toutes les personnes dans l’exercice de leur travail, nous nous confrontons
à des situations discutables concernant la masse informationnelle importante mobilisée
dans le cadre thérapeutique par l’IA. La France, comme d’autres pays, qui dispose d’une
des plus grandes “bibliothèques virtuelles” du monde, doit mettre en phase expérimentale
un code numérique en 2022. Ce codex des règles est spécialement rédigé pour définir le
cadre fixe dans lequel l’IA a la liberté et l’utilité sans nuire aux droits des usagers. Il ne
se réfère pas seulement au domaine de la santé mais il pourra dans un avenir proche fixer
des limites claires.
En analysant les grandes directions sociétales et la tendance de compréhension de
l’IA dans la société moderne, le législateur s'intéresse plutôt vers les algorithmes, le deep-
learning, la protection de la vie privée.
L’IA se construit à partir d’algorithmes qui reposent sur des formules
mathématiques et exploitent des données. Les algorithmes posent quatre types de
questions :
• le risque de piratage (drone, voiture autonome) ou la perte de contrôle des
systèmes d’IA (notamment lors d’une crise militaire) obligent à prévoir une

1 Les enjeux éthiques que soulèvent les algorithmes, Commission de l’éthique en science et en
technologie du Québec, 7/07/2021)
2 Synthèse du débat public animé par la CNIL dans le cadre de la mission de réflexion éthique

confiée par la loi pour une république numérique : Comment permettre à l’Homme de garder la
main ? Rapport sur les enjeux éthiques des algorithmes et de l’intelligence artificielle, CNIL,
15/12/2017) p. 10-12.
3 Ibidem, p. 7.

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 désactivation des systèmes IA ;
• l'introduction de biais en amont des algorithmes, dès le stade des jeux de
données, nécessite, d’être vigilant notamment pour les algorithmes
d’apprentissage automatique ;
• le fonctionnement des algorithmes d’apprentissage renforcé (le deep learning) à
travers des réseaux de neurones artificiels en couches multiples donnent, dans
un certain nombre de domaines, d’excellents résultats et très rapidement, sans
qu’il soit possible d’avancer une explication théorique satisfaisante. Ce
traitement non supervisé de l’information pose des problèmes éthiques (quelle
autonomie de l’homme par rapport à un fonctionnement qu’il ne comprend pas
?) ;
• la sélection par les algorithmes d’un contenu d’informations ciblées, tout comme
la publicité personnalisée ou la logique de construction des "fils d’actualité" des
réseaux sociaux, ou encore les fausses informations (fake news), nécessitent la
mise en place d’outils de vérification.
Par exemple, toutes les applications domestiques ou médicales contiennent des
risques en matière de respect de la vie privée et des données personnelles. Comment
s’assurer que des données de santé ne seront pas vendues à une compagnie privée ou à un
futur employeur ? Comment conjuguer cette collecte massive de données de santé et le
respect du "droit à l’oubli" ? Bref, comment s’assurer qu’intelligence artificielle et
robotique riment avec traitement des données éthique ?
Pour répondre à ces questions, la Commission nationale de l’informatique et des
libertés (CNIL) formule six recommandations opérationnelles à destination des pouvoirs
publics et de la société civile :
• former à l’éthique tous les acteurs-maillons de la "chaîne algorithmique
(concepteurs, professionnels, citoyens) : l’alphabétisation au numérique doit
permettre à chaque humain de comprendre les ressorts de la machine ;
• rendre les systèmes algorithmiques compréhensibles en renforçant les droits
existants et en organisant la médiation avec les utilisateurs ;
• travailler le design des systèmes algorithmiques au service de la liberté humaine,
pour contrer l’effet "boîtes noires" ;
• constituer une plateforme nationale d’audit des algorithmes ;
• encourager la recherche sur l’IA éthique et lancer une grande cause nationale
participative autour d’un projet de recherche d’intérêt général ;
• renforcer la fonction éthique au sein des entreprises (par exemple, l’élaboration
de comités d’éthique, la diffusion de bonnes pratiques sectorielles ou la révision
de chartes de déontologie peuvent être envisagées)1.
L'OCDE formule également des principes pour encadrer l'IA. Pour le volet
éthique, les pays adhérents s'engagent à respecter "l'État de droit, les droits de l'homme
et les valeurs démocratiques tout au long du cycle de vie des systèmes d'IA".
En outre, l'automatisation est susceptible de détruire plus d’emplois qu’elle n’en
crée. Elle risque aussi de créer un marché du travail à deux vitesses : une minorité
d’emplois très qualifiés pour une élite surdiplômée et une majorité de travailleurs
précaires dont les compétences ne rapporteront pas assez pour vivre. Il est également à

1 Comment permettre à l’Homme de garder la main ? Rapport sur les enjeux éthiques des
algorithmes et de l’intelligence artificielle, CNIL, 15/12/2017 p. 8.

108
craindre un niveau de chômage élevé, créé par la substitution des logiciels aux emplois
les moins qualifiés. Cette vision n'est cependant pas partagée par tous, le rapport sur l'IA
et le futur du travail voit dans l'intelligence une potentielle source de prospérité.

Conclusion
Nous avons vu dans les différentes parties consacrées à l’usage de l’IA et aux
freins soulevés par celui-ci que la société entretient un rapport complexe avec ce concept.
En effet, la méconnaissance en détails de l’IA peut devenir source d’angoisses
pour l’usager du système, mais grâce au médecin il peut accepter l’immersion de l’IA
dans son acte thérapeutique.
Les problèmes soulevés par les patients ne concernent pas la mobilisation des
connaissances sur ces pathologies, autrement dit ils font confiance au médecin qui choisit
d’introduire l’IA dans le processus thérapeutique vers la guérison. Le côté physique de
l’IA (scalpel radioguidé, simulateur, imagerie…) est assimilé dans la pratique comme
l’outil au service du médecin pour fournir des soins de qualité. Le patient acteur de son
parcours de soins a des difficultés à comprendre l’aspect non visible de l’IA (algorithmes,
logiciels), c’est peut-être pour cela que le législateur essaie d’initier la création d’un cadre
stricte pour contenir le potentiel massif de l’IA. Les données mobilisées et nécessaires au
bon fonctionnement et à l’amélioration continue de l’IA sont la source des conflits de
droit (respect de la vie privée, droit à l’oubli…).
L’intelligence artificielle peut intervenir dans absolument toutes les branches
médicales, avec des degrés d’impact différents. Du point de vue purement médical, son
utilisation a montré sa pertinence dans le cadre de la santé. Ses applications chirurgicales,
de diagnostic ont permis l’amélioration des gestes médicaux, une croissance des
connaissances médicales qui se traduisent dans la société par la réduction des temps
d’hospitalisation, une réduction des temps de récupération et une meilleure espérance de
vie.
Cette intégration est continue, exponentielle et suit les progrès technologiques. La
société par ses craintes, notamment liées à l’aspect non physique de l’IA, permet de
soulever les freins à son utilisation. Ainsi, par l’expression des peurs/inconvénients, la
société moderne oblige le législateur à réfléchir à des actions et mesures concrètes pour
encadrer l’utilisation de l’IA.
La société, à chaque époque, imprime des règles sociétales en fonction de ses
mœurs, de ses coutumes, de ses usages. Cela nous permet de croire que les limites
imposées par la société d’aujourd’hui sont mobiles, peuvent reculer ou avancer voire
disparaître.
Pour continuer ce cheminement et arriver à mettre en avant toutes les contraintes
imposées par la société, il faudra s’interroger si toutes ces contraintes imposées au
déploiement de l’IA peuvent empêcher une prise en charge optimale des patients en
freinant l’accès à des soins de meilleure qualité ? Dans cette optique, il faudra recueillir
les points de vue des professionnels qui s’appuient directement sur l’IA dans leur pratique
quotidienne, de connaître leurs freins et leurs objectifs d’utilisation de l’IA. Ce travail
devra être effectué dans un premier temps à l’échelle locale, en tenant compte des
spécificités de chaque territoire puis à l’échelle régionale pour enfin faire une mise en
commun à l’échelle nationale qui permettra de définir le terrain dans lequel le législateur
devra définir le cadre de l’utilisation de l’IA.
Il faudra donc mener une étude auprès de médecins de différentes spécialités dont
l’activité dépend de l’utilisation de l’IA. Pour reprendre nos exemples de la partie 1, nous
pouvons solliciter des médecins radiologues, gynécologues-obstétriciens, cardiologues,

109
généralistes, oncologues et psychiatres sur un territoire géographique donné. L’idée étant
de leur proposer une enquête réalisable sur un temps court et apportant un maximum de
réponses précises aux questions soulevées par notre sujet d’étude. Pour que le
questionnaire soit pertinent, il faut envisager un grand nombre de professionnels
interrogés tout en respectant la parité entre les spécialités. Plus le nombre de
professionnels est important, plus nous pouvons augmenter la pertinence des réponses.
Idéalement, le questionnaire doit recueillir l’avis d’au moins 30 praticiens pour chaque
spécialité.
Ensuite, concernant le questionnaire proprement dit, nous avons imaginé celui-ci
en ligne et non sous le format d'un entretien pour éviter toute possibilité d’influencer et
diriger les réponses en fonction de nos idées, de notre système de valeurs. Les questions
doivent être fermées, des questions à choix multiple, et à la fin un ou deux espaces dédiés
à des commentaires libres d’une dizaine de lignes afin que les professionnels puissent
exprimer d’éventuelles craintes et contraintes qui n’auraient pas été envisagées.
Une fois ces données recueillies les réponses seront groupées, classifiées et
analysées en vue d’extraire les idées majeures qui ressortent. A partir de ce moment, il
faudra analyser dans quelle mesure elles entrent en “conflit” avec la législation actuelle,
quelles seront les “transgressions” dans les différents codes déontologiques, éthiques
existantes dans la société actuelle. Ce travail devra être mené sur un temps long
permettant l’analyse de tous ces aspects et sera révisable selon les avancées en matière
d’utilisation de l’IA.

Bibliographie
Comment permettre à l’Homme de garder la main ? Rapport sur les enjeux éthiques des algorithmes
et de l’intelligence artificielle, CNIL, 15/12/2017 (https://www.cnil.fr/fr/comment-permettre-
lhomme-de-garder-la-main-rapport-sur-les-enjeux-ethiques-des-algorithmes-et-de)
Conditionally positive: a qualitative study of public perceptions about using health data for
artificial intelligence research, BMJ OPEN, octobre 2020
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33115901/)
Intelligence artificielle et santé - Des algorithmes au service de la médecine, INSERM, publié le :
06/07/2018 modifié le 11/01/2022 (https://www.inserm.fr/dossier/intelligence-artificielle-et-sante/)
L’intelligence artificielle a besoin d’éthique, ALTERNATIVES ECONOMIQUES, 27/12/2018
(https://www.alternatives-economiques.fr/lintelligence-artificielle-a-besoin-dethique/00087518)
Les enjeux éthiques que soulèvent les algorithmes, Commission de l’éthique en science et en
technologie du Québec, 7/07/2021 (https://www.ethique.gouv.qc.ca/fr/actualites/ethique-hebdo/eh-
2021-07-07/)
Cléro, Jean-Pierre, Calcul moral ou comment raisonner en éthique ? Armand Colin, Paris 2011.
Cléro, Jean-Pierre, Rethinking Medical Ethics: Concepts and Principles, ibidem-Verlag, Jessica
Haunschild u Christian Schon, Paris 2021
Le Coz, Pierre, L'éthique médicale: Approches philosophiques, Presses de L'Université de
Provence 2018
Masquelet, Alain-Charles, Le raisonnement médical, Que Sais Je, Paris 2006

110
 KALEIDOSCOPIC VIEW OF THE WORLD

Odette ARHIP, Cristian ARHIP

Abstract: The literary character often offers a kaleidoscopic view of the fictional world.
The reader reads a text-world according to the words of Umberto Eco. Our contribution reads the
theme of the historical disaster represented in Romanian literature. The observations highlight an
era of decline in which Moldova is seen through the prism of a foreigner and a local character.
Fiction combines with reality and the comments point to the real elements and those that add
romantic features intertwined with some classic ones. The love intrigue, the real historical
information offers a lot of credibility and gives the opportunity to analyze and bring into attention
an important historic novel of Romanian literature. The sacred past with mythical implications
forms the background of this interesting and generous fiction.
Keywords: fiction, perspective, myth, language, history

The recent effects of the pandemic caused by Coronavirus have naturally brought
to our attention the theme of disaster and the irresponsible way in which humanity
destroys its habitat. The collapse of biodiversity, the multiple threats of technology
anticipate a tragic portrait of a planet dried up by life. But it is not a modern or new look;
it is something ancient and repetitive, as is easy to deduce.
Trying to discover in Romanian literature a work that addresses this subject in
another era, we logically stopped at "Cancer Sign", Sadoveanu's novel. Moldova
presented by the writer is far from the victorious times, flourishing or even with a glimmer
of luxury. The time of Stephen the Great is long gone and only the fertility of nature
preserves the golden age. Otherwise, the land ravaged by intrigue, greed, and neglect has
entered the realm of evil, of the devil, a symbol of wickedness. Whether he dresses very
well as a gentleman or squats on the cathedral capitals, whether he has a goat's or camel's
head, split legs, horns, hair all over his body, no matter what he looks like, he is always
the tempter or the executioner. "
The situation was completely different in previous centuries, when even Eastern
Europe benefited from pomp. And there is no shortage of testimonies in this regard; For
the time being, we offer only one example: “In 1543, the craftsmen from the city of
Bistrita had made a carriage for Petru Rareș, the roof of which was lined with red cloth.
In 1545, the same gentleman received as a gift from Brașov a chariot painted by Gregorius
painter, and a year later another painted carriage would arrive from Bistrita, covered with
a blanket lined with green cloth. The Moldavian boyars with the rulers wore sticks as a
sign of their dignity, the hierarchy of which was as follows: green woven with gold (for
logopath), blue woven with gold (for vornic), red woven with gold (for hatman) and
entirely clad in silver (for the bedfellow). It goes without saying that the priests' robes or
liturgical fabrics were also colored”. So, around 1700, "What was red - fabrics, rolls or
uniforms - strongly signalled to the holder of power," says Maria Magdalena Székely.
Political power, religious power, has been associated with the "power" of clothing and
has generated chromatically marked hierarchies in many cultures. Some are still alive
today. Moldova has benefited from real periods of glory that have been romantically
elevated to spectacular, cavalcade, vendetta (especially in "Brothers Jderi"). In those

 Ecological University of Bucarest, [email protected]

 Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, [email protected]

111
pages Sadoveanu built monumentally and offered exemplary models of heroism and
integrity, but, in the classical spirit, he subjected his characters to an immanent destiny in
accordance with a rationalist and predominantly typological conception. For those who
ask questions about this mixture of currents mentioned so far, we offer the lucid and
justified answer of an indisputable personality.
Thus, G. Călinescu, nicknamed the divine critic, long ago escaped us from the
illusion or obsession of searching for works that could be completely included in a certain
literary current. The classical resonances from Mihail Sadoveanu's work were the object
of accidental observations of some critics, these being, of course, always counterbalanced
by romantic or realistic nuances.
However, whether he focuses on moments of glory or those of decay, the writer
cautiously avoids the phenomenal and pursues the essence of historical truth, "If we agree
to paraphrase Hegel." Sadoveanu is a classic in the first place, but not a canon, he is an
Apollonian with the dream of perfection, cohesion and coherence of his work. At the
same time, he emphasizes the classicism of the novel by the fact that he is a storyteller,
and what he writes is a story, as opposed to the representation practiced by modern prose.
Referring to universal literature, a Sartre, a Joyce, but also other great creators, covet an
immediate reality, the impassivity and even the absence of the creator. Within the national
literature, Sadoveanu is not a traditional one, because in our country the beginnings were
in the middle of the romantic era. Therefore, his position inclines towards romanticism
only in the first creations (“Falcons”, “The Falconer Nation”) when he started his career
collaborating assiduously with the magazines “Sămănătorul” and “Viața românească”,
his creations being guilty of small clumsiness, but knowing how to it does not slip into
historiography or chronic chronicle. In this sense, the heroes of the first writings approach
the model of fabulous outlaws (Cozma Răcoare), and those of mature works are
subordinated to higher courts (the character Nicoară Potcoavă) or are subject to the
irrevocable tragic destiny (the character Alecu Ruset), historical time is passed through
the popular filter of legends and myths, becoming a sacred one. Deepening the novel,
which we announced as being in our attention, we point out the figure of the abbot of
Marenne, the ideal of the balanced man, rational, fine observer, a character of classic
character. He is passing through a devastated Moldova on his way to Istanbul (Ottoman
Gate). The country has lost its order and measure, being in an imbalance of lines of force
that could just as well justify an approach to modernism.
Being able to be considered an authorial voice in the narrative, but also a
transposition of the observer-reader during the events, ava Paul makes possible two
extremely interesting visions, corresponding to a permanent brushstroke between times
and plans: the abbot's vision of Moldova in a deprecated present by describing the
"devastated paradise"; Moldovans' vision of Marenne and the world she represents
metonymically and which imposes the memory and apology of a sacred, mythical past,
the true reality of the book. The first, corresponding to a compositional formula of the
“neutral observer” type in a foreign territory, could have been romantic by a treatment
like a compatriot traveller in another geographical environment that has automatically
become exotic and whose picturesque, grotesque or potential is exploited. Of course,
there are also early attempts such as those of Ion Codru-Drăgușanu ("The Transylvanian
Pilgrim") and Dinicu Golescu ("Note"). of my journey”), a memorial in its infancy, but
whose trigger was also the affective or spiritual receptivity of the narrator self
“wandering” through the world. Sadoveanu's approach is different and the perspective is
changing. Eliade saw in myths the recollection of those exemplary deeds of the
supernatural beings who created the world. He also considered that, just as archaic man

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is considered a product of myth, modern man is considered a product of history. For a
people like ours, who were forced to sharply raise the issue of genesis, that mention, from
the sixth century BC. Ch., Of Herodotus, of some predecessors, becomes a generic term
of a mythical-historical paradigm in which the Sadovian characters now belong. For
example, the Venetian messengers from the "Jderi Brothers" attest that "at the border of
the barbarian world" a voivode Stephen "brings light to the land of darkness." The weather
in the "Cancer Sign" retains traces of satisfaction and hedonistic lifestyle only at the top
of the human hierarchy. Luxury was a landmark in the social comparison, a reason for
indignation, for philosophical reflection. Luxury, that is, sin, vice, excess, recklessness,
from a religious perspective. Among other things, it is about the struggle between the old
and the new, between the ethics promoted by the Church and that of an incipient
liberalism (at least in the mind of the French guest), about the tension between traditional
consumption (local, predictable and conformist) and that generated by fluidization. the
movement of goods, the way of Moldova being a used one. Also from the perspective of
the foreigner with a much more modern perspective, another topic can be approached.
The preservation of the status quo, that is, the preservation of the patrimonial
inequality, of the consecrated hierarchy - this is one of the obsessions of the Church. Do
not you dare! - it seems to be the order that transpires from the numerous reactions of the
clergy, and if you have dared to overcome the socio-economic stage in which you were
born, then it is appropriate to give to the Church. Over time, what was to be cursed, that
is, wealth, became the "gift of wealth." And if God has given it to you, you will have to
give it to him. The "gift" is an institution, after all - "He who has mercy on the poor lends
to God. And he will reward his deed, „says the New Testament. However, the handwritten
account of Mr. Paul de Marenne, which remained in the National Library of Paris, records
the collapse of the Moldovan order. De Marenne, a symbol of the Western balance at the
court of the Sun King, is the objective mirror of the reason used by the writer to suggest
the moment of decline that Moldova is experiencing. "Justice and order are the first
elements of a state," says the abbot. The Moldavian is considered a "grotesque appearance
of the wild-haired", which, after knowing the good habits of the host and his mysterious
knowledge of nature, would be inclined to rally, in our opinion, avant la lettre, the concept
of "good wild” by Jean Jacques Rousseau. But the vitreous earthlings of the "Ducăi-Voda
time" (note the inscription of the phrase in a paradigm of temporality) are good not from
nature, but from that illo tempore sanctified by its perpetual remembrance.
The angle of view on the country is also confirmed by the companionship of Alecu
Ruset, presented and, especially, recognized by all the characters as a symbol of that ideal
mythical time. They both build on the classic pattern of the cultivated man, a Sadovian
preference if we remember, first of all, Kesarion Breb, then the bedfellow Ștefan Meșter,
Amfilohie Șendrea, Nicoară Potcoavă or that Ștefan cel Mare himself has a lesson from
“Muntele Aton”, by Marenne and Ruset, connects, according to the same classical model,
a friendship based on spiritual affinities, one of its concretizations being the use of a
narrative instrument, also classical: dialogue. If the French is an embodiment of balance
and wisdom, even of the ironic being of a moralist sometimes, the Moldavian is the
posthumous embodiment of an era of symbolic beauty. Typically, he is dominated by
destiny - he wears "Nessus' shirt", as he confesses. As a character, Ruset mediates the
contact between the two pairs of worlds: de Marenne's and, respectively, DucaVodă's /
his own / of devastated Moldova. Of the two exemplary hypostases, one by greatness and
harmony (of the abbot and the mentality of the people, an implicit symbol being the Sun,
and the abbot, a solar mystical hero), the other by vices (Duke Voda) and between the
two laws which, it seems that it operates in the Land of Moldova: a mythical, legendary

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one, recoverable indefinitely through memory and storytelling, another historical, leading
irretrievably to extinction. Miss Catrina's wedding at the end of the novel is the expression
of the condemnation given by destiny - a necessary transition to the present. From a
historical and sociological point of view, the Romanian Lands remained in the area of
confluence of the two diametrically opposed worlds in terms of civilization, cultural
heritage and religion ": the western world, annoying, and the world at the borders always
in danger, forever disputed and in difficulty. Therefore, not a few rulers in the eastern part
of the continent have tried to quell excesses of any kind, including clothing. We find that
Sadoveanu also has a passion for the details of the costumes that the Romanian reader
observed and learned first through Costache Negruzzi ("Alexandru Lăpușneanul"). And
there was a reflection of the romantic current, but in another moment of Romanian
literature. In order to support our statement, we offer some examples of such steps by the
restrained Romanian leaders. „The ruler of Muntenia, Ioan Vodă Caragea (1812-1818),
imposed, at the proposal of the hierarchs and boyars of the council, some interdictions,
meant to prevent the loss of assets, to determine the observance of good propriety and to
reduce the reckless expenses. After two years, the sumptuous law was followed by a ban
on the use of white in the clothing of persons who were not part of the ruling family. It is
difficult to say whether these measures were the latest echo of Constantin Brâncoveanu's
attempts or just a pale reflection of the rules imposed at the court in Istanbul and of
women's fashion in Paris. Alecu Ruset is at an equal distance from the apologetic
evocation of the “golden age” at the beginning of the work and from the tragic end in the
detached, objective vision of the writer which is, in fact, that of historical legitimacy. It
could be argued with sufficient arguments that Ruset is a kind of Atlas of the novel,
keeping the balance of writing. In addition, myth and history seem to overlap. The
narration reaches a midpoint in two key chapters that we have in mind: "He greets the
abbot with a small rain at the beginning of autumn" and "Where the worthiness of the
Lipovan brothers is better seen". Both contain Marrene's arrival in Iasi, the beginning of
the erotic intrigue and its happy period, Alecu Ruset's hopes, on the one hand, and then
Marrene's departure, detachment from the local protective space, evocative and the
transformation of passion into a measles that burns the hero inside.
The fall and tragic end of Ruset, apparently due to guilty love, in reality from the
impossibility of the past to recover in the present, can be commented on in the words of
du Marenne: ”From our point of view, the intertextual connotative offer allows us to
consider the novel a thematic equivalent of the famous Shakespearean play “Romeo and
Juliet.” Two families of Moldovan rulers, who are at odds with each other like this era,
fall under the same fate created by the great Will. Thus appear the two naive young men
who love each other, while the families remain prisoners of a pathological hatred.
Marenne's reply to the "abyss of eternity" contains an intervention by the choir in tragedy.
Sometimes the characters are placed in a neutral universe, reduced to primary
elements (earth, water, air), but the predominance of the Moldovan land in full
decomposition and one of the dominant feelings of fellow travellers, namely regret. This
emotion overlaps with guilt quite often, but there are other interesting nuances that anyone
can deepen with appropriate bibliographic tools. We preferred Septimiu Chelcea's vision:
“We can regret our past behaviours and decisions, but also our future behaviours and
decisions. Finally, some regrets are deeply felt, others affect us less. Based on the criteria
they considered, emotion theorists identified several types of regrets. Recently, the
differences between the regret generated by the action and the regret due to the
interaction, as well as the difference between the psychic processes of the retrospective
regret and the anticipatory regret, have been researched with predilection. Professor of

114
psychology and public policy Daniel Kahneman, winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics
(2002), differentiated between two types of regret: recent regret (hot) and nostalgic regret
(wistful), which are associated differently, on the one hand, with the action and with
inaction and, on the other hand, with the prospect of short duration and long duration. The
recent regret caused by the action is intense, as opposed to the nostalgic regret associated
with inaction, which is less intense, specific to the long duration (Kahneman, 1995, p.
375). ”De Marenne feels a recent regret, and Ruset a categorical nostalgic combined with
remorseful guilt. He realizes that the same regret grinds him inside with even more power
because he is aware of the intrigues of the yard, the darkness of the cellars for the boilers,
the whole tense atmosphere of a land that no longer lives in dignity and beauty. The
strength of Stefan's days, Antonie Voda's was replaced by Duca Voda's terrible weather,
reducing the number of people, villages and trees. "This is where the law of the wilderness
and the prey reigns," says Beizadea, and the meaning is not, of course, merely explicit.
Between heaven and earth, as in the beginning, Paul de Marenne attends the divine
punishment of this fallen world in which the demon is immanent.

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Marin și Gernot Nussbächer, cuvânt înainte de Costin Feneșan, București, 1987.
Popa Marian, Călătoriile epocii romantice, București, Editura Univers, 1972.
Sadoveanu, Mihail, Zodia Cancerului sau vremea Ducăi Vodă, ed. a II-a, București, Editura
Tineretului, 1959.
Szekely Maria Magdalena, Culori, veșminte și interdicții în vremea lui Constantin vodă
Brâncoveanu, în Ovidiu Cristea, coord., Povestiri întretăiate. Istoria în cheie minoră, Editura
Cetatea de Scaun, Târgoviște, 2016.
Vlad Ion, Cărțile lui Mihail Sadoveanu, Cluj Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1981.
*** Noul Testament al Domnului și Mântuitorului Nostru Isus Christos, ediția N. Nitzulescu,
Bucuresci, 1908.
*** Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kronstadt, III, Brașov, 1896.

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THE CONCEPTION OF THE “COSMOS” AND “ANTHROPOS” IN
THE RURAL SPACE – APPROACH TO THE WRITINGS OF
ERNEST BERNEA

Gabriela BOANGIU*

Abstract: Ernest Bernea studies the archaic mentality of the Romanian peasant, looks with
tenderness and rigor at the popular beliefs about space, cosmos, place, house, surroundings,
household village. The Romanian peasant appears, in his works, as a sage who does not propose
or on the contrary, does not want to find out all the secrets of the universe, he contemplates nature
and respects life with his order. This order ensures clarity, clarity of thought, an order that he does
not want to be changed, he just wants to integrate. Man and cosmic harmony start from the same
patterns, which he sometimes calls elements - an origin of the cosmos that he accepts and tries to
understand. The Romanian peasant is wise, he talks about the sky and the world with a simple
language, but full of meanings that amaze modernity.
Keywords: space, cosmos, rural mentalities

The concepts of "cosmos" and "anthropos", in the works of Ernest Bernea, amaze
through the connections they activate. The cosmos is clearly organized around the
contemplative, but also active man, who respects the cosmic order, that order which has
been transmitted by its principles from generation to generation. The Romanian peasant
looks shyly at the changes. He is open to novelties - either more concrete or spiritual, but
he is more attached to the order. Ernest Bernea emphasized: “for the Romanian people,
the word order has not only a simple meaning, with an economic character or a social
meaning. The term is widely used in the sense of ordering everything that exists and is
related to balance and harmony. Cosmic order is an idea and a formula that expresses a
gift of Romanian thinking and conception about the world. There is a strong participation
of man in this order, which makes him have a well-established hierarchy of his things and
deeds. His integration in the cosmos and in the village world, establishing a balance in
this relationship, makes the Romanian peasant a man of great perspective and practical
understanding of his daily life at a high level. (...)Not only the structure but also the
dynamics of everything that exists is conditioned and oriented by this cosmic way of
seeing things”1.
According to Ernest Bernea, the Romanian peasant is in harmony with nature, with
universal rhythms, with the cosmos. The archaic mentality perceives space in an order
and harmony with everyday life, but also with the great orderly rhythms of the cosmos,
“in the popular view this dimension is not just a line or a direction, but a true framework,
a complex phenomenon, an expression of human participation in the cosmos. The breath
of cosmic harmony can be found in the various ceremonies of the family cycle or in the
agrarian ones; In this way, it was possible to have a literature with a wide spiritual
horizon, such as Miorița, Iertăciunea at the wedding... Giving more attention, the very
style of houses and interiors, everyday life is felt by this influence” 2.

* Institutul de Cercetări Socio-Umane „C.S. Nicolăescu-Plopșor” al Academiei Române, Craiova,

[email protected]
1 Ernest Bernea, Spațiu, timp și cauzalitate la români [Space, Time and Causality with Romanians],

București, Editura Humanitas, 2005, p. 87.

2 Ibidem, p. 19-20.

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 The conception of space is closely related to that of the place, which the Romanian
peasant understands in a very special way from that of modernity. For him, the place is
“a concrete fact, of a great variation, with its own characteristics, with the impossibility
of defining in an abstract way. The place is defined by its specific quality, in its material
data (in a concrete sense) and its spiritual potential”. The place is good or bad for him,
“the first is fruitful, good, always with a positive meaning; the second is barren, evil,
always with a negative meaning. To these two categories is added the safe place, it is a
phenomenon less defined in its characters and ways of manifestation” 1. Here is how he
regards the good place or the bad place: “Good place is holy place; it is beautiful and
strong and the fruit is rich. Bad place is weak place and man falls into sin because he likes
it”2.
The concept of space, as perceived by the archaic mentality, has strong
connections with the house, the house and the household of the old Romanian village,
“the house is seen in a special way from that of the urban population. The general
mentality of the archaic villages refuses the urban way of conceiving the house. More
evolved or less evolved, richer or poorer, young or old, the man of our ancient settlements
saw in the house an object not only material but also spiritual, not only for the
maintenance of daily life, but also for the promotion of spiritual values. The house is there
a real fabric of spatial connections; strong local roots make the house and yard a kind of
origin and shape determined for most human activities”3. The house is perceived through
the prism of family unity, it is the holy place of connection with previous generations,
with the continuity of life, meanings that modern man has separated them from his beliefs,
"the peasant house is primarily a place, a good place, generator in material and spiritual
meaning. This place, whether it looks at the interior space or the courtyard or the garden,
is seen as a place with specific qualities, qualities that make it exist in its own way. In the
popular mentality, there cannot be two places of the house in the same way because
concretely each place has its forms and functions between the holdings of a fund that
belongs to it with specificity, as a deposit through the ages.”4.
The archaic mentality registers a deep attachment to the parental home, hardly or
even never detaches from it. The behavior of modern man who easily changes one house
after another, seems incomprehensible, the parental home is part of the spiritual order of
life, in this center man defines himself, grows, becomes, knows, "these people do not like
to move. However, when they are forced to do so, they try to arrange for the new home
to be as close as possible to the parental home.”5.
The representation of the world and the concept of space revive some particular
characteristics regarding the mentality of the Romanian peasant. For him, “this world
really exists, it exists objectively. The world in which we are an existential part has
dimensions and content, it is something that exists in a substantial sense and that manifests
itself. We exist in the world, a world that has its own laws and that we must obey. In the
face of the existence of this world, the Romanian peasant maintains an attitude that brings
him very close to a position and a realistic conception, of course broadening this notion
to become convenient to a popular philosophy. The Romanian peasant believes in this
world as a given objective; he observes, researches and recognizes the objective world in

1 Ibidem.
2 Ibidem,p. 31.
3 Ibidem, p. 32.
4 Ibidem, p. 33.
5 Ibidem, p. 34.

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its immediate data not only from a practical point of view, but also as an act of thought
and explanation”1.
The Romanian peasant sometimes confesses: “See, they all come from the mystery
of heaven, from where God stands on the throne of light. That's why when the sky opens,
our world changes 2”. The verticality of the sky is constitutive of the mentality of the
Romanian peasant, the sky unfolds like a high dome above the earth. Once upon a time,
heaven and earth were so closely related that life did not make as great a distinction as it
does today, it was a natural continuity. In general, the Romanian peasant lives in cosmic
harmony, “the anthropocentric conception, product of modern individualism, is not an
active presence in the Romanian village”, in the old mentality, the village is in the center
of the world, some say that the center of the world is God, its creator and from here all
the springs of the being proceed, others say that it is in the sun, that from it comes the
light; but most have a cosmic vision that asserts the village as the center of the world
(...).The village is located and engaged in nature. Its space is the natural space and nature
is in it. This space in which the village exists and which exists in the world has material
characters stricto sensu, but in the image that the Romanian people have, it also has some
valences that come from its concrete nature, in which the spirit is active. (...)The space of
the village is also concrete, regardless of whether it looks at the fence, the street, the
hearth of the village or the border. Everything that belongs to him has special qualities,
specific, own characters. When the village is viewed in relation to nature, with its cosmic
setting, it is not otherwise represented”3.
The Romanian peasant’s relationship with nature is mediated by the concept of
space, “nature is for him not only an external environment, nor is space in general, but a
living substance, from which he feeds continuously. Space is thought and lived by the
Romanian peasant primarily as a horizon, (…) its space is open, it is wide and
comprehensive, not the world is in space, but space is in the world; closer to the truth, we
could say that space coexists with the world and is for him involved in creation; infinity,
emptiness, chaos have nothing to do with space. The vacuum does not appear in his
consciousness and in his representation of the world. For infinity and emptiness, the
Romanian peasant has repulsion”4.
The old man's conception referring to the cosmos, is interconnected with life, for
him “the cosmos has some fundamental features: (a) nature is diverse, varied; the cosmic
order is a first character of the world; (b) this order, however, is in constant development
and harmony in a rhythmic manner; all things are moving at a certain pace; (c) nature,
our whole world is more than movement; it is a continuous generation, that is, creation;
(d) the Romanian cosmos knows a harmony, which leads to beauty, to an active beauty
in full potential. As a result of these fundamental features, the Romanian people, as
manifested in the traditional village, maintain in front of the nature of things an attitude
of almost religious respect and a permanent accommodation; he has no attitudes of
opposition, of forcing things”5.
The problem of the origin of the world is explained by the archaic mentality
through a simplicity and originality that excites modern man “The world, as it exists and
as it appears, has, of course, a beginning, it has its origins, on which the Romanian peasant

1 Ibidem, p. 64.
2 Ibidem, p. 65.
3 Ibidem, p. 86-87.
4 Ibidem, p. 88.
5 Ibidem, p. 66.

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gives a number of explanations. The most common explanation is the biblical genesis:
God made the heavens and the earth, God-principle of all that exists in this world. The
myth of genesis, in a great variation of concrete forms, ways and expressions of
intellectual and inner life, brings to life a number of manifestations of a religious and
aesthetic nature (literary, plastic). Their research can testify to the origin of the world. At
other times, however, this origin is explained by a notion that is not very clear in the
minds of those who used it, but which nevertheless comes as a form of explanation other
than the myth of biblical genesis. These are the so-called elements. What the elements
(stihii in Romanian) are is hard to say. They are invoked as the origins of the world, but
the invocation does not circulate a very clear thing. The elements are something
mysterious, the source of everything in the world, but there is no precise definition. The
elements are something original, generating their existence in their multiple forms,
something cosmic, but indefinite, a presence unknown to anyone”1.
The origin of the world is perceived by some people as coming from a “dark place,
a hidden place”, but for others, the elements appear as clear, light-generating sources.
(...)If we try to abstract, we could say that the elements are the very principle of the world
and life, they are the beginning of what is manifested, the power and the form that gives
birth to things as they are. We believe that the original use of the word for the elements
is right, the elements appearing in many cases as patterns, ways and ways of appearing,
and which generates this world seen with all that exists in it”2.
The symbolic representation of space in Romanians implies references to the
cosmic order, the world for the Romanian peasant is “created, created not at random, but
in a form in which balance and harmony dominate. Our world, in all its forms and
qualities, has an order that rules everything. " Here are some excerpts from the
confessions of a Romanian peasant: "It simply came to our notice then. All these are in
place; things are arranged in such a way that they all speak properly. The world has its
own order, otherwise it could not be held; it's a rule and it's all in the world. Things are
mine or yours and God knows, they're one way or another, but it still keeps them going.
(...) Both the mountains and the waters are left by God, just as we are. They all have their
place and their purpose, nothing is random. They are all well made” 3.
The "cosmic order" is the basis of the village world, there is an order beyond the
understanding of man of old, an order that he accepts with serenity, not rejection, revolt,
he understands that it is something beyond his ability to deciphering the cosmic order, he
only contemplates and interrogates or rather dialogues in a cultural space of symbols that
he encrypts, loads them symbolically, reflecting on them, “This cosmic order often takes
on a deterministic aspect in the process, until it presents a rhythmic character that
expresses the nature of things, perhaps the law itself of the world and life. From the
greatest things to the smallest, from nature to man, all go according to an insurmountable
order, which is the very law of nature, of existence in all its forms. (...)The cosmic order
imposes itself with an unchanging character of law. It goes beyond the will of man and
man must obey it. Man's attitude towards the world and things is one of understanding
and obedience. Whether it has a more religious character or is more free-thinking, man's
position is expressed in a continuous game between these two impulses, but which

1 Ibidem, p. 66.
2 Ibidem, p. 67.
3 Ibidem, p.68.

119
together condemns the confrontation of the order and laws of the world and recommends
knowledge and obedience.”1.
Ernest Bernea understands the archaic mentality of the Romanian people, the
human-cosmos relationship is strengthened by the belief in the beauty of the world and
the order that rules it, “that is why the cosmic order is a reason for admiration for a work
that is not human part (...). Romanian cosmicism is not only the recognition of universal
laws by which the world governs, but also a work of balance and harmony aimed at the
field of beauty.”2. The Romanian sociologist inserts in his text simple testimonies from
the villagers he interviewed, here is what they tell: “Behold, this is a river; the water flows
and brings the coolness. Beyond is the forest and the mountain and further is the sky, and
beyond the sky is what else? Our world is the real world, it's the good world, with people
and flowering trees. The world is the way God made it. I walked close and I went on;
nothing has changed. That's the way it is to the world, because nobody can't change it” 3.
Verticality is constitutive of the archaic mentality of the old Romanian peasant,
the high upward direction is destined for life and high spirituality, “Above means for him
a number of things that belong to life from the closest and trivial to the most distant and
rare; but first of all it means sky. Down also means many things, with their determined
positions, but first of all it means the earth. The sky is like a dome, a hemisphere resting
on the edges of the earth; at other times, the stability of the sky is explained by an
expression that no one can explain. It's the key to the vault, where the sky would be held
with everything in it. Up there is the sky, down there is the earth. Although there is a view
that the vault of the sky rests on the edges of the earth, it does not hold the world, but a
kind of axis, an axis that crosses it vertically and gives it the power to sit and move at the
same time”4.
The representation of the sky and the earth is based on two different situations,
either the earth is stretched out and standing on a water and on its edges rests the sky
which is shaped like a vault, hemisphere, or the earth is round and surrounded by the sky,
which in turn to him it is round, “our world is divided and we cannot see it; the vault of
heaven is what separates them. Things have not always been this way; there was a time
when the sky was very close to the earth, when there was a continuous and obvious
contact between the world here and the world beyond”5.
The sky enjoys symbolic representations full of beauty and wisdom, “remarkable
is the fact that everywhere the sky is given greater importance, both in size and beauty.
However, though especially large, heaven and earth are well suited to be part of the
cosmic order. (...)In the vision of the Romanian people as it appears in the archaic village,
the sky is seen and described in various forms, with a special grandeur and beauty. Despite
the belief that man's mind cannot fully comprehend the whole world, he represents his
heaven in a way that attempts to explain what is seen or unseen. We find here, in the vault
of the sky, when a limit, when a game of the existence of special worlds, but never
completely isolated”6.
Ernest Bernea showed a special sensitivity to the archaic mentality, he questioned
and challenged the Romanian peasant to spiritual formulations full of meanings and

1 Ibidem, p. 75.
2 Ibidem, p. 69.
3 Ibidem.
4 Ibidem, p. 76.
5 Ibidem, p. 79
6 Ibidem, p.77.

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symbols, man is built spiritually vertically on the axis of the world between heaven and
earth, in harmony with the cosmos he contemplates with simplicity and humility.

Bibliography
Ernest Bernea, Spațiu, timp și cauzalitate la români, București, Editura Humanitas, 2005.

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 CREATION BETWEEN TEMPORAL AND TIMELESS

Nicolae BRÎNZEA*

Abstract: In Christian theology of all times creation occupies a special place. Even if
ancient philosophy and culture introduced the concept of amorphous and sinful matter that opposes
the incarnation of the Logos, the Church Fathers managed to break away from this conception by
reshaping the whole cosmology based on Revelation, to overcome the opposition of the sensible
world to the intelligible. Thus was born Christian cosmology, in which the intelligible world and
the sensible world form a single world through the harmonious and rational order of creation,
which has its center of gravity in the Logos of the Father, through whom all things were made.
According to Divine Revelation, the whole of creation preserves its ontological unity in the rational
order that springs from the divine Logos and constitutes a means of dialogue between man and
God. The origin of the world in the divine creative act also implies its fundamental unity beyond its
diversity or complexity. For contemporary science, the unity of the cosmos is beyond any doubt.
For example, man is a part, but also a small synthesis of the world. It should be noted, on the one
hand, that this concentric perspective, culminating in man, is scientifically updated by the so-called
anthropic principle, according to which the universe was programmed to be compatible with man.
It should be emphasized that, in all this dynamic movement of God, Creation was also placed
between timeless and temporal, in a concentric sense, of first contact with the divinity that created
it, orienting it towards eternity, that is, from the temporal to timeless, with the differences in hue
and substance of that new heaven and new earth. The huge chasm between the uncreated and the
created, temporal and timeless, is overcome by the energetic descent of the Godhead to the world
and by its rational ascent to Him. This convergence between uncreated and created energies is
possible because the world, rationally and spiritually grounded, has a theocentric meaning and
movement.
Keywords: creation, temporal, timeless

Creation occupies a special place in Christian theology of all times. Even though
the ancient philosophy and culture introduced the concept of amorphous and sinful
matter, which opposes the incarnation of the Logos, the Church Fathers managed to break
away from this conception by reshaping the entire cosmology relying on Revelation, in
order to overcome the opposition of the sensitive world to the intelligible one. Thus the
Christian cosmology was born, starting with St. Athanasius the Great, in which the
intelligible world and the sensitive one make up a single world through the harmonious
and rational order of creation, which has its center of gravity in the Logos of the Father,
through which all things were made (John 1: 1-3): “...the same almighty, all-perfect, and
holy Word of the Father, dwelling and extending His powers in all and everywhere and
enlightening all the seen and unseen things, holds and gathers them, leaving nothing
empty of His power, but giving life to them all and guarding them all together and each
one separately ... unites the parts with the whole and governing them all with His
command and will, makes up a single world and a single harmonious order of it, he
Himself remaining motionless, but moving them all, by their creation and order,
according to the will of the Father” (St. Athanasius the Great, About the Incarnation of
the Word, 1987, p. 79).
Yet, when we speak of theology, referring to the Holy Trinity, we understand its
ad intra life, and, when we speak of the Trinitarian economia, we will understand its ad

*University of Pitești, [email protected]

122
extra work. Between these two, theology and economia, there is both identity and
difference. The identity consists in the fact that we meet the same Persons in both the ad
intra and the ad extra Trinity, that is, we are dealing with a personal identity, and the
distinction between theology and economia “comes from the fact that while the ad intra
trinity has at its center the divine essence, the ad extra trinity belongs to the uncreated
energies, because the divine essence, which remains indivisible in itself, is shared with
the creature by its uncreated energies” (St. Maxim the Confessor, Ambigua, 1986, p. 135).
The Trinity theology and economia are also present in the work of the world
creation and are very well emphasized by Father Dumitru Staniloe in his writings. The
great Romanian theologian shows that the world is the work of the Trinity economia, at
the same time fighting the Catholic theology, which does not differentiate between the
being and works of God, and the Protestant theology, which either considers creation as
an emanation of God's being or considers creation relies on a completely discretionary
decision of God (Dumitru Stăniloae, The Holy Trinity and the Creation of the World from
Nothing in Time, 1987, p. 44). Protestant theology tried to find a middle ground between
these two completely opposite positions, in this sense Jürgen Moltman identifying a
solution according to which God freely decided to create the world, but in this decision
His being manifested.
According to the Divine Revelation, all creation retains its ontological unity in the
rational order that springs from the divine Logos and is a means of dialogue between man
and God (idem, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, 1978, p. 345). In order to show the
ontological difference between the Creator and creation, Christianity emphasized,
according to Revelation, that the world was created out of nothing (II Maccabees, 7: 28),
a statement of great importance for evaluating the relationship between God and the
universe. Divine revelation shows us that the world is God's work. The Book of Genesis
states that: “In the beginning, God made the heavens and the earth” (1: 1). The demiurge
of Greek thought was content to shape the world from an already existing substance. For
the pantheism of Greek philosophy, the sensitive world, like the intelligible one, has
existed since eternity. By the notion of nothing he wants to attest that the world has a
beginning and that the very essence of the world, from which it was made, was also
created by God. “If God is not also the author of matter, but made things of an already
existing matter, then He appears weak, because He could not produce anything without
matter, of the existing ones, as the carpenter's weakness is shown by the fact that he can
do nothing without wood” (St. Athanasius the Great, About the Incarnation of the Word,
1987, p. 60). If it had no beginning, if it were nothing, the world would not be the
exclusive work of God's freedom and love. Unlike the pantheism of the ancient thought,
which held that the material world existed from eternity, Christianity came with the
teaching of faith about God's creation of the world out of nothing (Dumitru Stăniloae, op.
cit., 1978, p. 328). But the creation of the world out of nothing brings something else with
it, namely the fact that there was a time when there was nothing created but only God
(The one with no beginning and end), a time from eternity, a timeless time, because God
is not affected by time, the temporal being a physical law which He created for the seen
things.
In the same sense, unlike the seen world, the unseen world (also created by God)
is not affected by the laws of Physics. As spirits with no body, for example, angels have
a different relationship to space and time than we do; they do not need our means of
transportation, which are connected with so much effort and difficulty. Angels are fast
flying, fast moving: the angel is now in one place, in a moment in another; for them there
are no walls, no doors, no latches. Angels can move people just as easily: if they approach

123
one of them and take him on their wings, he ceases to exist in the space; covered by
angelic wings, he travels the greatest distances in an instant. This is what The Book of the
Apostles says about St. Philip the Apostle: “And an angel of the Lord spoke to Philip,
saying: “Arise, and go toward the south unto the way that goes down from Jerusalem unto
Gaza... He, standing up, walked away”. On his way he met an Ethiopian man, a eunuch,
governor of Candachia, the empress of Ethiopia; she talked with him, brought him to
Christ, and baptized him. “And, behold, when they came out of the water, the Spirit of
the Lord caught away Philip, that the eunuch saw him no more: and Philip was
immediately in the Azote.” (Acts 8: 27-40).
An even more wonderful thing is told in God's Word about Daniel and Avacum
Prophets. The prophet Daniel was in Babylonian captivity; Because of the wickedness
and cunning of the Babylonian pagans, he was thrown into the lions' den by the king. He
was tormented there without food for six days; the lions did not touch him, but the hunger
tormented him. At that time the prophet Avacum lived in Judea, who, boiling and
breaking food in a pot, went to the field to feed the reapers, but the angel of the Lord said
to him, “Take your lunch in Babylon to Daniel, in the lions' den”. And Avacum said,
“Lord! I have not seen Babylon, and I do not know where the pit is!” And the angel of
the Lord took him by the head, and caught him by his hair, and set him in Babylon above
the pit, in the speed of his spirit. And Avacum cried out, “Daniel! Daniel! Take the food
that God has sent you.” And Daniel said, “Oh, God, you have remembered me, and you
have not forsaken them that seek you, and love you. And Daniel arose, and ate; and the
angel of the Lord took Avacum to his place immediately. (The story of the slaying of the
dragon and the crushing of Bel (40-46)).
In the book of Tobit we can see how the Archangel Raphael accompanies Tobiah,
the son of Tobit, eats with him and seems to be subject to all the physical laws of the seen
world, but is not affected by them, as if he were between temporal and timeless.
As we have seen before, angels, being disembodied spirits, are not hindered by
space like us, human beings. They have another relationship with time. In heaven there is
neither yesterday, nor today, nor tomorrow - or rather, there is only today and always
being; the angels know neither the days, nor the nights, nor the minutes, nor our hours; in
their kingdom there is no winter, no spring, no summer, no autumn - or rather, there is
only bright and merry spring; Among the angels there is always Easter, a continual feast,
eternal joy. According to the Savior's word, angels can no longer die (Luca 20: 36). The
open and dark grave, the tombstones do not disturb the angelic eyes, the sad songs of the
funeral do not disturb their hearing; the last farewell of the dead one is unknown to them;
the bitterness of separation does not gnaw at their hearts, death does not twist the beauty
of angels with its corrupt breath.
The true life is in heaven, the eternal, happy life with God and in God - life is in
Him. (John 1: 4). We are weakening, aging, and fading with each passing day, while the
angels, with each approach to God, are getting younger and younger, rising from strength
to strength, from perfection to perfection. Angels experience this state of righteousness
and immortality by being created by God and in obedience to Him.
Returning to creation out of nothing, St. Athanasius the Great remarks that
“other people, including Plato, the great Greek, say that God made them all of a pre-
existing and uncreated matter (...). When they say this, they do not understand that it is a
weakness. For if He Himself is not the cause of matter, but makes things of a pre-existing
matter, He is weak” (St. Athanasius the Great, op. cit., 1987, p. 68). It is obvious that both
ancient and contemporary cosmology encounter the same problems in articulating divine
omnipotence with the idea of the mobility of the universe, the cause being the conception

124
of a transcendent and immovable Creator; It is surprising, then, that the choice of many
physicists today is for creation-like solutions out of nothing (Stephen W. Hawking, A
Brief History of Time. From the Big Bang to the Black Holes, 2018, p. 23-25).
The origin of the world in the divine creative act also implies its fundamental unity
(because all the things are reducible to a single term: creation, says St. Athanasius in The
Second Word against the Aryans, 58-59), beyond its diversity or complexity: “The world
is both heaven and earth in the Symbol of Faith, the Church interprets heaven as the
invisible or intelligible aspect of creation, the earth representing its seen or sensitive
aspect”. The revelation of this complexity in unity goes beyond both the dualism, which
states the distance between the intelligible and the sensitive, between spirit and matter,
and the monism which states that existence is either spirit or matter. The correspondence
and convergence of these two aspects of creation are given in their common spiritual basis
or in the fact that the seen are based on the unseen. For contemporary science, the unity
of the universe is out of the question. A very important proof is the isotropy of the cosmic
motion (John D. Barrow, The Origin of the Universe, 2008, p. 29-30). It is interesting to
compare the double movement of the universe (of expansion and complexity), an
expression of this unity, with the images used by Saint Athanasius (the universe viewed
as an orchestral polyphony of Logos) and by Saint Maximus (the universe as a choir
around the Logos, manifesting as diastolic-extensive and systolic-intensive). There is a
paradox of unity in diversity, obviously in the issue of the relationship between part and
whole. Thus, although the whole is more than the sum of its parts, any part of it contains
and reflects the whole. For instance, man is a part, but also a small synthesis of the world.
The Holy Scripture's focus is now on the earth, on the visible aspect of creation (Genesis
1: 2). “Unseen and untouched” (or “untouched and empty”), the earth is a dark deep, a
secret of the still unorganized created essence, which the Fathers interpret as the potential
of the being of the universe, as a created primordial matter, which is to be organized by
the wise Creator. However, we can only talk about the matter in a very broad sense.
The text introduces another analogy, that of waters indicating the inconsistency
and internal dynamics of this original earth. Saint John Chrysostom captures this aspect
very well, showing that “in waters there was an energy full of life; that water was not a
simple water, but one that was moving, that was turbulent and encompassed everything”
(St. John the Golden Mouth, Homilies to Genesis, 2004, p. 1-2). In his turn, Saint Basil
the Great speaks of a spiritual light, which the universe was created from, so that most of
the Holy Fathers share the same opinion (in fact, this conception is evident in the
Romanian mentality, in which the cosmos is the world, i.e. the light). This indefinite and
tense complex, confirmed today by physical theories, in which the reasons for all things
were sown, was, however, controlled by the Spirit of God (in The Symbol of Faith; God,
the living maker), who carried himself over the waters or, according to Saint Basil the
Great, “warmed and gave life to the water in the image of a hen, which hatches and gives
life to the eggs, that is, prepares the waters for the birth of life. It is a sign that the further
development of the universe was accomplished by the combined energies of the Spirit
and the waters” (St. Basil the Great, Writings, Homilies to Hexaimeron, 1986, p. 21).
Thus, the world appears, according to Father Dumitru Staniloae’s sayings, as a
plasticized rationality, because any creative divine act is also revealing. Every creature’s
bringing to life is synonymous with the sharing of information, with the manifestation of
a divine thought or reason, which pre-exists the world, but it is not eternal, but elaborated
in a pre-time by the divine Logos. If the Logos had not thought of the reasons or
paradigms (models) of creatures, either creation would have been a necessity for God, by
linking these reasons to the divine essence (as in Origenism), or there would have been

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no internal relationship between God and the world (as well as the autonomous
cosmology). For the Eastern Holy Fathers, antinomically, the reasons are both in the
Logos of God and in things, that is, they have a dynamic aspect, being even the uncreated
energies of the divinity, realizing an internal connection between the Logos and creation.
In this way, only because it has a rational aspect, the world can be known and through it
man can have access to the Supreme Reason. In other words, “the true interpretation of
the world is made from and in the perspective of the Creator Logos of the universe” (St.
Maxim the Confessor, Ambigua, 1983, p. 98).
The original Earth (the visible universe), described as dark deep and waters, in
which the Holy Spirit worked, was organized in six days (stages). These days indicate a
movement, a development of the universe, as stated in evolutionism, but not a random
dynamic (subject to hazard) or only of immanent determinations (like in the Roman
Catholic conception of secondary causes, typical of an autonomous cosmology), but a
movement according to the plan elaborated by God before being the world (in the
timeless) and permanently controlled by Him, a movement without meaning a
supernatural diversion of the cosmos that moves (in the temporal) by theocentric nature.
Saint John of Damascus, interpreting the original earth through the problems of the
principles of Greek philosophy, states that they are created and not pre-existing, while all
beings are brought to life through the various syntheses of principles; some, such as
heaven, earth, air, fire, and water, were not made of pre-existing matter; others, such as
living things, plants, seeds, were made of those He created.Those were made, at the
Creator's command, of earth, water, air, and fire. Indeed, this issue is out of date today,
since science has penetrated the subatomic microcosm, which may also suggest the
composition of the universe uniformity.
Although it is a history of creation at first sight, the biblical report does not propose
a chronology, but a concentric and functional perspective. The order of the days is rather
logical, seeking to assert God's plan and His direct involvement in bringing the universe
to life and in its organization. This is why the Holy Fathers insist that “God is the One
who makes and transforms them and arranges them all according to His will.” Saint Basil
the Great states even more precisely this aspect: “You shall not speak of the creation of
heaven and earth as a self-made work, as some people have imagined, but as a work which
has its cause in God”.
The concentric perspective is evident in the progressive specification of the theme.
Starting with the statement that God created the universe, heaven, and earth, the Holy
Scripture deals only with the visible universe, then with our planet, with life, and, finally,
with man, the conscious sum of creation and life, because, in the second chapter, man is
proposed to be the archetype of all life on Earth (see the issue of distinctions in St.
Maximus the Confessor, Ambigua, p. 106).
It should be noted, on the one hand, that this concentric perspective, culminating
in man, is scientifically updated by the so-called anthropic principle, according to which
the universe was programmed to be compatible with man (Hubert Reeves, Patience in
Azure - Cosmic Evolution, 1993, p. 170; John D. Barrow, The Origin of the Universe,
2008, p. 25; Jean-Pierre Longchamp, Science et croyance, 1992, p. 177). On the other
hand, the same perspective excludes any definitive statement of theology regarding
extraterrestrial life: The Scripture allows neither its assertion nor its refutation. Thirdly,
the concentration of the Scripture explains the absence, in the cosmology of the Church,
of the problem of the inflationary or expanding universe (although we can guess it, with
some benevolence, commenting on the first day of creation), a fact which allowed the

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invasion of the Greek thought themes about the world into some theologians theories,
which are less faithful to revelation.
We should emphasize that, in all this dynamic movement of God, Creation has
also been placed between timeless and temporal, in a concentric sense, of first contact
with the divinity that created it, orienting it towards eternity, that is, from the temporal to
the timeless, with the differences in shade and substance of that new heaven and new
earth. Therefore, man's destiny becomes the destiny of heaven and earth, which he unites
through soul and body: we are born under time but to overcome time by deification in
Jesus Christ. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin stated regarding the creation: “in order to animate
Evolution during its lower stages, the conscious pole of the world - the Omega point,
finally identified with God, could not act, and it is natural that way, only by enveloping
itself in Biology, that is in an impersonal form if compared to the thinking creature that
we have become through humanization it is now possible to radiate to him as from the
Center to the centers, in a personal way-” (Noel Keith Roberts, From Piltdown Man to
Point Omega: the Evolutionary Theory of Teilhard de Chardin, 2000, p. 147).
The Holy Fathers emphasize the superiority of man by describing His divine
creative plan, which culminates in man, and His biological and spiritual verticality. Thus,
in St. John Chrysostom’ view, the world is a royal palace in which man was placed to
rule under in time, a dominion given in the divine image by which man was honoured. In
his turn, Saint Basil the Great shows that while the four-legged beings look at the earth,
man, the heavenly plant, has his eyes fixed on the sky. Being a part of the whole and a
small synthesis of the world (microcosm), of the same nature as all created things, man is
called to unify them all in his ascent to God: “He has, naturally, by the acquisition of its
parts, to be in relation to all the extremities, the power of union, by the intercessions
among all the extremities. By this power completing the way of creating the divided ones
(referring to the diversity of creation), man would reveal through himself the great
mystery of the divine purpose: the harmonious union of the extremities of the creatures
between themselves, a union which advances upwards and in turn from the immediate to
the farthest, and from the lowest to the highest, ending in God” (St. Maxim the Confessor,
Ambigua, 1983, p. 132). With man culminates the creative work and in him the heavens
and earth meet (as we confess at the Feast of the Nativity of Christ), in its complex
structure, soul and body, for, St. Maximus the Confessor says, there is a perfect symmetry
and convergence between man and universe: “The whole universe, consisting of the seen
and the unseen, is man, and man, consisting of soul and body, is the universe” (Idem,
Mystagogia, 1934, p. 336). Along with the man and in him, they all proved to be very
good / beautiful.
Biblical cosmology, in the light of the Holy Fathers thinking, who did not abdicate
from revelation in favour of one philosophy or another, excludes any unilaterality. God
is the One who created from nothing and built (organized) the world, but not eluding the
movement proper to creatures, which takes place according to the reasons imprinted by
Him in creation; He created life, but also gave it the power of a movement of its own:
“Think of the words of God that run through all creation! They have been in the world
since then, and they are still working up to the end of time. Time does not spoil, nor does
it lose the qualities of living things, but, as if they were created now, they are going
eternally fresh along with time.” (St. Basil the Great, op. cit., 1986, p. 214). The huge
chasm between the uncreated and the created, temporal and timeless, is overcome by the
energetic descent of the Godhead to the world and its rational ascent to Him.
This convergence between the uncreated and the created energies is possible
because the world, which is rationally and spiritually grounded, has a theocentric meaning

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and motion. In this context, Saint Basil the Great concludes that any separation between
matter and spirit, between the seen and the unseen, temporal and timeless, is overcome
by asserting the internal connection between God and creation, which implies a living
God, who not only entered the being of all creatures in the world, but he also made all its
parts in harmony with one another and made a harmonious whole, corresponding and in
full agreement with Him.

Bibliography
***The Bible or Holy Scripture, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox
Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998.
St. Athanasius the Great, On the Incarnation of the Word, in “Church Fathers and Writers”, vol. 15,
The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest,
1987.
St. John the Golden Mouth, Homilies at Genesis, vol. III, translated by Adrian Tănăsescu Vlas,
Sophia Publishing House, Bucharest, 2004.
St. Maxim the Confessor, Ambigua, in “Church Fathers and Writers”, The Biblical and Mission
Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1986.
Idem, Mystagogy, translated by Dumitru Staniloae, in “Theological Review”, no. 6-8, Sibiu, 1934.
St. Basil the Great, Writings, part I, chap. 10, Homilies to the Hexaimeron, in “Church Fathers and
Writers”, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1986.
Dumitru Stăniloae, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, vol. I,The Biblical and Mission Institute of the
Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978.
Hubert Reeve s, Patience in Azure - a Cosmic Evolution, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest,
1993.
John D. Barrow, The Origin of the Universe, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008.
Jean-Pierre Longchamp, Science et croyance, Desclee de Brouwer Publishing House, Paris, 1992.
Noel Keith Roberts, From Piltdown Man to Point Omega: the Evolutionary Theory of Teilhard de
Chardin, New York, Peter Lan Publishing House, 2000.
Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time. From the Big Bang to the Black Holes, 2nd Edition,
Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 2018.

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 COSMOLOGY IN THE WORK OF SAINT BASIL THE GREAT

Horia DUMITRESCU*

Abstract: The universe has always challenged the human mind, the seen and the unseen
world has put man in face of a challenge to unravel its mysteries. With the appearance of the Torah,
the Pentateuch, or the five books of Moses (Gale, Hugh, Coomber, 2016, p. 70), (even though none
of them explicitly states that Moses was the author) of the Biblical account of Genesis, things start
to settle down, not to mention the inherent challenges of questions that needed more clarification
about the beginnings of the universe (from the famous Big Bang theory to evolutionary theories,
etc.) Absolute divinity or certain gods were seen only as demiurges who processed pre-existing
matter. At other times the world was seen as an emanation of the being of divinity. The pantheism
of ancient thought transformed man into a wheel of a huge mechanism that relentlessly crushed
any aspiration for freedom (Pr. Dumitru Popescu, 1993, p. 76).
Keywords: God, Bible, creation, world, universe.

The creation of the world in the homilies of Saint Basil the Great
The ancient world was not aware of the concept of creation in the true sense of the
word, starting from the premise of the identity between God and the world, sacralising
the world, considering it coeternal with God, and implicitly of divine essence (pantheistic
conception) or from deist, dualistic conceptions specific to Zoroastrianism which spoke
of the separation between God and the world, of the incompatibility between spirit and
matter.
These cosmological conceptions of antiquity were confronted by the Holy Fathers
of the fourth century when they formulated the Christian teaching about the creation of
the world by God the Trinity, out of nothing in time. In their confrontation with ancient
philosophy, the Holy Fathers professed the dogma of Genesis and God the Creator,
fighting idolatrous pantheism from the beginning of the Church, as monism appeared in
Heraclid’s philosophy or the dualism between the transcendence of God and the
immanence of the created world.
The world in which man lived has always attracted St Basil the Great’s attention
and fascinated him due to its very impenetrable depths. That is why its origin and purpose
are found as the main themes in all human philosophical and religious systems. In the
Christian writings of the first centuries, the work Homilies on Hexaemeron by St. Basil
the Great, Archbishop of Caesarea Cappadocia, is one of the most beautiful
interpretations of the biblical account of the genesis.
In the vision of St. Basil the Great, but also of other Church Fathers, such as St.
Maximus the Confessor (Maximus the Confessor, 2000, p. 16), St. Athanasius the Great
(Athanasius the Great, 1987, p. 91), Theophilus of Antioch (Theophilus of Antioch, 1997,
p. 377), Gregory of Nyssa (1998, pp. 92-98) the world is a rational work of God, known
in the Torah as YHWH, Yahweh, Elohim (Gale, Hugh, Coomber, 2016, p. 70). The
teachings of the Holy Fathers of the early Church are based primarily on the belief that
the Holy Scriptures are inspired by God, and if He inspired them, then it must be His
word, and if it is His word, then it must be true. The word of the Holy Apostle Peter
testifies to this: „Being conscious in the first place that no man by himself may give a

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

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special sense to the words of the prophets. For these words did not ever come through the
impulse of men: but the prophets had them from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit”
(2 Peter I, 20-21). From this we know that Moses did not invent Genesis; it was given to
him by God Himself.
The world is founded on the will of God who brings everything into existence, out
of nothing, in time (Ibidem, p. 90).
The biblical account of the appearance of this tangible world is the basis of the
theological thinking of St. Basil the Great and of all orthodox theological thinking, so the
biblical origin and its validation by the Holy Fathers of the teaching on creation ex nixilo
- God did not take the world out of Himself, nor out of anything else (Fr. Dumitru
Stăniloae 1987, p. 240), is very vast, not limited only to the biblical account of Genesis,
but somehow includes exceptionally the entire Revelation, the Holy Scripture and the
Holy Tradition (Grigore Dinu Moș, 2020, p.14).
Uttered somewhat as baptismal catechesis during the Holy Week of 378, the
Hexaemeron Homilies of St. Basil the Great could be interpreted primarily as confessions
of faith in God - the Creator of heaven and earth.
The homilies of Saint Basil the Great regarding the creation of the world out of
nothing have a rhetorical character, but also homiletic at the same time making critical
references to the main cosmological conceptions of his time, rejecting almost all these
conceptions that serve only as contrasting and discourse elements, to affirm and thus
emphasize only the biblical and patristic teaching (Protos. asist. PhD Vasile Bîrzu, 2009,
p. 129)
The philosophers of his time and those before him, says St. Basil, did not lay a
rational cause at the foundation of the creation of the Universe, but ran to material
hypotheses that were more convenient to them, attributing to the elements of this world
the cause of the creation of the universe, these attempts at explaining the origin of the
universe being likened by St. Basil to a spider’s web as fragility of argument (Saint Basil
the Great, 2004, p. 73)
Thus St. Basil does not attach himself to any ancient cosmological system, but
instead criticizes them in order to detach his believers from the pagan philosophical
beliefs and conceptions that deified creation.
At the beginning of his work, Saint Basil sheds light on how he approaches the
problem of the creation of the Universe, “I am about to speak of the creation of heaven
and earth, which was not spontaneous, as some have imagined, but drew its origin from
God.” (Ibidem, p. 71) and the mind of man cannot comprehend the depths of God’s mind.
Reading the Scripture that says that “At the first God made the heaven and the
earth.” (Genesi, 1:1) the author stops in front of this manifestation of the Creator’s love.
What could one say? The words fail to come. The timid attempts to interpret this
beginning disappear, but the pagan theories make him break his word and begin his
interpretation.
“At the first” is not written by Moses by chance, lest it be believed that this world
is without beginning, that it has always existed without someone to do it, and says “made”
to show the creative power of God, by using the analogy of a potter, who, after making a
clay pot, or more, does not exhaust his trade and power to continue working, so is the
power of God, unlimited. St. Basil resorts to the text of the Old Testament evangelist, the
prophet Isaiah: “But now, O Lord, you are our father; we are the earth, and you are our
maker; and we are all the work of your hand!” (Isaia, 64:7) revealing to him this image
of the creation of man from clay.

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 It marks both the frontier of eternity and time, “a kind of timeless moment in itself,
but the outpouring of which arouses time, the point of touch, one might say, of the divine
will with what, from non-existence to existence, begins now, and without ceasing to
begin, it becomes and lasts”. (Olivier Clément, 1957, p. 134)
Knowing that the Universe has a Creator, a beginning, St. Basil urges us to seek
to know better this wonderful architect of the seen and unseen world, “the beginning of
existences, the source of life, the spiritual light, the unapproachable wisdom” (Saint Basil
the Great, 2004, p. 73) in order to understand how and in what way this wonderful world
in which we live appeared.
The analogy with the circle is simply wonderful, as, at first sight it has no
beginning and no end, looking at a circle we cannot distinguish the place where it begins
or the place where it ends, but this does not mean that the one who drew it did not start
from somewhere and did not bring the drawing to the point that completes the perfection
of the circle. If these aspects escape our senses, this does not mean that they do not exist,
but they have in their reason a meaning that someone has given.
Everything has a beginning has an end, nothing is eternal, only God is, so this
world, however beautiful it may be, no matter how much we attach ourselves to it, is not
eternal, just as we, its inhabitants, are no longer eternal.
How can you not contemplate and not want to know the One who made time
better? The Eternal in His Thought has set time in motion and gives St. Basil the Great a
beautiful description of time “whose past is gone, whose future is not yet present, and
whose present flees before it is well known?” (Ibidem, p. 76)
The whole of Creation is subject to time, so in the reason of its existence the world
has a beginning, a present, and no doubt an end. This final moment of the world is still in
God’s wonderful thinking “And I saw a new heaven and a new earth: for the first heaven
and the first earth were gone; and there was no more sea” (Revelation XXI,1). This means
that the world is still changing. The world in which we live and the new heaven and the
new earth must not be thought of in chronological order: “now” only this world, “then
only the new heaven and earth”.
Before the seen world, God placed the unseen world in our senses: “For by Him
all things were made, in heaven and on earth, things seen and things unseen, authorities,
lords, rulers, and powers; all things were made by him and for him.” (Colossians I, 16)
This is the way in which the fact that God made the heavens in the beginning and
then laid down the earth which it made “waste and without form” (Genesis I, 2) should
be deciphered because God had a logic of bringing into existence everything He was
going to do. It was not chaos that created the world, it was not chance that built the earth,
but God made them all very well. God did the first for the needs of those who followed,
because nature follows a path that gradually leads to perfection.
Saint Basil defines heaven in a naturalistic and material way by comparing it,
inspired by the Prophet Isaiah, with a tent, its nature being “a continuous body” compared
to the “thick and dense canvas of the tent” which, by God’s command , “suddenly spread
and encompassed those within it, separating those on the inside from those on the outside,
necessarily darkening the place from which it parted, interrupting the light on the outside
and thus producing the darkness from the beginning of the world that came from the
shadow of the heavenly body” (Protos. asist. PhD. Vasile Bîrzu, op. cit., p. 141).
It should be noted here that St. Basil actually preaches the biblical cosmogonic
doctrine to the faithful, constantly arguing with the opinions of various ancient thinkers,
only inventorying their elements and not totally adhering to any such element, his own

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doctrine thus specifying from these approaches only these doctrinal elements, approaches
that must be carefully deduced from the context (Ibidem).
The Spirit of God was hovering over this still untouched earth, Scripture says
above the waters, and St. Basil uses the explanation of a Syrian father who finds a deep
meaning in the word “behaving” in his mother tongue, namely that he warmed and
prepared the waters for the birth of life (Saint Basil the Great, op. cit., p. 92).
“Let there be light!” (Genesis I, 3) – God’s first word. At His word, the light
appeared, “It dispelled the darkness, put an end to sorrow, cheered the world, brought at
once, over all and sundry, a merry and pleasant sight.” (Ibidem, p. 93)
Light was from the beginning, for God is light, as His Son, born of the Father,
testifies before all eternity: “I am the light of the world; he who comes with me will not
be walking in the dark but will have the light of life.” (John 8:12)
Everything we know was made in light, we know and see them because we have
light. The resurrection of the Son of God is enveloped in light. “Come and receive the
light! The light of Christ shines on all” is the exhortation and call of the Church to the
service of the Resurrection.
New command: „Let there be a solid arch stretching over the waters!” This solid
arch is also called Heaven, and St. Basil emphasizes the importance of this nomination
of the arch, asking the Greek philosophers not to laugh at it, but first to come to an
understanding between themselves about this aspect.
In God there is the power to make heaven and heaven, and the words of the
psalmist David who writes “the heavens of heavens” (Psalm CXLVIII, 4) or “the heaven
of heaven” (Psalms LXVII, 34, CXIII, 24) testify to such a reality, and the testimony of
the Holy Apostle Paul who says that he was abducted to the third heaven (II Corinthians
12:2).
By this St. Basil, keeping true to the Scriptures, brings an improvement of the
cosmological model of the ancient philosophers, accepting and affirming the existence of
several heavens, but all originated in the creative power of God sufficient to bring more
heavens to existence (Protos. asist. PhD. Vasile Bîrzu, op. cit., p. 144).
Throughout his presentation, Saint Basil tries to be as explicit as possible, to
reduce speech as much as possible, in order to be easier to understand by those to whom
he addressed these words.
The earth bears the fruit of God’s command, grass of all kinds, and when you pass
a plant, a blade of grass, remember the Source of Life, the Reason of all, God, but also its
fragility and little time on earth, remembering these, you can’t help but think about your
days: “Man like grass, his days like the flower of the field; that’s how it will flourish.
That the wind has passed over him and his place will not be and will not be known yet”
(Psalm CV, 15-16), and the prophet says: “All flesh is grass, and all its strength like the
flower of the field” (Isaiah 40:6).
This little commandment was immediately transformed into a powerful law of
nature and a masterly reason, the earth has this commandment in it, and now it compels
it, every season of the year, to reveal its power for the growth of plants, seeds, and trees
(Saint Basil the Great, op. cit., p. 130).
God made the heavens and the earth, the light, the day and the night, the earth, the
plants, after all that He made the sun and the moon, the lights and the stars. The questions
of many regarding the light created before the celestial bodies are justified, but they
receive an answer from Saint Basil: “God ordained the sun to measure the day, and the
moon was made the mistress of the night, when the moon is full; as then the two celestial
bodies stand almost straight in front of each other. When the sun rises, the moon, in full

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moonlight, lowers and disappears, and at sunrise it appears again on the eastern side”
(Ibidem, p. 135), so the sun will shine during the day, and the moon will be the light of
the night (Didymus the Blind, 2016, p. 49).
The fourth day of Genesis gives a lot of trouble to those who would like to arrange
the six days in a chronology of our logic, because this is completely impossible to do if
the sun was really created on the fourth day.
The original light, created on the first day, did not need a body to encompass it. At
the end of the world, “the sun shall be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light,
and the stars shall fall from heaven” (Matthew 14:30); and in the Kingdom of Heaven, as
on the first day of the Genesis, there will again be light without sun and moon — for “the
city has no need of sun or moon to shine in it, for the glory of God did make it light”
(Revelation, 21:23). But these are mysteries on which we can only make assumptions
A commandment came again, “To bring forth the creeping waters, and the living
creatures, and the fowls of the air, all after their kind”, thus, “water was forced to keep
the commandments of the Builder.” The unspeakable and great power of God has shown
all kinds of living things in the waters to be living, working, and moving, and it is
impossible to count their species, for at the same time by the commandment the waters
have received the capacity to give birth.” (Saint Basil the Great, op. cit., p. 147)
The impetus of water towards life (or the origin of life in water) is today a central
thesis of biology; surprising is the resemblance between the organic soup of the oceans,
of which today’s scientists speak, and the expression of St. Basil, who says that frogs,
midges and mosquitoes come out of the water of ponds and swamps, like boiled water.
All that has been done has its own order, all is in the eternal thought of God. The
fruiting of the waters was followed, at God’s word, the fruiting of the earth: “let the earth
bring forth the living soul after its kind, with four feet, and creeping things, and beasts
after the manner”, and the word was fulfilled in full obedience. The formulation according
to their kind refers to the different species created by God (Barton, Muddiman, 2001, p.
43).
“The souls of the unspeakable was not shown, it being hidden in the earth, but
was created with their bodies at the command of the Builder.” (Saint Basil the Great, op.
cit., p. 172) With this creative work, everything is ready for the appearance of man, who
would be lord over all. But the great edifice is not only for the practical use of man. She
has something mysterious; being the good edification of the Almighty God, it can lift our
minds to Him.
Perhaps no part of the Scripture depicts God’s fearful greatness so well in His
edification and, by comparison, man’s nothingness, like the place where God speaks to
Job in the whirlwind and the cloud: “Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the
earth? declare, if thou hast understanding. Who hath laid the measures thereof, if thou
knowest? or who hath stretched the line upon it? Whereupon are the foundations thereof
fastened? or who laid the corner stone thereof; When the morning stars sang together, and
all the sons of God shouted for joy? Or who shut up the sea with doors, when it brake
forth, as if it had issued out of the womb? When I made the cloud the garment thereof,
and thick darkness a swaddling band for it, And brake up for it my decreed place, and set
bars and doors, And said, Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further: and here shall thy
proud waves be stayed? Hast thou commanded the morning since thy days; and caused
the dayspring to know his place; That it might take hold of the ends of the earth, that the
wicked might be shaken out of it? It is turned as clay to the seal; and they stand as a
garment. (Job, 38:4-14)

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 The homily of St. Basil the Great concludes with a brief recollection of the biblical
account of the creation of man. After everything has been created and as the biblical
account says, it was created well, at the end of this process of creation, God makes man
(Barton, Muddiman, 2001, p. 92).
The crown of His creation, the one that God makes by the work of His hands,
taking the earth and molding the body by blowing upon it the breath of life, the one that
God has made to rule everything. “Let us make man in our image (șelem) like us (demut),
and let him have rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over the
cattle and over all the earth and over every living thing which goes flat on the earth.”
(Genesis, I:26)
Behold, God hath not said, Let it be; Let it come out! Let it break up! He now says:
Let us make! Who? Who is “us”? Whom does he speak to? To the One who said: “Father
and I are one” and: “He who has seen me has seen the Father. “He says to him, “Let us
make man in our own image”. So where is one face, where is the difference? (Saint Basil
the Great, op. cit., p. 179)
The Trinity reveals itself and gives man the honor of having the image of the
Creator, having the potential to acquire resemblance. No other creature is described like
this, man is like that imago Dei (Haynes, Krüger, 2017, p. 677)

Conclusions
In his work Homilies on Hexaemeron, Saint Basil the Great emphasizes from the
outset how the human mind must be prepared to receive the truth about God’s work,
namely by emptying the mind of worldly worries, despair of the body, careful research
of God’s creation.
This work is an apologetic one, without constituting its own cosmological system,
it highlights the need for faith, probably aware of the possible contradiction between its
interpretations and the meaning of other theories of creation of a philosophical or
scientific nature, it being compulsory for this effort of knowledge to find out its finality
in the glory of God in any circumstance: „if it seems to you that something may be true
of what has been said, then move your admiration to God, Who has ordained them thus!
That the admiration for the great things of nature does not diminish if one reveals the
image in which God made them. And if you do not consider them true, your simple faith
should be stronger than your logical arguments” (Saint Basil the Great, op. cit., p. 179)
So the patristic teaching clearly states that God, although he could have created
everything at once, chose to create in steps of ever-increasing perfection, each step being
the work of a moment or a very short period of time, culminating in making man, the king
of edification; and the whole work is completed not in an instant, nor in a period of
indefinite length, but rather in the midst of these extremes, in exactly six days.
It is clear that St. Basil warns us to refrain from explaining things in Genesis that
are difficult for common sense to understand; modern man does this easily. Therefore, let
us strive to understand the Holy Scriptures as the Fathers understood them, and not
according to our modern wisdom. And let us not be content with the opinion of one Holy
Father, but let us also examine the opinions of other Holy Fathers.

Bibliography
*** The Oxford Bible Commentary, edited by John Barton and John Muddiman, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 2001
*** The Pentateuch, Fortress Commentary on the Bible Study Edition, Edited by Gale A. Yee,
Hugh R. Page Jr., Matthew J. M. Coomber, Fortress Press, Minneapolis, 2016

134
Atanasie cel Mare, Tratat despre Întruparea Cuvântului, în P.S.B., vol. 15, Ed. I.B.M.B.O.R.,
București, 1987
Bîrzu, Protos. Asist. dr. Vasile, Cerul şi cosmosul în „Hexaimeronul” Sfântului Vasile cel Mare, în
Revista Teologică, nr. 4, 2009
Olivier Clément, Notes sur le temps, în: Messager de l’Exarchat du Patriarche Russe en Europe
Occidentale, 27, 1957
Didymus the Blind, Commentary on Genesis, The Catholic University of America Press,
Washington, D.C., 2016
Grigorie de Nyssa, Sf., Cuvânt apologetic la Hexaemeron, în P.S.B. vol 30, Ed. I.B.M.B.O.R.,
Bucureşti, 1998
Haynes, Matthew, Krüger, P. Paul, Creation Rest: Genesis 2:1-3 and the First Creation Account,
OTE 30/3, 2017
Maxim Mărturisitorul, Mystagogia, Ed. I.B.M.B.O.R., Bucureşti, 2000
Moș, Grigore Dinu, Creația ex nixilo, o abordare dogmatică, Ed. Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2020
Popescu, Pr. Dumitru, Teologie şi Cultură, Ed. IBMBOR, Bucureşti, 1993
Sfântul Vasile cel Mare, Omilii la Hexaemeron, trad. de Pr. D. Fecioru, Editura IBMBOR,
Bucureşti, 2004
Stăniloae, Pr. Prof. Dr. Dumitru, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, Vol. I, Ed. IBMBOR, Bucureşti,
1987
Idem, Chipul nemuritor al lui Dumnezeu, Ed. Mitropoliei Craiova, 1987
Teofil al Antiohiei, Cartea întâi către Autolic, în volumul Apologeţi de limbă greacă, Ed.
I.B.M.B.O.R., Bucureşti, 1997

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 THE ECLECTIC CONJUNCTURE ON THE REPRESENTATION
OF THE ICON UP TO THE 19th CENTURY FROM A HISTORICAL
AND STYLISTIC POINT OF VIEW

Maria- Cătălina GHINEA*

Abstract: The icon on the wooden panel is characterised by a stylistic and technological
development over time, being in an interdependence with the social environment. Thus, the manner
of representation is correlated with the social side and with the fashion of the time, as well as with
man’s way of perception and understanding. As we move towards the nineteenth century we can
witness an increase in demand, production, but also a decrease in quality, technique and
iconographic manner of representation.
Keywords: icon panel, historical course, stylistic evolution, nineteenth century, Romanian
territory, iconostasis, technological route.

The icon in the ensemble of the iconostasis becomes an integral part of this
complex, through its image it shows “the truth par excellence” 1. The icon becomes
transcendental, a path to timelessness, creating the link between the prosaic and
sacredness. The saints are always represented from the front or turned three-quarters, and
they are not to be seen in profile - precisely to render their omnipresence; the profile being
understood as an absence from the viewer.2 The honouring that is brought to them is due
to their likeness, which is why the art of creating icons lies under the full guidance of the
Holy Spirit. They are part of the liturgical life, representing Jesus as both man and God,
as a perfect unity.
The 787 Seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicaea combated the iconoclasm that
argued that there are no prayers for honouring icons that could provide them with the
transition to the divine, icons remain at the status of object created by the painter. The
Fathers explained that their veneration is due to the prototype, the icon being “the image
that shows resemblance by imitating the prototype”. Thus, one does not worship matter,
but rather the Creator of matter. The icon becomes the object of worship and the mediator
of divine Grace only when it refers to the prototype, therefore it was entirely created by
fulfilling the “dogmatic, sacramental, ascetic and artistic requirements of Tradition and
received as such by the conscience of the Church”3.
This is nothing more than the aesthetic presentation of the Holy Scripture that has
the role of communicating both a historical reality and a dogmatic truth by means of the
image, offering in an unmediated manner the possibility to witness a current and active
“liturgical transformation4. The iconographic type has a spiritual richness, its beauty
being a mysterious one, far from the worldly things, inscribed in immortality.

* Valahia University of Târgoviște, [email protected]

1 Leonid Uspensky, Boris Bobrinskoy, Stephan Bigam, Ioan Bizău, Ce este icoana? Reîntregirea

Publishing house, Alba- Iulia, 2005, p. 67.

2 Ibidem, p.78.
3Leonid Uspensky, Boris Bobrinskoy, Stephan Bigam, Ioan Bizău, op. cit., p. 211.
4Ibidem, p. 216.

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 Thus, the excessive addition of the worldly feature desecrates, leading to a
diminution of the spiritual side, distorted by modernism. The icon, through its
authenticity, must come very close to the era represented by the prototype.

The symbolism of colours

One can talk about a symbolism of colours, which become attributes of different
painted characters, thus rendering the transcendentalist character of the world: white -
purity (found in the representation of angels and elders in the apocalypse; in the clothes
of hierarchs), red - life, blood, (the wings of seraphim ), green - peace, blue - kindness,
dark blue (the mantle of the Pantocrator, the garment of the Virgin Mary); black - the
absence of light, (monks’ clothes as a symbol for the highest degree of asceticism), brown
- the density of matter (painting monarchs’ clothes as a symbol of poverty), yellow -
cadaverous colour, light yellow - a symbol of danger (the horse of the apocalypse); purple
- royalty and death (priestly vestment).
The end of the iconoclastic period also marked the placement of icons on the
iconostasis. The iconostasis (gr. Icon = image, statis = settlement), also called the temple,
represents the wall between the nave and the apse of the altar. It is not a separating element
of the two spaces, but on the contrary, one that unites them. The images depicted on the
iconostasis are an illustration of the Mystery that takes place beyond it, in the sacred space
of the altar. The iconostasis commemorates the curtain that separated the Holy of Holies
from the Holy One, both at the Tabernacle of Testimony and at the Jewish temple in
Jerusalem.
The iconostasis, also called a temple, is presented as a wall (made of a wall proper,
of wood or of metal) on which are hung or inlaid a number of icons, in a well-established
theological order. Although some consider the iconostasis to be a dividing wall between
the altar and the nave, its main role has always been that of an icon display device. In
ancient times, the iconostasis could be underdeveloped, sometimes presenting only two
icons: the Saviour and the Mother of God. It developed especially after the victory of
Orthodoxy against iconoclasm, reaching the unitary form and structure we know today,
with several rows of icons, in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.
The earliest mention of an early type of iconostasis appears in the Book of
Ceremonies (864-1204), which describes the moment of the Liturgy in which the kiss of
peace is given: the emperor and the patriarch kissed on a railing.

From the cancellum to the iconostasis

The first type of iconostasis was called the cancellum and appeared in the form of
a low fence, at the border between the nave and the altar. Over time, the cancellum
developed, the first stage consisting in the appearance of columns and an architrave,
decorated with geometric motifs. Later on, icons will be placed in the spaces between the
columns and on the architrave. Initially, they were made of the same material as the
iconostasis. Movable icons could be separated or could form a frieze (epistle). The frieze-
type ones were placed on the architrave and were fewer in number than the separate ones.
The iconostasis reveals to us as unfolding vertically: the image of the Church, the
history of the created image, the image of God and the ways of God in the history of
man’s salvation. The whole life is summed up by the iconostasis in the form of the
intercession of the saints and angels who pray with us, those who participate in the church
services.

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 The iconostasis as we know it today will appear in Russia in the thirteenth century.
In Orthodoxy, in principle, the church - “heaven on earth”, must be entirely an icon of the
Kingdom.
During the golden age of Russian iconography, the iconostasis will reach
monumental proportions, as in the case of the Kremlin’s Annunciation Cathedral (1405),
the first known example of this1.
At the end of the 15th century, the fourth row of icons (dedicated to the prophets)
would appear, and in the sixteenth century, the fifth row (icons of biblical patriarchs)
would appear.2.
This model of iconostasis with five rows of icons will spread throughout the
Orthodox world from the seventeenth century, even if, under Western influence, it will
take various forms, especially in Russia: the Baroque iconostasis (such as that of St. Peter
and Paul’s Cathedral, 1720) or, conversely, the classical iconostasis, with an ever-
decreasing number of icons3.
In its classical form, from the sixteenth century onwards, the iconostasis generally
has a maximum of five rows / registers of icons (from bottom to top):
1. The first row symbolizes the fighting Church (on earth) and especially the local
Church, making the connection between heaven and earth visible; it includes 4:
• the royal icons of Christ (to the right of the royal gate for the beholder) and the
Mother of God with the Infant (to the left);
• the royal gates with the icon of the Annunciation and the four Evangelists (in the
middle); St. Basil the Great and St. John Chrysostom, with written Liturgies,
may also appear on the royal gates in place of the Evangelists5;
• two deacons side doors on which the faces of the Archangels Michael and
Gabriel or of the deacons Stephen, Philip or Lawrence are painted; on the south
door St. Dismas, the good thief, can sometimes be represented;
• the icon of the patron saint of the church (on the right) and Saint Nicholas or
Saint John the Baptist (on the left);
• In the Russian tradition, there may be another row of side doors, as well as the
icon of the second patron saint of the church.
Scenes can be painted in the space left under the Imperial Icons, provided they are directly
related to the subject depicted in the icons above them. Usually, however, this space is
occupied by geometric or plant decorative motifs.
2. The second row: the icons of the feasts, that is, of the great feasts, having the icon of
the Last Supper or the Mahrama of the Lord (Mandylion) in the centre; this is the time of
the coming of Christ the Saviour on earth and the establishment of the Law of Grace,
which replaces the old Law.
3. The third row: the faces of the 12 apostles and in the middle the icon of Deisis (with
Christ the Judge sitting on the throne, accompanied by the Mother of God and St. John
the Baptist) or the Holy Trinity; sometimes angels or holy bishops, monks or martyrs may

1http://www.crestinortodox.ro/liturgica/arhitectura-bisericeasca/iconostasul-118670.html,

14.11.2021.
2 Idem.
3 Idem.
4 Leonid Uspensky, Teologia icoanei în Biserica Ortodoxă, Anastasia Publishing House, Bucharest,

1994, p. 126.
5 Ibidem, p. 127.

138
appear here, this line symbolizing the fruits of the Incarnation and Pentecost, as well as
the Church’s prayer for the world. The order of the second and third rows is variable:
sometimes the Feasts appear first, sometimes the Apostles.
4. The fourth row: 12 old and small prophets of the Old Testament with the icon of the
Mother of God with the Infant (Prayer) in the middle. This line represents the world under
the Old Law, the Law of Moses, centred on the Mother of God, because this is the centre
of all prophecies.
5. The fifth row: very rarely, this fifth line appears, that of the Patriarchs from the Old
Testament, up to the Patriarch Abraham, with the first representation of the Holy Trinity
from the Oak of Mamvri in the centre. This line presents the world from Adam to the
establishment of the Law of Moses.
6. Above, in the middle of the iconostasis, there rises the Cross of the Lord, with the Icon
of the Mother of God and that of St. John the Apostle on one side and on the other, not
being considered an independent register. Thus, the iconostasis is a synthetic
recapitulation of the history of salvation.

The narrative spirit is found in the reading of seventeenth- and eighteenth-

century icons, mainly in popular icon painting.
In the Romanian Principalities, the Balkan world, and the Middle East, however,
liturgical themes appear much less frequently. The oldest icons of great artistic value
belong to the group of painters from Ohrid, a very important centre for understanding the
prototypes of some of the oldest Romanian icons from the sixteenth century. The second
group consists of Greek or local icons, who had Serbian sponsors, being worked in the
Byzantine workshops.
From a temporal point of view, there are three major periods: the period in which
the icons are directly related to their Egyptian and Coptic source, made in the Middle
East, having a common character with miniature and mural painting. The second includes
Byzantine icons, proper, related to the tradition of Hellenistic painting, centred on
Constantinople, Thessaloniki, where they spread in the Balkan world, and in Eastern
Europe, influencing creation in Serbia, Bulgaria, the Romanian Principalities and Russia.
The so-called icons of the Venetian-Cretan school, made especially after the fall
of Byzantium under Ottoman rule, in the island world of Greece and Venice, produced
the synthesis between the Byzantine and Western art of the pre-Renaissance and Italian
Renaissance. These have found a wide spread in the Balkan countries and in the Romanian
world.
With the penetration of Christianity on the territory of our country through the
Greek colonies on the Black Sea and the Roman legions, Paleo-Christian ideology and art
became known1.
Romanian icons have their own features with some original notes, especially in
Moldova and Transylvania. Technically, most of the Romanian and Balkan icons are
painted in tempera on wood, equivalent to medieval-western painting.
In terms of themes, the icons of the first stage are rather portraits, starting with
the second half of the sixteenth century and the following one, there frequently appear
evangelical themes, feasts, episodes from the lives of the saints, the history of the church,
whilst liturgical themes are rarely presented.
In general, the icon – a portrait in sixteenth-century Wallachia and Moldova –
reproduces with some small local peculiarities the old prototypes related to the works of

1 Alexandru Efremov, Icoane Românești, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002, p. 98.

139
the famous Byzantine art centre from Ohrid, from the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries, at
the same time being very particularly careful about the technique of execution, a character
that is lost in the nineteenth century.
The borders between Bulgaria, which today is the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia,
Romania, Greece and Albania are constantly changing, which has led to the production
of such different works: as those in the Marco monastery near Skopje; representing some
of the most eloquent documents of Palaeolithic art, or the glass icons of Transylvania,
painted during the Habsburg domination in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Icon painting technique

The term “icon” has never been associated with any particular technique or
material. We can already read from the writings of the Seventh Ecumenical Council of
Nicaea in 787, which was of central importance for the worship of images: “And we
therefore decide, with all care and faith, that the venerable and sacred images, which were
made in the same way as the venerable and life-giving cross, with paintings or mosaics,
or other worthy material, in a proper manner, to be exalted and worshiped in the holy
places of God”. By another “worthy material” were meant, among other things, ivory,
gold, silver, and inferior metals, textiles, and marble.

The wood used as a support for the icon until the seventeenth century is: maple,
cherry, hair, very rarely yew, often especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
linden is used1.
The method of preparation is similar to that used by painters in mural painting. It
was observed even in the second layer, applied, the presence of some vegetable fibres,
probably flax, which contributes to the increase of the adhesion to the wood.

Preparation of the support from a geographical perspective

In Wallachia: the preparation layer is applied directly on the wood.
In Moldova: the existence of strips of cloth for the unification of the edges, and
of the joint areas, or on the whole surface.

1Corina Niculescu, Icoane vechi românești, second revised edition, Meridiane Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1973, p. 157.

140
 In Transylvania: the material means are modest, the preparation layer is applied
directly on the wood, it is very thin and friable, presenting a weak resistance.
Given that we are under the influence of Byzantine art, during the Middle Ages we
can identify three techniques of painting: fresco, wooden icon, miniature used for
decorating religious manuscripts, for stationery or literary works.
One of the oldest miniatures is the Tetraevangelium of Mrs. Marina, illustrated by
the monk Gavril Uric in 1429, preserved today at the Bodleian Library in Oxford 1.
It is noteworthy that we do not have a collection of icons on wood preserved from
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in the area of Wallachia and Moldova, whereas in
the area of Transylvania we find polyptych altars or altarpieces (of several components),
according to the fashion of the time regarding ecclesiastical art.
These are of two types: fixed and mobile. In the case of the fixed ones, we are
talking about large panels meant to separate the choir from the nave of the church at the
Catholics, being complementary to the temple from the Orthodox churches.
As for the mobile ones, travel altars, which are portable, are composed of small
panels that fold like a book, fastened with the help of hinges.
Through these polyptych-type altars we notice the breakthrough of the western
painting with a portrayal of the bodies in three dimensions, one can observe elements of
perspective, slightly rudimentary in a first phase.
The painter Thomas from Cluj, an exponent of the fifteenth-century Transylvanian
art, was the one who painted the oldest polyptych altar, being also the one who created
the link to the European artistic movement.
The icons from the sixteenth century existing in the three Romanian Principalities
also differ from the late ones through a series of style features. In the oldest ones, the
figures have a statuary character, the garments cover the body, being modelled in wide
touches that slide in the direction of the shape. The shadows are in most cases made tone
by tone, and the lights are laid out, with white or light ochre. The silhouettes have the
proportion of those in mural paintings, whilst the elegance of the movements, the
internalized expression of the figures, the statuary character made from the modelling of
the bodies by the ancient curtains are found in the painting of churches, in miniatures,
embroideries, from the time of Stephen the Great and his descendants.

1 Vasile Florea, Arta Românească de la origini până în prezent, Litera Publishing House, Bucharest,

2016, p. 132.

141
 The icons from the seventeenth century, in Moldova as well as in Wallachia, are
made is a less careful manner, from a technical point of view, the craftsmen sometimes
give less importance to the wooden support, in most cases lime, the preparation layer
being also deficient. The colours are richer and more vivid than in the past, they are
sometimes spread in large spots, over which the patterning of the curtains is done
conventionally, with regular gold hatches. At this stage the distribution of shadows and
lights occurs completely artificially. The drawing gradually loses its synthetic character,
the painters no longer render the statuary proportion, and the figures no longer have the
expression of feelings. We are in fact in the stage of the mannerism of the Romanian
feudal painting, where the picturesque details, the filigree line, the brightness of the colour
make up for the loss of the monumental conception. However, we find landscapes and
architectures that show the tendency to render the depth of the space and the evocation of
local monumental silhouettes.
Since the late Byzantine period, there has been a certain technique that has become
widespread in the art of icons, which was the painting in tempera in which the binder
medium was an emulsion of egg yolk with water. This was one of the oldest painting
techniques used in antiquity (for a large number of portraits of Egyptian mummies) and
was also described by Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) in Book 35 of his Naturalis Historia
(Natural History). Each icon created in this technique has four layers: first, the support of
the painting - the wooden panel, then the primer (levkas in Russian), made of chalk
powder, or alabaster and a binder of animal glue of 3-5 mm – it had to remain white and
homogeneous, completely smooth and firm, the third layer was that of the paint itself,
consisting of pigments mixed with egg emulsion, finally the protective layer composed of
vegetable oils or varnish.
The support for portable icons has, from time immemorial, been exclusively made
of well-prepared wood. The painting was done on the side facing the inside of the trunk,

142
which in time tended to bend outwards. The vertical lines in the painting corresponded to
the lines of the wood. For smaller icons, one panel was usually sufficient, but for larger
ones, several panels were joined together by horizontal bars placed on the reverse. These
bars should preferably be a single stronger wood, while also having the role of preventing
bending. The part to be painted was slightly deepened - reserved for the main motif, and
the edge raised around it was often painted with figures of saints or explanatory texts.
Later the icons were painted on straight, unpainted boards, on canvas or panels of
relatively small size. To avoid cracks in the colour film transmitted by the wood, cloth
strips are applied before applying the primer to the joints.
There followed the preparatory drawing made on the primer, and the areas to be
covered with metal sheets - gold and silver - were drawn with a pen.
Painting in the eighteenth century can be distinguished by the transition to another
stylistic quality, considering the fact that we are talking about a period in which decorative
arts and sculpture are in an irremediable decline.
There is a phenomenon of importing paintings, as an example we can mention the
easel painting The Adoration of the Magi, brought to the Church of St. Michael in Cluj,
belonging to the painter A. Fr. Maulpertsch. This is defining for the stylistic peculiarities:
slender architecture, the use of theatrical props, compositional dynamism, rhetoric,
allegory.
But what remains with a wide development is also the religious painting, the mural
painting and the icons. But we have an insertion of profane elements, the baroque is also
felt at the level of stylistic elements.
A stylistic unity is worth noting, due to the teams of painters south of the
Carpathians, in terms of art from Transylvania and Wallachia, which will look like a
national school.
The iconographic models of Western art are quickly integrated, with a certain ease,
the elements of the Baroque become complementary to the Byzantine tradition, the spirit
of justice is deeply noticed in the scenes due to the life situations or historical characters
introduced, all these are beautifully combined in the painting of wooden churches.
Painting in the Romanian Middle Ages stands out, in addition to the three
hypostases (the fresco, the icon on wood and the miniature), through a fourth one - the
easel painting.
This trend is also on the import chain, producing at the same time a total change
of perception so that from a predominantly religious or thematic painting that came from
the sacred environment, the independent secular painting was introduced.
We can mention the small insertions of the laic in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, but they were still under the sign of medieval religious painting.
“Thin painters” are detached from “thick painters”, they can have a higher demand
from the classes with a higher economic contribution, these being the ones who wanted
new type of art.
We thus mention the painter Grigore Frujinescu - the Painter, who introduced in
the Romanian religious painting the procedures of the Renaissance art for the first time.
Thus, we can notice the chiaroscuro, the perspective, the shadow cast, being thus the one
who starts the new painting in Romania.
In Romanian art, however, we do not have the element of novelty compared to
primitivii italieni (those from the Duecento and Trecento, such as Cimabue, Giotto,
Simone Martini, Duccio, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Uccello, etc.), we notice a work where
clumsiness, conventionalism of the image, suggests a primitivism marked by naivety.

143
 Thus, the painting on the panel is of course continued until the nineteenth century,
the wood remaining the most convenient material for small works. The preservation of
the painting on the panel must begin and end with the historical integrity of the object and
the work of art 1.
In the Romanian space from ancient times, the village created a mysterious and
profound symbiosis with the divinity. Places of worship were constructed, which
correspond to its spiritual needs and which reflect the values of Christian-Orthodox
spirituality. The church appears in this space in the form of an intimate place of prayer,
humble and modest as the village dwelling.
The civilization of the Romanian space has always been based on the most
important resource of this region: the vast forests that covered most of the territory of our
country, as well as large parts of Central and Eastern Europe. The handiest building
material, and at the same time the easiest to process, was wood. Unfortunately, however,
there is also the great disadvantage of wood perishability. Therefore, if in the past
centuries the number of wooden churches, compared to the masonry ones, was much
higher, now it is drastically diminished. In fact, it is known that many wall churches were
built on the site of earlier wooden buildings, ruined due to their antiquity 2.

The nineteenth century

The icons from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were often covered by tin,
which was painted yellow to give the appearance of gold. The folds of the clothes, the
rays of the almond tree, the wings, the thrones, were often decorated with metal foil - a
technique known as chrysography, applied only after the paint layer was finished and dry.
The rapid increase in demand for precious icons, which should have been
accessible to those with a social status, has also led to the mechanization of icon
production and the substitution of precious metals, which were previously the norm.
The nineteenth century came with a strong influence of secularized Western art,
which began to be painted even in the monastic schools of Cernica, Căldărușani or Buzău,
the academic icons are influenced by post-Renaissance art, which leads to the loss of the
character of icon as a sacred object of worship, become secular forms of representation.

Conclusion
Thus, we have the representation of a changed paradigm of man – divinity
identification. The image of the sacred, ascetic, of a Byzantine origin is replaced by the
aesthetics of corporeality, of the recognizable portrait that we find in the mundane.

Bibliography
Alexandru Efremov, Icoane românești, Editura Meridiane, București, 2002.
Leonid Uspensky, Teologia icoanei în Biserica Ortodoxă, Editura Anastasia, București, 1994.
Leonid Uspensky, Boris Bobrinskoy, Stephan Bigam, Ioan Bizău, Ce este icoana?, Editura
Reîntregirea Alba-Iulia, 2005.
Radu Creţeanu, Bisericile de lemn din Muntenia, Ed. Meridiane, București, 1968.
Vasile Florea, Arta românească de la origini până în prezent, Editura Litera, 2016.

1 The Structural Conservation of Panel Paintings, Edited by Kathleen Dardes and Andrea Rothe,
in The Getty conservation institute Los Angeles, Proceedings of a symposium at the J. Paul Getty
Museum 24–28 April 1995.
2 Radu Creţeanu, Bisericile de lemn din Muntenia, Meridiane Publishing House, Bucharest, 1968,

p. 6.

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The Structural Conservation of Panel Paintings Edited by Kathleen Dardes and Andreea Rothe, în
The Getty conservation institute Los Angeles, Proceedings of a symposium at the J. Paul Getty
Museum 24–28 April 1995.

145
 THE TEACHING ON CREATION IN THE 4th CENTURY

Gheorghe GÎRBEA*

Abstract: Man was created by God as the crown of creation, in His image and likeness, to
deify himself and to deify the whole of nature. According to Christian teaching, “the supernatural
divine revelation shows us that the world is the work of God, created not from a matter that has
existed forever and is coeternal with God, but out of nothing”. The issue of creation in general, of
the days of creation, and the creation of man in particular, was highlighted, among other topics,
by fourth-century Christian thinkers, the fourth century being known as the golden age thanks to
the works written by the personalities of this period.
Keywords: creation, world, cosmology.

Humankind has always been concerned with the problem of creation and
especially of the origin of the world, to which various answers have been given in the
past.
- According to some, the world is created by God from an eternal matter like Him, but
not out of nothing, God having the role of architect at the creation of the world. This
conception gives rise to two principles: God and matter. This dualistic conception
was preferred by the Gnostics, by the followers of the religion of Zoroaster, by
Parsism or by Plato.
- Proponents of the second view state that the world is an emanation of God, having
divine substance, and is identical with God. This conception is pantheistic and is
supported by the Brahmins and all the older and newer pantheistic philosophers:
Giordano Bruno, Spinozza, Hegel and others.
- The third conception states that the world is the result of different combinations of
atoms, as matter being eternal, and as form being the result of a long evolution. All
these conceptions are materialistic.
According to Christian teaching, “the supernatural divine revelation shows us that
the world is the work of God, created not from a matter that has existed forever and is
coeternal with God, but out of nothing”. This means that God Himself created the
substance of the world and from this substance He created the world, namely, He did not
create it out of an internal or external necessity, but freely, or rather once with time and
space, and not from eternity. The world is the work of God’s love and is intended for
deification”1.
The creation of the world in general and of man in particular is the work of God
the Father in particular, through “appropriation,” as the external activity of God One in
being and triune in Persons, in which the other two Persons, the Son and the Holy Spirit,
participate, according to this principle of appropriation (Genesis 1, 1; I, 2; John 1, 3;
Romans 11, 36). The world and man, as acts of creation are in a deep solidarity, interact
with each other and explain each other. Nature belongs to man and completes him, man
cannot be perfect without working with and reflecting on nature. Once created, namely at
the end of creation, man was placed by God in the midst of creation to work and guard it,

* University of Pitesti, Gheorghe.gî[email protected]

1 Îndrumări misionare (Missionary guidance), Publishing House of the Biblical and Mission
Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Bucharest, 1986, p. 131

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giving him the opportunity to name all creatures. “Given this close connection between
man and matter, the world means both nature and humanity, or when one of them is
indicated by the word world, the other is always implied.” 1 In the very act of creation, the
solidarity between man and nature subsists, man being created in the end to enjoy all that
nature contains created for him and in order to perfect it in its bosom. This solidarity is
maintained throughout human existence. “There is even a dependence of the human
nature in the earthly life of man, without meaning the descent of man into nature.
However, this dependence is so deep that it can be said that nature is a part of human
nature itself, it is the source of a part of human nature and therefore a condition of the
existence and integral development of man on earth. As a living being on earth, man
cannot be conceived outside of cosmic nature, and this means that neither nature fulfils
its purpose without man or outside man, nor in a man who works against it. For by
corrupting, sterilizing, and poisoning nature, man makes impossible the existence of
himself and of his fellows.”2
According to the Church, nature is so integrated into human nature that every
human person “is in a way a hypostasis of cosmic nature, but only in communion and
solidarity with other people”3.
The issue of creation in general, of the days of creation, and the creation of man
in particular, was highlighted, among other topics, by fourth-century Christian thinkers,
the fourth century being known as the golden age thanks to the works written by the
personalities of this period. Two of them, from the ten children of the lawyer and the
teacher of rhetoric, Basil, and his wife Emilia, the daughter of a martyr, were to complete
each other in their writing on the subject of creation and the crown of creation, man. This
family, „the father, a public teacher of virtue, and the mother, the daughter of a martyr,
would give to the Church and to Christianity four saints: the young Macrina, Basil,
Gregory and Peter”4.
Information on the life and activity of St. Basil the Great are to be found primarily
from his own writings, reaching the number of 366 items, as well as from:
- The funeral speech in honour of St. Basil delivered in 381 by St. Gregory of
Nazianzus 5;
- The funeral speech delivered by his brother, St. Gregory of Nyssa 6,
- The life of the pious Macrina by St. Gregory of Nyssa 7

1 Ibidem, p. 132
2 Ibidem
3 Ibidem, p. 138
4 St. Basil the Great, Omilii la Hexaemeron. Omilii la Psalmi. Omilii şi cuvântări (Homilies to

Hexaemeron. Homilies to the Psalms. Homilies and speeches), in col. P.S.B. no. 17, Publishing
House of the Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Bucharest, 1986, p.
9.
5 Cuvântul 43, P.G. 36, 493-608 translated into Romanian by Pr. prof. N. Donos in St. Gregory of

Nazianzus, Apologia sau cuvântarea în care arată motivele care l-au îndemnat să fugă de preoţie
şi elogiul Sf. Vasile (The apology or speech which shows the reasons that urged him to flee from
the priesthood and the praise of St. Basil), Huşi, 1931, p. 118-204
6 P.G. 46, 787-818
7 P.G. 46, 959-1000 translated into Romanian by Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, PhD, Sibiu, 1947

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- The speech of St. Ephrem the Syrian - according to some Pseudo-Ephrem1
- The life of St. Basil the Great, attributed to his friend, St. Amphilochus of Iconia 2
- A work written in the eighth century, and no less important, the testimonies of church
historians: Jerome3, Socrates4, Sozomen5, Theodoret6, Philostorgius7, as well as
Photius’ Library 8.
A special place in his writings is occupied by the “Homilies on the Hexaemeron”,
nine in number, when he was a priest, so before the year 370 (although G. Bernardi, in
the work La date de l’Héxaémeron de Saint Basile in S.P. III, Berlin, 1961, 165-169,
states that St. Basil uttered these homilies in the year 378, from Monday, March 12 to
Friday, March 15) in a week of Lent preaching on some days twice a day, morning and
evening. The contents of these homilies refer to verses 1-26 of chapter I of the book of
Genesis, the six days of creation. Although in the Ninth Homily he had promised his
listeners that he would speak to them about the making of man, he did not utter such a
speech.
The homilies beautifully describe God’s creative power and the beauties of nature.
Reading this wonderful commentary on the days of creation, one does not know what to
admire more: the great knowledge of Great Basil, which encompasses the whole
philosophy of Antiquity, with all its theories about the genesis of the world, the soundness
of the scriptural and rational arguments about creation, or his love of the Creator Whom
he glorifies for the beauties He has created in this world. St. Basil intertwines the beauty
of creation with the beauty of his thought and words. Homilies on Hexaemeron impressed
its contemporaries. St. Ambrose imitates him in his Hexaemeron, and St. Gregory of
Nazianzus exclaims with admiration: “When I touch Basil’s Hexaemeron and read aloud,
I feel close to the Creator and begin to understand the foundations of creation and admire
the Creator more than before.”9.
The interest for this work was also seen in the fact that only 20 years after Saint
Basil the Great passed away, the work was translated by Eustatius into Latin and printed
in P.G. XXX, 869-968. It was also translated into Romanian for the first time at the Neamţ
Monastery by the hieromonk and teacher Ilarion in 1782, and up to the present moment
there have been several editions in Romanian.
Since in the work of Basil about the six days of creation there was nothing related
to the making of man, this would be done in a masterful way by his brother, St. Gregory
of Nyssa. Among the Christian Fathers and writers of the fourth century, St. Gregory was
the most familiar with the profane philosophy of antiquity. Like no other Father of the
Church, St. Gregory tried to make the most inspired synthesis between the cultural values
of antiquity and those of Christian teaching, proving in his writing “a true taste for

1 S.P.N. Ephraem Syri, Opera omnia que exstant graece, latine, syriace in sex tomos distributa,
Roma, e Bibliotheca Vaticana produeunt, Tomus II Rome, 1743, 289-296.
2 F. Combefis, ss Patrum Amphilochii Iconiensis Methodii Patarensis et Andreae Cretensis opp.,

Paris 1944, 155-225.

3 Jerome, De viris illustribus, 116.
4 Socrates, Istoria bisericească (Church history), IV, 26.
5 Sozomen, Istoria bisericească (Church history), VI, 15-17.
6 Theodoret, Istoria bisericească (Church history), IV, 19-30.
7 Philostorgius, Istoria bisericească (Church history), II, 9.
8 Photius’ library, Codicele (Codex) 137, 141-144, 191.
9 Pr. prof. N. Donos, op. cit., p. 187.

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scientific research.”1, to this day he impresses with arguments from the most varied fields:
from physics, physiology, medicine, natural sciences, architecture, which he borrowed
from the ancients, but he always uses them to substantiate the Christian creed. The depth
of his thinking far exceeds that of his contemporaries, the two poles of his thinking were
“the zeal for knowledge and the boundless good”2.
We can state that of all the Fathers except Origen, he was the most familiar with
all the resources of secular culture. “His interest in scientific research, but also in the
psychological interpretation of feelings, as well as in the rational legitimation of natural
phenomena, was a major feature of him, unlike other contemporary writers” 3.
The works written shortly after the death of St. Basil (January 1, 379) as a
supplement and defence of the Hexaemeron of St. Basil the Great are: On the Making of
Man and an Apology for the Hexaemeron. In both works St. Gregory uses the historical-
literary interpretation. The interest in the treatise On the Making of Man is quite easy to
see because ever since the 4th century it has been translated into Latin by the Dobrogean
writer Dionysius Exiguus and is in P.L. LXVII, 345-408.
The treatise On the Making of Man or as Father Stăniloae rightly thinks – On the
Composition of Man – has 30 chapters and was probably given at Easter in 379, as a sign
of brotherly love, to the youngest of the brothers, Peter, the future bishop of Sevastia
(there had appeared a beautiful habit among Cappadocian writers to make gifts to one
another on Easter, according to Epistle 54 of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, in which he
explained to his friend, Heladius of Caesarea Cappadocia, the mystery of Easter - P.G.
371. This is how the case related to Epistles 87 and 115 is known, by which the same
Gregory of Nazianzus responds to the Easter letter sent by Bishop Theodore of Tiana by
sending him the text of the Philocalium of Origen - P.G. XLVI, 1025-1026, in Romanian
Origen, Selected Writings, Second part, P.S.B., no. 7, p. 299).
The object of his research, as the author states, “is not at all simple, being nothing
more important than the wonders of the world, but in a way it is more precious than any
known in the world, because apart from man, no other creature is like God.”4. As the
author confesses, for the sake of clarity, he considered it appropriate to specify from the
beginning the chapters of the paper with their definition in order to give us a picture as
brief as possible about the content of the entire exposition. In Chapter I the author
expounds a special research on the nature of the universe and a special meditation on what
preceded the making of man. “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
(Genesis 1, 1). The author explains this text as follows: “after all that is seen has been
created, and everything has been put in its proper place in such a way that the celestial
bodies embrace the whole universe, and the heaviest of them, which tend to fall down,
such as earth and water, settled together in the midst, then took his place in the nature of
things in the form of a connection and strengthening of all creatures the wisdom and
power of God, the only ones able to govern everything by a twofold work, that of state
and of movement”5.

1 Aime Puech, Histoire de la littérature greque chrétienne, Paris, 1930, p. 401

2 St. Gregory of Nyssa, Scrieri (Writings), Second part, col. P.S.B., no. 30, Publishing House of the
Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Bucharest, 1988, p. 5
3 Ibidem, p. 10.
4 Ibidem, p. 16.
5 Ibidem, p. 18.

149
 Therefore, the two works, that of state and of movement, made it possible to bring
to life what had not existed until then, and what was static was set in motion, the celestial
vault being fixed as an axis between the earth and the other heavenly bodies. “The same
rich rules have been established for both things set in motion, both in terms of land and
in the ever-changing part of the world, for neither land has left its steady state nor its sky
ever reduced the speed of its circular rotation “1. By the phrase „In the beginning, God
created the heavens and the earth”, “We understand that everything that was created and
brought to life, according to the will of God, sprang from both movement and from a
standstill”2. Heaven and earth, although in opposite positions, according to the opposition
between their forces, the world that separates them makes a connection between them
precisely because it is between the two, “thus clearly highlighting the cohesion between
the two extremes.”3. Air, liquids, the whole of nature are in a mutual dependence and
balance. “And even if they seem to be in a fight over specific opposing properties, they
are still in harmony. Movement should not be understood only as a move from one of
them, but in the form of growth and alteration. In itself, nature is unchangeable in its
motion and cannot cause alteration or destruction. In His wisdom God has given
unchangeability to those in constant motion and transformation to the immovable” 4. In a
spirit of wise foresight, God introduced such an ordinance “so that from the variability
and unchangeability which sometimes stand out in every creature and which are attributes
of the divine nature, it cannot be inferred that the creature could be taken as God.”5, being
known that instability and changeability cannot be attributed to the divine being.
Immediately after this argument, the author answers the question “why was man
the last in the history of creation?”. Using a wording like Plato (Ex lysis II, 1, 1), the
author exclaims: “that towering and precious being, which was man, had not yet appeared
among the living things of the world.”6 According to him, “it was not natural for the
master to appear before the subjects, but first the kingdom had to be prepared, and only
then would the reception of the sovereign take place”7. After all was done man was
introduced last among the creatures “first as a spectator of these wonders, and secondly
as their master so that using them to realize who is the one who gave them, and through
the beauty and grandeur of this view, may he be guided to follow in the footsteps of the
unnamed and indescribable power that made them.”8.
God has planted in the human nature a mixture of the divine and the human “so
that he may taste the happiness of both; both from the joy of being in touch with God,
and from the pleasures of the earth through his feeling that he is no stranger to joy” 9.
Chapter III shows that man’s creation surpasses the rest of creation. While the whole
creation coagulated in a steady form, strengthening its belief that everything springs from
a divine power and commandment, when it came to the creation of man, “There was
counsel and, as we can see from the Word of Scripture, there followed what an artist does,

1 Ibidem
2 Ibidem
3 Ibidem
4 Ibidem, p. 19.
5 Ibidem
6 Ibidem, p. 20.
7 Ibidem
8 Ibidem, p. 21.
9 Ibidem

150
who makes a blueprint for what he is going to accomplish, how he is going to act, and to
what extent it would not resemble the original, that is, the very purpose of the new
creation”1. As the Scripture says: “Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after
our likeness. And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of
the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing
that creeps on the earth.” (Genesis 1, 26). It is noteworthy that none of the wonderful
creatures of creation were preceded by a preparation and came into the world as a result
of a single word, without telling us any details about their origin, the manner of their
creation, and anything else about them. And so do the others. The word gave them life”2.
When it came to making man, the Maker of all things, the Creator “proceeded with
caution, as if preparing beforehand the matter from which He would create man, and only
afterwards giving him appearance, after likening him to a model of special beauty, he also
explained on that precise occasion the destination with which man was brought to life and
ordained then, according to the purpose of his activity, that his whole destiny is connected
with the divine will”3. Expressing his anthropological belief, the author acts as an
existentialist thinker. The human being goes beyond the whole purpose of creation. “The
master of craftsmen created in man a nature which would entitle him to truly royal deeds
when He endowed him not only with superior spiritual qualities, but also with a bodily
composition specially appointed to rule the world. For on the one hand his soul told him;
his royal calling told him that he must rise far above all everyday nonsense, and on the
other hand he has a visible superiority through his unrestricted freedom, according to
which he can decide and lead himself freely according to his will” 4. Starting from the
treatise on freedom of human will written by Origen (Peri arhon III), St. Gregory broadens
and deepens the concept of freedom that he considers the greatest gift made by God to
man. “The One who created man in order to enjoy all His gifts, of course, could not
deprive him of all that was most precious to him, of being independent and free “(The
Great Catechetical Word V, 9). Man is distinguished by the dignity of a true king as one
who resembles the beauty of his Model”5.
Being made in the image and likeness of God, man imitates the heavenly
dominion. Divine beauty is not rendered by the outward charm of appearance, nor by a
perfect attire, “but it can be recognized by the indescribable happiness of an inner peace
and perfection”6. Man’s likeness to God is expressed in “purity, dispassion, happiness,
alienation from all evil, and so on”7.
Apathy or dispassion occupy a central place in St. Gregory’s thinking8. If we
examine other traits that distinguish divine beauty in man, we will find other testimonies:
understanding and the word are divine, for in the beginning the Word was God (John 1,
1); St. Apostle Paul says that it is the mind of Christ that speaks in him (I Corinthians 2,

1 Ibidem, p. 22.
2 Ibidem
3 Ibidem
4 Ibidem
5 Ibidem, p. 23.
6 Ibidem
7 Ibidem
8 J. Daniélou, Platonisme et théologie mystique, Paris, 1944, pp. 99-104.

151
16; 7, 40). “Look even into yourself, and you will find there the word and the power of
judgment, imitations of the true understanding of the Word”1.
God is love and the source of love, as St. John the Evangelist says. Love comes
from God (I John 4, 7) and God is love (I John 4, 8). God has planted this in man because,
he says, „By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another.”
(John 13, 35). “So if this love does not exist, then all the features of the face change. God
sees them all, hears them all, penetrates them all. But you also, by seeing and hearing,
understand everything that is happening, just as the power of judgment investigates and
penetrates everywhere”2. To make man in Our image and Our likeness means, says the
author, “the just state of man.”3. Man comes into the world naked and helpless, poor and
deprived of the most necessary necessities to such an extent that judging by appearances
he is worthy to be pitied rather than glorified. Just as God gave other animals and living
things all sorts of defences, he did not even give the man any hair on his body to be
wrapped. And yet man has been able to gain control of everything. The author says: “that
which is lacking in our nature becomes a ground for superiority over others” 4.
“Man’s posture is straight, skyward, and his gaze is upward, which of course is a
sign of nobility and denotes a royal dignity”5. If man was given this upright, upright
posture, a single base of support being sufficient, the legs, ensuring his security of
condition and movement, the hands become very helpful especially in speech. “The role
of the hands in particular is proving to be very helpful, especially in speech; when
someone wants to give this help a special note to the one endowed with the gift of speech,
for example, sometimes when you don’t even need to express your thoughts, but only by
the skill of your hands to express yourself, because this is also an aspect of the gift of
speech and thinking so that we can speak in writing and thus be able to converse with the
help of the hand as well as the fact of rendering words through the signs of the letters “ 6.
Therefore, man, a perfect bodily life, at the same time a being who can think, nourishes
himself; in addition to this, he also has an affective activity, but apart from them, he also
possesses reason and is guided by his own judgment. “That is why this rational being,
who is man, sums up in him the elements of the other categories of living things, first
feeds himself naturally like any creature of nature. Secondly, it is forced to refine the
dexterity of its sensory forces, which, according to their nature, are situated in the middle,
between the power of thought and the raw matter, which is heavier and more insensitive
and which differs as it is cleaner. Finally, after all, man appears under his threefold
context, as a sublime union and a happy synthesis between the substance endowed with
power of thought and the sensitive elements of nature. We deduce this from what the
Apostle said to the Thessalonians (1 Thessalonians 5, 23), to whom he desires that their
whole body, soul, and spirit be fully sanctified and kept for the coming of the Lord Jesus
Christ.”7, body having the meaning of the vegetative part, soul denoting the affective part
and “spirit” expressing the thinking part.

1 St. Gregory of Nyssa, op. cit., p. 24.

2 Ibidem
3 Ibidem, p. 25.
4 Ibidem, p. 26.
5 Ibidem, p. 27.
6 Ibidem
7 Ibidem, p. 29.

152
 1. We find that what Gregory of Nyssa stated in his treatise in the fourth century is
found in the works of orthodox dogmatists on the Christian teaching on the
creation of man and his constitution.
a) in the human body, plasticized rationality reaches its maximum complexity.
“The human body is a palpable, concrete, special rationality in connection with
the concrete, palpable rationality of nature. It represents the most complex
system of plasticized rationality… the human body is a special palpable reality
by the fact that from the beginning it has in itself the special work of the soul
imprinted in it with all the complexity of rational activities and its forms of
sensitivity “1.
b) The existence of the soul and the body happen at once: “Just as the body does
not begin to form itself on its own or in a previous process that has the soul in
itself from the beginning as a factor distinct from its nature, so the soul does not
exist before its body begins to be modelled. The soul must lie into the body from
the beginning of the body formation in order for the body to have this special
complexity appropriate to the soul and to provide the appropriate environment
for the spiritual movement, that is, for the conscious and free thinking and will
of the soul”2.
c) The union between soul and body is so complete, forming a single disposition
superior to nature. This union between soul and body in the human person is a
mystery. It is a mystery because “the human species that unites nature with the
spirit represents the spiritual factor, conscious and freely inserted in nature as a
soul. Our person is a spirit capable of feeling and knowing through the senses
but maintaining self-consciousness and the freedom and power of his movement
through the movement of the body and thus the power of movement of objects
as he wishes because he has the body participating in acts of knowledge and
movement of the body”3. The body, this microcosm as a whole, is an apparatus
of an infinitely complex sensitivity, “In it all the vibration of the world with its
constantly moving forms is perceived in an infinitely varied manner, just as it
also expresses the relationship, just as complex, of the human person with the
world”4.
d) The soul was inserted into the body as the work of a free Creator. “God creates
the world freely to spiritualize it, to make it transparent to Himself. But this can
be done through man, because he has inserted the free spirit into it through man.
Through the human spirit inserted in the world, the divine spirit itself works to
spiritualize the world through its work in the human soul, but especially through
its incarnation as man, God continually arouses the freedom of men in their
attitude towards Him by remaining in a free relationship with them” 5. People are
not the simple repetition of uniformed individuals. “The freedom to which they

1 Priest prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, PhD Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă (Orthodox Dogmatic
Theology), Vol. I, Publishing House of the Biblical and Missionary Institute of the Romanian
Orthodox Church, Bucharest, 1978, p. 376.
2 Ibidem, p. 379.
3 Ibidem, p. 382.
4 Ibidem
5 Ibidem

153
 are called, the contingent or ever-varying use of nature which they make in a
continual liberty, imposes the irreducible originality of every man” 1.
2. Man was created by a special act of God. If for all creation God said the word
and all things were done, in regard to man Genesis does not say that God first
formed the soul and then breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, but rather
that „the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul” (Genesis 2, 7). It is not
a question of two distinct acts, nor of a temporary succession in the creation of
Adam, so that we may say that man as a special being is created simultaneously
in its entirety. “By maintaining the bifurcated character of man’s act of creation,
Genesis means that man is made up of two components, body and soul, and that
the body is of general matter, and the soul has a special kinship with God” 2. As
we have seen, in his treatise St. Gregory of Nyssa says that man is related to
God, and St. Macarius the Egyptian states that there is the greatest kinship
between God and man (St. Macarius the Egyptian, Homily 45). Referring to the
two constitutive elements of man, the earth and the breath of life St. Gregory of
Nazianzus says: “as earth, I am bound to the life below; but being also a divine
particle I carry in me the desire for the future life” 3. Man will ascend through
this special relationship of man with God to the future life with his body and the
earth with which he is connected.
a) The image of God as kinship and as a special relationship with God. Our being
has a conscious and voluntary relationship with God because of the soul that is
related to God. Through this relationship does the image of God lie in man. “Man
is in the image of God because, having a soul that is related to God, he tends
towards God or is in a living relationship with God. God made him from the
beginning a man related to Himself, therefore capable of a relationship with
Himself. From the very beginning he placed him in a free and conscious
relationship with Himself even by instilling the living soul (1 Corinthians 15,
45) in order to emphasize the unity of man”4. The Holy Fathers say that by this
breath God planted in man not only the understanding soul related to God, but
also His grace as a manifestation of His relationship with man which provokes
in man his response to the founding act of God’s relationship. St. Gregory
Palamas says: “I saw then the eyes of the angels, the human soul united with
feeling and body, as another god not made only on earth, mind and body for the
goodness of God, but for its abundance and configured according to the grace of
God to be the same body, mind, and spirit, and be his soul in the image and
likeness of God as a whole being, united in mind, reason, and spirit” 5. In view
of this word of Palama, Vladimir Lossky states: “the divine breath indicates a
mode of creation by virtue of which the human spirit is intimately connected
with grace. This means that uncreated grace is involved in the creative act itself,
and that the soul receives both life and grace, for grace is the breath of God, the

1 Ibidem
2 Ibidem, p. 388.
3 St. Gregory of Nazianzus, Poemata dogmatica, VIII, P.G. 37, 452.
4 Priest prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, PhD, op. cit., p. 390.
5 St. Gregory Palamas, Despre purcederea Sf. Duh (grec) (About the Procession of the Holy Spirit

(Greek)), Hristou Publishing House, vol. I, p. 85.

154
 ray of divinity, the life-giving presence of the Holy Spirit. If man comes alive
when God breathes life into him, it is because the grace of the Holy Spirit is the
true principle of our existence”1.
b) Man was honoured by the very act of his creation as the image of God. Through
this quality his kinship and relationship with God were planted in him. But this
quality is maintained and developed through a continuous relationship with God
that man is capable of and which he seeks with his soul. The face is a gift and a
miracle (Gabe und aufgabe as the Slavic theologian Visheslavtsev says)2.

Conclusions
Thus, man was created by God as the crown of creation, in His image and likeness,
to deify himself and to deify the whole of nature 3. By falling into sin, all creation has
turned from the transparent veil of love between us and God into a “somewhat opaque
wall between us and between us and God: so not only a reason for union between us, but
also for parting and enmity between us. We can say that they distorted and covered each
other’s faces with disobedience and contempt, so that before Christ sin prevented us from
reaching and persisting in full communion with God and fellow men. Therefore, neither
corruption nor death is a punishment of God through the incarnation of Christ, but the
pursuit of our alienation from the fountain of life. The two statements are not meant to
last forever because God turns their purpose into a means of healing evil. Without this
change, the punishment for sin would be eternal. Following the teachings of Nicolae
Cabasila, the Greek theologian Nellas says: “As soon as death appeared in history, God,
taking all initiative in Himself, used it as He willed, and by this changed use, radically
changed its nature. By allowing man to be clothed in biological life as the fruit of sin, he
turned death as the fruit of sin against biological life. And so by death it is not man who
is killed, but the corruption that envelops him. Natural death destroys the “prison of life
in corruption.” The lover of men, God, allowing death, turns it against corruption and its
cause, sin”4.
Man has the aspiration for an infinite knowledge in which the thirst for God is
hidden, a knowledge that he sometimes sees through.

Bibliography
Biblia sau Sfânta Scriptură, versiune diortosită după Septuaginta, redactată şi adnotată de
Mitropolitul Valeriu Anania, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe
Române, Bucureşti, 2018
Îndrumări misionare, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române,
Bucureşti, 1986
Sf. Vasile cel Mare, Omilii la Hexaemeron. Omilii la Psalmi. Omilii şi cuvântări, în col. P.S.B. nr.
17, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1986
Pr. prof. N. Donos în Sf. Grigore de Nazianz, Apologia sau cuvântarea în care arată motivele care
l-au îndemnat să fugă de preoţie şi elogiul Sf. Vasile, Huşi, 1931

1 Vladimir Lossky, „Teologie dogmatique”, in Messager de l’exarchat du patriarche Russie en

Europe Occidentale, 1964, p. 225-226.
2 Visheslavtsev, „Das ebenbild Gottes in dem Sündenfall” in vol. Kirche, Staat und mensch

Russisch – Orthodoxe Studien, Genf, 1937, p. 310-311.

3 Priest dr. Safta Roger-Cristian, Centralitatea lui Hristos în Teologia Părintelui Stăniloae (The

centrality of Christ in the Theology of Father Staniloae), Universitaria Publishing House, Craiova,
2019, pp. 144-145.
4 P. Nellas apud Preot prof. dr. Dumitru Stăniloae, op. cit., p. 487.

155
Sf. Grigore de Nyssa, Scrieri, Partea a doua, col. P.S.B., nr. 30, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de
Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1988.
Puech, Aime, Histoire de la littérature greque chrétienne, Paris, 1930.
Daniélou, J., Platonisme et théologie mystique, Paris, 1944.
Stăniloae, Preot prof. dr., Dumitru, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, Vol. I, Editura Institutului
Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1978.
Lossky, Vladimir, „Teologie dogmatique”, în Messager de l’exarchat du patriarche Russie en
Europe Occidentale, 1964.
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Universitaria, Craiova, 2019.

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 INTEGRATING UTOPIA AND DYSTOPIA INTO FOOD STUDIES.
SOME KEY ELEMENTS FOR A FUTURE NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

Valentina MARINESCU*

Abstract: Over time, imaginative narratives have allowed people to either escape real life
(through fantasy or daydreaming) or make predictions about the future of reality, providing
inspiration for the progress of mankind. An important starting point for studying the link between
food and future is the typology proposed by Belasco: the “classic future” (which imagines a utopian
future, inspired by the “cornucopia”), the “modern future” (which promotes processed foods
stored in easy-to-store containers, based on the concept of “scientific feeding”, which aimed to
maximize food production and waste reduction, by strengthening and simplifying the means of
production), and the “future of recombination” (which emphasized the combination of elements of
the past with certain elements of the present, in order to obtain a product that will be used in the
future, assuming that food is prepared on the basis of 'a process of consolidation and segmentation
of foods, which means that agriculture will also be transformed, by putting in place “experimental
cropping systems” and “controlled agriculture”). The aim of this article is to present the possible
alternative ways to draw a "map" of the stories about the future of food as they result from utopian
writings, science fiction and fantasy novels.
Keywords: future, food, utopia.

Introduction
Half a century ago, a dialogue between two writers (A. Strugatski and D. Bilenkin)
and the Director of the Forecasting Department of the Institute of Social Research of the
USSR Academy of Sciences and co-president of the Committee to Study the Future of
the International Sociological Association (I. Bestujev-Lada) highlighted not only the
challenges of defining and differentiating between science fiction and the society as a
whole, in a rigorous manner, but also the obstacles encountered in developing a deeper
understanding of the role played by fantasy and dreams in imagining and planning the
future (Strugatskii, Bilenkin & Bestuzhev-Lada, 1978). Almost five decades later, these
difficulties and obstacles are not overcome yet, despite of the well-known present
confluence between science and the pop culture, and researchers’ interest in
understanding the connection between people’s feelings toward a fictional text and
research policy (the latter could be related to space race, cloning or genetically modified
organisms) (Vint, 2021). Over time, imaginative narratives allowed people either to
escape from real life (through fantasy or daydreaming) or to make predictions about the
future of reality (Bowler, 2017; Clarke, 2013), constituting a source of inspiration for the
progress of humanity.
Before 1989, in Romania the future and the science of understanding the future
constituted an essential part of the economic and socio-political reality, being part of the
industrialization process and scientific construction of the multilaterally developed
socialist society (Andersson, 2018; Andersson & Rindzevičiūtė, 2015). In 1972, Romania
hosted the second International Conference on Futures Research in Bucharest, where “for
the first time scholars and other people interested in futures studies from Western and
Central and Eastern Europe had met to discuss and exchange views” (Barbieri Masini,
2001). It is worth remembering that, in 1967, the Centre for Management Education

*
University of Bucharest, [email protected]

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(CEPECA) had already been established in Bucharest, its members publishing numerous
studies and volumes dedicated to studying the future in the following years (Cătănuş,
2015). Starting with the changes that took place in the’ 90s the future was mainly a subject
of study as an expression identified in literary and artistic works (Braga, 2006; Braga,
2010; Braga, 2012; Braga, 2015), which showed a reduced interest in connecting it with
the social, economic, or technical-scientific fields in Romania through a transdisciplinary
approach. In essence, transdisciplinary approaches of the future have emerged on the
market of ideas in our country mainly through translations from international literature,
in solid theoretical works, but tributary to a highly general theoretical perspective (Attali,
2016; Attali, 2019; Guillen, 2021; Randers, 2018; Séguela, 1998; Walsh, 2021). It is not
our intention to challenge the importance and value of these perspectives, but we believe
that the missing element – the approach of people who can make the future possible,
probable and plausible – has become a necessity at this moment.
The purpose of this article is to present the methologies which can be used to study
the future in relation to a specific sub-domain of the social and cultural life, namely
“food”.

Theoretical framework
The option for “food” derives from the inclusion of the theme in the general future
plans over a clearly defined time period, 2020-2030 both at a European Union level
(European Commission, 2020a; European Commission, 2020b) and from the point of
view of the global economic and political system (United Nations, 2015; United Nations
Development Programme, 2020). Moreover, while in the specialized literature, art and
food have often been studied in relation to the past (the history) (Boyce & Fitzpatrick,
2017; Carruth, 2013; Coghlan, 2020; Gladwin, 2019; Hutchinson & Paris-Greider, 2002;
Kiell, 1995; Tigner & Carruth, 2017; Shahani, 2018) we can see that in the academic
literature references to the future are precise and conceived through the literary works
that have projected the future of human society (Coghlan, 2020; Gladwin, 2019; Bowler,
2017; Canavan & Link, 2018; Roberts, 2016; Vint, 2021).
On a theoretical level, one can consider the typology of approaches to the future
from the food perspective proposed by Belasco (2006):
(1). The “classic future” (which imagines a utopian future, inspired by the “horn
of abundance”);
(2). The “modern future” (which promoted processed food stored in easy-to-store
containers, based on the concept of “scientific eating”, that aimed to a maximized food
production and the waste reduction, strengthening and simplifying the means of
production); and
(3). The “future of recombination” (which emphasized the combination of
elements from the past with some of the present, in order to obtain a product that will be
used in the future, being centred on the premise that food is prepared based on a process
of consolidation and segmentation of food, which means that the agriculture will also be
transformed, by implementing “experimental cultivation systems” and “controlled
farming”).
This typology could be crossed with the perspective of the five phases in food-
related behaviours identified by Goody (1998):

“The study of the process of providing and transforming food covers the four
main phases of production, distribution, preparation and consumption… to
which can be added a fifth phase, often forgotten, disposal.”

158
 Inspired by the nowadays innovations from the artistic field (Beaumaris Art
Group, 2018; Ligaya, 2018) one could try to identify the main “vectors” by which the
relationship between the future and food is imagined and created by human subjects
through narrative and plastic images.
But how can the relationship between the two terms of the above-mentioned
relationship, “the future” and “food”, be summarized?
Trying to answer this question we have identified two central concepts:
(1) “The Future of Food” – in this case we believe that the analysis could start
from the present state of the food and could analyse its evolution as pictured in the
literature. From this perspective, one could consider literature to be a means of exploring
the future of food, by taking into consideration the analysis of the utopias, dystopias, anti-
utopias, science fiction and fantasy papers that focus on food (Braga, 2015; Canavan &
Link, 2018; Hobana, 1983);
(2) “The Food of the Future” – where the starting point could be the food of the
future and one could identify the role of future literature in relation to it. Moreover, in
this case one could explore two lines of research:
(2a) the situation in which the food of the future becomes itself part of the
literature, examples in this case are the gastronomy books written and published by
Marinetti and Dali (Adamowicz & Storchi, 2015; Novero, 2010; Dali, 2016); and
(2b) the case in which food is created by mixed teams of creators and consumers,
where food is seen as a product which is designed and connected to the future (Bieler,
2017; Borba et al., 2018; Cesaretti, 2009; Clintberg, 2017; Dolejšová, 2021; Dolphijn,
2006; McNeill & Urie, 2020; Pettinger et al., 2019; Stourna, 2018; Zampollo & Peacock,
2016).

Possible methodological approaches

The relation between “future” and “food” can be studied using several metods of
research which could be summarized as such:
(A). The analysis of science fiction, fantasy, utopian, dystopic and anti-utopian
novels on the topics of “The Future of Food” and “The Food of the Future” (Bell et al.,
2013; Fergnani & Song, 2020; Miles, 1990; Nikoleris, Stripple & Tenngart, 2017; Raven,
2017; Veland et al., 2018). The method of thematic analysis of novels could be applied
(Herman & Vervaeck, 2019; De Fina & Georgakopoulou, 2019; Kim, 2015; Garson,
2013; Franzosi, 2010; Cortazzi, 1993). Each novel could be analysed according to a
coding and interpretation scheme developed starting from the existing literature
(Nikoleris, Stripple & Tenngart, 2017; Raven, 2017; Veland, et al., 2018).
(B). The method of “First-person theory of documentation” (Flint et al., 2017;
Gorichanaz, 2019; Leavy, 2017; Smith & Dean, 2009; Ward & Shortt, 2020) applied on
a set of collages (paper and digital) and personal narratives related to “The Food of the
Future” and “The Future of Food”. The method contained three steps: Stage 1 – a self-
administered interview regarding the collages – each participant flls his/her answers to a
series of questions related to the collage creation session. The questions seek to obtain in
deep information related to the way in which the explored themes could build The Future
of Food and The Food of the Future, encouraging associations, metaphors and analogies
(Braga, 2019; Johnson-Laird, 1983; Turner, 2006; Turner, 2014). Stage 2 – (re-
)composing narrations – here individual online interviews with each participant are made
and they are focused on reiterating the already presented story through the collages,
rebuilding and restructuring the thematic structure and describing the personal experience

159
of each respondent. Stage 3 – building possible and plausible narrations – in this stage the
individual narrations are compared and a number of possible and likely Future of Food
and Food of the Future scenarios are rebuild.
(3). Backcasting method (Davis et al., 2020; Dreborg, 1996; Holmberg & Robèrt,
2000). This method consists of a set of workshop sessions, as follows: 1st session -
Construction of The Future of Food and The Food of the Future - the participants work
together to develop by consensus their preferred scenarios for the Future of Food and the
Food of the Future, attempting to answer to questions such as: What aspects of the future-
related narration can co-exist and how? What are the points of divergence and rupture
resulting from their convergence? The aim is to set out 3-5 possible scenarios related to
The Future of Food and The Food of the Future that will be developed in subsequent
sessions. 2nd session – Casting back to move forward - after building and improving the
scenarios related to The Future of Food and The Food of the Future the participants work
in small groups to identify three central points that could lead to the development of this
future: critical events, social movements, or environmental circumstances that may lead
to a reorientation of the situation. This identification must be made from three distinct
perspectives: i) of a human actor that exists or may exist at present; ii) a human actor that
cannot actually exist at present; and iii) a non-human actor who can be placed at any point
in time. The aim is to achieve a pivotal perspective that should be common to the three
previously mentioned perspectives. 3rd session – Reiteration of the story related to The
Future of Food and The Food of the Future - the session is focused on reiterating one of
alternatives of The Future of Food and The Food of the Future. The first reiteration
presents the subjective perspective of one of the three actors presented in the 2 nd session.
The second one contains the reiteration of the second actor and so on. The purpose of this
session is to produce a variety of perspectives, to demonstrate the degree of subjectivity
of these events and to generate a new way of understanding the future. 4 th session –
Making The Future of Food and The Food of the Future tangible – in this session the
groups present actions that can begin in the present and which may encourage local
practices toward achieving The Future of Food and The Food of the Future. The aim of
this session is to encourage a speculative thinking of the previous sessions by choosing
the most possible, probable and plausible options.
(4). The “Science-fiction prototype” scenario method (Bell et al., 2013; Burnam-
Fink, 2015; Fergnani & Song, 2020; Graham, Greenhill & Callaghan, 2014; Johnson,
2011; Merrie et al., 2018; Southern et al., 2014). The method could be applied starting
from the McClemens (2019) typology and it develops as follows: Step1 – Pick your
scenario and build your World. Participants choose some scenarios which could be set in
the future, such as the year of 2070, and attempt to answer to the following questions:
What are the implications of this scenario?; What is the worst thing that could go wrong
and how would it affect the people and locations in the story? What is the best thing that
could happen and how would it better the lives of the people and locations of the story?
What food of the future and what future of the food are most desirable, most achievable
and most probable in this narration? Responses are sought after in small groups.
Participants answer these questions as a group, in writing. Step 2 – The Narrative
Inflection Point. The discussion continues in the small groups answering to the following
question, starting from the previous possible narrative: What are the possible effects of
this type of Food of the Future and The Future of Food on peoples’ daily lives, the
governance, the economic, political and cultural systems? Participants answer as a group,
in writing. Step 3 – Ramifications of the Narrative on People. In this stage, participants
continue to work in micro-groups and they attempt to answer the following questions:

160
Will people’s lives be better or worse in the future due to these new foods? Will people
adapt to the problems or opportunities caused by this Food of the Future, or to The Future
of Food? Participants in the groups answer these questions as a group, in writing. Step 4
– The Human Inflection Point. Participants seek to choose between two alternatives: The
actors introduced in the narration are in danger and either adapt to The Future of Food
and, respectively, to The Food of the Future, as outlined in Step 2, or will them to avoid
the deadly danger. Decisions must be adapted to the world that will exist in 2070, must
be rational and must be truthful to the existing narration. Participants in the groups make
the choice as a group and justify the option in writing, explaining this point of inflection.
Step 5 – What Did We Learn? The experts solve the issue by answering the questions in
writing: How has the narrative about the world changed? How have the people, society
and systems changed? What could be done differently? At what cautions need to pay
attention? What should be different? What should be improved? What must stay the
same? What ramifications have you uncovered by using the “Science-fiction prototype”
scenario? Step 6 – Construction of the “pre-requisites” for a digital product. Based on the
results of Steps 1 to 6, mental maps are built based on the metaphors associated with The
Future of Food and The Food of the Future and a set of “pre-requisites” for a digital
product (video game) could be drawn.

Conclusions
In recent years scholars’ interest on The Furure of Food and The Food of the Future
has raised. Some universities and research organizations from the EU and the US have
initiated food-related projects involving mixed research teams (artists, doctors,
anthropologists) focused on practice-driven research (National Centre for Research
Method, Economic & Social Research Council, Brunel University, University of Central
London, Institute of Education – University of London, University of the Arts – London,
Royal College of Arts, Fashion Digital Studio, 2021; University of Central London, 2021;
University of Cental London, 2021; NASA, 2021). At the same time, some recent books
have emphasized both the current changes in food and the impact of technology in relation
to the art and society (Leer and Krogager, 2021; Attali, 2020) and some universities even
offer courses of possible futures, based on science fiction works of STEM scholars and
of world-renowned physicists, astrophysicists, mathematicians, biologists (Lancaster
University, 2021; MIT Course, 2020; Ashman, 2021).
Giving the existing time-lag between our country and the Western academic
world, in our opinion the two key-concepts we proposed (namely, “The Future of Food”
and “The Food of the Future”) could be studied and the results could enrich the existing
socio-human perspectives on the topics.

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 BIBLICAL COSMOGONY – THE HUMAN BEING AS A GIFT OF
GOD

Dan Florin OBROCEA*

Abstract: The world is the undisputed proof of God’s creative power, and man is the
wonderful gift of His love. It is the work of the Creator and man is His gift endowed with the
possibility of spiritual progress, of a constant ascent to the divine fullness. Thus, man can achieve
the transcendence of nature by finding his purpose in achieving the finality of human existence,
which seeks its union with God by grace. On the other hand, the sense of the contingency of the
world is fulfilled in the act of deifying man, the mystery of the transfiguration of the human being
offered by the Birth and Resurrection of the Saviour.
Keywords: creation, man, cosmology.

Alongside with science, religion is part of the human endeavour to understand the
world; nonetheless, unlike science, which has the probable and detectable universe,
always a finite one, as its research object, the seed of religion bears fruit in the Field of
Divine Creation, given from the beginning with body, life and soul, valences that reveal
the good, the truth and the spiritual. These attributes often do not appear on their own,
but must be analysed quickly and brought to light, so from the dawn of humanity, God
revealed Himself in an exceptional manner by making known the mission of the Creation
of the universe and the plan of salvation of the crown of divine creation.
God, the One who is the holy source of creation who nourishes the world with life
and sustains the construction of the Universe that is His creation, created time and the
world within the infinite and timeless dimension, with the purpose of being eternal. At
the beginning of Holy Scripture, in the Book of Genesis (Bereșit - in Hebrew, Ghenesis
in the Greek translation of the Septuagint or Genesis in Latin translation), we read that
God by His own will and power decided that the world should have a beginning:
“beginning” (en-arhi), Genesis 1, 1a suggests that God who transcends the beginning by
activating uncreated divine energy without the use of pre-existing matter created time and
the world.
Not only does “arhi” mean the beginning, but also the principle (translated by
principium in the Vulgate), which is conception, norm, rule, point of view. The text
reveals the idea of creative divine wisdom (cf. Proverbs 8:31), or of the creative Logos
(Word) (cf. John 1: 1-3), the expression “in the beginning” suggesting the meaning of the
metaphysical principle, or the instrumental temporal meaning. Therefore, Creation
appears “in the beginning”, beyond it being the Creator, the One without beginning: “He
said first in the beginning, lest some should think that the world is without beginning.” 1
In Hebrew “Bereşit”, literally translated as “at its beginning”, does not mean
beginning in a temporal sense, it does not designate creation in time, but rather the initial
divine act that precedes the creation of the world in time, it refers to self-determination,
to God’s free will to create the world. He decides in the bosom of the Holy Trinity to
bring into existence something new, non-existent - time and the universe.

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

1 St. Basil the Great, Omilii la Haxaimeron, Scrieri 1 (Homilies on Hexaemeron, Writings 1),
translated by D. Fecioru, P.S.B. 17, E.I.B., Bucharest, 1986.

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 St. Gregory of Nyssa teaches: “The basis of all things that were put at once was
the unspoken deputation of God, as Moses called it, the beginning, that is, the
concentrated sum in which all things were contained” and the powers of all things
collectively. And in the first impulse of His will, He produced together the being of all
things: sky, ether, stars, fire, air, water, earth, animals, plants…”. 1
All these were created and developed over time, in a relationship of
interconnection and interdependence. St. Basil the Great states that time is a dimension
that is coextensive with the composition of the world2, showing that time means
movement and development, an interactive engine of the Universe. We understand,
therefore, that the flow of time also begins, it begins with creation, time being also created
by God, the One who exists before and above time.”3
All the Holy Fathers agree with the creation “out of nothing”, even if this fact is
not explicitly stated in the Book of Genesis, but only in II Maccabees 7, 28: “I beseech
you, my child, to look at the heaven and the earth and see everything that is in them, and
recognize that God did not make them out of things that existed. Thus, also mankind
comes into being.”4
We understand that time is created by God together with the world, and the world
is contrary to eternity, as Origen thought, and it is not a linear eternity in itself. The
becoming of the world is achieved between the initial aeon and the final aeon, which
synthesizes the whole historical experience, because the world is not eternal in itself, but
in God.
Setting a distinction between the aeon and eternity, Saint Maximus the Confessor
considers the former as the experience full of the experiences of time, or time filled with
eternity, there being a final aeon in which all the fullness of time gathers, as well as an
initial aeon, which encompasses in God the thought possibilities of all the things that will
grow in time. 5
The timeless laws of creation, capitalized in time, are such an aeon and the future
life of humans and the way of life of angels are projected to the final aeon. This
eschatological aeon incubates in it the experience of existence and movement, developing
eternally around God, whom it contemplates and of Whom it partakes. Bathed in God’s
light and infinity, the world out of Eternity through creation ends with the entry into
eternity through the Resurrection, there being a heterocentric vision in which the
relationship established between eternity and temporality is not one of contradiction, but
rather one of derivation and causality, because time springs from Eternity, whereto it
returns.
In the book of Revelation, we read: “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the
Lord, “who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.” (Revelation 1, 8), the
beginning and the end of all things, He who built the heavens and the earth; “Through
Him all things were made; without Him nothing was made that has been made” (John 1,
3).

1 St. Gregory of Nyssa, Despre alcătuirea omului, Scrieri partea a II-a (About the composition of
man, Writings part II), P.6., 44, 72 A-D, Bucharest, 1988.
2 Sf. Vasile cel Mare, Omilii la Hexaimeron (Homilies on Hexaemeron), ed. cit.
3 Idem.
4 Pr. prof. D. Stăniloaie, Teologie Dogmatică Ortodoxă (Orthodox Dogmatic Theology), vol. 1,

Bucharest, 2003.
5 Prof. Constantin Matei, Cosmologie şi Cosmogonie (Cosmology and Cosmogony), Science Press

Publishing House, Baia Mare, 2015.

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 The projection of the divine plan of creation took place in time, in a universe that
followed an increase from the imperfect to the faultless, a development from the
infinitesimal primordial “seed”, in a certain progressive order, man being the last to be
moulded, as the crown of creation. St. Cyril of Alexandria shows us that it is necessary
to shape a speaking (rational) being, showing before it those that help it support itself and
that appear to be made for a good purpose. Therefore, showing beforehand in the proper
adornment the heavens and the earth and those related to them, He proceeded to create
man, showing before the actual creation what He thinks of man, just like He devised and
established the other edification by His word as God1.
The Bible record notes: “So God created man in his own image, in the image of
God he created him; male and female he created them.” (Genesis 1, 27). The verb
“created” expresses the implementation of the previous divine judgment by which the
Holy Trinity in full symbiosis decided: “Let us make mankind in our image, in our
likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the
livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.”
(Genesis 1, 26). The Trinity did not need pre-existing matter when it created the world.
The Hebrew verb “bara”, translated by “create”, is always used in the Bible to express
God’s creative action. The Builder and Creator activated the uncreated divine energy by
imprinting on it the reasons for the forms that make up the world. This divine work was
not done out of necessity, but as the Holy Fathers show, out of the power and goodness
of God, which ended in the creation of space and time.
Man, created at the end of the work of creation, appears as a gift springing from
divine love, “God being love.” The noun “man” reproduces the Greek “anthropos”, in
Hebrew “adam”, having a collective value. The man made from this verse, in the thought
of Philo and Origen, opposes the man embodied in scriptural verse 7, Ch. 2 in the book
of Genesis: “Then the Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed
into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being”. Here the inner,
spiritual man is created, and then the outer man is formed. The term traditionally
translated by the Septuagint and rendered in the jubilee edition of the Bible revised,
edited, and commented on by I.P.S. Bartholomew Ananias, “likeness” in the Platonic
vision has the meaning of “assimilation”. The Holy Fathers Irenaeus, Clement of
Alexandria, and Gregory of Nyssa, eliminating anthropomorphic interpretations, base
their mystical conception on this etymological meaning of “assimilation of God.” In the
New Testament vision according to the Pauline epistles: 1 Cor 15:49 and Colossians 1:15,
Jesus Christ the Lord is the only “image of God, man being invited, called on to wear this
icon.” Theodoret devoted an entire questio to the expression “in our image”, which would
mean:
1. the invisible part of the soul;
2. the body;
3. the connection between the sensible and the intelligible;
4. the ability to command (the theme of human domination over the plant and
animal kingdom).
Man thus becomes a creature with a personality that enjoys divine grace. 2

1 St. Cyril of Alexandria, Glafire la Facere (Glaphyre on Genesis), translated by D. Stăniloaie,

P.S.B., E.I.B., Bucharest, 1992.
2 Priest Ioan Sorin Usca, “Vechiul Testament în tâlcuirea Sfinților Părinți” (The Old Testament in

the interpretation of the Holy Fathers), The Book of Genesis, Christiana Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2008.

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 The personal pronoun “Our” is not a use of majesty, but an authentic grammatical
plural, the Holy Fathers seeing in it the first scriptural revelation of the Persons of the
Holy Trinity. Therefore, the plural “Our” as well as the subjunctive “Let’s make”, indicate
a tip in the bosom of the Holy Trinity. If the mystery of the Holy Trinity is not openly
stated in the Old Testament, it is clearly revealed in the very first verses. Thus, all are
brought into existence by the Word identified in the Prologue of the Gospel of John with
God the Son, and the Holy Spirit gave the waters its life-giving power: “Is it now a single
person? No! That it is not written: to become man! As long as the man who was to be
instructed had not shown himself, the sermon of theology was hidden in the depths; but
now in the making of man, faith is revealed, and the dogma of truth is made clear.” 1
The view that God would consult with angels is wrong, heretical: “It will not be
said, I reckon, that (He speaks with) some of the holy angels, or that He needed their
helping hand, or in general the consecration and contribution of one of the creatures to
strengthen Him in order to accomplish what He thought. For divinity is omnipotent in all
things and has in itself the richness to easily do all that He wills, and in Him lies all the
power of existence.” 2
Man is created as a rational being with a personality that enjoys divine grace, so
the words “in our image, in our likeness” do not refer to the image and likeness of being,
but to spirit and reason.
He stated “in our image” because God made the soul incorruptible and free,
without any reference to a bodily expression, and He also said “in our likeness”, i.e. in
terms of virtue. Just as God is One in being and triune in Persons, so the human soul is
endowed with three faculties: reason, will, and feeling, teaches Ava Dorotei.
When man contemplates God and lives in holiness, we can also speak of likeness,
which means standing firm for good and doing God's will.
As the theologian Dumitru Stăniloaie points out, the world is considered a gift of
God, as is human life: “According to the Christian faith, the world was created by God as
a gift for men… Even if the world were given to man only for knowledge, it would still
be a gift from God. But it is also given for his bodily life and for his spiritual formation
in view of eternal life”.3
Since God gives life to the world and bestows providence on creation for the
human being, then man can also bring his gifts and devote his life to God: “The dialogue
of the gift between God and man is that each gives himself to the other. Even if God gave
him life, man can offer it as a gift to God, because, although he could keep it until God
takes it away, he returns it to God through His freedom, through a higher ministry.” 4
The world is the work of the Creator and man is His gift endowed with the
possibility of spiritual progress, of a constant ascent to divine fullness. Thus, man can
achieve the transcendence of nature by finding his purpose in achieving the finality of
human existence, which seeks its union with God by grace. On the other hand, the sense
of the contingency of the world is fulfilled in the act of deifying man, the mystery of the
transfiguration of the human being offered by the Birth and Resurrection of the Saviour,

1 Saint Basil the Great, Omilii la Hexaimeron, 9,6 (Homilies on the Hexaimeron, 9, 6), Scrieri 1
(Writings 1), translated by D. Fecioru, PSB, EIB, Bucharest, 1986.
2 Clement of Alexandria, Despre Sfânta Treime, III (About the Holy Trinity, III), translated by D.

Fecioru, P.S.B., E.I.B., Bucharest, 1982.

3 Dumitru Stăniloaie, Teologie Dogmatică Ortodoxă (Orthodox Dogmatic Theology), ed. cit., p.

227.
4 Idem, p. 235.

169
for “What no eye has seen, what no ear has heard, and what no human mind has
conceived” - the things God has prepared for those who love him” (1 Corinthians 2, 9)
Man as a gift of God’s love for the world is not an embodiment of necessity, but a
contingent creation of divine freedom, endowed with reason and free will, a “sacrament”
of God’s love and communion with the Great Creator and fellow human beings.
We conclude by stating that the world is the undisputed proof of God’s power of
creation, and that man is the wonderful gift of His love, the priceless divine miracle, and
the unspeakable joy for which we should always be grateful to Him, by offering in
exchange our living as a gift.

Bibliography
Biblia sau Sfânta Scriptură, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune Ortodoxă, Bucureşti, 2008.
Novum Testamentum, Graece et Latine, Ediţia vicesima secunda, United Bible Societies, London,
1963.
Clement Alexandrinul, Despre Sfânta Treime, III, trad. de D. Fecioru, P.S.B., E.I.B., Bucureşti,
1982.
Pr. prof. Dumitru Stăniloaie, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, vol. 1, Bucureşti, 2003.
Prof. Constantin Matei, Cosmologie şi Cosmogonie, Editura Science Press, Baia Mare, 2015.
Sf. Chiril al Alexandriei, Glafire la Facere, trad. de D. Stăniloaie, P.S.B., E.I.B., Bucureşti, 1992.
Sf. Grigore de Nyssa, Despre alcătuirea omului, Scrieri partea a II-a, P.6., 44, 72, A-D, Bucureşti,
1988.
Preot Ioan Sorin Usca, “Vechiul Testament în tâlcuirea Sfinților Părinți”, Cartea Facerii, Ed.
Christiana, București, 2008.
Sf. Vasile cel Mare, Omilii la Hexaimeron, Scrieri 1, trad. de D. Fecioru, P.S.B., 17, E.I.B.,
Bucureşti, 1986.

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 THE HUMAN CREATION OF MAN AND WOMAN

Marius-Sorin RADOMIR*

Abstract: Much has been written in the theology of all the Churches about the creation of
man, as man and woman, and about the image of God in the human being. But it has often been
overlooked that man manifests himself in this capacity in the world, even if the image expresses not
only man's relationship with the world, but primarily his relationship with God. The Holy Fathers
spoke of a certain seal of God placed in the world, of a form of divine wisdom imprinted in the
world; they saw in the world a set of reasons of the Logos. This is the foundation of Orthodox
anthropology, as well as of any Christian anthropology. Through the image of God in his being,
which is the image of the Trinity, man was created for a life of communion and not for autonomy
or bondage to the world. Today's gender theories make use of an altered interpretation of the
biblical verse in certain rabbinic traditions, which speak of the man with female orifices or of the
primitive androgynous man (as it appears in the Babylonian Talmud), aspects vehemently
condemned by the Holy Fathers. Patristic theology shows that the world is created in such a way
as to help man to his spiritual growth. The world is thus formed to lead man to ever deeper and
enlightening meanings; it is built as a ladder by which man can advance to its abysses and heights
and illuminate his way to the One who laid the foundations of the world and Who created man in
the image of the Creator. Created last in the order of the creation of the world, man is also the
highest of all creatures, being at the midpoint in creation and making the connection between the
sensible and the intelligible world. We have mentioned that the maximum union with God, to which
we ascend by virtue, cannot mean the immersion in the ocean of an impersonal infinity, as is the
theory of gender. This could no longer mean a man deified by grace (in the blessing of marriage as
a man and a woman), but distinct from God in being, but a single and indistinct deity.
Keywords: man, woman, creation

In the current theological approach, we feel it proper to use all contemporary

science, philosophical thinking, psycho-social aspects of society and, last but not least,
our own knowledge and experience gained through the direct study of the problem. The
beginning of the Holy Scripture which describes the creation of the world was one of the
most fascinating biblical texts. In the patristic space, it is the most commented Old
Testament passage and one of the most frequently quoted. Indeed, the whole teaching of
faith is based on an understanding of the creation of the world, and especially of man.
Much has been written in the theology of all Churches about the creation of man,
as man and woman, and about the image of God in the human being. Yet it has often been
overlooked that man manifest himself in the world in this capacity, even if the image
expresses not only the man's relationship with the world, but primarily his relationship
with God.
The Holy Fathers spoke of a certain seal of God put into the world, of a form of
divine wisdom imprinted in the world; they saw in the world a set of reasons of the Logos.
If this be true, a certain solidarity must be recognized between the image of God in the
human being and the seal of God imprinted in the world. It seems that the human being
cannot make God invisible in himself, without making God invisible in the world, or
without making himself invisible as the image of God in the world. This is the basis of
the Orthodox anthropology, like any other Christian anthropology. Before the fall, in his

*University of Pitești, [email protected]

171
original state, man was in a full communion with God, which Father Dumitru Stăniloae
describes as an event of love: “In the primordial state, in the state of the unaltered divine
image, man was in a personal relationship of love with God, of love involving
responsibility, of love in which he was the obedient one, the hanging one, but happy in
this obedience. The state of this relationship was a gift. He was in the same relationship
of love, also established by God, with people, this one being only an external
manifestation of the first” (Dumitru Stăniloae, Man and God, 1990, p. 16).
Man was created by God as a spiritual person, who knows his individuality only
in communion with others and distinguishes himself from other creatures by his
belonging for communion with God, his Creator. Viewed as a multiplicity of people, man
is, in this respect, the image of the Holy Trinity being constituted as a whole of personal
correlations” (ibidem, p. 18). Father Dumitru Stăniloae interprets the perfect communion
of love of the three Persons of the Holy Trinity as the original model of the communion
of human love. In his opinion, the human being represents first and foremost a self-
conscious existence, “for the fundamental attribute of the image of the Son of God
imprinted in people is the character of a self-conscious human subject” (ibidem, p. 162).
Everything that had been created up to the creation of man was good / beautiful
and aimed at revealing the rationality of the world that leads to man. If the soul of the
creatures is the earth, the soul of man is in solidarity with God, called by the image to
resemblance (Constantin Galeriu, Pride, Grace and Liberty after Theophanes, the Former
Bishop of Vladimir,1959, p. 40), man is in solidarity with both matter (earth) and divinity.
The creation of man denotes the mysterious manifestation of the HolyTrinity, as a sign of
the man's personal conscience, concerned with the mystery of his origin. Man is made
ruler over creation, he is its crown. The work of creation culminates with man, heaven
and earth meet in him (says St. John of Damascus, in Dogmatics). If all the creation was
made through the word, man was created by a direct divine act, both body and soul,
created at the same time. Therefore, man has a dichotomous constitution.
As concerns the creation of the human being, as a man and a woman, the biblical
report, the holy writings of the Church Fathers, contemporary theology and theologians,
and theologians of other times have followed the same red thread, on which Orthodoxy
has been going for more than 2000 years. “If it seems to you that something of what has
been said may be true, then turn your admiration to God, Who has arranged everything
this way! That admiration for the great things of nature does not diminish if one reveals
the way in which God made them. And if you do not consider them true, your simple faith
should be stronger than your logical arguments” (St. Basil the Great, Writings, Homily I
to the Hexaimeron, 1986, p. 81) The name Adam has, among other things, a collective
value. He is the creation of God, who regards (contemplates) himself, neither as a part of
the universe, as in the Greek philosophy, nor as a result of a natural evolution, as in the
modern science, but only in his dialogical relationship with God. Philo of Alexandria
notices the lack of articulation of the word ‘man’ in the first biblical verse,which speaks
of the man’s creation (“Let us make man in Our image and in Our likeness”, Genesis 1:
26), the articulation being made in the following verse, as a proof of the fact that God (the
Holy Trinity) participates sprightly and directly in the creation of man: “And God made
man in His own image; in the image of God he made it; God made man and woman”,
(Genesis 1: 27).
The biblical report insists, in the opinion of some Church Fathers (Clement of
Alexandria, Origen), on the opposition between the material man, created by the union of
the lower ones with the upper ones and the spiritual man created by God alone. As regards
the phrase “in our image and likeness”, the Church Fathers agree that only Jesus Christ is

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the unique Image and Icon of God, man being called to wear this image and icon,
becoming a Christopher and a Pneumatophore. Theodoret of Cyr goes further in his
statements and says that the image represents both soul and body, the connection between
the sensitive and the intelligible, the call of man to the leadership of the material world,
as a link with the spiritual one. The words ‘in image and likeness’ also imply resemblance
by spirit and reason (Clement of Alexandria, Writings, Stromatele,1982, p. 6), with an
incorruptible and free soul, able to reach the likeness of virtue by receiving Jesus Christ.
The Holy Scripture distinguishes between the image of God in man and man's
likeness to God. After God shows His intention to build man in His own image and
likeness (Genesis 1: 26), He actually builds Him up only in His own image (Genesis
1:27), for the likeness of God must be acquired through his spiritual and moral effort.
“We are in form by creation, and in resemblance by ourselves, by our free will,” says St.
Gregory of Nyssa. “To be in the image of God belongs to us through our first creation,
but to be made in the image of God depends on our will ...By giving us this opportunity,
God has made us the workers of our likeness to Him, to give us the reward for our work
and to distinguish us from the lifeless paintings out of the artist's hands” (St. Gregory of
Nyssa, About Man’s Creation, 1998, p. 87). This spiritual growth of man was necessary
for man not to fall into the dominion of nature, but to remain its true master, through the
divine grace which he received in the act of his creation, by the liveliness of God. Through
the image of God in his being, which is the real image of the Trinity, man was created for
a life of communion (Isidor Todoran, Ioan Zăgrean, Orthodox Dogmatics, 2004, p. 148),
and not for autonomy or bondage to the world. Adam and Christ are types for choosing
the two alternatives of man's relationship with nature: the enslavement of the spirit by the
sweet fruit of the sensitive part of nature, or its mastery by the spirit. In his capacity as
the image of God in the Trinity, man was not created to defile nature, or to become a
slave of nature, but to live in communion with God and all creation by the power of the
divine grace.
In the Ninth Homily of the Hexaimeron, St. Basil the Great approaches the issue
of anthropology (Panayotis Nellas, Man-the Deified Animal, 2002, p. 61) only partially.
Although he knew the laws of allegorical interpretation, he took things as they were said
and knew that not everything was said in the Holy Scripture: “When I hear that the Holy
Scripture says grass, I understand the grass, when I hear the plant, the fish, the beast, the
animal, I understand them all as they are said. I am not ashamed of the Holy Bible
(Romans 1, 16)” (St. Basil the Great, Writings, Homily III to the Hexaimeron, 1986, p.
117). The transition to the anthropological problem is made abruptly by St. Basil:” But I
feel, again, that you are asking me to talk about man’s creation... But I must also talk
about man, even though I am held back.” (idem, Writings, Homily IX to the Hexaimeron,
1986, p. 178). He shows that by the special act of man's creation, God's love for man and
the appreciation shown to him are demonstrated:” And God said: Let us make man in our
image, after our likeness” (Genesis 1: 26). St. Basil opposes the Jews’ conception, who
believed that man was made in the image of angels, emphasizing that Christ is the image
of the invisible God, the One who created man.
The verb made him designates God’s direct involvement in the creation of man,
designating both the creation of the inner man (represented by the soul) and the shaping
of the outer man (represented by the body). Moreover, we are witnessing the transition
from the singular “made” (man) to the plural “made” (man and woman). Today's gender
theories make use of an altered interpretation of the biblical verse according to certain
rabbinic traditions, which speak of the man with female orifices or the primitive
androgynous man, (as it appears in the Babylonian Talmud), aspects vehemently

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condemned by the Holy Fathers. On this line, the physical and body constitution
differences between man and woman are obvious. There are also scientific evidence of
less visible physiological and bio-chemical differences. The biological traits of sex, based
on the chromosomal asymmetry xy - xx, are undeniably of the greatest importance, both
as external and internal genitals and as hormonal secretions. Trying to decipher how many
of the stereotypical images made by social groups about men and women are true and
how much is error is not an easy task at all. The high intercultural consensus, as well as
that within strongly socially and mentally differentiated societies (from the simple man
to the subtle philosopher) would justify us to believe that this is such a strong and obvious
reality that it is imposed on any unaltered mind. Indeed, comparing male-female
performance in various areas of human activity, the typologies have, to a very large
extent, coverage; men appear more dominant, more aggressive, more creative, more
interested in the exact sciences, and women more dominant, occupying proportionally
many more routine jobs, being less aggressive and more compliant. The question is
whether these differences were created through the social structure and power or are based
on natural factors, innate or, in any case, with what share of social determinants and how
much is due to the natural.
In order to talk about the importance of determining the biological factors of the
differences in male-female psychosocial behaviour, the following idea is necessary:
although 99.8% of the genetic basis is common, of the 46 chromosomes only one is
different; - which gives the sex specific (x in women, y in men) -; genetics has not only
direct causes (aggression, for example) but also indirect, in particular through the
anatomical differences of sex. This has been widely analysed and speculated by S. Freud
and E. Erikson, who have attributed profound and extensive psychosocial implications to
the shape differences of the male or female genitals. Anyway, logically and not only, we
can say that there are only man and woman, the rest of the statements being, in fact, a
Babylonian construction, built on some non-existent pillars.
In the Holy Scripture, the apparent contradiction between man in the singular and
man and woman in the plural is not justified, since Eve was with Adam on his side (St.
Simeon the New Theologian, Practical, Theological, Gnostic and Moral Speeches, 2011,
p. 140), not another core, another different essence, but of the same dough, therefore equal
to man, neither lower nor higher, but complementary and equal to him. Yet we could say
that woman was made, but not yet separated from man. At the same time the biblical
report returns to the comparison with the divine monad, showing that the Son and the
Spirit are inseparable from the Father, in essence, consubstantial with Him, to keep us
from polytheism (St. Basil the Great, Writings, Homily IX to the Hexaimeron, 1986, p.
179).
The fact that God created Adam and took Eve from his side shows that the human
race has one common ancestor and that Eve is the “mother of the living” (Genesis 3: 20)
whom all the people were born and come from. Contrary to the gender theories, man
remains the same from an existential point of view (logos), but diversifies from a personal
point of view (tropos), but there will always be male and female. The Christian outlook
on the human race has a monogenist character.
Patristic theology shows that the world is created in such a way as to help man to
grow spiritually. The world is thus formed so as to lead man to ever deeper and
enlightening meanings; it is built as a ladder on which man can advance to its abysses and
heights and illuminates his path to the One who laid the foundations of the world and who
created man in the image of the Creator. Therefore, St. Basil the Great states that “this
world was not conceived in vain, nor in the desert, but for a useful purpose and for the

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great need (beneficence) it brings to those who exist on earth, if the world is truly a school
of reasoned souls and a place where one can learn the knowledge of God, being a guide
of the mind in the world through the seen and felt for the contemplation of the unseen”
(ibidem, p. 181).
As we have already shown, man was created, through the direct conversation of
the Trinity Persons, in the image of God: “Let us make man in our image and likeness.”
(Genesis 1: 26) After the man’s creation, the Holy Scripture tells us: “And He made man
in his own image” (Genesis 1: 27), not adding “in his likeness” (Ioan Turcu, The Concept
of the Image and its Soteriological Implications, 1959, p. 421). This is because man's
resemblance to God is a gift that none of the created beings received, but only man, but
not directly. He can attain to the likeness of his Creator only by living his whole life in
Christ and for Christ, like the new Adam.
The image of God in man does not refer in particular to the material image of God,
because we know that He, being a spirit, has no body and no face. We can say that man
received the image as a gift from God, and the likeness must be acquired. In other words,
“the divine image of man refers to the intellectual and moral nature of man, to reason and
freedom in his guidance to God, and the likeness of God is the goal toward which man
tends in his development and moral perfection” (Dumitru Radu, Missionary Guidance,
1986, p. 205). St. Basil the Great sums it all up in one definition: “The image is the
likeness of the possible, and the likeness is the face nowadays”. St. John of Damascus
says, “according to the image” means mind and freedom, and “according to resemblance”
- resemblance in virtue, if possible.
As regards this distinction between image and likeness we mean the statement of
some Holy Fathers according to which the image has been preserved in man, though he
has not stepped on the path of resemblance. For, although man after the Fall has retained
a certain aspiration for good and a certain capacity to do so, as well as an aspiration for
truth and a knowledge of some part of it, yet the Fathers do not say that man has thus
maintained the tendency of resemblance. In a way, even the image weakened, not fully
activating itself in the work of resemblance. A complete image is one that is updated in
the resemblance work. An image that does not activate is somehow a weakened image,
but never completely lost. That is why it is said that Jesus Christ restored the image, or
found the lost one. But it is not said that He created it again.
St. Gregory Palamas declares that the image has remained, but we have lost its
permanence, which is one and the same with resemblance. But an image is complete when
it manifests itself steadily as an image, or is activated in resemblance. An image without
resemblance is not made clear in its entirety as an image, but in an altered way. The
paradox lies in the fact that he is an image, and yet he cannot manifest himself as an
image, he cannot appear as a clear image, but a certain ambiguity or duplicity is put into
him.
Last created in the creation of the world order, man is also the greatest of all
creatures, being at the midpoint of creation and making the connection between the
sensitive and the intelligible world. Having a psychosomatic structure, being made up of
body and soul, he reunites in himself the set of two worlds and participates in general in
all spheres of the created world, for: “from a rational point of view man is connected with
that unspoken and divine power; and from a physical one he is related to the cattle” (St.
Anthony the Great, The Teaching on the Moral Life of Men and Good Manners, in 170
Heads,1999, p. 24). He is created as a king in his chamber, being “king of the real things,
bearing in him the features of the two worlds, in the real and the thought side” (St. Simeon
the New Theologian, The 225 Theological and Practical Chapters, 2004, p. 56). That is

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why man is the most perfect, the most excellent of all creatures, the crown of all creation,
for he was not created as the last of the living, because he would have been despised, but
“as one who from the very moment of his birth was worth being king over his subjects”
(St. Gregory of Nyssa, op. cit., 1998, p. 21).
We have mentioned that the maximum union with God, to which we ascend by
virtue, cannot mean the immersion in the ocean of an impersonal infinity, like the theory
of genderis. This could no longer mean a man deified by grace (in the blessing of marriage
as a man and a woman), distinct from God in being, but a single and indistinct deity
(Dumitru Stăniloae, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, 2003, p. 417).

Bibliography
***, The Bible or Holy Scripture, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox
Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1998.
St. John of Damascus, Dogmatics, vol. II, translated by Dumitru Fecioru, “Church Fathers and
Writers”, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1943.
St. John the Golden Mouth, Homilies to Genesis, translated by Dumitru Fecioru, in “Church Fathers
and Writers”, vol. 21, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1987.
St. Basil the Great, Writings, part I, chap. 10, Homilies to the Hexaimeron, in “Church Fathers and
Writers”, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1986.
St. Simeon the New Theologian, Practical, Theological, Gnostic and Moral Speeches, in
“Filocalia”, vol. VI, translated by Dumitru Stăniloae, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the
Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011.
Clement of Alexandria, Writings, vol. II, Stromatele, in “Church Fathers and Writers”, The Biblical
and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1982.
Dumitru Radu, Missionary Guidelines, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian
Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1986.
Dumitru Stăniloae, Man and God, in “Studies in Orthodox Dogmatics”, Craiova, 1990.
Idem, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, vol. I, The Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian
Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003.
Hristu Andrustos, Dogmatics of the Eastern Orthodox Church, translated by Dumitru Staniloae,
Archdiocesan Publishing House, Sibiu, 1930.
John Breck, The sacred Gift of Life, Patmos Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2001.
Marin Ciulei, Patristic Anthropology, Sirona Publishing House, Alexandria, 1999.
Panayotis Nellas, Man - the Deified Animal, translated by Ioan Ică Jr., Deisis Publishing House,
Sibiu, 2002.
Isidor Todoran, Ioan Zăgrean, Orthodox Dogmatics - Textbook for theological seminaries,
Renaissance Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2004.
Paul Evdochimov, Orthodoxy, translated by P.S. Irineu Ioan Popa, The Biblical and Mission
Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church Publishing House, Bucharest, 1996.

176
 L’INDIVIDU TECHNOLOGIQUE ET LE DEVELOPPEMENT DE
L’IDENTITE NUMERIQUE

Ines RAZEC*

Abstract: Today, Artificial Intelligence has become so well integrated in our lives, creeping
into our existence so subtly and rapidly that we reach a point where we can no longer clearly
distinguish our true identity from the many adjacent ones that we develop in this new context. In
his”Confessions”, following the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle, St Augustine
considers that the supreme goal of the individual's life is to attain the beata vita, i.e. to find
happiness through a process of introspection, leading to the development of virtues and the
suppression of sensations that lead to irrational behaviour. However, in the current context, where
the world seems to be divided between the physical and virtual space, and the individual is no
longer confined to his biological body, but develops a second virtual one, are we closer or further
away from the objective of the Saint? Knowing that each environment has its own rules, the
individual drawn into this dynamic is forced to alternate very quickly, often unconsciously, between
the two bodies and the two main identities, each corresponding to another world. This sudden
transition, associated with the mirage of the virtual world, promises instant gratification and
freedom from the space and time limits of the physical world. In the world of speed, this is an
advantage. However, do the goals of the individual also change with the environment or do they
remain the same despite this new situation?
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, technological identity, the Self.

Introduction
Pour tenter de répondre à cette question, Bostrom et Sandberg ont examiné le
concept d'identité individuelle et collective sous l'angle de l'évolution de l'intelligence
artificielle. Selon les chercheurs, le monde virtuel favorise le développement d'une
identité numérique à travers les comptes que chacun d'entre nous doit créer afin de
bénéficier de certains services, tels que la banque en ligne, le courriel électronique, les
nouvelles, les articles, etc. En plus, selon leurs observations, parmi l'ensemble des
changements que produisent les nouvelles technologies, la plus grande influence sur
l'identité individuelle n'est pas l'automatisation du travail ou la redéfinition des emplois,
mais les plateformes de médias sociaux, qui permettent la création d'un nombre varié de
comptes, avec des fonctionnalités différentes (Bostrom et Sandberg, 2011 : 28). Grâce à
eux, les individus commencent à penser globalement, accédant aux informations qui vont
au-delà de l’espace physique dans lequel ils effectuent leurs activités quotidiennes. Les
différentes spécificités des médias sociaux peuvent entraîner une multiplication
inconsciente des identités d'une même personne, générée par la nécessité de s'adapter aux
règles imposées par chacun d'entre ces environnements différents : « Il s'agit, à bien des
égards, d'une extension naturelle de nos personnalités sociales qui existent séparément
mais sont projetées dans des environnements en ligne. Le maintien d'une telle séparation
exige non seulement la technologie adéquate, mais aussi une certaine discipline sociale
et mentale » (idem : 11).
Si le développement d'une ou plusieurs identités numériques est inévitable, il est
nécessaire d'imposer certaines limites mentales qui nous permettent de rester

* Universite de Bucarest, [email protected]

177
constamment conscients de leur caractère restrictif et de ne les utiliser que dans
l'environnement pour lequel elles ont été conçues, sans les transposer dans le monde
physique. Cependant, compte tenu de la facilité avec laquelle se produit la transition entre
les mondes physique et virtuel, leurs frontières deviennent de plus en plus floues, ce qui
peut amener les individus à adopter des comportements spécifiques à un environnement
différent de celui dans lequel ils se trouvent. En outre, plus nous utilisons d'appareils
intelligents et plus nous nous abonnons à des plateformes en ligne, plus nous sommes
exposés au risque de divulgation de nos données personnelles.
Dans ce contexte, l’homme commence à ressembler à la technologie au fur et à
mesure qu’elle progresse, ce qui est à la fois naturel, étant donné la capacité de l’individu
de s'adapter à son environnement, et dangereux, tenant compte de la rapidité avec laquelle
se déroule ce processus. La diversification des moyens technologiques estompe
progressivement la frontière entre le monde physique et le monde virtuel, ce qui peut
entraîner des changements comportementaux irréversibles fondés sur une dissonance
cognitive causée par les deux niveaux d'existence. Si, au début de l'intelligence
artificielle, l'un des arguments utilisés par les chercheurs pour écarter la crainte qu'elle ne
devienne plus puissante que l'homme était l'absence du corps physique, aujourd'hui, les
découvertes récentes dans ce domaine sont sur le point de rectifier cette erreur aussi.

L’Intelligence Artificielle et la transformation intrinsèque de l’individu

Partant du principe que certains des dispositifs technologiques utilisés par
l'homme dans la vie quotidienne ont commencé à prendre la forme d'extensions de son
corps, il est nécessaire d'analyser l'intelligence artificielle du point de vue des trois
significations identifiées par Feenberg comme les plus couramment rencontrées, à savoir:
L'IA est un type de programme informatique qui, malgré sa survente, a certains
résultats concrets, [...] L'IA a inspiré la création d'un nouveau secteur en
psychologie, qui considère l'ordinateur comme un modèle pour l’esprit, [...]L'IA
est le slogan d'un mouvement idéologique visant à re-conceptualiser l'homme sur
le modèle de ses propres machines » (Feenberg, 2002 : 97).
L'intelligence artificielle se présente comme un concept multidimensionnel, avec
des fonctionnalités et une polyvalence différente, qui acquiert le sens attribué par chaque
individu. Dans ce contexte, Feenberg souligne l'utilité des récits que les humains utilisent
pour définir quelque chose qui semble trop abstrait pour être compréhensible. L'un des
scénarios souvent évoqués pour tenter d'expliquer la relation entre l'intelligence
artificielle et les humains est « la métaphore qui identifie les humains aux ordinateurs. La
popularité de telles métaphores est inquiétante : si l'ordinateur est l'image de l'homme,
alors le monde mécanique forme un système fermé au sein duquel nous ne sommes qu'une
pièce » (idem : 97). Ce qui impressionne dans ce récit, ce n'est pas tant le mépris total du
côté spirituel inhérent à l'homme, mais l'ambition de l’avoir décodé, dans sa complexité,
en assemblant des composants mécaniques dans l'ordre dicté par des calculs
mathématiques.
L'identité personnelle devient ainsi un concept désuet qui ne dépend plus ni d'un
processus d'introspection individuelle, ni de la remémoration de souvenirs, mais d'un
amalgame de connaissances accumulées à partir d'expériences qui se succèdent devant
les yeux comme un film, complètement détachées de la vie réelle et qui restent en essence
incompréhensibles. Si l'accumulation de connaissances ne dépend pas de l'effort mental
intense nécessaire pour filtrer et décoder les informations, les gens risquent de perdre un
certain nombre de caractéristiques qui font partie de leur identité personnelle et sans
lesquelles ils ne pourront pas progresser pendant le temps, comme la créativité, la

178
concentration et la capacité à distinguer la vérité du mensonge. Pour tenter de déterminer
l'influence de la technologie sur les capacités cognitives individuelles, Sparrow et alii ont
mené une étude composée de trois expériences, qui ont confirmé les hypothèses
énumérées ci-dessus. Ainsi, les chercheurs ont constaté l'existence d'une dynamique
transactionnelle entre les humains et la technologie : « Le fait de compter sur nos
ordinateurs et les informations trouvées sur Internet pour fonctionner comme une
mémoire dépend de certains des mêmes processus de mémoire transactionnelle qui sous-
tendent l'échange d'informations sociales en général » (Sparrow et alii, 2011 : 778). Ce
type de mémoire modifie la façon dont les gens se rapportent à l'information et ouvre la
voie à une transformation des processus cognitifs utilisés pour se souvenir. En ce sens,
les chercheurs notent que les individus ont tendance à se souvenir de la source
d'information avec plus de précision et de l'information elle-même avec plus de difficulté,
ce qui conduit progressivement à la formation d'une « symbiose » entre l'homme et
l'ordinateur (idem : 778). L'internet est une source d'information apparemment
inépuisable, ce qui le rend très attirant pour la plupart des individus. En son absence,
l'accès à l'information est beaucoup plus difficile d’obtenir et exige un effort
supplémentaire de notre part. C'est pourquoi la dépendance à son égard devient de plus
en plus aiguë et difficile à combattre, donnant aux déconnectés la fausse impression qu'ils
sont incomplets en l'absence de la technologie.
Sur la base des prémisses ci-dessus, une comparaison valable entre l'ordinateur et
l'homme nécessite de définir le concept de « conscience » afin de créer des attentes
objectives sur la possibilité qu'une machine devienne semblable à l'homme et pour tester
la validité du récit qui soutient ceci. Selon le dictionnaire Webster, la conscience
représente
1.a : le sentiment de conscience quant au bien moral ou responsable ; b. la capacité,
le pouvoir ou le principe sur lequel se fondent les bonnes actions ; c. en
psychanalyse, la partie du surmoi qui dicte les actions de l'ego ; 2. Conformité à
ce qu'une personne croit être juste, bon ou moral ; 3. Un sentiment de justesse et
de justice.
La « Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy » attire l'attention sur la pluralité des
significations du terme « conscience » et le degré de subjectivité qu'il implique. L'origine
latine du mot formé par la préposition cum et le substantif scientia, littéralement traduit
par « avec connaissance » ou « en connaissance de cause », ne fait pas référence à la
nature de la connaissance, mais décrit un état d'assomption implicite des actions. Ainsi,
selon l'article encyclopédique, on peut déduire que les références aux valeurs morales
telles que l'équité ou le sens de la justice ont été ajoutées a posteriori, en fonction des
significations attribuées au terme par la société. Strohm soutient cette idée, en insistant
sur le grand nombre d'interprétations du terme, selon la nature de la perspective à partir
de laquelle il est exploré, à savoir : religieuse, philosophique, politique. En ce sens, selon
Strohm, la conscience est un concept abstrait et complexe, inextricablement lié aux êtres
vivants, qui justifie la façon dont ils se comportent.
La conscience refuse tout contenu rigide ou invariable. Elle peut justifier le
sacrifice généreux de soi comme l'individualisme égoïste. Elle peut motiver un
acte de charité ou un acte de terreur. Les dictats de la conscience peuvent être
chrétiens ou païens, divinement fondés ou résolument séculiers, égoïstement
nationalistes ou généreusement internationaux. Même son genre reste incertain :
la conscience peut être masculine ou féminine, une voix désincarnée ou parentale,
elle peut même parler en chœur comme l'opinion publique (Strohm, 2011 : 2).
Patricia Churchland a tenté à son tour de proposer une définition de la conscience

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 La conscience est le jugement d'un individu sur ce qui est moralement bien ou mal,
reflétant généralement, mais pas toujours, la norme d'un groupe auquel l'individu
se sent attaché. En outre, le verdict de la conscience n'est pas simplement cognitif,
mais comporte deux éléments interdépendants : des sentiments qui nous poussent
dans une direction générale et des jugements qui transforment cette poussée dans
une action spécifique (Patricia Churchland, 2019 : 10).
Bien que la chercheuse aborde le concept d'une manière quelque peu similaire à
celle des auteurs cités ci-dessus, en insistant sur la nature bidimensionnelle de la direction
dans laquelle le jugement peut nous guider pour agir de manière positive ou négative,
Churchland attribue également aux sentiments la capacité d'influencer nos décisions.
La conscience est donc en relation d'interdépendance avec l'identité, fonctionnant
comme une boussole morale qui guide les actions de l'individu. Dans ce contexte,
l'identité constitue l'ensemble des décisions prises en accord avec ce que la conscience
dicte : « si nous supprimons complètement la conscience de nos actions et de nos
sensations, en particulier du plaisir et de la douleur, et la préoccupation qui les
accompagne, il sera difficile de savoir où placer l'identité personnelle » (Locke, 1690 :
125). Un aspect très intéressant de la conscience et de l'identité est leur nature polyvalente
et la manière dont leur signification évolue au fil du temps, au fur et à mesure que la
société change, ainsi devenant une réflexion de celle-ci. Étant donné le lien inextricable
entre l'individu et le contexte social dont il fait partie, toute modification importante de
l'environnement extérieur peut entraîner des changements de comportement qui, s'ils
persistent suffisamment longtemps, peuvent être considérés comme la marque d'une
génération.
Aujourd'hui, la collaboration entre l'individu et l'intelligence artificielle facilite la
prise de décision dans la plupart de situations, et ce grâce à la grande quantité de données
auxquelles les systèmes ont accès, leur permettant de trier les informations et de fournir
un contenu personnalisé en fonction des spécificités de la recherche. Toutefois, si l'on
part de la différence essentielle entre l'homme et la machine soulignée plus haut, la prise
de décision est un processus propre à l'homme, qui fait partie intégrante de son identité
personnelle. Le fait de priver les hommes de cette caractéristique peut donc mettre en
péril leurs autonomie, restreignant davantage le champ d'action et le contrôle qu'ils
exercent sur leur propre existence. Si la rapidité avec laquelle les machines fonctionnent
peut-être un avantage en termes de gain de temps et de flexibilité, leur capacité à satisfaire
de plus en plus de besoins prive les individus de la possibilité d'évoluer et exacerbe leur
dépendance à l'égard de la technologie.
Parfois, l'intelligence artificielle […] peut donner au monde une sympathie
magique, comme lorsque les magasins semblent anticiper nos visites et nos
caprices. À d'autres moments, elle peut produire un sentiment kafkaïen, comme
lorsque les institutions prennent des décisions qui façonnent nos vies, des offres
d'emploi, des décisions concernant les prêts automobiles et immobiliers, ou des
décisions prises par des entreprises de sécurité ou des avocats chargés de
l'application de la loi qu'aucun humain ne peut expliquer (Kissinger et al., 2021 :
81).
Cependant, même lorsque l'information nous est entièrement disponible, pour la
comprendre en profondeur, nous devons faire l'effort de la décoder. En ce sens, selon
Simondon, « il y a une très grande différence entre l'être vivant et la machine [...] qui tient
au fait que l'être vivant à besoin d'informations, alors que la machine utilise des formes
et s'appuie sur des formes » (Simondon, 2017 : 150). Dans cette relation, il incombe à
l'être humain de créer et de maintenir la connexion avec la machine en interprétant les

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informations qu'elle lui transmet. En l'absence d’un médiateur, nous ne pouvions pas
bénéficier de la technologie. En d'autres termes, le degré de puissance que la machine
acquiert dépend en grande partie de l'homme : « L'homme est le découvreur de sens : le
sens est la signification qu'un événement acquiert, en fonction de formes déjà existantes
; le sens est ce qui donne à un événement la valeur d'une information » (idem : 164).
Ainsi, Simondon confirme à son tour l'idée que c'est l'homme qui décide en dernier ressort
du degré d'importance à accorder à la machine. Une autre distinction importante soulignée
par les chercheurs entre les êtres animés et les machines est la flexibilité des premiers,
comparée à la rigidité des secondes. En d'autres termes, c'est le corps biologique qui
donne à l'individu sa mobilité, ce qui est impossible pour une technologie à l'intérieur
d'une machine dont les pouvoirs sont limités par des programmes déterminés a priori.
L'automatisation algorithmique reflète un mode d'intelligence qui a un but
et une fin, ou plutôt une raison. La relation entre l'entrée et la sortie est
directée ou du moins structurée logiquement, ce qui fait de l'intelligence
informatique un processus de raisonnement orienté vers un objectif. C'est
pourquoi les processus computationnels sont considérés comme des
marques d'ordre, dans la mesure où ils mettent en pratique le raisonnement
de leur programmeur (Yolgormez, 2021 : 148).
La distinction entre le corps biologique et le corps numérique est importante car
elle ne se limite pas à des observations réduites à la matière à partir de laquelle elles ont
été conçues, mais met en évidence les processus complexes qui se produisent au sein des
deux corps. Selon Simondon, la différence essentielle entre le corps biologique et le corps
mécanique réside dans la manière dont la « transduction » s'effectue (Simondon, 2017 :
156). Par convention, la transduction est le processus par lequel le matériel génétique est
transféré d'une cellule à une autre, et diffère selon la manière dont l'information est traitée.
Bien qu'il existe des machines capables de fonctionner à une capacité bien supérieure à
celle de l'homme, les connexions entre les composants sont conditionnées par les
informations qu'ils doivent transmettre, et qui, à leur tour, dépendent de réglages
prédéterminés.
L'être vivant a la capacité de s'informer, même en l'absence de toute perception,
parce qu'il a la capacité de changer les formes sous lesquelles se manifestent les
problèmes à résoudre ; pour la machine, il n'y a pas de problèmes, seulement des
données qui modulent les transducteurs ; plusieurs transducteurs agissant les uns
sur les autres selon des schémas commutables (idem : 156).
L'interprétation des situations en vue de découvrir des solutions nécessite un effort
d'introspection parfois inconscient propre aux êtres vivants et notamment aux humains.
L'unicité de chaque individu réside principalement dans sa façon particulière d'agir,
fondée sur ses expériences passées. En revanche, toutes les décisions d'une machine sont
prévisibles car elles se réduisent à un ensemble de règles prédéterminées transmises au
moyen d'impulsions identiques et répétitives.
Il est bien connu que l'identité individuelle se construit à partir de l'amalgame
d'expériences accumulées au fil du temps. Étant donné qu'une des spécificités de l'IA est
la transformation de l'expérience individuelle en la traduisant dans l'environnement
virtuel, il est naturel de s'intéresser à ce phénomène de formation d'une identité
numérique, qui se manifeste par des changements petits mais certains, remarqués au
niveau comportemental. C'est là qu'interviennent les récits, dont le rôle principal est
d'expliquer et en même temps de favoriser l'intégration de ces nouvelles facettes de la
personnalité de l'individu dans la société. Dans leur étude « A Narative Practice Approach
to Identities : Small Stories and Positioning Analysis in Digital Contexts », publié dans

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« A Cambridge book of Identity », Giaxogolou K. et Georgakopolou A. apud Bamberg
notent l'importance d'une distinction entre l'environnement physique et virtuel dans
l'analyse d'une histoire. Selon eux, le récit peut avoir différentes valences selon
l'environnement dans lequel il se trouve. Ainsi, pour interpréter une histoire racontée dans
l'environnement virtuel, le lecteur doit tenir compte du lien entre la « temporalité
narrative », les « processus identitaires et le positionnement » (Giaxogolou et
Georgakopolou apud Bamberg, 2021 : 244). Selon Davies et Harré, le positionnement est
la façon dont nous comprenons les implications complexes de l'identité individuelle
(Davies et Harré, 1990 : 46). Dans ce contexte, les psychologues notent l'importance du
discours comme moyen d'expliquer les changements qui se produisent dans l'existence
quotidienne :
Un individu est construit par des processus d'interaction sociale, non pas comme
un produit final relativement fixe, mais comme un individu qui est constitué et
reconstitué par les diverses pratiques discursives auxquelles il participe. Ainsi, qui
l'on est reste une question ouverte, dont la réponse change en fonction des
positions mises en évidence par nos propres pratiques discursives et celles des
autres, et dans ces pratiques se trouvent les histoires par lesquelles nous conférons
un sens à notre propre vie et à celle des autres » (idem : 46).
Essentiellement, la théorie positionnelle s'intéresse à la manifestation individuelle
du Soi à travers des métaphores, des scripts et des associations conçus pour attribuer un
sens aux expériences personnelles. Ce qui distingue les récits individuels de ceux utilisés
par les médias le plus souvent à des fins de propagande, c'est la dimension intime des
premiers. Les récits individuels nous permettent de devenir spectateurs de la vie intérieure
de chacun, reflétant les changements discontinus qui ont lieu dans le processus de
construction de l'identité personnelle.
Dans le contexte de l'émergence des nouvelles technologies, afin de déterminer
objectivement l'impact qu'elles ont sur l'identité personnelle, une analyse approfondie des
récits individuels et collectifs est nécessaire, en mettant particulièrement l'accent sur
l'environnement dans lequel ils sont diffusés et le but qu'ils servent. En examinant les
récits les plus souvent découverts en ligne par le biais de photos ou de statuts, Giaxoglou
et Georgakopolou ont noté les similitudes entre ceux-ci et une représentation théâtrale,
qui imite l'authenticité pour créer l'impression d'une atmosphère intime entre le narrateur
et le public (Giaxogolou et Georgakopolou apud Bamberg, 2021 : 245). Ainsi, dans le
contexte numérique, le positionnement est plus difficile à réaliser, car les récits qui font
l'objet de l'analyse sont conditionnés par le besoin intrinsèque de l'individu d'être aimé et
accepté par le groupe social dans lequel il souhaite s'insérer. La construction d'une identité
dans l'environnement numérique est difficile précisément parce que l'expression
individuelle est conditionnée par des règles différentes et inconnues. Afin de raconter une
expérience de la manière la plus fidèle possible, le narrateur doit mettre en évidence la
dimension affective des événements, permettant ainsi à l'auditeur d'éprouver de
l'empathie pour ce qu'il raconte et de se mettre au cœur des événements.
Pour faciliter ce processus, Giaxoglou et Georgakopolou ont déterminé quatre
niveaux de positionnement, à savoir : placer les événements dans la catégorie appropriée
en fonction de leurs spécificités et de l'hypostase dans laquelle les personnages sont
placés, impliquer le niveau « paralinguistique » dans le récit pour mettre en évidence les
nuances profondes de l'histoire et fournir des indices quant à la réaction qu'elle doit
produire chez les spectateurs, et impliquer personnellement le narrateur dans le récit des
événements (idem : 249). Nous observons ainsi à la fois la complexité des récits eux-
mêmes, rendue par l'effort fourni pour les construire, et le degré d'implication personnelle

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dans leur narration. À travers eux, l'identité individuelle et collective émerge comme une
conséquence de tous les changements qui ont eu lieu au fil du temps au niveau de la
société et de la manière distincte dont ceux-ci ont été perçus par chaque individu.
Au fil du temps, la technologie a évolué, s'est diversifiée, et les objectifs initiaux
pour lesquels elle a été conçue se sont transformés en fonction des intérêts sociaux,
politiques, économiques et culturels qu'elle a dû satisfaire. Dans ce contexte, la nécessité
d'adapter la technologie pour répondre à de nouveaux intérêts ayant des fondements
économiques et politiques est devenue évidente, en créant un schéma d'identité
essentiellement numérique qui reflète les changements de comportement des
consommateurs. Compte tenu des nombreux risques liés à l'intelligence artificielle, nous
devons cultiver notre capacité à décoder les messages des récits afin de nous forger une
perception précise de la réalité.

Conclusions
Les capacités de l'intelligence artificielle sont incommensurables. C'est pourquoi
son utilisation est une nécessité dans toute industrie ayant une vision claire de l'avenir.
Les progrès réalisés dans les domaines médical, militaire, aérospatial et mécanique, la
redéfinition des emplois par la collaboration avec des systèmes intelligents en général,
tout cela laisse présager un avenir dans lequel la plupart des problèmes économiques,
environnementaux et culturels seront résolus. Comme pour toute avancée majeure,
l'intelligence artificielle présente deux facettes, qui diffèrent selon les objectifs pour
lesquels elle est utilisée. Pour que les individus soient en mesure de contrôler le degré de
pouvoir qu'ils lui attribuent sur leur vie personnelle, ils doivent avoir la liberté d'analyser
objectivement ses effets. En l'absence de récits réalistes qui s'attachent à décrire les faits
d'une manière qui permette au public de réfléchir aux informations fournies, il n'y aura
pas de distinction claire entre les histoires qui décrivent un effet positif des systèmes
intelligents sur les gens et celles qui ne sont qu'un exercice de rhétorique très réussi.
Bien que nous ne puissions pas établir avec précision la légitimité des scénarios
construits autour de l'avenir de l'humanité, certains d'entre eux sont basés sur des
découvertes concrètes dans des domaines importants pour la vie quotidienne, tels que la
médecine, l'armée, l'astronomie, l'aérospatiale, l'éducation, etc. La nature de ces scénarios
varie selon l'interprétation personnelle des chercheurs qui étudient le phénomène dans
une perspective sociale, culturelle et politique. D'une part, le futur est perçu comme un
moment marqué par une transformation des perceptions individuelles et collectives de
« la connaissance, la découverte, la communication et la pensée individuelles »
(Kissinger, 2021 : 91), d'autre part, comme une fin aux règles par lesquelles le monde que
nous connaissons est gouverné. Dans la panoplie des scénarios d'avenir se distingue
également une vision essentiellement pragmatique, destinée à mettre en évidence la
finalité des systèmes intelligents au service des intérêts politiques nationaux et
internationaux : « Les IA sont des expressions du pouvoir qui découlent de forces
économiques et politiques plus larges, créées pour accroître les profits et centraliser le
contrôle pour ceux qui les possèdent » (Crawford, 2021 : 211).

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184
 THE WORLDVIEW IN ORIGEN’S THINKING

Roger Cristian SAFTA*

Abstract: Origen, the great Alexandrian church writer, was and continues to be a great
theological personality whose work, impressive from the viewpoint of its volume, was a landmark
and also a challenge for the Christian theology of later centuries. Its cosmology, largely Christian,
but influenced by elements of Platonic, Neoplatonic, and Stoic philosophy, constitutes the first
major attempt to explain the origin and meaning of the world according to Holy Scripture. Failed
between idealism and allegory, however, his attempt has many positive parts that have been
capitalised by Christian theology, especially through the Holy Fathers of the fourth century, such
as St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. Gregory. Nazianzus.
Keywords: Origen, cosmology, world.

The reception of Origen’s work and thought in the Christian tradition has led to a
paradox: as a writer, he is highly appreciated for his theological and philosophical
erudition, but he is also blasphemed for his errors; his theological thinking was taken over
and developed by the great Fathers of the Church, but he is also the author that was
condemned for heresy at the Fifth Ecumenical Council (553).
Origen was a true Christian, a staunch defender of Christian teaching, based on
Holy Scripture, but influenced by his philosophical training and the cultural environment
of Alexandria, Egypt. In his scriptural interpretation he mainly makes use of the
allegorical method, so closely related to the Alexandrian school, through the Greek
philosophers and especially through Philo of Alexandria.
However, his errors were not noticed during his lifetime, the theological disputes
over his theological ideas being initiated a century after his death by Bishop Epiphanius
of Salamis. It is true that there was another kind of dispute during his lifetime, a canonical
one, with Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria and his successor, Heracles, who accused him
of preaching to the faithful, before the bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem, even if he was
a layperson, that he was ordained a priest by them without the consent of the bishop of
Alexandria under whose canonical jurisdiction he lay, as well as of self-mutilation, which
was incompatible with ordination, according to the canons.
The main theological errors that determined his condemnation in the sixth century
were: 1) Trinitarian subordinationism; 2) the pre-existence of souls; 3) the pre-existence
of the human soul in Christ; 4) apocatastasis (the final restoration of all, including of
demons); 5) the conception of the liveliness of the stars; 6) an overly allegorical
interpretation of Holy Scripture. A synthesis of Origen’s theological errors is found in the
work of Emperor Justinian, Treaty against Origen, which underlies his conviction at a
synod in Constantinople (543)1. Referring to the allegorical interpretation of Scripture,
Justinian has a sharp attitude toward Origen, stating: “being educated in the mythologies
of the Greeks and being keen on spreading them, he pretended to explain the Holy
Scriptures, so that, by combining his odious teachings with the explanations of the Holy

* University of Pitesti, [email protected]

1 Prof. Teodor M. Popescu, „Tratatul împăratului Iustinian contra lui Origen” (Emperor Justinian’s
treaty against Origen), in Studii Teologice (Theological Studies), no. 4, Year IV, 1933, p. 20

185
Scriptures, he would maliciously introduce the Greek and Manichean error and the Arian
madness. Did Origen state anything other than what Plato had said?”1.
Of his impressive work throughout his life, only large fragments remain, either in
Latin translations or in other manuscripts that have escaped destruction following his
condemnation. Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea says that “whoever tries to present
in writing all the details of this man’s life would have much to say, and if he were to
recount them all, he would have to write a whole book.”2
Origen’s theological system is largely shaped in opposition to Greek philosophy
and Gnosticism, although it fails in the same speculative system as the former.
In deciphering the meaning of the world, for Origen the end is the starting point,
because the beginning is similar to the end: “for, ultimately, the end always resembles the
beginning, so that as one is the end of all things, so we must conceive of a single beginning
of them.”3 Although similar, the beginning and the end do not presuppose identity,
between them there is the possibility of progress; the likeness is given by the connection
with God in what both the beginning and the end are concerned. His conception of the
world can be summed up in the stasis – kinisis – genesis (stability - movement - genesis)
triad.
For Origen the world (mundus in Latin) is rendered by the Greek κόσμος (cosmos),
which also means adornment.
Origen considers it certain that the world and all creatures have their origin in God
through genesis4. Matter is not coeternal with God but is created out of nothing. The
world is not an accident, but a free creation of God’s love. He saw the material world as
temporary and provisional, not as the ultimate end of mankind, though it is advancing
toward the end, for what has a beginning has an end.
Trying to reconcile God’s omnipotence and His immutability, in the sense that
there was not a single moment when God was inactive, but His work is one deriving from
eternity, he speaks of the existence of ideas of things that exist in the contemplation of
the Son of God or of Divine Wisdom5. All created existence is contained in the form of
ideas before they come into existence through genesis. This in a way places the origin of
the world in eternity, beyond time, because God, being immutable, cannot become
creative at some point, as if this attribute had a beginning. But the world cannot exist
without matter, without corporeality, because only God is absolute spiritual existence.
The matter of this world is seen in its essence as the basis of bodily existence, an
amorphous substance, devoid of qualities (heat, cold, dryness, and moisture), but which
cannot subsist without these qualities. The diversity of bodies and material things is given
by the presence, in different proportions, of the qualities in matter. This matter is created
by God, so it is not coeternal with Him, and it is also arranged by Him, according to His

1 Ibidem, p. 31
2 Eusebius of Caesarea, Istoria Bisericească VI, III, 1 (Church History VI, III, 1) in Eusebius of
Caesarea, Istoria Bisericească (Church History), Ancient Greek translation, introductory study and
notes by Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, edition revised by Prof. Tudor Teoteoi, col. P.S.B., new series,
no. 20, Basilica Publishing House, Bucharest, 2020, p. 283
3 Origen, Peri arhon (Despre principii) (On principles), I, 6, 2 in Origen, Scrieri alese (Selected

writings), part three, introductory study, translation, notes by Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, col. P.S.B.,
no. 8, Publishing House of the Biblical and Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church,
Bucharest, 1982, p. 93
4 Idem, I, 3, 3, p. 71
5 Idem, I, 4, 4, p. 82

186
will. God is the One who linked the qualities to this matter that He also brought into
existence. Origen says that „God brought from nothing into being what He wanted”1.
Relying on the “authority of the Scriptures” (II Maccabees VII, 28) and on the Shepherd
of Hermas (Commandment I, 1) he states as follows: “These words ‘He said and were
made’ seem to indicate the substance of things, and ‘He commanded and they were built,’
the quality by which substance took shape”2. All beings are corporeal, material in one
form or another:
“But the bodily substance “was created in such a way that it could adapt to
anything; if used in lower beings, it takes the form of a denser and more
compact body, after which we can distinguish the seen and varied species
of the world; but if it is used in higher and happier beings, then it shines in
the « glory of the heavenly bodies» and adorns the garments of the
»spiritual body, » even of the angel of God and of the »sons of the
resurrection» ... So this matter of the body, which is now fleeting, will
clothe itself in immortality the moment when, once improved and
enlightened by the incorruptible teachings, the soul will come to use it for
good purposes”3.
Origen asserts the multiplicity of the world, in the sense of the existence of several
successive and not simultaneous worlds: „we must not believe that there have been
several worlds at once, but that after one, another will follow in time”4 or: „there were
centuries before this world, and there will be other centuries after we die”5. He bases this
idea from a scriptural point of view on texts from Isaiah LXVI, 22 (“As the new heavens
and the new earth that I make will endure before me,” declares the Lord, “so will your
name and descendants endure.) and Ecclesiastes 1, 9 („What has been will be again, what
has been done will be done again; there is nothing new under the sun.”). The existence of
these worlds is successive, not simultaneous. There may be a similarity between them,
but not a perfect identity, so that in this succession of worlds great differences can occur
between them. One cannot speak of a metempsychosis in Origen, as he is very firm
against this heresy6.
Starting from the fact that in Scripture genesis is called in Greek καταβολὴ which
is understood as “to bring down” or “to throw down,” Origen interprets creation as a fall:
“for this reason, by the meaning of this word καταβολὴ it was indicated that everyone
descended from the top down”7. There is, therefore, an initial spiritual creation, of the
intellects, which were all created equal and free at the same time. For some interpreters
of Origen’s work, this theory of a world of intellects is related to the world of Plato’s

1 Idem, II, 1, 4, p. 114

2 Idem, II, 1, 5, p. 114
3 Idem, II, 2, 2 şi II, 3, 2, p. 116, 118
4 Idem, III, 5, 3, p. 245-246
5 Idem, III, 5, 3, p. 245
6 Origen, Comentariu la Evanghelia după Matei X, 20 (Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew X,

20) in Origen, Scrieri alese (Selected Writings), part two, Exegeze la Noul Testament. Despre
rugăciune. Filocalia (Exegue to the New Testament. About prayer. Filocalia), in the collection
P.S.B., no. 7, translation by Pr. prof. T. Bodogae, Pr. prof. Nicolae Neaga and Zorica Laţcu,
introductory study and notes by Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, Publishing House of the Biblical and
Mission Institute of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Bucharest, 1982, p. 50
7 Origen, Peri arhon (Despre principii) (On principles), III, 5, 4, p. 247

187
ideas1, but we cannot help but notice a resemblance to Philo of Alexandria’s interpretation
of the days of creation. It speaks of two creations, corresponding to the two biblical
accounts of man’s creation. Thus, in Genesis I, 27 Philo sees a spiritual creation, of souls:
„the human being after the image is a kind of idea or genus or seal, is perceived by the
intellect, incorporeal, neither male nor female), and is immortal by nature” 2, and in
Genesis II, 7 it is about the creation of bodies: „the sense-perceptible and individual
human being has a structure which is composed of earthly substance and divine spirit, for
the body came into being when the Craftsman took clay and moulded a human shape out
of it, whereas the soul obtained its origin from nothing which has come into existence at
all, but from the Father and Director of all things”3.
At the same time, Origen differs in this understanding of the creation of Plotinus’
intellects for which creation comes from One4. These intellects or minds (νόες) are at first
in the Divine Wisdom or Son of God, without identifying with Him, in a state of free
contemplation. All creatures, intelligible or sentient, were created together and absolutely
equal.
“God the Father, of course, has always existed and has always had His only
begotten Son, Who is also called Wisdom… in this Wisdom, Who was
always with the Father, He existed in all time and creation, being arranged
in an ideal or virtual way, so that there was no moment in which the patterns
of future things were not in Wisdom”5.
For Origen, the intellects were created by God in a finite number, and not infinite,
according to God’s ordinance, “in order to reach the order of the world.” 6 Having a
beginning, they are changeable and fleeting. Existence is not proper to their nature, but a
gift from God.
Their fall (καταβολὴ) was a free one, meaning their transformation into souls
(ψυχὴ). This is derived by Origen through an etymological reasoning, thus following
Plato7 and Aristotle8, deriving psyche (ψυχὴ) from the root psychros (ψυχρός), which

1 Henri Crouzel, Origen: personajul – exegetul – omul duhovnicesc – teologul (Origin: the
character - the exegete - the spiritual man - the theologian), second edition, translation by Cristian
Pop, preface by diac. Ioan I. Ică jr., Deisis Publishing House, Sibiu, 2014, p. 344; Claudio
Moreschini, Istoria filosofiei patristice (The history of patristic philosophy), translation by
Alexandra Cheşcu, Mihai-Silviu Chirilă and Doina Cernica, Polirom Publishing House, Iaşi, 2009,
p. 139
2 Philo of Alexandria, On the creation of the cosmos according to Moses 18, 134 în Philo of

Alexandria, On the Creation of the Cosmos according to Moses, introduction, translation and
commentary by David T. Runia, Brill, 2001, p. 82
3 Idem, 18, 135, p. 82
4 Plotin, Enneade V, 8, 12 (Ennead V, 8, 12) in Plotin, Enneade III-V (Ennead III-V), bilingual

edition, translation and comments by Vasile Rus, Liliana Peculea, Marilena Vlad, Alexander
Baumgarten, Gabriel Chindea, Elena Mihai, IRI Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005, p. 619-621
5 Origen, Peri arhon (Despre principii) (On principles), I, 4, 4, p. 82
6 Idem, II, 9, 1, p. 161
7 Plato, Cratylos, 399 in Plato, Opere III (Works III) Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House,

Bucharest, 1978, p. 274

8 Aristotle, Despre suflet, I, 2, 405b (On the soul, I, 2, 405b) in Aristotle, Despre suflet (On the

soul), translation from Greek and notes by Alexander Baumgarten, Humanitas Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2005, p. 49: „those who <say that the soul> is cold, claim that it is called ψυχὴ from
breathing and cooling”.

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means “cold”: “We must ask ourselves whether the word soul, which in Greek is called
ψυχὴ, does not come from cooling from a more divine and better state, because it seems
that it has cooled from the natural and divine warmth, receiving the state and the name it
has now?”1. Therefore the intellects, which formed a unity without number and name,
fall from their state by a cooling, becoming souls (psyche). The reason for this fall is seen
by Origen in a certain indifference or boredom: accustomed to the Good to which they
were bound, due to the freedom of will, but also to the imperfection of their condition
(the only absolute perfection being only God) the intellects move away from the Good
and they no longer gave it due respect: “carelessness and indifference to the preservation
of the good, alienation and neglect of the better, formed the beginning of the removal of
the good.”2 It is a saturation of divine contemplation. The fall of the intellects actually
means their entry into existence, existence being an inferior state of being (being
understood as the state prior to creation in space-time, the state of intellects). Existence
is the state of falling, a state inferior to being which is the state of the intellects. The fall
of the intellects, however, is gradual, according to the cooling of their love, except the
intellect of Christ, which has remained in the same state.
This way, evil appears as an option of freedom, not as a principle in itself,
coeternal with God, nor is it from God; evil is the lack of good3. Depending on the severity
of the fall, we find a diversification of creatures, according to the three classes: angels,
humans and demons. Origen opposes free will to the determinism of the ancient world,
be it astrological4 or philosophical, determinism that had also penetrated Valentinian
Gnosticism, against which he fought tirelessly:
„It is also established in the teaching of the Church that every rational soul
is endowed with the freedom to decide or to want to do something or not.
As such, it can resist the devil and its angels, as well as other enemy powers,
when they strive to charge it with sins.… From this we can understand that
we are not subject to coercion and are not compelled from the outset to do
good or evil if we do not want to... in no case are we forced to do good or
evil against our will.”5
In fact, with Origen one must distinguish between creation out of nothing, out of
non-existence which refers to the bringing into existence of intellects, and creation
outside of God, which refers to the spatio-temporal reality. The world of intellects is a
world of potentiality. The space-time world is necessary for fallen intellects to atone for
pre-existing error. But this world is also good because it is created by God.
The world created by God is a world that is diversified and structured
hierarchically. Origen distinguishes between what is above the heavens, in heavens, on
earth and in hell. The creatures that live in these places are distinct, different from one
another.
With Origen we can distinguish at least four states of existence:

1 Origen, Peri arhon (On Principles), II, 8, 3, p. 157

2 Idem, II, 9, 2, p. 161
3 Ibidem, p. 161
4 Origen, Comentarii la Geneză 4, 1-22 (Comments on Genesis 4: 1-22), in Origen, Omilii,

comentarii şi adnotări la Geneză (Homilies, comments and annotations on Genesis), bilingual

edition, introductory study, translation and notes by Adrian Muraru, Polirom Publishing House,
Iaşi, 2006, pp. 469-515
5 Origen, Peri arhon (Despre principii) (On Principles), Origen’s preface, 5, p. 40

189
 1. the state prior to any creation, the eternity of God, when all existence is
connected with the ideas of things existing in the divine Logos
2. the state of the intellects, a state of creation, when they are in the contemplation
of God
3. the state of the current, spatio-temporal creation, when the intellects become
souls and receive bodies
4. the state of return, of reunion of all in God
The meaning of creation is to bring everyone back to their original state, to bring
everyone together in God (τῆς ἀποκαταστάσεως τοῦ παντός). There will be a final end
of the times, when everything will be reunited with God. Origen leans toward the idea
that good will forever prevail. Although he does not express very clearly this idea of
apocatastasis, that is, of the restoration of all things, there are many voices who declare
that Origen states in his works that in the end even the devil will be forgiven.
Leaving aside his theological mistakes, otherwise condemned by posterity,
Origen’s teaching remains an authentic one, anchored in a sincere and apologetic faith,
constituting a true source for many of the Church Fathers of the ages to come.

Bibliography
Biblia sau Sfânta Scriptură, Tipărită sub îndrumarea şi cu purtarea de grijă a Prea Fericitului Părinte
Teoctist, Patriarhul Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, cu aprobarea Sfântului Sinod, Editura Institutului
Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1990
Aristotel, Despre suflet, traducere din greacă şi note de Alexander Baumgarten, Editura Humanitas,
Bucureşti, 2005
Crouzel, Henri, Origen: personajul – exegetul – omul duhovnicesc – teologul, Ediţia a II-a,
Traducere cristian Pop, Prefaţă diac. Ioan I. Ică jr., Editura Deisis, Sibiu, 2014
Eusebiu de Cezareea, Istoria Bisericească, traducere din limba greacă veche, studiu introductiv şi
note de Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, Ediţie revizuită de Prof. Tudor Teoteoi, col. P.S.B., serie nouă,
nr. 20, Editura Basilica, Bucureşti, 2020
Moreschini, Claudio, Istoria filosofiei patristice, traducere de Alexandra Cheşcu, Mihai-Silviu
Chirilă şi Doina Cernica, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2009
Origen, Omilii, comentarii şi adnotări la Geneză, Ediţie bilingvă, Studiu introductiv, traducere şi
note de Adrian Muraru, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2006
Origen, Scrieri alese, Partea a doua, Exegeze la Noul Testament. Despre rugăciune. Filocalia, în
colecţia P.S.B., nr. 7, Traducere de Pr. prof. T. Bodogae, Pr. prof. Nicolae Neaga şi Zorica Laţcu,
Studiu introductiv şi note de Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al
Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1982
Origen, Scrieri alese, partea a treia, Studiu introductiv, traducere, note de Pr. prof. Teodor Bodogae,
col. P.S.B., nr. 8, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti,
1982
Philo of Alexandria, On the Creation of the Cosmos according to Moses, Introduction, Translation
and Commentary by David T. Runia, Brill, 2001
Platon, Opere III, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1978
Plotin, Enneade III-V, Ediţie bilingvă, Traducere şi comentarii de Vasile Rus, Liliana Peculea,
Marilena Vlad, Alexander Baumgarten, Gabriel Chindea, Elena Mihai, Editura IRI, Bucureşti, 2005
Popescu, Prof., Teodor M., „Tratatul împăratului Iustinian contra lui Origen” în Studii Teologice,
nr. 4, Anul IV, 1933

190
 LE DEVELOPPEMENT DU LANGAGE AU NIVEAU
PRESCOLAIRE – UNE FAÇON DE DECOUVRIR LE MONDE /
L’ENVIRONNEMENT

Cristina Loredana BLOJU*

Abstract: Language, communication and literacy are essential conditions for the global
development of the individual and for human coexistence in society. The acquisition of language as
well as the reading and writing skills, is a complex process during which the children understand
the meaning of the words, the way they are used to convey meaning and how humans can use written
materials. By acquiring language, the children are able to express ideas, share them with others
and find ways to respond to the ideas and actions of the other dialogue participants. By learning
the language, the child acquires, in fact, a verbal, nonverbal and paraverbal symbolic system that
he will develop and optimize throughout his whole life. The ability to communicate effectively,
through oral or written language, is essential for carrying out all daily activities. Language,
through the use of symbols that represent concepts, plays a fundamental role in the development of
knowledge, thinking, logic and reasoning skills. Language is not used by children only to transmit
the ideas, thoughts, emotions to the others, but also to receive, to understand meanings and to
decode what the partners in the act of communication convey to them. Language development takes
place in specific social and cultural contexts that decisively influence the child. The first social
context in which the child comes into contact with the language is the family. As the child grows,
social contexts become more and more complex and diverse. The act of communication gradually
becomes more complex, depending on the child's exposure to language, written materials and
relationships. This paper aims at highlighting the standards that young children (from 1 to 3 years
old) should achieve, in turn, in order to form their verbal, nonverbal and paraverbal
communication skills, in order to understand and be understood by the people around them, so that
they could succeed, in decrypting the mysteries of the kaleidoscope of the world, in which they begin
they begin their first "linguistic" itinerary.
Keywords: language, early education, education.

Introduction
Jusqu'aux deux dernières décennies du siècle dernier (XX-ème), le concept
d'éducation préscolaire faisait référence à l'éducation offerte aux enfants avant leur
scolarisation, réalisée entre 3 ans et 6/7 ans. L'éducation précoce était considérée comme
une activité systématisée, réalisée dans des institutions spécialisées, telles que les
maternelles et elle était connue sous le nom d'enseignement ou d’éducation préscolaire.
La Conférence mondiale de 1990 à Jomtien, Thaïlande - Education pour tous - a introduit
un nouveau concept, celui de l'apprentissage tout au long de la vie et une fois avec celui-
ci, on a promu l'idée que l'éducation commence dèsla naissance. Ainsi, le concept
d'éducation précoce s'est élargi, passant au-dessous de l'âge de 3 ans, et on l’a nommé par
l’expression « développement précoce de l’enfant » - comprenant dans sa sphère les idées
d'éducation, de protection et de santé. Cela a conduit à un nouveau discours dans les
politiques d'éducation de la petite enfance, à travers une approche convergente du social,
de l'éducation, de la santé (santé et nutrition). Du point de vue de la socialisation
langagière, le développement et l'utilisation du langage des émotions dans les
conversations quotidiennes sont fortement liés et, en même temps, ils renforcent

* Université de Pitesti, [email protected]

191
l'organisation des relations interpersonnelles, la régulation et l'expression émotionnelles.
(Boţiş, A., Mihalca L., 2007: 35)
De nos jours, l'éducation précoce signifie l'approche pédagogique qui couvre
l'intervalle de vie depuis la naissance jusqu’à 6/7 ans, c’est-à-dire le moment de l'entrée de
l'enfant à l'école et, en même temps, le moment où des transformations importantes se
produisent dans le développement de l'enfant. « L’objectif principal que les enseignants et
les parents sont appelés à résoudre, (...), est la formation des compétences d'expression orale
et de communication des petits, utilisées avec les personnes de leur milieu environnant. Tout
le concept s’appuie sur la base de l'apprentissage qualitatif de la langue roumaine»
(Cermotan, S., 2015 : 37) Cette nouvelle perspective sur la période de la petite enfance, a mis
en évidence la possibilité de prendre soin du petit enfant en dehors de la famille, à travers des
services spécialisés et, par conséquent, le passage de la prise en charge personnelle réalisée
dans la famille à celui accordée par les services publics, appelés services d'aide et d'éducation,
déroulées en dehors du cadre familial. (”out of family”).
L'éducation de la petite enfance a pour but le développement global, complet de
l'enfant qui lui assurera un bon départ dans la vie. L'ensemble du spectre éducatif est divisé
à ce niveau d'âge 1-3 ans dans des domaines de développement. Arnold Gessel considère que
le développement antepréscolaire est divisé en : domaine motrices, cognitivo-sensoriels,
langagiers et communicatifs, autonomie et self-service. (Weizmann, F., Harris, B., 2012 : 1–
20) Il existe une interrelation entre tous ces domaines, de sorte que chaque acquisition dans
un domaine influence significativement le progrès de l'enfant dans les autres domaines de
développement.

CORPUS
Parmi les domaines de développement, des outils pédagogiques essentiels pour
parvenir à l'individualisation de l'éducation et de l’apprentissage, à ce jeune âge, est celui
du développement du langage, de la communication et des prémisses de la lecture et de
l'écrit. Il s'agit, d'une part, de la composante réceptive (la capacité d'écouter et de
comprendre un texte oral, la capacité de parler et de communiquer), et d'autre part de la
composante lecture et écrit (connaître et apprécier le livre, développer l'ouïe phonémique,
prendre conscience du message écrit et parlé, acquérir la compétence de l’écrit).
Le langage, la communication et la compétence de lire et d’écrire sont étroitement
liés, de sorte que leur développement doit être poursuivi dans la même mesure. Le
développement du langage vise le développement de la parole et de ses formes, du
vocabulaire, du système sonore de la parole, de la structure et des formes grammaticales
correctes. L'acquisition progressive de toutes ces composantes conduit à l'utilisation
constructive et consciente du langage dans des contextes sociaux. Les enfants
communiquent avant de pouvoir utiliser le langage symbolique. Leur communication
repose sur l'acquisition d'un ensemble important de compétences telles que : la conscience
de la langue comme convention sociale, l'écoute active, la compréhension, la conversation.
Par l'interaction, l'enfant se familiarise avec les multiples formes et intentions du
processus de communication. Tout en abordant le langage d’une perspective directement
liée à la réalité, il est clair que celui-ci « sert à une finalité sociale et il subit l'influence de
la société » (Slama-Cazacu, T., 1959, p.193) « Le jeu didactique utilisé dans le contexte
des activités de l'éducation préscolaire a cette particularité extraordinaire : il doit
combiner harmonieusement l'élément pédagogique et l'exercice... » (Ezechil, L., Păiși-
Lăzărescu, M., 2011 : 140).
Ainsi, en termes de développement de la compétence d'écoute et de
compréhension, c'est-à-dire la forme de communication réceptive, l'enfant doit être

192
capable d'écouter pour comprendre le sens du langage parlé. Pour atteindre ce standard,
l'enfant d'âge antepréscolaire doit essayer de localiser les objets lorsqu'il en entend parler,
en utilisant un vocabulaire aussi diversifié que possible, pour identifier certaines
personnes, objets et actions par leur simple nom. L'enfant devrait être capable à répondre
à l'exigence de diffuser un court message verbal pendant un jeu ou les activités
quotidiennes, tout en répétant un simple message verbal lorsqu'il l'entend. L'enfant d'âge
antepréscolaire participe à des jeux, des chansons ou des poèmes accompagnés, dans un
premier temps, de gestes et il manifeste la capacité d'écouter des histoires courtes et
simples. La lecture quotidienne, accompagnée par l'explication de mots inconnus, produit
le cadre de l'introduction, progressive et adaptée à cet âge, de mots nouveaux tout en
racontant/décrivant ce que l'enfant vit par tous les sens (ce qu'il voit, ce qu'il goûte, ce
qu'il touche, ce qu'il entend ou ce qu'il sent). Une fois avec l'acquisition d'un vocabulaire
minimal, l'enfant d'âge antepréscolaire répond aux commandes qui incluent des verbes
dynamiques tels que sauter, courir, ouvrir, attraper, m'apporter ..., et au fil du temps,
l'enfant acquiert la compétence pour effectuer deux actions en corrélation, exprimées des
structures complexes qui comprennent des noms, des verbes, des adverbes, des adjectifs
(par exemple : Mettez les jouets à construire sur leurs étagères et venez à table !).
Pour que les anteprescolaires atteignent ce standard, il y a une série d’activités
qu’ils doivent accomplir. Pour cela, il faut :
- aider les enfants à avoir des conversations téléphoniques, par exemple avec des
personnes connues, à utiliser des verbes et à répondre positivement à certaines
tâches perçues comme des commandes,
- impliquer l'enfant dans la résolution de situations simples et épisodiques, répéter
la tâche ou réaliser l'action ensemble, au début,
- faire des jeux d'écoute et de compréhension avec l'enfant d'âge antepréscolaire
(par exemple: Fais comme moi !).
En ce qui concerne le développement des compétences de s’exprimer oralement
et de communiquer, c'est-à-dire la communication expressive, on considère que l'enfant
d'âge antepréscolaire devrait être capable d'enrichir progressivement son vocabulaire,
en utilisant des mots bisyllabiques, trisyllabiques, de nouveaux mots dans les activités
quotidiennes. Tour à tour, l'enfant va communiquer, à l'aide de phrases de deux ou trois
mots, en verbalisant les expériences sensorielles de goût (acide, sucré, amer, salé),
d'odeurs (odeur, parfum), auditives, tactiles (dures, lisses...) ou visuelles (l’enfant
nomme, tout d’abord, les couleurs vives). Les antepréscolaires utilisent souvent des
questions pour apprendre les dénominations de nouveaux objets ou événements (par
exemple : Qu'est-ce que c’est ? Comment s'appelle-t-il ?)
Pour atteindre ces normes, on recommande :
- des jeux de découpage de mots en syllabes, pour faciliter leur prononciation ; le
nombre de syllabes qui les composent peut augmenter progressivement,
- de différentes façons d'exprimer les mêmes choses, en utilisant un vocabulaire
aussi diversifié que possible,
- la transformation des phrases simples, construites par l'enfant, en phrases plus
complexes, parfois, le cas échéant, en réarrangeant la topique ; ce type d’activité devrait
être accomplie par l'enseignant,
- des jeux du type le Sac mystérieux pour développer la capacité d’exprimer des
expériences sensorielles ; on peut initier, également, des jeux physiques, d'exploration,
sensoriels, qui permettront à l'enfant de verbaliser les expériences vécues,
- mettre à la portée de l'enfant des livres d'images portant sur de différents thèmes
(par exemple : des livres d'images avec l'animal et son bébé, avec des objets ménagers,

193
des images de jouets, etc.) qui vont fonctionner comme un stimulus de l’expression du
petit.
Afin de développer sa capacité de parler et de communiquer (communication
expressive), l'enfant doit également être en mesure de démontrer sa compétence à
s'exprimer correctement, du point de vue grammatical. Ainsi, le antepréscolaire devra
développer des structures grammaticales utilisées par les locuteurs de son milieu
environnant, associer des noms, des noms et des verbes, des verbes et des pronoms
possessifs, des noms et des adjectifs, des noms et des adverbes. Par imitation et par la
compréhension déductive du contexte grammatical, l'enfant de cet âge arrivera à
utiliser, correctement, le pluriel des noms, le pronom possessif « mon », puis le pronom
personnel, première personne du singulier (Je), les verbes au passé, les structures
interrogatives, parfois incorrectes comme position dans l’énoncé, manifestant la
tendance à utiliser la négation dans le discours spontané (non).
Pour le succès des normes ci-dessus, plusieurs recommandations sont faites, parmi
lesquelles:
- utiliser constamment de structures grammaticales de plus en plus complexes, en
décrivant des routines quotidiennes (par exemple : Nous nous sommes réveillés après
le sommeil de midi et nous nous préparons à aller jouer ; nous allons d'abord aux
toilettes, nous nous lavons, puis nous changeons nos vêtements...),
- utiliser des jeux comme : Je dis un, tu dis plusieurs, mais avec des notions qui
ne dépassent pas le niveau de compréhension des enfants,
- engager l'enfant dans des conversations et poser des questions ouvertes sans
encourager les réponses monosyllabiques,
- accepter un moment d'opposition traversé par l'enfant dans l'expression verbale,
- reformuler correctement ses questions,
- utiliser des constructions complexes dans la communication quotidienne avec
l'enfant d'âge antepréscolaire et l'encourager de s'exprimer d’une manière de plus en
plus complexe,
- laisser à l'enfant le temps nécessaire, après avoir posé des questions, pour qu'il
ait le temps de répondre.
En même temps, afin de parvenir à une communication expressive, l'enfant doit
être à même de démontrer sa capacité à communiquer efficacement. Pour ce faire, il
faut apprendre à l'antepréscolaire à garder son attention sur le locuteur, même s'il le fait
pour un temps limité, et à s'adapter à de différents interlocuteurs (par exemple : lorsqu'il
parle à un enfant, il doit utiliser son nom). Il faut aussi l'encourager à verbaliser ses
demandes et ses réponses (par exemple : je veux…), en utilisant des formules de
politesse (s'il vous plaît, merci).
De plus, pour les enfants d'âge antepréscolaire, le langage non verbal est naturel
car, à ce moment de son existence, il utilise la gestuelle et le langage corporel pour
exprimer ses besoins et des sentiments (par exemple, il embrasse spontanément les
membres de la famille pour transmettre son affection). Cependant, ces éléments non
verbaux doivent être éduqués. L'enseignant doit, donc, faire beaucoup d’attention au
message non verbal qu'il véhicule au niveau du groupe, en tout moment.
Pour cela, il est recommandé :
- d’exercer les compétences de communication de l'enfant, afin de lui donner la
possibilité de se présenter dans de divers nouveaux contextes sociaux (par
exemple, auprès de ses voisins et de ses connaissances, du personnel de la
maternelle, du médecin, etc.),

194
 - de mener une conversation permanente avec l'antepréscolaire, pendant toute la
journée, dans n'importe quel contexte: lorsque le repas est servi, à la promenade,
lorsque les jouets sont mis à leur place....,
- de modeler le ton, l'intonation de la parole, l’enseignant agissant comme un
modèle de communication pour de l'enfant,
- d’utiliser de différentes marionnettes à doigts, pour lui apprendre à déchiffrer et
à utiliser le langage non verbal, lors de la lecture d'histoires pour sonâge,
- de créer de différents contextes de communication (par exemple : la possibilité
de communiquer avec d'autres enfants ou adultes dans tout contexte - famille,
quartier, communauté, institutions).
Pour les situations dans lesquelles l'enfant antepréscolaire participe à de diverses
expériences impliquant l’objet livre, il doit être capable de montrer de l'intérêt pour le
livre et de l'appréciation pour celui-ci, tout en démontrant qu’il sait comment l’utiliser
et quels en sont les bénéfices. On sait que l'enfant à cet âge est attiré par les livres, les
magazines, les images ; il les regarde ou il les feuillette sans être accompagné par
uneautre personne.
Par conséquent, il est recommandé :
- de mettre à sa disposition de divers supports imprimés (livres d'histoires avec /
sans images, des manuels scolaires, des magazines, des albums photos); ils
peuvent être feuilletés facilement et on peut lancer des discussions à partir d’eux,
- d’initier et d’encourager les commentaires de l'enfant, ainsi que les associations
entre les livres lus et ses expériences de vie,
- de lire à l'enfant pendant 30 minutes, tous les jours.
En même temps, par rapport à l’objet livre et à tout ce qu'il implique, l'enfant d'âge
antepréscolaire doit s'intéresser à l'acte de lecture, soit en le pratiquant comme « un
adulte », soit en insistant pour que son histoire préférée lui soit lue plusieurs fois. Cela
conduit à un contexte propice qui lui permet de retenir des phrases entières, des structures
linguistiques ou de mots nouveaux.
Pour arriver aux finalités indiquées auparavant, il est recommandé :
- de changer les rôles, lors de la lecture du livre, de sorte que l'enfant puisse
devenir le lecteur et que l'adulte soit mis dans la position d’écouter l'histoire,
- de respecter la demande de l'enfant de relire plusieurs fois une histoire préférée,
afin de créer cet attachement pour le livre et pour l'acte de lecture,
- d'utiliser dans le langage courant des phrases ou des expressions tirées des
histoires; on peut même lui rappeler de quel histoire s’agit-il ou on peut lui
demander dans quelles histoires ces structures ont-elles été rencontrées,
- de réaliser une lecture diversifiée, en utilisant des livres pour les enfants à
différents sujets, des poèmes du folklore enfantin ou appartenant à des auteurs
classiques, etc.
Afin de développer la capacité de réaliser la différenciation phonétique, pour
l'activité d'association son-lettre, l'enfant doit être capable d'identifier les différents sons
du langage, en faisant cette distinction du point de vue phonétique. A cet égard, plusieurs
types d'activités sont recommandées :
- des jeux de karaoké ou tout simplement fredonner les paroles des chansons,
ayant uniquement la ligne mélodique (négative) disponible,
- la mise à leur disposition d’une cassettes musicales ; il est utile que les chansons
soient écoutés et fredonnés ensemble,
- des improvisations de chansons rimées,

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 - l’imitations du rythme et du tempo de certains motifs sonores (applaudir plus
vite ou plus lentement, parler plus vite ou plus lentement).
L'enfant devrait également être capable d'associer des symboles abstraits aux sons
correspondants. Il devrait commencer dès maintenant à comprendre que l'image
imprimée est constituée de mots. Afin de prendre conscience de cet aspect important du
développement de l’antepréscolaire, il est recommandé :
- que la musique fasse partie de ses activités, notamment les chansons qui
comportent des sons (de différentes onomatopées, les voyelles, l'alphabet),
- qu’une correspondance soit faite entre l'image de l'objet et sa représentation
graphique, c'est-à-dire trouver le mot correspondant,
- que l’on lise fréquemment à l'enfant, en respectant son choix, en l'aidant parfois
à choisir ses lectures préférées.
L'enfant doit être capable d'apprécier et d'utiliser le langage écrit, les documents
imprimés, tous les jours. En les découvrant, il apprendra à les manipuler: tourner les pages
de la page imprimée, une à une, positionner correctement les livres, en les explorant en
autonomie.
Pour arriver à ce fin:
- l'enfant doit apprendre à tenir un livre et à être encouragé dans son action,
- l'enfant doit être aidé à corriger la position dans laquelle il utilise le livre, en
répétant les concepts d'auteur, de titre, de couverture; on doit en les lui montrer
et les lui expliquer chaque fois qu’il est nécessaire.
Afin d'être conscient du message écrit et / ou parlé, l'enfant doit être capable
d'utiliser les messages écrits / parlés à des fins différentes, dans de situations diversifiées,
de son existence. Ainsi, il peut prendre plaisir à feuilleter des livres indiquant de
différentes catégories d'objets (jouets, animaux, bricolage, plantes).
Il est recommandé de lire des documents imprimes, en présence de l'enfant :
- des dépliants de zoos, de musées oude parcs d'attractions,
- des revues automobiles,
- un plan du métro ou de la ville,
- des revues de mode,
- un livre de recettes.
Pour acquérir les compétences d'écrire, d’apprendre à utiliser l'écriture pour
transmettre un message, l'anteprescolaire doit être capable d'utiliser de différents moyens
de communication graphique. À ce niveau d'âge, l'écriture est représentée par n'importe
quel gribouillis, n'importe quelle ligne tracée ou n'importe quel point, mais ils ont tous
une signification. Toujours à ce niveau, l'enfant peut colorier, mais il ne respecte pas le
contour et il peut commencer à dessiner des personnes, des têtes et des membres qui
partent directement de la tête.
Pour développer ses compétences pour l’écrit, les enseignants recommandent :
- de leur donner la possibilité de dessiner sur de grandes surfaces (des morceaux
de carrelage, des murs spécialement aménagés, de la verre...),
- d’écrire sur l’ouvrage de l'enfant les commentaires et la description qu'il donne
à chacune de ses représentation aux fins d'écriture,
- d’observer la position correcte du corps d’un adulte ou des instruments d'écriture
pendant l’activité d’écrire ou de dessiner,
- d’utiliser les plus diversifiés outils pour les activités d’écrire,
- de fournir à l'enfant de différentes surfaces pour pratiquer cet exercice: sur la
table, sur le chevalet, sur les carreaux à l'aquarelle, au mur, en été, etc.,

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 - de ne pas insister sur le respect du contour pendant la coloration, à ce niveau
d'âge; il faut mettre à la disposition de l'enfant des feuilles A3 ou de grandes
surfaces, pour le développement de ses capacités d'écrire,
- d’aider l’anteprescolaire à dessiner des visages avec de différentes expressions
faciales (joie, tristesse), en partant du contour de la main.

Conclusions
Certaines activités peuvent aider les enfants à apprendre le langage et les
techniques de communication. Il faut être conscient que l'une des meilleures façons de
l'aider à optimiser ses compétences langagières et ses techniques d'interrelation est
d'adopter certaines attitudes qui peuvent faciliter la communication. En les pratiquant
dans les activités quotidiennes, elles deviennent des instruments utiles pour le petit enfant.
Un programme éducatif efficace est celui qui vise à prendre en compte l'enfant dès les
premiers instants de son existence et qui implique tous les agents éducatifs qui contribuent
à sa formation.
Il est également important de se rappeler que chaque enfant se développe à son
propre rythme, il n'est pas nécessaire qu'il soit formé selon un schéma préconçu, mais il
doit être soutenu pour manifester sa personnalité originale. Finalement pourque sa
personnalité épanouisse pleinement, l’antepréscolaire a besoin d'adultes qui le guident
avec amour et patience, sans le soumettre à aucune contrainte.

Bibliographie
Boţiş, A., Mihalca L., Despre dezvoltarea abilităților emoționale și sociale ale copiilor, fete și
băieți, cu vârsta până în 7 ani – Ghid pentru cadrele didactice din învățământul preșcolar, Centrul
Parteneriat pentru Egalitate, UNICEF, București,2007.
Cemortan S., Dimensiuni psihopedagogice ale socializării copiilor de vârstă timpurie, Institutul de
Științe ale Educației, Chişinău, 2015.
Ezechil, L., Păiși-Lăzărescu, M., Laborator preșcolar, V&I Integral, București, 2011
Slama-Cazacu T., Limbaj şi context. Problema limbajului în concepţia exprimării şi a interpretării
prin organizări contextuale, Editura Științifică, Bucureşti, 1959.
Weizmann, F., & Harris, B. Gesell, A., The maturationist. in W. E. Pickren, D. A. Dewsbury, &
M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Portraits of pioneers in developmental psychology (pp. 1–20). Psychology
Press, 2012.

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 THE BENEFITS OF E-FLASHCARDS FOR LEARNING
ROMANIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Florentina BUCUROIU, Cristina DUMITRU*

Abstract: Most of the people nowadays are technology-addicted. They cannot imagine life
and learning without some devices around to make the salt and pepper of the exploring excitement.
A technology-supported communicative environment proves to be the most appropriate context for
the teaching-learning process. Electronic visual aids bring colour, sound and perspective, giving
learners of any age the opportunity to approach their topics of interest in a way that enhances
memorization. E-flashcards are highly beneficial in terms of input meaningfulness, enhancing
openness for language learning or for any other learning subject. The present study is meant to
show why and how E-flashcards can be a versatile tool to be integrated in Romanian language
teaching-learning with foreign students, due to the increasing involvement and word recall
proficiency they bring.
Keywords: E-flashcards, Romanian language, foreign students

Young or older people nowadays want to learn at least one foreign language
quickly. A well-paid job, access to high-school or university studies abroad, traveling,
relations, all of them require foreign language knowledge.
Language learning is not equally accessible to everyone because of the cultural
and instructional background, because of the basics of school learning, of the type of
intelligence each learner is endowed with or because of the possible learning disorders.
Some of the learners appeal to private language classes, be them face-to-face or in
front of a computer, individual or group activities.
For the foreign students who want to learn Romanian language, for example, the
main impediment is the fact that Romanian is not largely used abroad, so the possibility
to interact with it in other contexts than inside Romania is low.
However, Romanian is easier to learn than English for English speakers, the
researchers from FSI concluded. The map drawn up by FSI experts analyses the difficulty
of European languages. “Category I” languages (coloured in red on the map) are the
easiest for English speakers, who should be able to learn and speak them fluently in about
24 weeks (less than half a year in some intensive courses). This category includes both
Germanic languages (Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish) and Romance languages
(French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian). This may seem bizarre, as English is
closer to the first group than the second. (https://paginiromanesti.ca/2017/12/17/cat-de-
greu-e-sa-inveti-limba-romana)
The present paper aims to present how a well-known teaching-learning approach
can still expand its borders in various ways meant to facilitate Romanian vocabulary
acquisition by the adult foreign students.
In our study, E-flashcards are seen as a method intended to put different
instructional issues into a more personal, individualized frame, to create flexible,
technology-friendly resources out of technically rigid processes, to make simple
memorization of vocabulary an opportunity towards a wider and more profitable E-
flashcard based language acquisition.

* University of Pitesti; [email protected]; [email protected]

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 Different interests, cultural backgrounds, passions, moral codes, learning
difficulties tend to marginalize students and limit even their success expectations if there
is not room for individual approach. In higher education, the role of a professor lies more
in influencing and supporting learning through motivation increase, extra learning and
development perspectives, than in offering it for granted.
Technology facilitates access to a large variety of resources, a fact that is both
helpful and discouraging. This happens because not all the internet addicted can select
and value the multiple learning approaches available there. This is where the professor
intervenes and makes use of his advanced knowing of the students.
Flashcards are used for learning any subject and their main advantage is versatility.
Students and professors can access them directly on ready-made platforms, or they help
learners of any type respond to the challenges in a more personal way, using or even
creating new materials that better meet their individual needs, deepening their knowledge
of any topic.
Motivation is known to overpass any difficulty, weakness, lack of self-confidence.
A professor who knows his students will always be able to exploit their inner self to their
benefit, will get them more engaged and more eager to demonstrate their knowledge and
skills (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Each student is a resource by himself but, in most of
the cases, he is not completely aware of his potential, and of the ways by which he can
progress more and faster. J. Harmer speaks about instrumental reasons such as future
conditioning (students cannot step to the next level of their career without foreign
language B2 level) and pleasurable reasons: the text, the recording/video or the
conversation belong to the students’ field of interest or they find them challenging,
amusing etc. (Jeremy Harmer, 2001: 200)
For the beginning, giving up the idea that one is not capable of learning a foreign
language is essential. Self-determination and confidence will give anyone a chance to
master the new language. The first step of the new adventure is already taken! Easier or
harder, the new edifice is getting under construction.
Understanding and learning capacities of people are sometimes completely
different to one another, and after a deep analysis of these typologies, Howard Gardner
introduced eight different types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical,
Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetics, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.
(Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1983) They might be related to the seven forms of
human communication: spatial, linguistic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, musical, bodily-
kinesthetics, and logical-mathematic.
Different communication forms induce different perception patterns and require
some clarifying questions and answers: “Here is how I intended my message to be
perceived/decoded. Have you received it this way?” One and the same idea can be
expressed in at least 7 different forms, and each student comes closer to it through his
own communicative capacity/endowment; communication style needs to be appropriate
for those students being communicated to.
Nobody discovered the magic program by which the vocabulary and the
grammar of a foreign language can be learnt over night, but there are some clues which
do not fail in this respect: motivation, working mindset, intense and constant practice,
exposure to language under the form of conversation, reading, listening, writing.
If someone is surrounded from all directions by foreign language input, he will
succeed into thinking in the respective language, will be aware of the contextual meaning
of words and expressions, and will not look for long for the proper reply in a specific

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context. Any student has a different domain of interest and one or more hobbies he can
put at work when learning a foreign language.
E-flashcards allow students to memorize vocabulary items in a foreign language
using an iPad, a laptop or even a smart phone. The image is supported by the words that
describe it as well as by an audio example of how to pronounce the word/expression
correctly. In addition, some E-flashcards can offer contextual usage of the respective item.
By using this question - answer pair, flashcards help the student figure out what
he forgot and what he needs to repeat many more times.
Repetition makes possible the transition from short-term memory to long-term
memory. Forgetting is considered a defence mechanism of memory. Even if we study
lists of words which are particularly significant to us, we are still in danger of losing them.
To prevent forgetting, items are recommended to be repeated 5 times at different intervals.
This minimum of 5 times can be extended to “as many times as needed”.
Some practitioners advise learners to use a repetition structure based on 5 levels.
The cards in the first level are new and they need daily repetition. Then they move to the
2nd level where repetition is practiced every 3 days. The cards on the 3 rd level will be
repeated every 10 days and so on. Those words which were not recalled correctly or
completely on a session will get back to the previous level, where repetition takes place
more often.
Students will have sets of compulsory words/expressions and their own lists,
according to their particular needs, interests and hobbies. The repetition intervals can be
modified according to each student’s capacity of memorizing and integrating the new into
the already-acquired language network.
The vocabulary items on the E-flashcards must be relevant. Students should start
with the basic vocabulary, meaning the 100 most used words, and they must advance to
1000 words. Even if some students like science fiction or botanic, and even if they prepare
themselves for being doctors, engineers of scientists, basic general vocabulary will come
before learning specialized vocabulary. Any job requires more than 50% of the basic
vocabulary and only the rest is strictly connected to the respective scientific domain.
Professors and students must turn the long term slow pace learning process into a
more efficient one, to remember the essentials quickly whenever needed. And vocabulary
development in any foreign language must start with the words one uses the most.
Although fluency does not manifest fully only by vocabulary acquisition, any students
should first consider enriching his vocabulary using the contexts offered by a basic
conversation.
If the students feel more comfortable and find it helpful, E-flashcards can be
organized such as to create different communicative contexts: a noun can be followed by
a number of possible adjectives and by different verbs, and the student can both repeat
words and understand them in as many contexts as possible.
Elements of a short biography, containing the information which is usually
necessary in conversations meant to introduce the interlocutors are among the 1st terms
students need to acquire in Romanian language. E-Flashcards can be organized
thematically, taking into account each topic of interest. After completing the first steps
required by the memorization process, the flashcards can be used to access the next level,
namely the introduction of words in simple and more complex sentences. The student
repeats the first 3-4 words; after that he stops and introduces them into a conversational
context. Then he continues in the same way with the rest of the items in the set of E-
flashcards.

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 Daily useful expressions, routines, food and drinks, clothing, medicines, leisure
time activities, people and institutions, vacation destinations are all good starting points
for foreign vocabulary acquisition. And they all can be found on E-flashcards in order to
memorize, repeat and assess them any time. Vocabulary progress will be quickly noticed
as this is a method that allows people to memorize new words 5 times more rapidly.
For more pronunciation accuracy, the student chooses the words and expressions
that he will practice through the E-flashcards, and a native speaker will record their
vocal/sound transcription.
During our first years of teaching, according to the resources available at that time,
we tried paper flashcards during language learning classes and the outcomes proved to be
rewarding enough.
At a distance of almost 10 years from de debut, E-flashcards on mobile
applications and platforms outperformed the older but still efficient paper flashcards. The
three main advantages of the latter ones consist in their almost permanent availability (a
student can access them instantly, at home, at work, on his way to a destination), in sound-
supported repetition (not only the form, but also the phonological awareness is implied),
and in visual learning facilitation.
Visual thinkers need to see what they are learning, and some scientists concluded
that human beings are likely to develop their visual language skills before the verbal
language. We are inclined to believe this because it is obvious in children of all times the
preference for reading images and avoiding books in which the written text predominates
or is exclusively present. (S.E. Moriarty, 1994: 14)
Visual aids are important in any classroom, as approximately 65% of the
population is made of visual learners and 90% of information that comes to the brain is
visual. The human brain processes images quickly, it processes visual information 60,000
faster than text.
By making permanent mental associations between the images, the words and the
meaning of them, an average number of 100 new words can be memorized a day.
The word-sets can be also organized according to the part of speech they belong
to (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions etc.), according to different
professional domains, household items, family, gadgets, directions, holiday seasons,
weather characteristics, musical instruments, physical features, moods etc.
Mnemonic techniques implies creative associations of elements so as to perform
more and better in terms of memorization. A word associated with an image and an
emotion/state of mind will take deeper roots in our memory than a simple and random
association of word-image-pronunciation.
Moreover, one or more study partners could create a helpful “work team”, and the
partners could transfer the “data base” of E-flashcards to one another for further and
varied approaches. Playing games is one of the funniest and encouraging methods of
using flashcards; students will exchange a number of E-flashcards and each of them is
supposed to rapidly create a communicative context which integrates the given terms. Or
they are asked to prove their understanding of the meaning by drawing an image
connected to the word. Other idea is that of a story making created by putting together a
number of E-flashcards, randomly chosen.
These are only a few suggestions of how adult foreign students can value the E-
flashcards not only for rigid memorizations aims, but also for developing their own
resources and make use of them for advanced practice of contextual receptive and
productive skills. Everything can be adapted to the speed of memorization and lexical

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integration of each student, and the activity can take place whenever needed, in groups or
individually.
In long-term teaching practise, E-flashcards proved valuable tools for
memorization, contextual understanding and productive usage of vocabulary items, but
also for increasing the student’s motivation, active involvement in activities and a more
confident approach to the process of acquiring the Romanian language.

Bibliography
Harmer, Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited,
Edinburgh, 2001.
Moriarty, S.E., “Visual Communication as a primary system” in Journal of Visual Literacy, Vol. 4,
no. 2, 1994.
Xodabande, Ismail; Pourhassan, Asqar; Valizadeh, Mohammadreza, “Self-directed learning of core
vocabulary in English by EFL learners: comparing the outcomes from paper and mobile
application flashcards”, in Journal of Computers in Education, Volume 9, Issue 1, Pages 93 – 111,
March 2022, ISSN 21979987, DOI 10.1007/s40692-021-00197-6.
Electronic resources:
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535859.pdf
Darling-Hammond, Linda, Evaluating Teacher Effectiveness How Teacher Performance
Assessments Can Measure and Improve Teaching, October 2010, accessed January 16, 2022
https://paginiromanesti.ca/2017/12/17/cat-de-greu-e-sa-inveti-limba-romana/
accessed January 25, 2022

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 NEW CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING LITERACY SKILLS

Nicoleta CRÎNGANU*

Abstract: Covid 19 issued a new challenge in literacy education, as most of the classes went
online, meaning the text the students were reading could be radically changed. The presence of the
teacher was substituted by the presence of the computer, which meant that the communication was
mediated by the machine. Therefore the main change was text reading and comprehension.
Multimodal literacy tends to replace the linear or intensive reading, as it was called. Therefore,
multimodal literacy teaching and learning has been compulsorily enhanced in order to adapt to the
challenge of online education.
Keywords: literacy, multimodal, online, education

As if the development of the new technologies and the impact that they have on
children and teenagers’ everyday life would have not been enough for challenging the
school practices, the Covid 19 pandemic made more of it: the lockdown started the debate
concerning the literacy, the graduates’ needs for the future life, the pedagogical methods
and the learning techniques.
The discussion around the use of new technologies in school started in the late
nineties when the schools bought the first computer networks, then other new teaching
aids, such as projectors used only for presentations. At the same time, the mobile phones
became affordable, but they were just for speaking and receiving messages. Still, at that
time, a group of ten academics started the debate on literacy and pedagogy. They used
the term of multiliteracies to depict linguistic and cultural diversity in the context of
globalization, multimodal forms of representation, the impact on new communication
technologies, in other words, multiplicity of communications channels and media, and the
increasing saliency of cultural and linguistic diversity (Vaish, Towndrow, 2010:326). The
intention of the group was to extend the monolingual, monocultural idea of literacy and
it’s pedagogy to a more suitable and contemporary approach – a multiplicity of discourses
(NLG, 1996). They established to main aspect of the multiplicity: a) extending the literacy
pedagogy to the culturally and linguistically globalized context; b) taking into account
the variety of text forms associated with information and multimedia technologies(NLG,
1996).
The term of multimodal literacy was first used by Caret Jewitt and Gunther Kress
in 2003, defining it a regularized organized set of resources for meaning-making,
including, image, gaze, gesture, movement, music, speech and sound effect (Jewitt, Kress,
2003:1). The key concept in this regard is meaning-making through linguistic modes, as
well as visual and audio modes, to which we add the relations between the modes that are
also meaning-making. Later, the definitions were improved, by adding Linguistic
Meaning, Visual Meaning, Audio Meaning, Gestural Meaning, Spatial Meaning and
Multimodal meaning, which refers to the way the first five modes relate to each other
(Vaish, Towndrow, 2010:323),focuses on the design of discourse by investigating the
contributions of specific semiotic resources, (e.g. language, gesture, images) co-deployed
across various modalities (e.g. visual, aural, somatic), as well as their interaction and
integration in constructing a coherent multimodal text (Lim, 2013:52). The second
concept that the last definition implies is design, as multimodal representations of

* „Dunărea de Jos” University of Galați, [email protected]

203
knowledge are realized by the user’s design decisions, which are inherently
epistemological in nature (Vaish, Towndrow, 2010:323).
No matter how we define it the multimodal literacy becomes increasingly
important in school, as in the contemporary society and economic life one can’t avoid the
processes and the skills this kind of literacy imply. The postmodern society brings more
challenges to the school in the context of literacy: critics comment on information literacy
(ability of find and process the information), visual literacy (use of critical thinking in
processing still and moving images) multicultural literacy (working with culture), media
literacy (using media modes), multimodal literacy (the synthesis of multiple mode
communication) (Cordes, 2009: 3)
Besides the social sciences, the pedagogy is directly interested in multimedia
literacy, as the multimodal literacy challenges the school design and even the curriculum.
One of the main questions that aroused in the debate is if multimodal literacy should be
integrated into the language classroom as subject of study. Hence it can improve the
learning experiences through four components: Situated Practice, [...].; Overt Instruction,
[...].; Critical Framing, [...].; and Transformed Practice (Vaish, Towndrow, 2010:318).
Each component has its own contribution in developing students’ abilities, as it is shown:
the situated practice is supposed to enhance meaning-making, connecting it to their life
experience, the overt instruction is associated to instruction and learning, the critical
framing follows the relations of the text, the transformed practice implies redesigning the
text and interpreting it.
Therefore, teaching practices should change: instead of linear reading, the
multiliteracy promotes hyperlinked reading, monomodal changes to multimodal, which
integrate still and moving images, the act of reading becomes more and more interactive
as against receptive, while fictive text tend to be metafictive. This is why multimodal
literacy requires in part a new sensibility, one that promotes a self-responsibility for the
acquisition and use of knowledge that is flexible, exploratory, and ethical (Cordes, 2009:
3).
Other researchers narrowed the definition to the multimedia literacy. According to
them it refers to the skills of integrating and manipulating the relationships among
different modes of multimedia such as images, texts, animations, and audio to establish
meaningful communication (Yeh, Tseng, 2020: 27-37). They used augmented reality as a
teaching tool in the classroom, in a hybrid learning environment, which combines virtual
and physical elements, promoted deep learning and high order thinking skills, such as
critical thinking, problem solving, and communicating through interdependent
collaborative exercises (Dunleavy et alii, 2009). They start from the idea of increasing
number of children and teenagers that use mobile phones, play video games turning it
into a cultural shift that school has to take into account, as it shapes the learning. Three
components allowed them to conduct a study on students’ behaviour: media networked
distribution of knowledge, digital objects and tools that mediate the access to knowledge
and the constant interaction to this knowledge through smart mobiles and wireless internet
connection. They used augmented reality as a learning tool. Their findings, published in
2009, underlined the high motivation of the students, enhanced cooperation with their
mates and the high involvement based on a game shaped lesson. Even if dangers and
limits registered, the study showed how nowadays student learns, although the
implications of using augmented reality in school over the mind settings and operations
is not yet enough studied.
These three ways of understanding multimodal literacy – the one that comprises
gestures, culture, foreign languages learning, the second that involves multimedia in the

204
classroom and the third that takes multimedia techniques to the next level by using
augmented reality –show that school tends to adjust to the new mediated reality, although
it cannot predict what would it be over ten or twenty years. Therefore, new learning tools
developed like digital storytelling (a short story (between 2-5 minutes) that combines
traditional modes of story narration with a wide variety of multimedia tools, such as
graphs, audio, video, animation and online publication (Gregori, 2014: 237-250),
augmented reality (technology that blends a real-world context with virtual elements such
as texts, pictures, videos, 3D mode and animations ((Yeh and Tseng, 2020: 27-37), hybrid
teaching and learning (Bourelle et alii, 2016: 55-70), video composing (Miller, 2010: 254
– 281), transmedia narrative (Djonov et alii, 2021)
The new Romanian Language and Literature curriculum places a special focus on
the multimodal literacy admitting the increasingly meaning changes of the literacy and
the text. The last one extends its borders incorporating a series of productions of the spirit
that relate different iconic and textual modes, combining several modes of expression.
The multimodal ideas and techniques are not totally new, as the children’s books make
use of still images in order to enhance the text comprehension. There are four abilities
meant to develop by introducing multimodal literacy in school: access, content creation,
analysis and evaluation. This doesn’t mean that former types of literation and learning
techniques should be abandoned, but they have to be extended in order to adapt to the
students’ needs and the new graduate model. Among the models of multimodal literacy
learning, there are four that seem to be more comprehensive: (1) the Mayer model that
mingles texts and images, along with the relation between them; (2) the Schnotz,
Böckheler et Grzondziel (1999: 245–265) model that starts from a syntactic and lexical
level, for a surface representation of the text, then by a semantic approach, the student are
to elaborate de sentence representation of it; at the same time, based on the images that
accompany the text, the students are able to construct a mental model; in order to
complete it they have to combine those two findings – text and imagery; (3) using Sweller,
Van Merrienboer et Paas (1998:251–296) that introduced the concept of mental
(cognitive) load(Cognitive load theory) that acts as an operator that depends on the
storage and processing of information by students' working memory, Dubois et alii (2001;
211-224) built a similar model for multimodal treatment of information. In this light, via
Kress and Van Leeuwen, Lebrun et al (2012:81-95) explained the mechanisms involved
in multimodal literacy based on three types of metafunctional organization: ideational
(the text and the image construct the event, its nature, the context and the participants),
interactive/interpersonal (the text and the image build the relations between the
transmitter and the receiver) and layout/textual (the text and the image establish various
relations depending on the accent). Regarding the meaning – making, the relation between
the text and the image could be competitive, complementary or divergent and it leads to
different degrees of involvement in multimodal text, a better learning is achieved when
the image and the text follow the coherence principle. Therefore the Mayer model could
be applied in developing multimodal literacy, by partitioning the message, enumerating
the parts in debate and using spoken explanations instead of the written ones.
Multimodal reading is more complex than the monomodal: it is non-
linear/hyperlinked, it is discontinuous, the image tends to prevail, yet the students have
to turn it into a linear coherent mental model. For that, the exploration of the text should
start from splitting into parts, discussing the relation between the text and the image,
establishing the causal and chronological connections, filling the blanks by imagining
what is not written or depicted, evaluating and interpreting the symbols. Therefore the
multimodal skillinvolves the ability to read, understand and communicate by efficiently

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combining written texts, images and sounds using different media supports. It implies at
least two different modes: text and image and requests ancillary skills, as cognitive
(discerning what is implicit), emotional, semiotic (decoding the symbols), pragmatic (of
ideological and social nature) and textual (the producing and receiving context) skills.
Lacelle (2014) suggests a learning route to develop multimodal skill in the context
of technologic and cultural convergence. It involves four stages of teaching-learning
design (scenario): reading of the codes’ combination (texts, images, sounds, gestures,
clothes etc), reading of the modes’ combination (video games, movies, graphic novels),
reading the signs’ combination (discussing movie/image parts complementary to the text
parts), reading media or multimedia combinations (blogs, social networks, sites). The
paper also underline that the book reading should be accompanied by the film watching,
as the students identify themselves with the hero in an easier manner. Moreover, escorting
the text with the movie could enhance the comprehension processes facilitating the access
to various encoding forms.
Regarding developing the multimodal comprehension skills one could suggest the
following scenario, using a text suggested the eighth grade booklet, Take, Ianke și Cadâr:
the activity starts with the text reading where different reading techniques and method
can be used (predictive reading, explanatory reading, in-depth reading), watching the
movie (discussing the images, visual strategies, performing strategies), debating the text
by linking it to the movie, discussing the blank spaces of the text and the way that film
filled them, underlining the similarities and the differences, even suggesting better ways
of using the text for the film making.
Another way of exploring the multimodal text could start from a film or a
webpage. The students would read the images or the moving images, they could comment
on the visual level of the object, then read the text, debate on the link between the text
and the image/movie, compare them and comment on their relation.
Comprehension skills are connected to the writing skills, so digital storytelling
could be used. It is described by Carmen Gregori (2014: 237-250):a short story (between
2-5 minutes) that combines traditional modes of story narration with a wide variety of
multimedia tools, such as graphs, audio, video, animation and online publication. In
order to implement multimodal literacy learning Miller’s(2010: 254-281) suggestion
could be used:
(1) providing explicit multimodal design instruction and attention; (2) co-constructing
authentic purposes for representing multimodal meaning for an audience; (3)
designing multimodal composing activities that invite students to draw on their
identity lifeworlds as resources; and (4) creating functional social spaces for mediating
multimodal learning.
Exploring the theories and good practices could continue as many researchers
shared their studies and experiences (Lenters, 2016:280-316, Bourelle et alii, 2016: 55-
70, Djonov et alii, 2021, Dressen-Hammouda et alii, 2022, Low, Pandya, 2019,
Danielsson, Selander, 2016:25–36,Liang, Lim, 2020). They show that the teachers and
the school decision makers understood the shift paradigm that took place once
multimedia technologies came into our lives and the lives of the students. Still, nobody
was fully prepared for the lockdown that occurred in 2020 and this challenged the school
methods, techniques and tools in teaching and learning literacy, with the special focus on
multimodal literacy.
Until 2020, all the methods and techniques could have been used by face to face
or hybrid teaching and learning. The pandemic conditions forced the school teachers and
students to adapt at a new reality, the online learning. It is not our aim to explore the

206
history of this event, but a few teachers were used to platforms and multiplatforms, so, at
first, the teaching-learning process copied the traditional one, both teachers and students
trying to communicate via internet in the same old method. It is not about the fact that
there didn’t exist any tools for online learning (some of them didn’t but some did), it is
about their use as a teaching-learning tool. After a while the number and the variety of
multimedia tools increased and teachers’ and students’ knowledge flourished. The
schools connected to platforms – Google platforms, Microsoft platforms – and the
learning methods and techniques changed. For example, the teachers use Mentimeter for
brainstorming, different channels of Teams or Google classroom to organize the groups
of students.
For multimodal literacy one of the key methods was (still is) multiplatform
storytelling. One starts with the printed text, then makes a video out of it, an audiobook
and, if there is possible, a videogame. Multiplatform develop a sum of skills such as:
comprehending the written texts, reading the images, creating text and image,
teamworking, critical thinking.
Another way that the teacher can use the digital platforms is to teach the students
to create group stories. In the syncron stage, the teacher explains the rules of storytelling,
then in the asyncron stage the students write the story using the relay race method. They
write the story one by one, reading (and comprehending) what the former mate wrote,
adapting the theme, the motifs and the discourse to the previous ones.
Researchers have shown that the assessment results are not such different from the face-
to-face learning, but the use of e-reading, e-writing and platform has certain advantages.
In terms of student evolution, one can mention the enhanced responsibility for learning,
pedagogic methods upgrade, the possibility of learning in one’s own rhythm and time,
increased independence in learning, the student becomes simultaneously creator and
consumer of mediated texts. Therefore, although the pandemic made a lot of harm, it
forced the school to adapt to the contemporary world, doing the best for its student and
once returned in the classrooms, the teachers and their students should keep the new tools
won during this time.

Bibliography
Bourelle, Andrew, Bourelle, Tiffany, Knutson, Anna V., Spong, Stephanie, Sites of multimodal
literacy: Comparing student learning in online and face-to-face environments,2016, Computers
and Composition,Volume 39, Pages 55-70
Danielsson, K., & Selander, S,Reading Multimodal Texts for Learning – a Model for Cultivating
Multimodal Literacy,2016, in Designs for Learning,8(1), 25–36, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.16993/dfl.72.
Djonov, Emilia, Chiao-I Tseng, Fei Victor Lim, Children’s experiences with a transmedia
narrative: Insights for promoting critical multimodal literacy in the digital age, 2021, in Discourse,
Context & Media, Volume 43.
Dressen-Hammouda, Dacia, Wigham,Ciara,Evaluating multimodal literacy: Academic and
professional interactions around student-produced instructional video tutorials, 2022, System,
Elsevier, 105, pp.102727. ff10.1016/j.system.2022.102727ff. ffhal-03521668
Dubois, Veronique, Gyselinck Valerie, Choplin, Hugues, Compréhension d’informations
multimodales: influence du mode de présentation et de la mémoire de travail,
https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/edutice-00000462/document (Cinquième colloque hypermédias
et apprentissages), accesat 11.07. 2021
Lacelle, Nathalie, Du roman au jeu : parcours didactiques de lecture multimodale en contexte
scolaire, https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/memoires/2014-v5-n2-memoires01373/1024777ar/,
accesat în 23 mai 2021.

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Lenters, Kimberly, Overwriting in the Margins: Affect and Multimodal Literacy Practice, 2016,
Journal of Literacy Research,Vol. 48(3) 280–316
Lim, F. V., K.L. O’Halloran, S. Tan and M.K.L., Teaching Visual Texts with Multimodal Analysis
Software, 2015, Educational Technology Research and Development 63(6), 915–935.
Lim, Fei Victor, Multimodal Literacy in Practice. 1.,2013 52-57.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306080495_Multimodal_Literacy, accesatîn 23
decembrie 2021.
Low, David E,nZacher Pandya,Jessica,Issues of Validity, Subjectivity, and Reflexivity in
Multimodal Literacy Research and Analysis,2019, Journal of Language and Literacy Education
Vol. 15 Issue 1.
Miller, S. M. , Towards a multimodal literacy pedagogy: Digital video composing as 21st century
literacy, 2010, pp. 254-281. In P. Albers & J. Sanders (Eds.) Literacies, Art, and Multimodality.
Urbana-Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English
O'Halloran, K. L. & Lim, F. V., Dimensioner af Multimodal Literacy. Viden om Læsning, 2011,
Nationalt Videncenter for Laesning: Denmark, Number 10, pp. 14-21
Schnotz, W., Böckheler, J. & Grzondziel, H. Individual and co-operative learning with interactive
animated pictures. (1999). European Journal of Psychology of Education 14, 245–265
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03172968
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J.J.G. & Paas, F.G.W.C. Cognitive Architecture and Instructional
Design, (1998), Educational Psychology Review 10, 251–296
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022193728205
Wei Jhen Liang, Fei Victor Lim, A pedagogical framework for digital multimodal composing in
the English language classroom, 2020, inInnovation in Language Learning and Teaching, Taylor
& Francis (Routledge).

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 PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE THE ROMANIAN
PRONUNCIATION AND SPEAKING FLUENCY OF THE
FOREIGN STUDENTS ENROLLED IN THE PREPARATORY
YEAR

Aurora-Tatiana DINA*

Abstract: The term “speaking fluency” is linked to the meaning of “communication”

(Harmer, 2007: 142). Speaking fluency in a foreign language is, thus, that the ability to use the
language naturally and effectively for spontaneous communication. Foreign students’ reluctance
to speaking Romanian in the classroom at the Preparatory Year Program is the problem addressed
by the current research paper. If students do not feel confident enough, they are not very eager to
engage in class conversation, and, subsequently do not find it easy to perform the communicative
activities. This paper aims to suggest a range of practical techniques that can be used to deal with
the addressed problem. The teachers should adapt these techniques to suite their class situation.
Apart from the general competences of language learners (empirical and academic knowledge),
which vary from individual to individual, the paper also took into account the whole class ability
to comply with communicative tasks.
Keywords: speaking fluency, spontaneous communication, technology-enhanced
techniques

Introduction
During the last five years, the higher education institutions have made a great
progress and have successfully integrated the new technology-enhanced techniques and
digital systems into the teaching-learning process. The continuous adaptation to the new
methods based on the electronic instruments that support the educational process, made
it easier to promote digital educational experiences and ICT-based innovative teaching
models, allowing a readjustment of the online educational communication systems.
Teaching speaking skills for Romanian as a second language, through technology
-enhanced methods during online classes for foreign students has proved to be a
challenging endeavour. Developing students’ ability to speak fluently through various
techniques during online classes was of utmost importance, since mastering fluent
speaking in a foreign language is the key to express themselves, to properly interact in
everyday life, to carry out a meaningful conversation, to understand each communicative
context.

Literature Review
Fluency is a commonly used notion in foreign language teaching as a descriptor
of oral performance. There is not a generally agreed definition on fluency: it is often
perceived as native-like performance, or synonyms to oral proficiency, but speaking
fluently refers to the quality of the communication from someone who wants to achieve
speaking competence. In order to gain proficiency in language use, the learner should
explore the target language input and components involved in communicative activities
that are accompanied by a variety of techniques that facilitate comprehension and support
meaning making, and then to try out to experiment in different ways the language content.

* University of Pitesti, [email protected]

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Teachers should select classroom oral activities, which are effective for developing
communicative abilities and fluency in the target language. These activities include active
conversations and creative responses from students. Language activities differ depending
on the level of language class, but the main goal is to empower students become confident
enough to speak, in order to attain fluency, or the ability to use “the language quickly and
confidently, with few unnatural pauses.” (Nunan, 2003: 55).
Implementing and developing inappropriate strategies and techniques in the
teaching and learning speaking skills may lead to students becoming bored with the
activities run in the classroom. On the other hand, students who are shy and lack
confidence in expressing themselves during oral communicative activities in the
classroom feel reluctant to participate actively. This might be a reason for their poor
knowledge of Romanian language, because they might experience the fear of being
ridiculed or criticized by their classmates.
According to some researchers, the concept of fluency is not very clearly defined
in the context of foreign language educational process. Lennon (2000) defines fluency as
“the rapid, smooth, accurate, lucid, and efficient translation of thought or communicative
intention into language under the temporal constraints of on-line processing. ” (Lennon,
2000: 26).
In order to help students acquire the desired speaking fluency in a short period,
teachers should find the best teaching aids and materials, apply the most easy and student-
friendly teaching techniques and methods. To this respect, most linguists agree upon the
fact that the authentic teaching materials or at least the targeted ones can and should be
used as didactic aids: “the educational process largely depends on the context in which
they work […] Sometimes the teachers can be more creative or can play more, sometimes
the teachers have less time to tackle with a different kind of activity.” (Lemnaru, 2013:
452)
Speaking is a dominant competence when studying a foreign language.
Methodology is also very important when evaluating communicative competences at the
lesson of foreign language will be based on knowing the students’ personality and their
particularities of developing their language. (Pruneanu, 2017:614)

Methodology
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of practical techniques
on improving speaking fluency in Romanian as target language, during Preparatory Year
classes. In order to obtain an overall view of the endeavour, the following research
questions the study is trying to answer were:
1) Are technology – enhanced educational techniques efficient enough to improve
speaking fluency?
2) What are the students’ opinions on being taught with the digital based techniques for
speaking activities?
The present study aims to evaluate and suggest a range of effective teaching
techniques necessary to develop communication skills. For the first question, an interview
with a topic based on the objective of the study was used to collect the data; the interview
was conducted to find out the teachers’ opinion about the techniques and strategies used
to help their students engage in the communicative activities. A number of eight teachers
of Romanian language teaching at the Preparatory Year were invited to take part in the
interview. For answers and opinions about the second question of the survey, the
instrument of data collection was an online survey was distributed to 110 students from

210
the Preparatory Year Program, who were enrolled in the academic year of 2020 – 2021 at
the University of Pitesti.

Analysis, Results and Discussion

This section is dedicated to presenting the results of the study. We have, as
previously mentioned two parts of the study: the interviewing of the teachers of Romanian
language, and the online survey of the students’ opinion on benefiting from online
teaching techniques for developing speaking skills during online language classes.
This part is dedicated to presenting the answers to the questions, the conclusions
of the interview and the results of the survey in figures and tables for the teachers and for
the students.
1)Are technology – enhanced educational techniques efficient enough to improve
speaking fluency?
Starting from this main question above mentioned, the points that made up
deriving sub-questions were referring to:
a) problems encountered by teachers when teaching fluency in speaking;
The main problem all teachers agree upon is the students’ lack of involvement into the
classroom communicative activities. This reluctance to speak comes from students’ lack
of confidence, their shyness and anxiety when engaged in oral tasks. On the other hand,
poor oral performance in classroom activities may be caused by the fact that they do not
believe they master the necessary vocabulary that would allow them to speak in a fluid
and error-free manner. One last reason why students are not motivated to engage in a
classroom-targeted conversation is their fear of making mistakes.
b) teachers’ strategies to teach fluency in speaking;
Due to the quick shift from face to face to online learning environment, teachers
had at their own hands a large number of digital instruments and tools to handle the
language learning process and to facilitate the access to course material for their students.
Technology-enhanced techniques used to teach learners fluency in speaking offer them
the chance to engage in relevant tasks within a dynamic learning environment.
We present in this paper the manner in which a teacher prepares a lesson for an
online course and how an usual online lesson is carried out, a lesson in which the focus
is on practicing speaking, on developing speaking ability in Romanian using electronic
tools, web-based instruments and open educational resources (OER). Some resources and
instruments that can always support individual work are given, so that each learner may
resort to them whenever necessary: web dictionaries (www.hallo.ro), mobile phone apps
(FunEasyLearn, Mondly), platform for courses (www.vorbitiromaneste.ro).
The main objective of the teaching strategy is to integrate, during the online
course, the technologies that facilitate the development of students’ speaking skills in
Romanian, and we show here some concrete ways of doing it.
Teacher preparation of lesson materials is very important and should be adjusted
to the competency of the class. The choice of communicative activities should be
attractive, stimulating and reliable. Every lesson should allow for the most effective
learning opportunities. The learners should be challenged by useful activities, feel
inspired by meaningful content and be interested in the features of the interactive task.
Language learning is more effective when learners are exposed to real language
and they can identify a real-life situation. Alongside with being engaged in various
purposeful activities on wide-ranging areas and on motivating topics, the learners are
stimulated to use all the language they have learnt in order to speak and think in
Romanian.

211
 In the course prepared by the teachers we encounter communicative activities
developed in a dynamic learning environment and also by studying some authentic
materials. Communicative activities should be related to the real purposes that have a
positive effect on learner motivation: to search for relevant information, to be close to the
learners’ needs, and to provide authentic cultural information.
Choosing the topic of the lesson is essential, and at an earlier stage of the learning
process, simple everyday dialogues (meeting people, ordering food, booking a ticket/a
holiday etc) are among the first things that students learn to communicate. In order to
make a similar dialogue to the one from the introductory lesson from the students’ book,
Cine sunt eu? (Who am I?) the students are required to make a short presentation that will
include their biography (name, age, nationality, country of origin) as well as hobbies,
personal interests and other details important to them.
The digital instruments that can be easily used for this interactive task are
Vocaroo, Voki or Voice dictation. This activity is a good opportunity to practice
pronunciation, as well as to listen to digital self-portrait presentation of the students, hence
a very important part of the fluent communication being the ability to decode the
messages sent by the others. The instruction for this task is characterized by clear
prompts, an easy layout, a low level of difficulty.
For more advanced learners, we use targeted communicative activities more
practical and conversation-focused, allowing the students to improvise on the spot,
pushing them to speak on a certain topic, using at the same time grammar rules. It is about
activation of knowledge in a meaningful context. This kind of activities help learners use
the language in all kinds of situations, and the aim is to focus on spontaneous
communication, while developing their creativity as well. Examples may be different
types of presentations with the use of visuals, problem-based learning activities (online
newspapers, simulation of real-life events: TV programmes, video recording so on).
The students are given some ideas to select from, and these ideas should be clear
– instructions should be easy to interpret – with a progressive level of difficulty and the
topics should be relevant for the learners. They also need a good warmer and a set of
preparatory activities: short videos or reading passages or either pictures or questions
focusing on guessing the meaning of something, previewing new vocabulary, grammar
issues, observing people and places. We used for this lessons various digital educational
resources, Dotstorming, Flipgrid, Jamboard, Padlet, Storyjumper, Storybird, and the
assignments ranged from the a talk about personal experience, report on events / news
items, creation of a story, description of people, objects, situations, to discussions to reach
an agreement and debates.
For all these challenging activities creativity and spontaneity are two essential
abilities, which will help students think quick and reach a good solution to the problem.
Simulation and role play on such assigned topics in the online environment makes them
think out of the box and make the task more interactive. We here describe one activity,
called Pick at random, which has as objective the creation of a story, on a certain theme.
Since the technique included also a more learner-centred approach, the students had the
choice of the topic of interest. Next, the teacher gave a clear task presentation together
with the sharing of the objective of the activity and introduction of useful vocabulary;
students were assigned roles, activity creation followed, and, at the end, a brief feed -
back. Using the collection of applications, RandomList (https://www.randomlists.com/),
the teacher generates the list of a number of persons, or of things (depending on what
subject was chosen by the students), equal to the number of students attending the online
class. The story begins to be told by students in an alphabetic order, and each student, in

212
turn, must say a sentence in which the person / thing extracted from the list should be
mentioned, and it ends when the last students contribute to the narration of the created
story. To make the activity more interesting, there can be established a set of rules, such
as time limit, or the class can be divided into groups, each group having its own
particularity (for example group may play the role of a TV presenter and so on). In this
phase, the teacher should ease the flow of conversation, without worrying too much about
the learner not using grammatical knowledge correctly.
This sort of targeted practice activities, for their own nature, must provide for
learners a language – rich environment, which, for online learning and teaching, refers to
the digital educational resources and internet instruments that support students to
internalize the language.
c) teachers’ reflections on the proposed technology enhanced techniques,
targeted to facilitate the development of students’ speaking fluency.
The teachers were required to offer their opinions on how the proposed techniques
contributed to the development of their students’ speaking fluency, during online classes.
As teachers we always know how to create the conditions in which foreign
language learners express themselves through speech in order to increase their speaking
fluency (Teacher 1)
It (the technology- enhanced technology) helps students talk as much as possible
of the period allotted to the digital communicative activity. In the classroom, often most
time was taken up with teacher talk or pauses. (Teacher 2)
Each student has the possibility to take a chance to participate in the discussion;
while in the classroom during communicative tasks, there was uneven participation; a few
students dominated the discussions. (Teacher 3)
Our students are highly motivated; they are in a comfortable learning environment,
and they are eager to speak, as the proposed topic is of interest to them and they want to
give their opinion and share their ideas about the speaking task. (Teacher 4)
The language our students use is satisfactory. They express themselves using
relevant terms and structures. Oral production is comprehensible. (Teacher 5)
The practice topics and themes we use for speaking activities help them learn
Romanian effectively and also allow them to develop a natural and accurate style of
Romanian pronunciation. (Teacher 6)
Clear instructions, topics which are engaging, appropriate vocabulary improve the
students’ ability to express ideas accurately and confidently in debate activities. (Teacher
7)
Meeting course objectives (understanding vocabulary, the topic etc), takes a good
warmer and a set of preparatory activities, mainly learner - centred. (Teacher 8)
2) What are the students’ opinions on being taught with the digital based
techniques for speaking activities?
Of the 110 students who took part in the survey, 75 were female students, and 35
male students. The age of the respondents was between 18-23, all being familiarised with
the technological devices, with the internet and with the online interaction. The students
were asked to answer several questions that would make up a final answer and conclusion
of the main question of the survey mentioned above.
For the first question “How satisfied are you with the following targeted
communicative activities used in developing speaking skills during online classes?”, the
answers were counted for each type of activity separately:
a) everyday dialogues (meeting people, ordering food, booking a ticket/a holiday
and so on). For the type of communicative activities that included oral debates on

213
everyday topics using educational digital instruments, a large percent, 57 % (62 students),
were “Very satisfied” with this choice; 21% (23 students) were “Satisfied”, 10 % (11
students) were “Not satisfied”, 4 % (4 students) were “Very unsatisfied” and 8%,
(9 students) were “Neutral”, as can be observed from Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: everyday dialogues (meeting people, ordering food, booking a ticket/a

holiday etc).
b) simulations of real-life events (telephone calls, business conversations, job
interviews, presentations and debates of topics). For these targeted oriented classroom
activities with authentic and real life - like conversations, out of the 110 students, 61 (55
%) were “Very satisfied”, 21 (19%) were “Satisfied”, 11 (10 %) were “Not satisfied”, 5
(5%) were “Very unsatisfied”, and 12 students (11%) were “Neutral”, as can be observed
from Figure 2, down below.

Figure 2: simulations of real-life events (telephone calls, business conversations,

job interviews, presentations and debates of topics)
The next question the students were required to answer was “How did you
understand the material being taught for developing speaking abilities at online courses?”.
The majority of students, 77 (70 %) out of 110, found it easy to understand the material
taught during online classes, for 23 students (21 %) it was difficult to understand, while
10 students (9 %) seized no difference in the manner the material taught was presented,
as can also be observed in Figure 4, down below.

214
 Figure 3: “How did you understand the material being taught for developing
speaking abilities at online courses?”
For the next question, “Has attending classes online made you feel more
motivated to interact more?” 82 students (74,5%) were more motivated to actively
participate in the online class, and therefore they answered “YES”, while 28 students
(25,5 %) were not so motivated to interact more online, and therefore they answered
“NO”.
Table 1 down below shows students’ opinions who answered “YES”, as well as
students’ opinions who answered “NO” to their degree of motivation to interact during
online classes.

Opinions of the students who voted YES Opinions of students who voted NO
“Being at my own home comfort, allowed “I have become lazier and not so
me to feel more confident” motivated to pay attention all the time”
“I had time to study more, being at home” “I cannot concentrate if the teacher is not
“I was motivated to focus on my studies in front of me, in the class”
and read more, since I had everything “I need new information to be explained
available at one click’s distance” in the traditional manner, using the
“Online I find it easier share my opinions whiteboard and marker in the classroom”
and to address my questions” “This kind of virtual interaction does not
‘’ I have more time to better prepare my motivate me much to focus throughout
home tasks” the entire duration of the class”
“The topics of the subjects are presented “I feel I cannot be productive if I am not
in a more attractive way” in the class, at faculty”
“There are the web programmes which
make it so easy to understand the practice
of the course topics”
“We have a lot of possibilities to quickly
search for any word or subject we need”
Table 1: Students opinions about being more motivated to interact when
attending classes online

Conclusions
To summarize, technology offers language learners opportunities to actively
engage in classroom interactions, from their own privacy, in a safe environment.

215
 Thanks to specific feedback given through this research, we can observe some
positive learning outcomes which include a better learning approach, improved oral
performance and increased creativity on the part of the students.
From the teachers’ perspective, finding strategies and techniques tailored to the
needs and necessities of the students, making topics interesting, meaningful to the
students, creating a friendly atmosphere, and encouraging students to speak and express
themselves, results in an increased impact on speaking skills, as they have become more
confident in engaging in oral productions and debate activities.

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Douglesh, H. Brown, Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach in Language Pedagogy (2nd
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Harmer, J., The practice of English language teaching (4th ed.), Pearson, Edinburgh, 2007
Lemnaru, A.C., “New Methods in Teaching Romanian Language for Foreign Students”, 2013,
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 76, Elsevier, 452
Lennon, P., “The lexical element in spoken second language fluency”, in Riggenbach (ed.),
Perspectives on fluency, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000
Pruneanu, D. M., “Metode moderne folosite în predarea limbii române ca limbă străină,”, 2017,
Annales Universitatis Apulensis. Series Philologica, 18/2017, 614

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 THE PROJECT METHOD - AN INNOVATIVE METHOD OF
TEACHING – LEARNING – EVALUATION

Adriana Elena GEANTĂ

Abstract: I highly believe in productive communication and an open collaboration, in the

connection that has to exist between a teacher, a student and a parent, to maximize the progress of
the children and to harness the potential and the abilities of each and every child. The education is
the base of the progress of the society and this can be done only with a heart full of positive energy
and the availability of finding solutions of the seeming difficult situations. Therefore, I decided to
put on paper the method of projecting – an innovative working method, focused on the student and
his needs, with a modern approach, based on collaboration, respect and authentic communication.
This article treats some aspects of applying the project method at the lessons of technological
education. The use of the project method facilitates the transfer of learning outcomes and allows
placing the student in a situation to seek, to synthesize, to associate and to compare. The project
method offers a rich and meaningful environment in which students develop complex skills that are
essential for effective functioning in the modern world. I could say that I am the supporter of an
education based on innovative methods, in which the children can learn one from another can make
experiments, are motivated to create, to think, to ask questions and to find answers. A teacher
doesn’t only have to teach, but also to make his students interested in the subject, to always find
subjects of interest for them, interesting and captivating activities.
Keywords: the method of projecting, innovation, efficiency, interactivity.

The education process is a complex system, a result of the inter connection

between teaching, learning and evaluation, whose finality is the implementation into
practice of the educational ideal, the fully – vocational development of personality. The
main way by which one can make this aspect possible is the development of the
technology, meaning the types, the methods and the ways by which one can get the
desired outcome.
The education technology includes all of the parts of the education process,
insisting on the interdependency between the content and all the other aspects like:
organization, the connection between the teacher and the student, the methods and the
procedures used, and so on.
An important role of the education technologies goes to the education strategies.
By education strategy we understand: ”an ensemble of methods and procedures by which
is made the cooperation between the teachers and the students in teaching, learning and
also the evaluation of a volume of information, the formation of prowess and skills, the
development of the human personality”(Nicola, 2003: 441)
Considering the fact that the word ”method” comes from the Greek word” methods”
which means ”way” we could say that ”the teaching method is a typical way used in the
educational process by the teacher but also by the one that is educated with the purpose
of educating him, a way which has as principal determinations, on one way, the
orientation towards the increasing of knowledge and the perfecting of the capacities of
knowledge, and on the other way, the relative regulation of the stages that have to be
done, of the strictly necessary ways, the limits of the efficiency.” (Balea, 2020:3, available
on https://revistaeducatie.ro )

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 In the modern education it is of great importance the using of the interactive
methods, that state that the instruction has to be done actively, the student becoming the
co – participants of their own formation and education. The interactivity is”a learning
through communication, collaboration, by which is produced a confrontation of ideas,
opinions and arguments, it creates learning situations focused the availability and the
desire of cooperation of the students, their active and direct implication.” (Păcurari, 2003:
46; available on https://edict.ro/strategiididacticeinteractive)
By using the interactive methods in the education demarche are satisfied the
following psycho – pedagogical requirements of the activation:
- the psychological preparation for learning;
- the prevention and the reduction of the negative influences of the different disruption
sources;
- the ensuring of the congruent repertoires;
- the ensuring of a common language between the educator and the educated;
- the using of some efficient ways of activation.
By using the interactive methods is stimulated the learning and the personal
development encouraging the exchange of ideas, of experiences and knowledge, they
assure an active participation, promote the interaction, leading to an active learning with
obvious results, it contributes on the improvements of the quality of the educational
process, it has an active character, a real active - formative value of the personalities of
the students.
By efficient using of these methods, in teaching practice it is necessary a good
theoretical knowledge of them, a minimal experience in their using and suitable
integration in the education project, in a close relationship with the traditional methods.
This way of teaching transforms the student in an actor, an active participant in the
learning process, ready to acquire knowledge by themselves, an optimal engagement of
thinking, mobilizing him in relation with the learning tasks given, he identifies himself
with the learning situation in which he is involved, being an active part of his own
transformation and formation generated by knowledge.
The learning practiced based on interactive methods assumes the following:
- verbal, social affective and direct interaction between students, thanks to whom grow
the intellectual and social skills that can be transferred in different contexts, formal or
informal;
- an open and an active attitude based on personal initiative;
- a learning by cooperation with other class – mates;
- the intensive engagement of the students in the performing of the tasks(even though for
some of them the first experiences of this kind are not made);
- collective and individual responsibility;
- the value of the verbal and intellectual exchanges, counting on a logic of learning that
keeps in mind the opinion of the students.
This type of teaching approaches lead to a cognitively progress focused on the
discovery of the other, on an active and interactive participation at a common reflection
in the educational communication to which it belongs. Distinctive for the interactive
methods is that they promote the interaction between the minds of the participants,
between their personalities, leading to a more active learning with obvious results.
The interactive methods create habits, facilitate the learning on your own way,
stimulates the cooperation between students, and not the competition, they are attractive
and can be approached by a point of view of the different learning styles.

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 One of the well - known interactive methods is the method of the project, which
promotes the development of the dynamic skills of the students, but it is also an evaluation
method. The project is a personalized activity, the students being able to decide not only
the content but also the way of presenting it.
The activity of the project enforces the compliance of the successive appliance of
the following steps:
- the identification of a problem/topic/subject;
- the collection, the organization, the processing and the evaluation of the chosen topic;
- the elaboration of set of possible solutions of the problem/topic;
- the elaboration of the project;
- the providing of the feedback(appreciation, questions, the exchange of ideas). (Frith,
Macintosh, 1991: 172, apud Oprea, 2008: 286)
The characteristics of this method are:
- it goes on a period of a few days to a few weeks;
- it begins in the classroom by the announcement of the topic, the definition and the
understanding of the workload;
- it continues in the classroom and at home and it finishes in the classroom with the
presentation of a report about the obtained result and the explosion of the made product;
- it can either be an individual or a group workload;
- it has to be strictly organized steps, like any researching work;
-it facilitates the transfer of knowledge through interdisciplinary connections. (Oprea,
2008: 287)
The advantages of using the project as an interactive method of teaching, learning
and evaluation are:
- it valorises the daily experience, the information and the interests of the students;
- it give the possibility of each student to act on the areas in which his capacities are the
most evident;
- it offers opportunities for the realization of an educational cooperation between the main
actors of the education: student – student, student – teacher, teacher – student – parent;
- it stimulates the accumulation of knowledge, it develops the capacities and the abilities
of communication, collaboration and helping, determining the active learning.
When the students project, they plan, they do and they present in a public way a
project of a real value (for themselves, for the community, for the client), this has got an
effect of transformation about the perception about themselves, about their relationship
with the learning, and the feeling of belonging to the place and to the world around them.
The topics upon which the projects are made can be given by the teacher, but, in
some cases, they can be made by the students that make these projects as well. The
information that the assessor gets is varied and in essence, they focus on the following
aspects: the motivation that the student has about the domain within whose perimeter he
chose the topic, the student’s capacity of getting information and of using a biography
based on the discussed topic, the capacity of the student to make an investigative path and
to use a set of methods that can help him reach the objectives that he had in mind; the
way of organizing, processing and the presentation of the achieved information as a result
of the using of different researching methods; the quality of the product(products)
obtained at the end of the project that can be apart by originality, functionality , great
aesthetic qualities.
In the process of the project development the student has the opportunity to prove
his knowledge/acquirements, his skills and habits that he developed on many different
lessons, the student uses many books, magazines and the internet, he plays different roles:

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reporter, photographer, editor, illustrator and so on – that give him the opportunity not
only to realize what he knows and the capacity of using it, but also effectively developing
said capacity.
As in the case of other alternative methods of evaluation, in the project method
has to be taken into consideration a set of determinants like: the age of the students, their
motivation about a certain domain of knowledge, the variety of the learning experiences
that the students have gathered until now, their resistance of effort.
The project is a more extensive activity that allows a complex appreciation of the learning,
helping on the identification of some individual qualities of the student. Even though it
implies an individual studying part outside the classroom, this activity is highly
motivating for the students.
The learning by the method of the project it is well used in the school practices
because it has come to the realization that the students become more involved in the
process of learning when they have the possibility to analyse, to research and to discover
information by themselves, and situations that are alike with those from the real life. The
students can chose when it’s about the realization of their own project, which gives them
the opportunity to follow their own interests and to manifest their curiosity. Answering
their own questions, the students can investigate other subjects that were not identified
by the teacher as the objectives of the learning process.
The teachers that want to use the method of the project in the classroom may have
to adopt new strategies of instruction to have results.
The methods of the direct instruction based of school books, exposures and
traditional evaluation don’t work too well in an open and interdisciplinary instructive
process, typical for the learning based on projects. The teachers more likely “coach’ and
“shape” and talk less. The teachers can be found in the situation of learning themselves
along with their students while the project is made.
The teaching based on projects is one of the approaching of the process of
instruction, available in the “repertory” of a teacher. This approaching is not adequate for
all the types of competences and knowledge. The teachers that make the change on the
instruction based on project face some challenges that they have to overcome when they
go from the traditional practices to the new ones.
As long as the teachers and the students work together at the projects and integrate
the technologies, their roles change. The teachers that are used with exposures and use
school books or existent materials can have some troubles in an approaching based on the
student, which means giving up on the control and giving the students the opportunity to
work in multiple directions, on different activities on the same time. While the work of
the meal of the project needs a lot of time of preparation for the teacher in the beginning,
once the project starts, the teacher less preparation daily work and acts as a coach or a
facilitator during the development of the project. For the teachers this is interesting and
it’s a way making the connection with the individual styles and the creativity of the
students.
The project is also a change of the role of the student. In projects it is necessary
that they make more decisions, to work by collaboration, to take initiative, to make
presentations in front of a public, and, in more cases, to build themselves their own basis
of knowledge. Even though this can be a challenge for the students in the beginning, many
of them will consider the activities of the project full of meaning, more relevant to their
lives and more interesting. Therefore, the students are generally more motivated, they’ve
got better results through the projects and gather new knowledge.

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 But, we have to be aware of when, how and what method we use, because the
teaching steps that we initiate have to be in compliance the particularities of the age and
the cognitive and practical possibilities of the children. Not any method can be applied in
all the activities or at every age. In choosing the methods that we will use, we have to
keep in mind the topic, its type (teaching, learning, evaluation) and the level of the
intellectual development of the children. Therefore it is necessary a deep study of these
methods, a detailed analysis, creativity, educational responsibility and a capacity of
adaptation and application.
In the end, I would like to mention the importance of the method of the project, by
emphasizing that it is a method that activated the student to the original solving of the
tasks, through their freedom of choosing and acting, through the way of processing the
information. The method of the projects, when well applied, it is a dynamic and attractive
way to develop the competences of the students, to stimulate their imagination and to
facilitate the transfer of the learning acquisitions in the everyday life, discovering the love
of leaning, the trust in themselves, the students feeling fulfilled.

Bibliography
Balea Liliana Carmen, (coord), Lucrările simpozionului Metode inovative de predare-învățare-
evaluare, Buftea, 2020, disponibil la https://revistaeducatie.ro
Frith, D.S., Macintosh, H.G., A teacher’s Guide to Assessment, Ed Stanley Thornes LTD,1991.
Nicola, Ioan, Tratat de pedagogie școlară, București, Ed Aramis, 2003
Oprea, Crenguța Lăcrămioara, Strategii didactice interactive – repere teoretice și practice,
București, Ed Didactică și Pedagogică RA,2008
Păcurari, Otilia, (coord), Strategii didactice inovative, București, Ed Sigma, 2003, disponibil la
https://edict.ro/strategiididacticeinteractive )

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 METHODS AND PROCEDURES USED IN ORAL
COMMUNICATION

Ancuța IONESCU

Abstract: Regarding the way of teaching and learning the communication notions we can
notice a series of difficulties in forming and developing the oral speech of small school children,
but also when understanding all these notions. That is why, most of the times, the teachers use
different didactic methods in order to make the process of teaching and learning more attractive
for pupils, easier and more adapted for their level, but also for the pupils to be able to apply their
knowledge. The didactic method represents a homogeneous system of procedures, actions and
operations chosen according to the features of studying, aligned and integrated situations into a
united way of learning under the specified method. The value of a method into an educational
context can be given by the quality of the procedures that make it complete. The method is a
deliberate way of organizing the teaching content due to organizing learning, as a result of an
interaction between the teacher and the children. If in the scientific domain, the method keeps its
initial signification, when is used in the didactic domain it reaches other meanings, it becomes more
than an instrument meant to facilitate the scientific knowledge. This time it takes over another
value, a pedagogical one, becoming a popular knowledge tool that enhances certain truths; it also
becomes a way of teaching the pupils some notions about the objects and phenomena from reality.
Keywords: methods, procedures, didactics.

For students, the method is the process of active assimilation of a new system of
knowledge and skills, whose goal is to develop their potentialities of knowledge and
action. The didactic process is a part of the method, a tool to make it happen, that is a
system of intellectual and/or practical operations of the teachers and students, operations
that transpose in the practical plan the way of acting of the methods, contributing on their
efficient value. As for the classification of the methods, the first criteria is the historical
one, therefore, there are: - classical or traditional methods, that use mostly the direct
communication, based of the previous experience of the child, on the intuitive didactic
procedures, most of the time authoritative, with a formal character – modern methods, an
expression of the most recent pedagogical innovations, with an accent on the personality
development, whose principle is that “ the school was made for the child, not the child
for the school.”
The conversation. The conversation is an interactive method consisting in the
didactic dialogue between the teacher and the students, on which the teacher asks
questions successively to stimulate his students to acquire, know knowledge or to fix, to
systematize and evaluate the knowledge they possess. The conversation is a method that
capitalizes the dialogue in order to achieve the objectives of the educational process. The
conversation method is a common front-directed activity to stimulate language, enriches
vocabulary, clarifies meaning, fixes words, corrects misunderstandings, and corrects
pronunciation. The student capitalizes on the entire linguistic theory; his personality is
developed through the communication and expression of his own values. He is
determined to make the connection between word and idea, to formulate and express
correctly what he wants to express. According to the didactic function targeted with
priority, the following main forms of the conversation are detached: - the verification

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conversation (catechetical), in which the questions are of reproductive type, aiming at
knowledge taught and learned and requesting with priority the memory; - the heuristic
conversation, in which the questions are of a productive type, requesting with priority the
thinking in the processing and systematization of the known data in order to make
comparisons, interpretations or expressions of personal opinions. This leads to new
knowledge, ‘discovered’ by students through personal effort (etymological: ‘evriskein’,
gr. = ‘To discover’). It is also called Socratic conversation; her father being considered
the Greek philosopher Socrates: consolidation conversation, which aims to repeat and
systematize knowledge. The organization and development of activities requires the
scientific solution of the problems it generates in connection with their design and timing,
with the preparation for active participation. The oppression of conversation activities
involves compliance with certain conditions: planning at short intervals, establishing the
topic according to the age and individual characteristics of children, -developing
questions, deepening the topic, choosing new words to introduce in the activity, choosing
procedures and the means to ensure the active participation of all children during the
activity. The conversation is based on the student's previous experience and it is an
exercise in expression that requires the selection of words, the choice of grammatical
structures parallel to the discussions. Thus, he will form the correct expression skills
necessary both in the usual speech and in the school activity. He will know how to: listen
to the question, answer when asked, listen to the answers of the interlocutor /
interlocutors, intervene to correct mistakes, order his / her entire information acquisition
in order to answer the questions properly.
Conditions for asking questions. The conversation assumes that all the questions
flow logically, the teacher's talent to formulate and ask questions in natural alternation
with the expected answers. He must set out a question plan in which to carry out the whole
activity. The nature of the questions must be diversified according to the objectives
pursued and the learning situations. In general, the questions should be direct, ‘helpful’.
They must be precise, clear and grammatically correct and correct in content. The teacher
will focus on questions that require intellectual effort on the part of the students, discovery
questions. It is preferable to use more general questions, so that the answer is not limited
to a single piece of information, or even monosyllabic; alternative use of different types
of questions to stimulate the activation of the students.
Conditions for formulating students' answers. The teacher's requirement must
not only be on the correct and clear formulation of the questions, but also on the children's
answers. The question is the one that analyses the quality of the answer, but, in turn, the
question is conditioned by the possibility to answer the children, by the psychological
peculiarities of the students' answers. Therefore, the young student must be taught to
move from the incomplete answer, often non-essential to the complete answer, within the
limits of the question asked by the teacher. Students must give correct, complete,
motivating answers in terms of content; use appropriate vocabulary. Therefore, asking
questions is an art that the teacher must master very well, so that the answers required
nuance productive intelligence, spontaneity and curiosity, leaving students more freedom
to search, solving a learning problem.
Storytelling. Storytelling is a method and a form of specific teaching activity for
practicing the act of communication, but it is also a species of the epic genre, in which a
story is told. The method of storytelling consists in ‘living and plastic exposition of a
subject or a theme that contains mainly data and facts. Regardless of the object of
instruction in which it is used, the story must contribute to the understanding of the
knowledge communicated, to the formation of the ability to distinguish the essential, to

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compare facts and phenomena, to obtain appropriate conclusions, and to the moral and
aesthetic education of students.’ (Dictionar de pedagogie, 1979, p. 156). Storytelling is
one of the most beloved guided activities for young schoolchildren; it satisfies students'
need for knowledge and affection, stimulates their imagination and creates the optimal
communication framework. Within the instructive-educational process, the story
develops the following psychic processes: • Logical thinking - due to the logical discovery
of the elements in the story • Voluntary memory - by fixing the unfolding of events and
rendering them in their logical sequence • Imagination - by creating new images-based
processing of previous representations and previous cognitive experience • Language - as
a fundamental means of communication. Language and thinking interact and it is
constituted as a unit between communicational (transmissions of information) and
cognitive. Thinking develops with the support of language, and the level of development
of language reflects the level of development of thinking. • Attention - due to which
children memorize the names of the characters, fragments of the story, remember the
sequence of events, behavioral traits of the characters. Storytelling as a method is adapted
according to the objectives and contents specific to each school level; it presents aspects
as close as possible to the children's experience and has educational and aesthetic values.
The need for aesthetics, the emotional attraction of students to the category of beauty
manifested through the narrative frames the story in the aspiration for knowledge,
stimulates the imagination and exercises the ability to communicate. The story makes it
possible to introduce the student to a fabulous universe, in which fairy tales, legends,
myths, historical events are shaped around the spectacular events in the life of the heroes,
with the aim of informing and sensitizing students. ‘An attractive story, told with modesty
and talent, is always followed by tension and emotional participation, giving children a
good opportunity to discover what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, admirable and
repulsive, nobility and baseness in the conduct of some characters, some loved, others
hated by them. The nuanced and emotional character of the narrator's expression, his
direct and affective participation in the content of the story awaken a wide register of
‘stirring’ emotional feelings in the children's souls, from those of love, compassion or joy
to those of hatred, of indignation and pain, which explains the special educational value
of this method.’ (Cerghit, I., 2006, p. 131) The storytelling method facilitates the
development of analysis, comparison and understanding skills through the logic of events,
through the simplicity and clarity of the ideas transmitted, which makes it possible to
outline vivid representations that stimulate students to form social skills. Through the
factual material and its logic of development, through the simplicity and clarity of the
ideas expressed, the story is an excellent exercise that leads to the acquisition of a great
wealth of vivid and clear representations, which encourages subtle analysis and
comparisons, facilitates understanding and detachment of the essential, of some
teachings’. (Cerghit, I., 2006, p. 131) .
Form of the activities of storytelling. The teacher's story for primary education
is an oral presentation of some literary creations (stories, tales, legends), even of some
real events heard, lived by him. The teacher's story is a model of communication for
primary school students, being a compulsory activity. The oral presentation of a fairy tale,
a snooze, a story told to children, becomes a rich source of information and training for
students. Every story has a formative value cognitively, but also ethically. In order to
achieve a successful storytelling activity, with formative value, the teacher must:•‘Find a
story suitable for the age of the children, to whom it is addressed and who meet conditions
of a cognitive, moral and aesthetic nature;•To know very well the content of the narrative
in order to be able to present it to the children in an appropriate tone and in a pleasant,

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coherent and attractive way;•To process the text if it is very long, by summarizing some
sequences, making it shorter and easier for children to understand;•To intervene from
time to time during the story, through certain digressions, making the action much more
dynamic and the communication more pleasant, enriching the listeners' knowledge;•Try
to solve the problem of unknown words: either by removing the new word and replacing
it with a known one, or by adding a synonym to the unknown word, a synonym to be
understood by students’ (Crăciun, C., 2009, p. 19) In addition to the fact that this method
enriches their informational horizon, the teacher's story is a model of exposition,
narration, oral expression, made by keeping the rules and rules of grammar, the use of a
rich lexicon, comprehensible and varied, stylistic expressions of great force evocative by
which develops students' creative imagination and their possibilities of oral expression.
Student stories that include retelling and storytelling itself. The retelling
consists in the free reproduction of a known text and trains students in the ability to order
ideas logically, through a cursive and clear exposition. The story itself aims to develop a
correct, logical, expressive expression, being a good exercise in language education and
communication. This is done by exposing, presenting a literary text read or an event lived
through a direct experience or a situation thought and imagined by students. Several forms
are known: students' stories according to the teacher's model; students' stories after a
given beginning; students' stories according to a plan; students' stories after a series of
illustrations; stories based on a given theme. Application of the method class: fourth;
discipline: Romanian language and literature, lesson title: storytelling according to an
idea plan lesson type: consolidating knowledge general and specific competences: -
receiving various messages. making simple deductions based on listening to an accessible
literary or informative text; -notification of deviations from the heard messages in order
to correct them; - manifestation of attention to various types of messages in predictable
contexts; -manifestation of interest in receiving the oral message regardless of channel
disturbances 2. Expression of oral messages in various communication situations; -
reporting an imagined story based on support questions; -logically and chronologically
ordered presentation of a project / activity carried out in school or extracurricular; -
initiating and maintaining an interaction to solve individual or group problems; -
manifestation of interest in participating in oral interactions. Receiving written messages
in various communication contexts: formulation of simple conclusions based on reading
informative or literary texts; associating the elements discovered in the text read with
one's own experiences; extracting significant elements from a text to support an opinion
regarding the message read; assessment of textual elements that lead to in-depth
understanding in reading; manifestation of interest in literary reading and information;
writing messages in various communication situations; short story of a sequence from a
story / a movie / cartoon / an activity / an imagined / lived event
Stages of the activity: Read the following ideas from Mircea Cărtărescu's book,
"Butterflies with hundreds of wings" 1. Books look like butterflies, only they are
butterflies with hundreds of wings. 2. Books make us dream, and these dreams do not fall
apart. 3. Each reading is unique because the same book is imagined differently by those
who read it. 4. Reading, we actually travel in our minds, because we imagine what we
read. 5. Unlike movies, books are thousands of sizes and we can have direct contact with
them. 6. Books are important for the formation of a human being and send us to more and
more books. Students are offered a moment of introspection: to close their eyes. As you
listen to ideas, imagine what you hear and present. Students will be given reading cards
with the contents of an excerpt from the Polish Story “Golden Quinces from the Dragon
Garden”, which can be read in whispers and on rolls. The text map will also be gradually

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completed, as it is established: -title / author; -the characters; Students are asked to present
what they think the prince did with the gifts received from the old woman. It explains the
meanings of new words or expressions, encountered in the text (you hated it, don't find
peace, throw the curse, you will break through), orally make sentences.The text read is
narrated, the logical fragments are identified, the main ideas are formulated, which are
noted on the board and in notebooks. Two sets of didactic boards containing the main
ideas from two stories by contemporary authors are placed on the magnetic board, and,
after the term “contemporary” is updated, making an analogy with the historical epochs,
the presented ideas are logically ordered. Each student writes on the notebook the ordered
ideas.
Predictive reading. It is specific to primary school activities, which consists of
discussing and analyzing texts specific to young schoolchildren, with the help of which
students are encouraged and asked to participate in the interpretation of a story read by
them or presented by the teacher. This method is used in reading lessons to form critical
thinking, gives students the pleasure of reading, and trains them in various discussions on
the text, gives them the opportunity to express their point of view, argue and support their
ideas. By the fact that they can intervene in discussions about the text, it involves them
emotionally, living with the characters in the text, debating their actions and finding
alternative solutions to problem situations in the text, thus correlating events in everyday
life with those manifested in the text. Gabriela Bărbulescu and Beșliu Daniela specify in
the paper Methodology of teaching Romanian language and literature in primary
education which are the stages of predictive reading: ‘- presentation of the title of the text
- it is established what is its meaning for students; - presentation of the text on sheets,
folded so that only a fragment of the text is revealed, and its discovery can be made
gradually as the text is read - requesting the first prediction, before reading the first
passage - reading the first passage by students, without to have access to the other
fragments; fill in the heading ‘What happened?’ - making the second prediction ‘What
will happen?’ (2009, p. 198)
Mutual teaching-learning It is mainly used in reading activities to study a literary
or non-literary text. Through this method, students are taught how to approach the text,
what activities and techniques they need to use to make it more accessible, so that they
can take on the role of teacher, discussing and personally training their classmates. The
method develops communication and relationships between students and experiencing
the role of the teacher. As objectives, mutual teaching-learning records: - individual
performance by exercising the ability of students to capitalize on their learning
experience, teaching others; - the active participation of children in group and frontal
activities, - the development of confidence in their ability to relate and take on
responsibilities. ‘The mutual learning method is focused on four learning strategies used
by anyone who does a text study on social, scientific or a narrative text (stories, short
stories, legends). These strategies are: - summarizing, asking questions, classifying data
and predicting (predicting)’. (Oprea, C.L., 2009, p. 193) The summary means a brief
exposition of what has been read before. Each group leader or child in the group presents
the synthesis of the text read or the image contemplated by the group for 5-7 minutes. In
parallel, each member of the group can formulate one sentence at a time. The sentences
will be summarized in a logical synthesis that expresses the fruit of collective thinking
and the message of the text or images given / heard. The question is asked about the text
read, but only if the answer to them is known. Analyse the text and the group image and
then each child asks a question using the question palettes. I can ask as many questions
as possible in the group. Then their selection is made. The children select the problem

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from the picture / text or text / picture they want to understand and ask questions to
convince everyone that the choice was the right one. The questions concern relevant
aspects of the problem posed in the text / image based on the characters, time, action,
place of development and way of solving, action. Classification means explaining the
meaning of new words, if any, by diversifying explicit sources. One of the children (even
two can complete each other) formulates explanations, clarifications that the whole group
will have clear all the new aspects of the text. This group clarifies the ambiguities of both
the children in the group and the other groups who did not notice certain issues. Clarifiers
can make the intervention accessible using a variety of teaching materials. They can ask
for the teacher's support. The educator guides, advises, directs the group to the essence of
the problem. The prediction is made based on what the students read, by communicating
their own predictions, about what will happen next. Analyse the text / image in groups
and predict what will happen next, expressing the most unexpected ideas, facts, taking
into account the logic of previous ideas. ‘The stages of teaching-mutual learning are: 1.
explaining the purpose and describing the method and the four strategies 2. dividing the
role of students 3. organizing into groups 4. working on the text 5. achieving mutual
learning 6. appreciations, completions, comments‘. (Oprea, C.L., 2009, p. 194)
Brainstorming. Etymologically, brainstorming comes from English, from the
words ‘brain’= brain and ‘storm’ = storm, plus the ending ‘-ing’ specific to the English
language, which means ‘brain storm’ - effervescence, a state of intense imaginative
activity, an assault of ideas. It is a modern method of individual search and creation, a
variant of group discussion that aims to express and find new ideas, solutions in case of
a problem, but also to confront and approve them with the group of students. Using this
method requires following several steps such as: (1) announcing the topic / problem for
which solutions need to be found, (2) preparing for the activity, (3) expressing ideas,
solutions found to address the topic / problem, (4) stopping ‘Brainstorming’ when the
teacher considers that sufficient data have been gathered to express the solutions to the
problem in question, (5) evaluating ideas, agreeing with students, discussing and choosing
the most relevant solutions for their use.
Starburst. This is an interactive method that involves the development of
individual and group creativity. According to Mariana Norel, the stages of this method
are: • ‘starting from a fragment read, from a different fact or from an event in everyday
life, students are presented with a problem; • the team is organized in groups; • questions
such as: WHO?, WHAT?, WHEN?, HOW? WHY?; these questions can give rise to more
elaborate questions; • after the end of the established working time, each group will
present its list of questions that it has completed; • the best questions will be highlighted
and answers will be formulated for them. • Finally, the activity of each group will be
appreciated’. (Norel, M., 2010, p. 79).
The didactic game: the didactic game is one of the most beloved activities of
preschoolers and schoolchildren, it is entertainment, recreation, and at the same time a
vital need for imaginary reconstruction of reality. It harmoniously combines the
instructive-educational activity with elements fun, attractive, age-specific. Researchers
have shown that the child's play is essential for the development of his personality and
that the game develops basic abilities and skills. Playing is a specific human activity, it is
one of the various activities of people, it is determined by other activities and vice versa,
it determines all of them. Learning, working and creating would not be done outside the
game. Its use in the instructive-educational process also lies in the fact that it is a means
of stimulating and developing creativity, imagination and thinking, the game contributes
to the formation and development of communication skills. ‘As a form of activity, each

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game contributes a didactic task to be performed together with specific rules and
elements, which should contribute to the achievement of educational objectives. The
game also involves both the harmonization and strengthening of relationships between
children, contributing to the development of teamwork. The teacher can communicate
much better with his 44 students through this activity, being able to get closer and observe
them closely, discovering many hidden aspects of their personality.’(Grecu, M.-V., 2019,
p. 134) The typology of games is varied, so the mastery of the teacher is proven by the
ability to select and know how to choose and apply the right game depending on the level
of the class of students, the transmission of tasks in order to perform this activity. In the
case of poetry lessons, specific stimulation games can be used: thinking games,
observation games, imagination games, language games, creative games, etc. The stages
of organizing and directing the didactic game are: a) the introduction of the game in the
didactic activity; b) stating the title of the game; c) presentation of the materials used (if
applicable); d) setting the rules and explaining them; e) conducting the test game; f) the
execution of the game by repetition, in order to participate as many students as possible;
g) the introduction of some changes in the game, elements of difficulty and the production
of some variants; h) evaluating the development of the game so that the students are aware
of certain deficiencies, if any, and want much better results in the next games. Following
the description and presentation of these methods, both traditional and modern in the
approach of pastels, we can conclude the formative and informative character, the role
they play in the development of critical thinking, capitalizing on students' own
experience, determining students to seek and develop solutions. To various problems,
highlighting one's own way of understanding, the engaging, relaxed climate, based on
collaboration, trust and respect, active methods and techniques make the lesson an
adventure of knowledge in which the child participates, according to his own strength.
Therefore, the teacher, partner of education has a special responsibility in terms of
choosing the methods used in the educational instructional process, each of these methods
contributing to the nuance of students' personality.
Role playing is an attractive method due to its playful and effective appearance;
is an active teaching-learning-assessment method, a composite method that has a mixed
structure because it includes methods that belong to other categories, which have now
become procedures, such as: explanation, instruction, observation, debate, etc. Using
Role playing, the teacher intends that students: • to form some behaviors and attitudes in
certain situations that challenge it • to cultivate feelings of sensitivity, good manners,
kindness towards people and human behavior• to form and develop the ability to be able
to solve problem situations in certain contexts• to encourage and develop teamwork • to
develop and stimulate the spirit of collaboration, cooperation, constructive dialogue, etc.
(Norel, M., 2010, p.93) From the category of techniques to stimulate creativity we can
use dramatizations, role-playing games, changing the end of a text, using unusual
expressions, conducting dialogues, on which occasion students are put in unpredictable
situations, having to resort to their fantasy and imagination. ex. ‘Dialogue with the
Swallow’ or ‘Dialogue with Spring’. For example, in the game ‘Tell something about:
school, pencil, etc.’ the spontaneity of verbal constructions, fantasy, representations about
the things in question is pursued. A pleasant atmosphere is created that frees children
from the fear of being admonished, an atmosphere that promotes communication,
consultation, encourages those with slower thinking and gives wings to the gifted.
The cube. The cube is used when you want to explore a topic / situation from
several perspectives, this method offers the opportunity to develop the skills needed for a
complex and integrative approach. This method was created in 1980 by Cowan and

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consists of analysing a theme by designing it on the six facets of the cube, each assuming
a distinct approach to the subject. The stages of the method: - a cube is made on the sides
of which the words are written: DESCRIBE, COMPARE, ANALYZE, ASSOCIATE,
APPLY, ARGUMENT (others, depending on resources, not necessarily on all sides of
the cube); - The topic / topic discussed is announced; - the group is divided into six
subgroups, each subgroup solving one of the requirements inscribed on the faces of the
cube; - the final form of writing is communicated to the whole group; each child in the
group plays a role depending on the task received (rollers, clever, knows everything,
humorist, timekeeper); - the children solve the task individually in a given time; - presents
in turn the answer given.

Bibliography
Cerghit, I., Metode de învățământ, Polirom, București, 2006.
Grecu, M. V., Tendinţe în didactica limbii şi literaturii române în învăţământul primar, suport de
curs, ediţia a II-a, revizuită şi adăugită, Editura Aius, Craiova, 2019.
Norel, M., Didactica limbii și literaturii române pentru învățământul primar, Grup Editorial Art,
București, 2015.

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 DIDACTIC STRATEGIES FOR ENRICHING THE VOCABULARY
OF SMALL SCHOOL CHILDREN

Ancuta IONESCU, Marius Valeriu GRECU

Abstract: Etymologically speaking, the term strategy comes from the Greek word stratos
that means the army and from the word agein that means to lead. The didactic strategy was defined
related to the object of learning, no matter if it involves knowledge, know-how or personal abilities.
Nonetheless, the strategy also implies some performances like telling by heart, reciting, finding a
rule, etc. The strategy may vary according to the type of the class: the entire class, a group tutorial,
a practice group where the teacher tries to enrich and synthetize the knowledge of the children. The
teacher has to spread his/her knowledge using dictation or working sheets, because he/she is
perceived as a master of teaching in the eyes of the children. The teacher has to possess a motivated
strategy in which the information will be provided according to a special method and, whatever the
type of learning may be, the teacher has to keep in mind the object of studying, the complexity of
his/her knowledge, but also the level of perception and the level of the individuals. A good strategy
leads to the developing of the autonomy and also offers a big opportunity to the pupils’ creativity.
Before starting a didactic strategy, it is necessary to awaken the child’s interest for receiving new
information and then, after receiving it, the child need to be allowed to filter and understand it.
Keywords: strategies, knowledge, didactics

The definition of the didactic strategies

Etymologically speaking, the term strategy comes from the Greek word ‘stratos’
which means army and from the word ‘agein’ which means to lead. Petit Robert (1972)
offers two definitions for the strategy:
a - as opposed to tactics, the art of making an army evolves into a theatre of operations
until it comes into contact with the enemy. Strategy is that part of military science that
deals with the general conduct of war and the organization of a country's defence.
b - in a figurative sense, it is the set of coordinated actions, manoeuvres, in view of
victory.
The strategy was first used in the army because the nations of the past were always at
war, the kings instructed their military advisers to choose the best manoeuvres and tricks
to win wars, thus winning the chosen strategy.
Our world today is facing multiple conflicts, which is why we are witnessing
planetary upheavals aimed at controlling it. This goal is certainly well framed by
strategies that ensure its success (Manolescu, 2017). Another example is that countries
whose economies are based on revenues from the sale of oil like ours are changing their
strategy to avoid bankruptcy and coordinating their manoeuvres to guide people to a better
awareness of the danger that threatens them and to give more much value to work. When
it comes to education, the school has always been the focus of the debate on how to
provide a good education for our children. The choice of strategies is dictated by the needs
of society, the development and evolution of science. We can confirm this by using ITC
(information and communication technology in the service of good quality education)
(Stanciu, 2004).
The strategy consists, after analysing the data and the environment, in choosing
the best possible development and defining an action plan to achieve this development. It

University of Pitesti, [email protected], [email protected]

230
provides consistency between: -objectives and means, -different actions taken, -decisions
and the particular situation,-environmental data. Thus, nothing is left to chance, any
danger is eliminated on the path drawn to achieve the general objectives. It is clear that
the environment and the objective to be achieved delimit the choice of actions to be taken:
- Go straight to the goal in a short time, directing all actions to the target what is called:
direct strategy; - A long-term policy that combines manoeuvres and decisions that relate
to the nature and extent of the means it envisages achieving a fixed goal, so-called indirect
strategy. In this sense, the total strategy requires the search for other ways to assert its
advantages (Marin, 2011, p. 64). We should not be satisfied with the volume of the
objective achieved, but with its quality, so that we can judge the effectiveness of a certain
strategy. The best way is to follow the example of the ant in its approach. If we are facing
a complex situation, it is preferable to fragment the approach in order to avoid it.
Acting according to an action plan is a well thought out approach that encourages
action based on the sequence of steps. The teaching strategy is to design and organize
educational activities to facilitate student learning, based on approaches and methods
(Ursu, 2004).
The strategy is defined taking into account the object of learning, regardless of
whether it is knowledge or know-how or interpersonal skills. It is also defined considering
the expected performances: reproduce, recite and find a law. The strategy changes
depending on the type of class: the whole class, the tutorial group, the practical work
group, where we try to bring or structure the knowledge of a student. Throughout the
class, the teacher distributes the knowledge using dictation or worksheets. He is seen as
the sole holder of knowledge in the eyes of the student. We must have a motivated strategy
in which knowledge will be provided according to a method and whatever the type of
learning, the teacher must consider: the object of learning, the complexity and criticality
of knowledge (is it ready to learn more inputs?), the expected level of performance and
the individual or collective character of the learner (Marin, 2011).
The transmission model: well suited, associated with a deductive approach, to simple and
non-critical objects. Behaviorist model: currently widely used in ITS, as it allows easy
translation of the reference system into training activities. But it has often been wrongly
assumed that it is inherently indicative of an inductive approach.
The constructivist model: undoubtedly essential, associated with an inductive approach,
for learning complex and / or critical knowledge. The strategy leads to the development
of autonomy and offers a great chance to the creativity of the students.
Before starting the teaching strategy, it is necessary to wake up the call of an acquaintance
and to put the student in the position of receiving new knowledge. After discovering the
knowledge, the student must be allowed to reinvest his knowledge (Stanciu, 2004).
The main priority for the quality of education is the need to reconsider the teaching
methods of teachers, so that the formulated teaching strategies focus on learning and
learners. In order to ensure the development and capitalization of their cognitive,
emotional and action resources and to guide them for their optimal adaptation and
integration into the social and professional environment, it is important to implement
strategies as action-based and applied education and research experience. Therefore,
students will have the opportunity to practice high quality learning, to pursue sustainable
learning and possibly to use and transfer it to different teaching environments. With
competent advice, they will follow them and improve their level of learning and skills.
Continuous support from interested teachers, students will have the opportunity to
achieve their learning objectives and succeed in this activity (Manolescu, 2014).

231
 In addition, their chances of social success will be greatly increased. Interactive
teaching strategies can promote active learning, including ongoing cooperation between
students organized in micro-groups, who can work together to achieve predetermined
goals. Teachers do not emphasize the role of disseminating information, but emphasize
the role of organizers, promoters and intermediaries of learning activities. The teaching
method is designed not to focus on teachers, but on students. The role of the teacher
remains the role of capital, but it abandoned the old rigid and unified educational habits,
became the organizer of a learning environment adapted to the particularities and needs
of the beneficiaries and promoted the learning process and the development of skills. The
design and implementation of teaching assessment activities based on teaching strategies
has brought about a fundamental change in students' perception of teachers: the student's
image as passive recipients of information and knowledge. Real learning, such as
information processing, generating new knowledge and applying it in different
environments (Marin, 2011).
When planning to promote a quality culture at this level, the basic purpose of
school education is dissemination, is the accumulation of knowledge, but it is in a
secondary position. The focus is now on how to manage, organize, interpret and use
information assimilated in various situations. Therefore, students must not only master
solid skills, but also believe that they will prove to be usable and can serve them sincerely
in different environments. The interactive didactic strategy plays a decisive role in the
didactic activities, it exists in all the phases of its conception and real realization: a.
During the planning, when the teachers refer to other components of the educational
process (objectives, content, time, organizational form etc.), explains the best teaching
strategy; b. in the phase of effective development of the activity; c. The teaching strategy
has become a specific tool for achieving the objectives; In the (self) assessment phase,
together with other components of the teaching process, the teaching strategy becomes
the target of teacher evaluation and, depending on the results obtained, the strategy
therefore requires the stimulation 'interactive learning' training process (Stanciu, 2004)
The interactive teaching strategy has an obvious teaching effect, which does not
exclude the possibility of showing some limitations if the teacher does not have a strong
ability to apply in teaching practice. The educational practice that stimulates teaching and
stimulates the creative potential of pupils / students is the desire for modernist and
postmodern teaching methods, cooperation and reflection on learning. What is unique
about interactive training is the mutual learning relationship established between students
and teachers and between students. Active student innovation work is based on the
process of building knowledge, reconstructing thinking, thinking and metacognition. The
acquisition of metacognitive strategies takes into account the students' reflection on their
own identity, which is the object of learning, and analyses the educational needs and
expectations of their interests based on available features and cognitions, practice,
intellectual and physical effort. Metacognition also involves analysing the difficulty of
the learning task and the appropriate strategies for solving it effectively (Ursu, 2004).
Learning is a pressing aspect of postmodern education. Interactivity and creativity
are needed when adopting strategies. These strategies require participation in tasks, a
metacognitive attitude towards learning and knowledge, and an interest in continuous
improvement. Positive and innovative attitudes of students are the result of the teacher's
teaching style and students' work habits (Bloom, 2001). The teaching strategy is an
effective way for teachers to help students gain knowledge and develop their intelligence,
skills, abilities, talents, feelings and emotions. It consists of a series of complex and
circular methods, techniques, teaching aids and organizational activities, which

232
complement each other. On this basis, teachers and students work together to develop a
work plan for effective learning. In formulating this work plan, teachers need to consider
a number of factors that limit the proper development of teaching / learning / assessment
actions, variables related to students, courses, school organizations and even teachers
themselves. It is important for teachers to plan for students to participate in this work
plan, as it is an active topic that helps them build their own knowledge. Therefore, from
the perspective of postmodernism, teaching strategies have become the result of
cooperation between teachers and students, and students complete work plans according
to their interests, desire for knowledge and intellectual activities. Thus, they can express
their desire to learn collectively or individually through teamwork and can choose certain
methods, techniques or working procedures to use certain teaching materials.
The premise of using this method in the current education system must be related
to postmodern pedagogy, which emphasizes the connection between the three
components of the educational process: teaching-learning-assessment and learning
theory, which underlies the education system.
Training refers to the choice, organization, balance, connection and
implementation of the following four categories of components: - training objectives-
contents-strategies and methods-assessment (do not confuse the concept of terms and
objectives with the use of science and language (e.g., long-term, short-term, framework,
reference, operation, specific objectives), using teaching-based teaching methods specific
to learning theory (Bloom, 2001), is understood as the way teachers use to determine how
students find their own learning styles to build their knowledge. Therefore, the student is
not only aware of the content of the field, but is also alive to learn emotions, which
inspires his choice and realizes a complete learning.
When choosing a teaching method, teachers will consider achieving clear,
specific, and specific goals. Illustrative methods (such as narration, description,
explanation, lectures, guide, courses, etc.) have the advantage of being able to show the
content of a large audience in a short time, focusing on the basics. In this case, the role of
the teacher is reduced to the sender / sender of the educational information. However,
how you attract and retain students' interest and how you focus during the exhibition is
crucial. A condition for the explanatory method to be effective is the use of a universal
repertoire to adapt the language to the particularity of the audience. When using
interactive methods, the role of the teacher is diverse and rich, so he becomes an animator,
consultant, host, pupils and students to solve problems together, as well as a member of
the work team. From simple recipients to active participants, it improves students'
enthusiasm and participation. Interaction also means a positive attitude towards
interpersonal relationships, the importance of teamwork and an open attitude towards
cooperation, as well as an attitude that supports ideas generated by cooperating with
others. What makes the interactive teaching method unique is that, on the one hand, there
are multiple relationships between teachers and students, between students and
colleagues, and between students and content. The explanatory method does not require
one-way exchanges between educational institutions and the messages are spread only
from teachers (senders) to students (recipients) (Gheție, 1998).

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Classification of didactic strategies for enriching, nuance and activating vocabulary:
learning strategies.
Students learn a foreign language and are often confronted with their mother
tongue. They are forced to use ready-made and reproduced formulas without a minimum
of constructive knowledge of the proper rules. To deal with this situation, the student
develops strategies for locating, comparing, interpreting and developing meaningful
hypotheses in a specific context (Stanciu, 2004).
Teaching opts for an approach that implements reflection activities that allow the
transfer of skills from one language to another and reducing interference. Thus, the
cognitive strategy is implemented to replace the communicative approach. It is the
process of encoding information and it is not an unconscious action, because there is
always an effort to memorize. It is based on the development in which the student makes
connections between knowledge and repetition, which is the most relevant means that
helps to memorize, is a set of motor and mental activities mobilized in the treatment of
information in the environment. This system allows decoding, storage and retrieval of
received information. Attention plays a very important role in this operation.
Metacognitive strategies - Becoming aware of the learning achieved and
evaluating oneself, there is also self-regulation in which the student checks his acquired
level and asks the question: why am I here? In this context, Jacque Tardif said:
Metacognition refers to the knowledge as well as the control that the subject has over
himself and his cognitive strategies. In practice, it is a matter of doing and looking at
yourself hoping to improve. Indeed, it involves knowing the weaknesses and strengths
and distancing oneself from the task at hand.
Affective strategies - represent the set of feelings put in place to achieve learning,
because the latter is a way of communication and communication results from feelings.
We talk about feelings between the teacher / student and between the students themselves
and between the students and the language. Affection is a source of motivation and
energy; it allows access to knowledge.
Active-participatory methods are those that can be able to energetically mobilize
the student, to make him follow the lesson with interest and curiosity, to gain logical and
emotional adherence to what is read, to make him put into play the imagination,
understanding, anticipation power, memory, etc. These methods attract both students and
teachers. The efficiency of their use is conditioned by the didactic mastery of the teacher,
by his free, innovative spirit.
Activating, clarifying, enriching students' vocabulary and their presentations is a
permanent concern of any teacher. And it is oriented towards enrichment and nuance, it
is found in any teaching activity, in any discipline, an approach carried out systematically,
specifically and with optimal results. These activities show the content of the specific
objectives:- activating students' vocabulary through oral and written communication;-
enriching vocabulary with new words and using them in oral and written communication;
vocabulary nuance, stylistic adequacy and use in oral and written communication.
Exposure exercises: Introduce funny animals from a country farm. /Imagine you're
in a player store. Say what toy you like and describe it./Imagine you are the presenter of
a fashion show. Describe in as much detail as possible what you notice on stage. In my
experiment I also used the explanation of the use of semantic categories: antonyms,
synonyms, homonyms, paronyms and figurative meanings of words (without explaining
the terminology).
The semantic categories are presented, naming their characteristics:
"Words with the opposite meaning: antonyms.

234
 Words with the same meaning: synonyms.
Words with the same form and meaning: homonyms.
The methodical steps for the enrichment and nuance of the vocabulary were made
in the lessons of reading, oral and written communication, grammar (parts of speech, -
name, verb).
Example:
a) Exercises with antonyms:
Find words with opposite meanings for other words: young, enter, smooth, kindness
Enter these word pairs into sentences.
b) Synonymous exercises:
Say words that have the same meaning as the words: snow, homeland, sunrise ...
Put them in sentences.
Find words that have the same meaning as expressions: to notice, to put brass on your
face, to shake your head, to furrow, .... Put them in sentences.
c) Exercises for namesakes:
Explain the different meanings of words with the same form: sky, sea, gate, port
Statements are made in which the words have, in turn, different meanings.
d) Fluency exercises of associations by transferring an objective-concrete expression into
stylistic expressions. Eg: "The stove has warmed up"
The phrase "heated" was transformed by students led by a heuristic dialogue:
- a battle over life and death was ignited;
- a diabolical beating was heated;
- she was hot with the sword of justice;
- he warmed his angry face;
- the earth was warmed by the heat of the sun;
We also used exercises that ask students to turn an image into previously learned
lyrics or snippets of text. Example: an image that suggests twilight, a painted river, a
waterfront mill. What does such an image remind you of?
Transforming images into an ideational system is an important practice in
increasing and developing students' intellectual abilities and, at the same time, a way of
investigating the affective values of language and the extent to which language becomes
a tool for asserting the accumulated culture. of them. Language is all the more valuable
the more precise it is in the dimension of the reflexive, affective aspect.
Language cultivation exercises to form clear, correct, expressive expression skills,
from facilitating the artistic creation process. Understanding those who communicate is a
requirement for a beautiful, correct, nuanced expression. In Romanian there is a large
number of words with several possibilities of combination, the student being able to
choose not only the words, but also their way of combination.
The student's sensitivity to the expressive values of the linguistic facts can be
stimulated by observing the stylistic components, by producing other style figures,
without theoretical specifications. This is especially important in epithets, comparisons,
metaphors and I will exemplify this through different types of exercises:
Underline the words they express in the following texts:
‘A strong and intoxicating steam drowns my breath’
‘With snowy hair, small eyes
And warm with tenderness,
Real seems to see her here
The fragile grandmother's icon
From my little child. ‘

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 ‘The solemn and silent solitude of the silent forest teaches me. And in the midst
of it, on an emerald island, surrounded by a forest of green and bushy trees, rises a proud
palace of marble like white milk.’
Find at least three of them for each of these nouns: flowers, forest, street.
Find nouns that can have articles themselves: green, thick, leafless, sharp, cold, dry.
Choose words that express:…
For each recognized adjective, find as many nouns as possible: rain, sunrise, small,
round, read, sour, sometimes brave, fragile.

Bibliography
Cerghit, I., Metode de învăţământ, ediţia a II-a, EDP., Bucureşti,1998.
Cucoş, C-tin., Pedagogie, ed. a II-a, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2007.
Grecu, M. V., Tendinţe în didactica limbii şi literaturii române în învăţământul primar, suport de
curs, ediţia a II-a, revizuită şi adăugită, Craiova: Editura Aius, 2019.
Molan, V., Didactica disciplinelor ”Comunicare în limba română” și „Limba și literatura română”
din învățământul primar, București, Editura Emia, 2014.

236
 SPONTANEOUS-BASED LEARNING: UNDERSTAND HOW
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS LEARN ROMANIAN AS A
FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Ana Cristina LEMNARU*

Abstract: Although the international students’ efforts to learn Romanian as a foreign

language are great, the moment they must speak represent a total failure for them. The biggest
challenge for the international students is to face the fear of speaking Romanian that prevents them
from progressing in assimilating the language. If they have tried to learn Romanian from textbooks
or grammar books, of learning vocabulary from dictionaries or conversation guides, they will feel
that these attempts are not enough for the effective acquisition of Romanian. The acquisition of
Romanian as a foreign language means to be able to communicate spontaneously, to be able to
actively use the knowledge learned not only to accumulate some passive knowledge of grammar
and vocabulary. Romanian is most effectively learned by speaking it.
Keywords: Romanian language, spontaneous communication, oral text

Introduction
The preparatory year of Romanian language for foreign citizens is intensive,
interactive, sociable and fun and have clear objectives that contribute to improving
international students’ communication skills. Romanian language core courses contain
an introduction in the study of Romanian language, reception of oral and written text,
elements of vocabulary and grammar structures, oral and written communication,
Romanian culture and civilization, oral and written communication and specialized
language for: engineering sciences, biological and biomedical sciences, social sciences –
juridical sciences, social sciences – psychology, humanities and arts.
The preparatory year of Romanian language for foreign citizens is aimed at
people who want to learn Romanian quickly and easily and to continue their
academic studies in Romanian. It may be also used in many situations: trave l,
socializing, business etc. as it addresses domains such as medicine, economy,
philology, etc.

Literature Review
Taking the advantage of spontaneous teaching/ learning usually involves
connecting with important issues in a certain moment, and then showing how it relates to
something educational. Teaching and learning are two distinct events, but they should
meet at the same time and at the same place. According to Dina, “Teacher to Student
communication included such methodology as lecture, storytelling and demonstration;
Student to Teacher communication included recitation, reports and testing; Teacher with
Student communication with class discussion and “question and answer”, group activity
with activities such as panels, instructive play.” (Dina, 2013: 1034)
Communication in foreign languages is one of the eight key competences defined
by the European Framework of Reference. It consists of the ability to understand spoken
messages, to initiate, sustain, and end conversations, and to read, understand, and write
texts appropriate to a person’s individual needs. A positive attitude involves appreciating
cultural diversity, as well as interest and curiosity about foreign languages and

*University of Pitesti, [email protected]

237
intercultural communication. “On the other hand, the participant involves not only
communicatively but sometimes even physically in the class, maintaining a low profile
in order to allow students to achieve their best from an individual or group task”. (Harmer,
1995: 32)
According to researchers, it is also essential to ensure that language deficiencies
are not a barrier to participation in the host society. It is also worth noting the growing
number of students whose native language differs from the language of instruction. Thus,
we highlight numerous successful language learning strategies in the given academic
environment, coupled with an analysis of the literature on the subject. “One overriding
factor that influences the rich diversity of teaching methods in Europe as a whole is the
Bologna Process, which has for some time been the driving force behind Euro integration
in education”. (Livingstone,1987: 127)
It is very well known that students learn through: repeating the new notions and
transposing them into several situations of spontaneous communication; experimentation,
repetition, spontaneous connections and analogies; plays and imitates, naturally, similar
to learning their native language; through the activities they do daily; during classes, in
pairs or groups where they must work and collaborate with other international students;
permanent observation, listening, exposure and active learning through practice; simple
but interesting readings in accordance with their age. More, “The conversation is based
on expression, not on resumption, on instantaneous, spontaneous and natural verbal
responses, being provided as a means of verifying the effectiveness of the fixation and
solidity of the acquired linguistic knowledge. It is a light activity, with a diminished role
of the teacher, that unfolds on the occasion of daily or occasional events in any field of
life (political, cultural, scientific), topical issues, chosen in such a way as to stimulate the
interest and stimulate the imagination of students and their creative abilities.” (Pruneanu,
2017: 339)

Methodology
The main purpose of our study is to emphasize the need for communication during
the Romanian courses, rather than for teaching/learning certain vocabulary lists,
conjugations, tenses and other Romanian language features. That doesn’t mean the
teachers never teach vocabulary and grammar structures, but this must be done in ways
that emphasize their use in communication instead of just their linguistic features. As the
preparatory year of Romanian language for foreign citizens refers to beginners,
especially that cannot handle well the Romanian grammar when communicating
spontaneously, we will try to prove that they can quite gradually but successfully
communicate about basic grammar rules on a given topic.
Data collection
For good spontaneous communication skills, we have chosen those language
materials our international students are familiar with, such as their basic personal
information, likes, dislikes, daily activities, traveling. More, we added daily tricks to
improve communication such as
-daily class movement. We consider seating international students in such a way that they
change their colleague for communication activities;
-the international students must be actively involved in communication each day,
preferably multiple times each class session;
-teacher must give input that exposes international students to the Romanian language
used in conversation exercises or other activities;

238
-teacher use different gadgets, videos, films, registrations of other speakers, especially
native Romanian speakers, using the targeted words and grammar structures in
conversation;
-teacher must give the international students ample opportunities to practice, but do not
grade their daily activities. Assessment generates fear to express and communicate
because they are aware they make mistakes;
-teacher must design activities that require international students to ask questions to the
other colleagues in such a way the answers should not be short, but ample;
-teacher must offer the international students the possibility to speak, note their answers
and generate a graph or statement summarizing the data they collected while speaking
with the other colleagues;
-teacher must give feedback each time, evaluate the international students’
communication skills;
-teacher must provide feedback on strengths/weaknesses of the international students
answers and on clear topics where their students have difficulties.

Results
Spontaneous communication skills are considered a critical component of
Romanian language teaching/learning process. The teachers provide international
students with essential opportunities to use the Romanian language in a more natural and
more effective way, but outside the academic traditional setting. The increased time
amount the international students spend in the Romanian language reflects on their
confidence for speaking and thus, on communication task acquisition. Including these
communication tasks from the first Romanian classes is essential to ensure the
international students use the Romanian language properly. The resulting benefits are:
- gradually develop vocabulary and assimilate Romanian grammar notions logically, easy
to use and remember;
- all the theoretical notions acquired will be put into practice through exercises and
individual conversations with the teacher and group with colleagues;
- each international student is involved in listening, reading, writing and speaking;
- the Romanian language courses take place in a friendly atmosphere in which the students
are encouraged to overcome very easily the emotions and fear of speaking in Romanian;
- at the end of the preparatory year of Romanian language for foreign citizens, the
international students will obtain a certificate of graduation.

Conclusion
The preparatory year of Romanian language for foreign citizens place a lot of
emphasis on developing the international students’ communication skills, and creating a
safe and friendly teaching/learning environment that encourages spontaneous
communication. This type of learning is expected to rise creativity, imagination, the act
of discovery and opportunities for spontaneous learning. We must understand that the
international students’ success is not measured by tests, homework assignments, the
amount of knowledge gained, grades and grades only. We must find the right environment
for sustainable and effective Romanian language learning with a focus on international
students’ personal development. Many other extra-curricular aspects play an essetial role
and are incorporated into interactive Romanian language courses. The teaching
methodology should allow the international students a natural approach to the language
learning process and encourage genuine and creative learning by using spontaneous
communication.

239
Bibliography
Dina, Aurora Tatiana, Successful approach for teaching Romanian as a foreign language, Procedia
- Social and Behavioral Sciences 70, 2013
Harmer, Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, 1995
Livingstone C., Role Play in Language Learning, Vysshayashkola, 1987
Pruneanu, Dănuța Magdalena, The Conversational Method in Teaching Romanian as a Foreign
Language, Universitatea 1 Decembrie 1918, Alba Iulia, 2017

240
 TRAINING SKILLS – INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

Sorin MAZILESCU*

Abstract: Expressiveness in pre-schoolers’ verbal communication is an essential objective

of language education activities; it is a skill acquired through story-telling activities, readings
prompted by pictures, memorizations and didactic games. Language develops and progresses
constantly in the child, and the teacher has the task of organizing and planning the language
experiences of each and every pupil, depending on their individual pace of development. The
teacher must make it their main concern to introduce something new in each activity, to make it as
diverse and attractive as possible, so that the group of children may be active and attentive, and
the knowledge, skills and abilities formed should be solid, can be easily retained, stored and kept
in the passive memory.
Keywords: education, language, method

In the kindergarten instructive-educational process, the development of

communication skills occupies a pivotal place, as language is one of the essential
conditions for the formation of the child’s personality, as well as ensuring the necessary
basis for school activities. Through the whole instructive-educational process in
kindergarten and, especially through the specific language education activities, the
children’s speech is improved phonetically, the scope of active and passive vocabulary is
widened, the correct grammatical forms are consolidated, creativity and expressiveness
of oral language are developed.
The acts that the communication process involves, in this context, are receiving
the message, understanding it, and storing up the content.
Secondly, actual communication implies: articulation of sounds, association of
phonemes in words, and of words in sentences, in keeping with a given goal.
Thirdly, the feedback (definable as reverse connection), going from transmission
to reception, which involves correcting errors in pronunciation, association and spelling.
We communicate on a daily basis by means of the oral form, communication-cum-
reception, in two ways, as both sender and receiver; then, there is the written form
(reading and writing). Written communication appeared over time, in a process of
abstraction and standardization, in accordance with a number of lexical, grammatical and
orthographic (spelling) norms or rules.
Communication, as an individual phenomenon, presupposes correctly mastering a
natural language in the oral and written form or formula, respectively mastering a
sufficient vocabulary with the accurate denotative and connotative meanings, then the
morphological and syntactic rules, associated with correct spelling and punctuation.
There is a linguistic reality, existing in parallel with a natural and human reality,
which turns communication into a vital necessity, propelling human beings into culture
and civilization, and integrating them socially.
The acquisition of the notions concerning the methodology of language education
activities in preschool education will pursue and serve several components:
• planning the teaching activity;
• the teaching and learning process;
• evaluation of teaching and learning activities.

* University of Pitești, [email protected]

241
 We will conceive the teaching and learning activity in an interdisciplinary
perspective, which aims at ensuring the formative character of pupils’ training and
education. Language education in preschoolers involves great responsibilities on account
of its complexity in the context of a set of specific activities:
- memorization;
- didactic games;
- telling stories;
- reading from pictures;
- conversation.
Working with preschoolers involves contents relating to mathematics, knowledge
of natural and environment science, art education, physical education, development of
practical skills, civic education (social behaviour, language education).
Therefore, language education aims to:
1. correct pronunciation of sounds and groups of sounds;
2. rigorous mastery of the meanings of words;
3. correctly formulating sentences, in keeping with the grammatical (i.e. morphological
and syntactic) norms.
Teaching and learning in the field of language education activities is adapted to
the age peculiarities of preschoolers within the context and the limits of the national
curriculum. The preschool stage has become a compulsory stage, as before the pupils
entering the preparatory class, the educational ideal imposes a set of objectives:
• ensuring the pupils’ normal development, by putting to best use the physical and mental
potential of every child;
• developing the preschooler’ capacity for social integration (with other children, with
adults);
• stimulating the preschooler in acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities for future school
activity.
Consequently, the pre-school stage, followed of course by the preparatory class,
then the first and the second forms, represent a segment marked by fundamental
acquisitions. Preschool education is thus:
The first form of organized and systematic training and education; it is also the child’s first
form of socialization. In the kindergarten, optimal conditions are created for the preschoolers to be
active, permanently supervised by specialized staff. In all activities conducted in kindergarten: joint
activities, activities chosen by the children, recreational and leisure or relaxation activities,
activities for the developing and training individual skills, recovery activities, the children make
cognitive acquisitions, they form the habit of acting to commands, to form cooperative relationships
with the educator and the other children, develop their ability to communicate verbally and non-
verbally, form their motor intellectual skills. (Mitu, Antonovici, 2005: 7).
By generalizing preschool education, integration of children in a set of educational
stages is facilitated, and continuity within the education system is ensured. Through the
specific activities in preschool education, enlarging the children’s cognitive and affective
horizon is ensured, namely:
a) development of sensory and perceptual abilities through representations of memory;
b) perception of reality is realized emotionally, and imagination is stimulated;
c) the child is interested in the ‘spectacle’ of relating to others, to the natural and social
environment; they become receptive to the actions of adults, imitates them and transposes
their behaviours into games, participates in their occupations;
d) „sensory-perceptual progress is associated with the development of motor skills,
increased attention, which increases its concentration from 5-7 minutes in the

242
preschooler, to over 20 minutes, and even 45 minutes in the preschooler – in playing
games, auditions or watching slid shows, movies, children’s theatre”. (Mitu, Antonovici,
2005: 8)
The main form of activity of the preschooler is the game, and, as part of it, the
educator stimulates and develops verbal conduct and the affirmation of the child’s
personality. Of course, in the speech of preschoolers there are difficulties in
pronunciation, faults in the rhythm of emission, inaccurate articulations due to individual
or social causes (family, environment). Through kindergarten activities (educator, speech
therapist), they can be eliminated.
This stage facilitates the integration of the pupil with school activities, by
assimilating a number of adaptive behaviours, and by acquiring some specific knowledge
of the teaching-learning process. The young pupil is aware of the phenomenon
represented by their individuality, and thus integrates into a new social structure, where
the interest in a profession is cultivated, new interpersonal relationships appear, the
concept of school performance is shaped, and the role model (the educator) appears.
During the game-playing activity, which is a dominant learning activity,
„preschoolers make an intellectual effort, and solve didactic tasks with both pleasure and
satisfaction. It is now that team spirit, observation, willpower, character, self-control, as
well as moral qualities develop: honesty, perseverance, diligence” (Mazilescu, 2019: 14).

The interdisciplinary perspective on preschool education

Although learning is a preeminently personal activity, having to do with effort
made to understand and get aware of the significations of science, it is equally true that
interpersonal, group relationships are an indispensable element for the birth and building
of individual and collective learning.
„Group learning exercises the capability of decision-making and initiative, and lends
work a more personal note, and also greater сomрlеmеntаrity to skills and talents, which
ensures more active, livelier раrtiсiраtion, supported by a great deal of еlеmеnts of
еmulаtion, mutual stimulаtion, and fruitful collaboration.” (Guțu, 2014: 354).
What sets out interactive group methods is the fact that they promote interaction
between the participants’ minds, between their personalities, inducing more active
learning and much more remarkable results. Intеrасtivity presupposes both сooреrаtive
work – dеfined as „the motivational form of self-assertion, including the асtivity of self-
promotion where the individual vies with their peers in order to acquire a given soсiаl
status of suреriority” – (Ibidem), as well as comреtition, which is an „асtivity socially
oriеnted, where the individual works alongside of other peers in order to achieve a
common goal.” (Ibidem).
They both have a certain degree of interaction, in contradistinction to individual
behaviours. Interaction stimulates the individual’s effort and productivity, and is
important in self-discovering own capabilities and limitations, in self-assessment. In this
way, the development of the pupils’ skills to work jointly are increased, which represent
an important component in their own lives and in their future activity.
The advantages of interactive work:
•„Under the conditions of working on a similar task, group activity is stimulating, as it
generates a contagious behaviour and a competitive effort; in solving complex tasks, in
solving рroblеms, getting the correct solution is facilitated by emitting multiрlе and
variegated hypotheses” (Stan, 2014: 63).
• It stimulates the individual’s effort and productivity;

243
• It is important for self-discovering own capabilities and limitations, as well as self-
assessment;
• There is an inter-group dynamics with favourable influences in the field of personality;
• Subjects working jointly, as part of a group, are able to learn and synthesize their
knowledge in a variety of complex ways, simultaneously learning more thoroughly than
during work as individuals;
• It develops the pupils’ skills in working together – an important part of their future lives
and professional activities;
• It develops multiple intelligence (linguistic, logical and mathematical, spatial,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, moral);
• It stimulates and develops complex cognitive capabilities and skills (divergent thinking,
critical thinking, lateral thinking – the ability to look at and analyse things in different
way, to relax thinking control);
• Group work allows dividing tasks and responsibilities into parts that are much easier to
achieve;
• The time needed to solve problems is more often than not shorter in the case of group
work than when pupils try to find solutions by themselves;
• Providing the activities are well coordinated and directed, cooperative learning develop
and diversify the pupils’ skills, abilities and social relational habits;
• Interrelation between members of the group and emulation increase interest in a given
task or assignment, thus motivating pupils in learning;
• Team work gives pupils the opportunity to share their ideas, experiences, views,
personal work strategies and information;
• The phenomenon of emotional blockage of creativity is reduced to a minimum;
• A group gives a feeling of security, safety, mutual encouragement of all the members
of the team, which causes fear of failure to disappear and generates the courage to take
risks;
• Interaction in groups also triggers „educating self-control and a tolerant behaviour
relative to the opinions and feelings of other people, conquering subjectivism and
accepting collective thinking.” (Guțu, 2014: 356)
Therefore, in kindergarten language, communication and speech are approached
in an integrated vision, emphasizing both its receptive and expressive sides. That is why
the child is always provided with specific materials, which are meant as both an actively
stimulating means, and an excellent educational and cultural environment: books,
notebooks, writing instruments, newspapers, magazines, pictures and picture-games,
discs, videos, computers, etc. The pupils always have the model represented by the verbal
behaviour of their educators and, at home, that of the parents and the adults around them.
Understanding new words and expressions learned as part of various activities is
consolidated by making them active, by asking children to use them in new contexts.
In conclusion: interdisciplinary activities ensure the transfer of the knowledge assimilated
to new situations that are closely associated with life, they strengthen motor skills,
facilitate intellectual effort and stimulate the children’s creativity.

Bibliography
Guțu, Vladimir, Tratat de pedagogie – între modernism și postmodernism, Ed. Performantica, Iași,
2014
Mazilescu, Sorin, Didactica domeniului Limbă și comunicare – Învățământ preșcolar. Metodică
aplicativă – Note de curs, Ed. Siteh, Craiova, 2019

244
Mitu, Florica, Antonovici, Ștefania, Metodica activităților de educare a limbajului în învățământul
preșcolar, ediția a II-a, Editura Humanitas Educational, București, 2005
Stan, J., Pedagogia preșcolarității și școlarității mici, Editura Polirom, București, 2014

245
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL AND WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN TEACHING ROMANIAN AS A
FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Magdalena Dănuța PRUNEANU*

Abstract: Our paper focuses on the traditional and the modern methods used in teaching
the Romanian practical course - reception of the oral and written text. Our goal was to discover
what methods are still used in the teaching of Romanian. We will emphasize the need of a special
methodology that can improve the global knowledge already acquired by the foreign student and
help him to rediscover access to the world with the help of another language. The conclusion is
that traditional methods still coexist with modern ones, an eclectic approach being efficient in
teaching Romanian.
Keywords: oral communication, written communication, applied exercises

Communication skills in a foreign language is a component of communication

skills in the native language. The first is considered a global ability, acquired by foreign
students over the years, the second is defined as a language ability and will be achieved
through foreign language classes, the Romanian language classes respectively.
Communication competence is defined by the ability to activate knowledge, to manifest
attitudes, to contextualize them in the sphere of interrelationship.
The complexity of the process must also be seen from the perspective of the
formative implications that the two fundamental actions have: text comprehension and
text production, both in the written component and in the oral component.
In the Common European Framework of Reference, the competence of linguistic
communication is defined by the relation of three specific components: the linguistic
component, the sociolinguistic component and the pragmatic component, presented in
their fundamental elements as a synthesis between knowledge, skills and abilities.
Acquisition of communication skills, one of the main objectives of the
communicative approach is the progressive acquisition, by the learner of a foreign
language, of communication skills. In fact, several types of skills are developed:
- linguistic competence implies the acquisition of linguistic means: phonetics,
lexicon, grammar, semantics, spelling and orthoepy, which allow the foreign student to
interact appropriately in different communication situations;
- socio-linguistic competence involves learning the social rules of language use,
to allow them to adapt to the communication situation (status and age of the interlocutor,
the place where the communication occurs, etc.).
The aim is to achieve effective communication, which involves adapting language
forms to the communication situation.
In other words, the learner of a foreign language must consider both the
conventional meaning of the sequences of verbal acts and their conversational
implications, the various effects that can be obtained by respecting or disrespecting the
principle of cooperation (plus the principles of politeness), irony, interest, etc.
- discursive or enunciative competence refers to the transposition into oral or written
utterances of the interlocutor’s communication intention, an intention that corresponds to

* University of Pitesti, [email protected]

246
an act of speech and which can refer to: requesting information about a fact, giving advice
or an order, to give explanations, to tell stories, etc.
It is necessary, therefore, to adapt the linguistic forms not only to the
communication situation, but also to the communication intention.
- strategic competence includes verbal or non-verbal strategies used by the speaker
to compensate for imperfect language proficiency or to make speech more effective.
- the sociocultural competence presupposes the knowledge of the society and of
the culture of the communities in which the respective language is spoken.
In teaching-learning Romanian as a foreign language, a special methodology is
needed that can improve the global knowledge already acquired by the foreign student
and help him to rediscover access to the world with the help of another language. Dina
(2013), considers approachability as “one of the keys to effective teaching. Teaching and
learning are two distinct events, but they should meet at the same time and at the same
place.’’ (A.T. Dina, 2013:1034)
The teaching-learning methods specific to the Romanian language as a foreign
language are multiple. To be able to debate the importance of methods in assimilating
skills and abilities, we must know the significance of the concept: “on the basis of actions
taken jointly by teachers and students and which lead in a planned (programmed) and
effective way to the achievement of the proposed goals” (I. Cerghit, 1973:79).
The preparatory year of Romanian for foreign students ensures their efficient
preparation in the assimilation of the Romanian language, so that they can easily integrate
in the subsequent student activity.
Romanian language practical course - reception of the oral and written text
addresses the issue of learning Romanian by foreign students, emphasizing the formation
of the following skills: receiving the oral message in different communication situations;
the correct and adequate use of the Romanian language in the production of oral messages
in situations of monologue and dialogue communication; receiving the written message,
from non-literary texts, for various purposes; the correct and adequate use of the
Romanian in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization with
various purposes.
Oral and written communication is an important component of the discursive act
and the communication act, all the more so as notions are introduced related to speech
acts and sometimes to non-verbal communication or certain cultural skills (politeness
formulas, registers of the language, ways of communication depending on the
environment / context).
Because communicating means not only transmitting information, storing
language elements (words and grammar rules) but also reacting, conversing, acting on
another, we will have to accustom foreign students to the idea that communicating means
a social practice determined by socio-cultural conventions that indicate who has the right
to say something, to whom, where, when, how. This presupposes the existence of
behaviour rules, of interpersonal relations, of social attitude.
At the beginning, foreign students watch, write, read, learn, and then they will
have to prepare debates, presentations, descriptions, role-plays; thus, they will apply both
verbal and nonverbal behaviour, they will be obliged to communicate in writing and
orally, to continuously practice this means of communication.
The methods applied during the courses are diverse and offer foreign students a
complex activity, which develop their communication skills, but also motivates them to
study regularly.

247
 The role play. It is an interesting activity that makes foreign students actively
involved in debating a topic. Role-playing games do not have to be prepared in advance,
but must occur in the form of improvisation. It starts from a problematic or conflict
situation, which forces the participants to discuss, to defend, to convince, to negotiate,
updating for this purpose various skills: linguistic, socio-linguistic, discursive, strategic.
As situations for the role play, we can propose: - some people were stuck in the elevator;
a gentleman asks a colleague for help over the phone; - a foreign tourist complains about
the loss of documents at the police station. Foreign students must “act” their role as
convincingly as possible.
The crosswords. Crossword puzzles are very popular among foreign students and,
when created on the basis of vocabulary they have worked with, are a good tool for later
exercises.
The word chain. This method can be used with each new theme. The aim is to
enrich the foreign students’ vocabulary by forming the word chain (word families): for
example, in the initial stage, foreign students know the word human being, later the chain
is completed with humanity, humanity, human, human, inhuman.
The word game (or with synonyms, antonyms). In classes, foreign students are
given the opportunity to associate/ replace a word, using synonyms, antonyms, then they
must include them in word combinations and sentences. “The students are faced with a
learning experience from which they can reflect on what they have experienced, felt, may
generalize or interpret experience through which they passed, eventually finding ways
and solutions to best implement what they have learned”. (A.C. Lemnaru, 2013: 453)
Ask me again. The foreign student receives a card with a word on it. He shows the
card to his colleagues, they have to ask as many questions as possible using this word.
For example: for “eat”, What do you eat? When do you eat? Who are you eating with?
Certain conditions can be stated for the formulation of questions, for example: use the
past tense or conditional mode.
The keyhole method is a complex method, aiming at oral and written tests. It is a
method that helps and implicitly develops the foreign student’s linguistic and mental
skills. To achieve the proposed objectives, several types of items are used. In our courses
we used transformation items, concretizing them in different tasks.
For example: Put the verbs in brackets in the present tense: I (arrange) the books
in the library. Ana (clean) the carpet. We (prepare) the holiday home.
Other types of items are the subjective ones that allow the testing of skills aimed
at originality, creativity and personal nature of the answer. These items require the foreign
student to try thinking and organizing their thinking to express themselves coherently.
This item is called story-telling and is used to assess both oral and written communication
skills.
Thus, one can narrate photos cut from magazines, different drawings, images from
books etc. For example, in the subject My Profession, the teacher asks the foreign student
to recognize the people and the objects in the drawing, and then to tell in simple sentences
what they have seen.
The creativity exercises play the role of teaching foreign students to make free
associations, as spontaneous as possible. For example, in order to practice the conditional
mode, foreign students are asked a question, such as: “What would you do if you won the
grand prize in the lottery?” or “What would you do if you were the president of the
country?”; “What would you take with you if you had to make a long journey by train or
plane?” Then they are given a few minutes to answer and motivate their answers.

248
 The proposed methods offer foreign students various opportunities to practice the
Romanian language spontaneously. They promote verbal exchanges between them and
contribute to the development of their autonomy as speakers. Foreign students get to
express themselves freely, as in a real communication situation. The playful and creative
dimension of these activities stimulates the foreign student, thus favoring his involvement
in the learning process. The purpose of the practical course in oral and written
communication is not necessarily to introduce foreign students to new notions, but rather
to use and fix the knowledge gained in other courses, with the resumption of some of
them, where needed. Foreign students are encouraged to be active in a
communicative approach; the interactive component, teacher - student and student -
student, as well as teamwork are considered essential.
We noticed that teamwork encourages and enhances the student’s activity, so that
even a timid or less confident student can be integrated and progress in learning.
The results of the team work are good, and the foreign students get to
communicate easily, orally and in writing, on topics of interest included in the study
program. The topics covered are diversified, and the written text and the speech become
more complex and refined during the second semester.
The development of communication skills for foreign students are strongly
connected to the knowledge of reality. With the help of the methods applied, by far during
classes, we have learned the foreign students to handle in certain concrete situations in
order to facilitate their integration in our society, but also to prepare them for the future
student activity.
The characteristic of these methods is the fact that they offer the foreign student
the possibility of applying creatively the acquired knowledge in new and varied
situations. This type of method (both traditional and modern) allows some freedom of
expression even if the topic of discussion is fixed, however foreign students can choose
to express freely and appropriate to the given topic.

Bibliography
Cerghit, I., Teaching Methods, EDP Publishing House, Bucharest, 1973
Cosăceanu, Anca, Language Teaching: Disciplinary Reconstruction, The University of Bucharest
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003
Dina, Aurora – Tatiana, Successful Approach for Teaching Romanian as a Foreign Language,
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences (vol 70), Elsevier, 2013
Lemnaru, Ana Cristina, New Methods in Teaching Romanian Language for Foreign Students, 5th
International Conference EDU-WORLD with the main theme “Education Facing Contemporary
World Issues” Pitesti-Romania, 7th-9th November, 2013
Șerban, Mihai, Practical course in Romanian: oral and written communication, ASE Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2017

249
 TRADITIONNEL ET MODERNE DANS L'EVALUATION DES
ACTIVITES D'EDUCATION LANGAGIERE EN EDUCATION
PRESCOLAIRE

Ruxandra Viorela STAN*

Abstract: The modern vision of preschool education involves the use of directed and
spontaneous learning and consider learning as the main action of the development of the child's
intelligence. Preschool education has adapted to the requirements of the new generations by
successfully approaching innovative methods of organizing and carrying out activities, combining
them, at the same time, harmoniously with traditional methods, increasing the quality of the
educational process in kindergarten and the results. The instructive-educational process is based
on the innovative ideas of the pedagogical theory, which brings new perspectives in the field of
evaluation. In preschool education, the evaluation act preserves the characteristics of the didactic
evaluation, aiming at measuring and appreciating the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by
the children within the educational act. At the same time, the evaluation follows the formative
aspects of the educator's work, materialized in the attitudes and behaviors acquired by the
preschooler through the learning process. The present academic essay of pedagogical type, brings
into discussion the traditional and modern evaluation methods frequently used in preschool
education, these being analyzed in the light of specialized literature as well as with the help of
research conducted in the field. The purpose of the material aims to highlight the efficiency and
effectiveness of the evaluation methods used in the early educational process. The role of the essay
is to formulate new perspectives on the evaluation process so as to bring a constructive innovative
note.
Keywords: evaluation, preschoolers, educational process

Introduction:
« Si je voulais réduire toute psychopédagogie à un seul principe, je dirais : ce qui
influence le plus l'apprentissage, ce sont les connaissances qu'ils possèdent au moment de
leur départ. Assurez-vous qu'il le sait et instruisez-le en conséquence ! » (R.Ausubel,
1981)
Vu d'un point de vue personnel, l'évaluation est une composante de toute action
humaine qui vise à atteindre des résultats, d'où la nécessité de déterminer dans quelle
mesure les résultats proposés ont été effectivement obtenus.
Le processus d'évaluation nous permet de tirer des conclusions à un moment
donné, à partir d'une action en cours à l'aide d'un certain outil d'évaluation, nous pouvons
déterminer comment nous nous rapportons au point que nous avons voulu atteindre.
Dans un contexte plus large, l'évaluation se concentre sur l'efficacité, considérée
comme une composante essentielle de l'acte d'instruction et d'éducation. Évaluer, suppose
d'abord d'identifier dans quelle mesure les objectifs proposés ont été atteints, ainsi que
d'identifier l'efficacité des méthodes utilisées dans l'acte d'enseignement-apprentissage, à
l'aide de ces résultats l'activité peut être améliorée en temps voulu temps. Cependant, le
processus d'évaluation ne cible pas seulement l'enfant d'âge préscolaire mais aussi
l'éducateur, à travers l'évaluation, l'enseignant reçoit des commentaires sur l'efficacité de
l'activité d'enseignement, démontre à quel point il communique avec les enfants d'âge
préscolaire et l'utilité des méthodes utilisées dans le processus d'enseignement.

* Université de Pitești, [email protected]

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 En ce qui a trait aux méthodes d'évaluation utilisées au préscolaire, la perspective
de l'auteur est qu'elles font largement appel à la créativité de l'enseignant, à l'efficacité du
processus de communication ainsi qu'à la prise en compte par l'éducatrice des
changements majeurs concernant l'organisation et la structure du processus
d'enseignement.

Le contenu de la dissertation
Afin de mettre en évidence et de cristalliser le concept d'« évaluation », il est
nécessaire de consulter la littérature spécialisée et d'identifier la place du processus
d'évaluation dans l'approche didactique. L'argumentation théorique du processus
d'enseignement-apprentissage-évaluation, du point de vue de l'auteur Ioan Radu analysé
dans l'ouvrage « Modern Didactiques », il mentionne qu'il est nécessaire que l'analyste
puisse répondre aux cinq questions suivantes :
- Comment s'organisent les séquences pédagogiques ?
- Que doit apprendre l'élève ?
- Pourquoi apprend-il ?
- Comment apprend-il ?
- Combien apprennent-ils ?
Les questions ci-dessus mettent en évidence le fait que chaque composante du
processus éducatif doit être analysée séparément et individuellement. L'acte pédagogique
est impliqué dans les deux premières questions, les causes de l'action pédagogique et la
motivation du préscolaire pour l'acte pédagogique sont incluses dans la troisième
question, la quatrième question concerne la manière dont les activités sont réalisées et la
dernière question se réfère à l'acquisition de compétences et de connaissances. Comme
on peut le voir aussi bien dans l'approche didactique que dans la littérature spécialisée,
les trois activités respectivement enseignement, apprentissage, évaluation sont dans un
lien étroit mais aussi dans une relation d'interdépendance continue et nécessaire. Aux
objectifs initialement proposés, efficace pour le processus éducatif. En ce qui concerne le
positionnement du processus d'évaluation dans le développement de l'activité instructive-
éducative, il se situe à la fin d'une succession d'événements qui consistent à : établir des
objectifs pédagogiques dans la perspective des comportements souhaitables des
apprenants, concevoir des objectifs, mesurer des résultats.
L'auteur I.T. Radu définit le processus d'évaluation comme : « le processus destiné
à mesurer et à apprécier la valeur des résultats du système éducatif ou d'une partie de
celui-ci, l'efficacité des ressources, des conditions et des opérations utilisées dans la
réalisation des activités, en vue de prendre des décisions sur l'amélioration dans les
prochaines étapes» (1981). En résumant ces notes de définition, on peut affirmer que le
processus d'évaluation ne met pas seulement en évidence une simple constatation des
résultats, mais analyse également le processus qui les a produits.
L'auteur R.W. Tyler mentionne que l'acte évaluatif, quelle que soit sa structure,
passe par certaines étapes (Nicola, 1994, p. 332) :
1. définir et connaître à l'avance les objectifs du processus éducatif,
2. créer des situations d'apprentissage pour permettre aux élèves d'atteindre les
comportements que ces objectifs impliquent,
3. mener le processus d'enregistrement et de mesure,
4. évaluation et analyse des données
5. conclusions et évaluations diagnostiques basées sur les données obtenues.
L'auteur mentionné ci-dessus indique également que le processus d'évaluation
comporte trois opérations principales : la mesure, l'évaluation et la décision.

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 La première opération consiste à appliquer des tests par lesquels l'éducateur
identifie les résultats de l'acte éducatif, l'évaluation consiste à émettre des conclusions sur
les résultats obtenus et la décision consiste à exprimer les résultats obtenus après
interprétation, du processus éducatif.
Pour que le processus d'évaluation soit efficace, il est nécessaire d'utiliser des
méthodes d'évaluation, elles sont classées en : méthodes d'évaluation traditionnelles (tests
écrits, fiches de tâches) ; tests oraux et pratiques et méthodes d'évaluation alternatives
(travaux pratiques, portfolios avec des travaux d'enfants, évaluations verbales, auto-
évaluation, enseignement, jeux de rôle et célébrations, observations directes /
systématiques pendant l'activité et l'enregistrement ; discussions individuelles ; affichage
des travaux ; graphique enregistrement des résultats sur les domaines expérientiels). En
matière d'enseignement des langues, les épreuves orales sont les plus utilisées en
maternelle. De par la souplesse de leur structure ils permettent l'interaction directe de
l'éducateur avec les enfants, les questions peuvent varier en fonction de la qualité des
réponses, l'avantage des épreuves orales est qu'elles permettent à l'enfant de formuler des
réponses libres sans justification qui peuvent identifier le potentiel de l'enfant et les
informations assimilées. Un processus pédagogique complet et une évaluation efficace
allient méthodes traditionnelles et alternatives. Afin de favoriser l'éducation du
comportement verbal des enfants d'âge préscolaire, il est nécessaire que l'activité
éducative se fasse de manière à ce qu'ils soient stimulés et participatifs aux activités, tant
verbalement que mentalement. Compte tenu de la complexité de l'acte pédagogique de
culture du langage et de la langue à travers le processus éducatif, il est nécessaire
d'illustrer, avec les objectifs sur lesquels nous nous sommes concentrés, l'activité
d'enrichissement du vocabulaire et de formation d'un comportement verbal des enfants
d'âge préscolaire.
Ces objectifs sont :
• perception et prononciation claires de tous les sons et groupes de sons de la
langue roumaine, intégrés dans les mots ;
• augmenter la dot lexicale et activer de nouvelles acquisitions ;
• plastification de l'expression par sélections synonymes, groupes antonymes et
différenciations homonymes ;
• l'utilisation de mots et d'expressions apprises, de manière créative, dans des
combinaisons et des combinaisons personnelles, la culture de l'habitude d'une
utilisation correcte de la langue roumaine.
Ainsi, toute l'expérience instructive et éducative de la maternelle atteste de la
possibilité et de l'utilité de cultiver la langue orale, en lien étroit avec le développement
de la parole, en effectuant des exercices de prononciation et d'expression. L'accent
principal à cet égard est mis sur les activités de communication, le dialogue libre, sur la
formation des compétences d'expression ordonnée de la pensée, de l'acquisition
progressive de la structure grammaticale de la langue. Les objectifs établis pour chaque
activité indiquent la méthode de base, les voies et les modalités qui peuvent être utilisées.
Bien entendu, ces délimitations ne doivent pas être prises dans l'absolu. Habituellement,
au sein d'une même activité, certaines méthodes alternent pour des raisons bien connues.
Ainsi, on sait que l'observation d'objets ou la lecture après images sont corrélées à la
conversation. Une des activités qui enrichit et active le vocabulaire est l'observation. Avec
son aide, l'enfant d'âge préscolaire forme des représentations sur les objets et les
phénomènes du monde objectif, avec leur assimilation avec les relations dans lesquelles
ils se trouvent ; verbalise les résultats de l'observation, s'exprime dans des termes
appropriés au contenu cognitif, fixe dans son vocabulaire une terminologie spécifique.

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 Les activités de mémorisation ont pour objectifs dominants à la fois le
développement de la capacité de mémorisation de certains contenus informationnels et de
certaines structures lexicales et grammaticales spécifiques. Les conversations sont des
activités visant à entraîner la capacité de participer à un dialogue limité à deux personnes,
puis démultiplié, et les jeux didactiques visent à évaluer les progrès des enfants dans les
acquisitions lexicales. Après une exposition libre ou après une lecture, ce sont les
histoires.
Le rôle de l'éducateur est de proposer aux enfants, en fonction de leur âge, les
activités qui captent leur intérêt, d'éveiller leur besoin de s'exprimer par le moyen
d'expression le plus précis, le langage verbal. Les enfants savent bien parler, les sons les
amusent, mais ils pèsent leur rôle.
Le problème du langage à l'âge préscolaire a fait l'objet de nombreuses études et
recherches qui ont mis en évidence son importance dans la communication de l'enfant
avec les autres, dans l'activité de la connaissance, dans le développement des processus
mentaux et dans le développement du discours reproductif chez les processus de
communication avec les autres, de telle sorte que l'enfant puisse exprimer facilement ses
désirs, ses impressions, ses pensées, pour reproduire de manière intelligible, cursive et
logique une histoire, un conte connu, un événement ou un fait vécu, entendu des autres
ou imaginé par lui. Dans les activités d'éducation linguistique, dans les 3-4 années de
maternelle, il y a un développement et une amélioration de la langue d'un point de vue
phonétique, lexical et grammatical.
L'amélioration du langage des enfants d'âge préscolaire est d'une grande
importance, tant pour l'intégration des enfants à l'école que pour le développement de
toute la personnalité. Utilisant la langue comme moyen d'éducation : intellectuelle,
morale, esthétique, l'éducateur développe la parole nécessaire dans le processus de
communication et de connaissance de la vie environnante et en même temps perfectionne
leur expression, corrige la prononciation, enrichit le vocabulaire et aide les enfants à
acquérir pratiquement la structure grammaticale de la langue roumaine. La langue est un
moyen de conserver et de transmettre le trésor de la science et de la culture, c'est « le
premier grand poème d'un peuple » comme disait Lucian Blaga. Le préscolaire est une
période de réceptivité, de mobilité et de flexibilité mentale prédominante et intensive,
permettant de développer et d'améliorer le langage comme une nécessité pour préparer
l'enfant à l'école, à la vie.
Comment se déroule le processus d'évaluation au préscolaire
Les deux premières semaines de chaque année scolaire sont consacrées à la
collecte de données sur chaque enfant. Les méthodes par lesquelles l'enseignant effectue
cette tâche sont les suivantes :
- observer le petit dans différentes poses et actions dans lesquelles il est impliqué ;
- consigner les constatations dans le dossier psychopédagogique ;
- des dialogues fréquents avec les parents mais aussi avec l'enfant, afin d'identifier
les compétences.
Au cours de l'année scolaire, il y a une évaluation continue du niveau de
connaissances, l'enseignant se référant aux feuilles d'évaluation, à l'observation
quotidienne et à la cohérence, à travers des conversations, des tests et les produits des
activités. La durée d'observation de l'enfant suppose l'établissement d'un objectif,
l'élaboration d'un plan ainsi que l'enregistrement des résultats obtenus et leur
interprétation du point de vue pédagogique. La conversation a lieu entre l'éducateur et
l'enfant, elle se fait selon un plan de questions destiné à identifier une maîtrise des savoirs
imaginés. Le test fournit des données sur les caractéristiques psychophysiques dans

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différents domaines. L'étude des produits de l'activité permet d'enregistrer des données
sur : le développement des compétences, les intérêts, les motivations ainsi que les
compétences. Lors de celle-ci, sont pris en compte : les objets réalisés, les collages, les
peintures, les dessins, les maquettes.
A la fin de l'année scolaire, une évaluation détaillée et minutieuse des enfants est
réalisée afin de pouvoir élaborer le programme suivant, ou compléter les dossiers
psychopédagogiques nécessaires à l'accès à l'école primaire. À cette fin, une période de
deux semaines intitulée « évaluation finale » est établie. Chaque catégorie et type
d'activité a des formes et des méthodes spécifiques. Il existe un certain nombre de cahiers
des charges et de fiches d'évaluation indépendants qui peuvent être améliorés et
diversifiés. Celles-ci sont fréquemment identifiées dans le domaine des activités
mathématiques. Le développement du langage renvoie aux histoires, aux récits, aux
conversations, à la reconnaissance des scènes des histoires, à leur ordre chronologique, à
l'identification des objets, des finis, des choses.
Il est important qu'à la fin de chaque activité, les préscolaires pour améliorer leurs
résultats, se comportent selon les règles établies d'un commun accord. Ainsi, à travers
toutes ces formes d'évaluation et méthodes d'appréciation des résultats, les enfants de
maternelle deviennent peu à peu capables de s’autoévaluer, de découvrir ce qui a bien
fonctionné, correctement, quelles nouvelles acquisitions ils ont, mais aussi quelles
lacunes doivent être compensées. Les parents d'âge préscolaire pourront également
connaître les résultats de l'évaluation à travers des réunions régulières, des lettres
thématiques, à travers les enfants qui emporteront à la maison des dessins, des cartes, des
cartes de vœux, des peintures réalisées par eux, augmentant ainsi leur préoccupation pour
le mucus éducatif et le contenu informatif véhiculés par les éducateurs et s'attirant leur
soutien en tant que partenaires en éducation. Par conséquent, à travers l'évaluation,
l'éducatrice remplit sa noble mission de préparer l'enfant à une intégration
dysfonctionnelle à l'école, de suivre ce qui lui arrive et après avoir terminé la maternelle,
de fournir aux enseignants les données nécessaires pour poursuivre l'action instructive-
éducative à différents niveaux. En suivant les étapes d'une évaluation efficace et en
respectant ses exigences, c'est un moyen de moderniser le processus éducatif, ainsi que
d'accroître le rôle de l'éducation dans la formation de la personnalité.

Conclusions
Suite au débat sur le processus « d'évaluation » et sur les méthodes utilisées dans
le processus éducatif, on peut affirmer que l'activité d'évaluation doit être conçue comme
une activité commune aux éducateurs et aux enseignants, à l'issue de laquelle les deux
parties peuvent identifier où ils en sont par rapport à ce qu'ils se proposent de faire,
respectivement par rapport à la norme ou aux objectifs.
Bien qu'il soit difficile d'établir des tests de valeur égale ou proche pour tous les
apprenants, car les contenus d'apprentissage n'ont pas la même complexité et le même
degré de difficulté, dans l'élaboration des tests d'évaluation, cette exigence pédagogique
doit être prise en compte et formulé avec des valeurs tout aussi sensibles. L'exigence n'est
pas seulement de poser des questions faciles à certains enfants, mais aussi des questions
difficiles à d'autres. Par conséquent, les tests d'évaluation multi-questions qui sont dans
la même proportion pour toutes les matières sont préférables. Afin de créer une équité
entre les participants à l'acte d'évaluation, il est absolument nécessaire d'utiliser les mêmes
critères et la même unité de mesure pour tous les enfants.
La spécification de ces critères et exigences est une condition sine qua non dans
l'évaluation des performances scolaires. Pour la vérification et l'appréciation des résultats,

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la combinaison de plusieurs méthodes et techniques d'évaluation est une autre exigence
pédagogique importante car, grâce à cette combinaison, les évaluateurs se rapprochent de
la vérité et diminuent considérablement les erreurs d'évaluation. L'utilisation de plusieurs
méthodes amplifie les avantages et réduit les limites de chaque méthode appliquée
séparément.

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