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Preface
Welcome to the world of language mastery and effective
communication! “High School English Grammar” is a comprehensive and
thoughtfully crafted resource designed to empower high school students
with the essential skills needed to navigate the complexities of the
English language.
In today’s interconnected world, possessing a strong command of
English is more important than ever before. Whether it’s expressing
ideas clearly, crafting compelling essays, participating in meaningful
discussions, or simply understanding the nuances of written and spoken
language, proficiency in English opens doors to opportunities across
various domains.
This book, authored by Jeevan Behera, is the result of a passionate
endeavour to provide students with a clear and structured guide to
mastering English grammar. With a wealth of experience in language
education, the author understands the challenges that learners often
face when grappling with the intricacies of grammar rules, syntax, and
language conventions. This book aims to demystify these aspects and
make them accessible and engaging.

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Key Features:
1. Progressive Learning: The book is structured in a progressive manner, moving from the
fundamental concepts to more advanced topics. This step-by-step approach ensures
that learners can build a solid foundation before delving into more complex linguistic
structures.
2. Comprehensive Coverage: From parts of speech and sentence structure to tenses,
clauses, and punctuation, this book covers a wide array of grammar topics. Each topic
is explained concisely yet thoroughly, providing both theoretical insights and practical
examples.
3. Practical Examples: Learning grammar is most effective when accompanied by real-life
examples. This book integrates numerous examples and sample sentences to illustrate
each concept, making it easier for learners to apply their understanding to various
contexts.
4. Exercises: To reinforce learning, each chapter is accompanied by a variety of exercises,
ranging from simple multiple-choice questions to more challenging application-based
exercises. These exercises are designed to enhance comprehension and provide
opportunities for practice.
5. Clear Explanations: Complex grammar concepts are explained in a clear and accessible
language. The author employs relatable explanations that bridge the gap between
abstract rules and everyday language usage.
6. Usage Tips: Throughout the book, you will find valuable usage tips that go beyond
grammar rules. These insights shed light on common language pitfalls, helping learners
communicate effectively and avoid common mistakes.
7. Application to Writing: Effective communication involves not only understanding
grammar but also applying it to writing. This book offers guidance on how to
incorporate proper grammar into different forms of written expression, be it essays,
reports, or creative writing.
8. Appendices: The appendices provide quick references for irregular verbs, common
idiomatic expressions, and other useful language resources.
Whether you are a high school student seeking to improve your English language skills, this
book is here to guide you on your journey to language excellence. Remember, language is a
tool that empowers you to convey thoughts, share stories, and connect with others. By
engaging with the content of “High School English Grammar,” you are investing in your ability
to express yourself with confidence and precision.
Let’s embark on this enriching journey through the realms of English grammar together.
Here’s to your linguistic growth and successful communication endeavours!
Jeevan Behera
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 Contents
Chapters
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
2. PERSONS
3. GENDER AND ITS TYPES
4. CASE AND ITS TYPES
5. PARTS OF SPEECH
6. SENTENCE AND ITS TYPES
7. PHRASE
8. CLAUSE
9. Active And Passive Voice
10. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
11. TENSES
12. DEGREES OF COMPARISON

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

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Subject: The part which names the person, place or thing in a sentence is called a subject . The subject of
a sentence is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that performs the action or is being described in the
sentence.
Example 1: “John is studying for his exam.”
In this sentence, “John” is the subject because he is the one performing the action of studying.
Example 2: “The cat is sleeping.”
Here, “The cat” is the subject because it is the one being described as sleeping.

Predicate: The part which provides the information or tells about the subject in a sentence is called to be
predicate. The predicate of a sentence is the verb, verb phrase, or other elements that provide information
about the subject, such as what the subject is doing or its state.
Example 1: “Lisa is baking a cake.”
The predicate in this sentence is “is baking a cake,” which describes the action that Lisa is performing.
Example 2: “The house is painted in blue.”
In this sentence, “is painted in blue” is the predicate, as it describes the state of the house
Example 3: “He runs every morning.”
The predicate here is “runs every morning,” indicating the habitual action performed by “he.”
Example 4: “She is a talented musician.”
In this sentence, the predicate is “is a talented musician,” which provides information about the subject “she.”

2. PERSONS
In English grammar, the concept of persons refers to the different perspectives from which a sentence is
expressed. There are three persons in English: the first person, the second person, and the third person. Each
person represents a different point of view or role in a sentence. Here's a breakdown of the three persons:
First Person: The first person refers to the speaker or the group that includes the speaker. It is used when the
speaker is referring to themselves or including themselves in the statement.
Singular: "I" is used when speaking about oneself.
Example: "I am going to the store."
Plural: "We" is used when including oneself and others in the statement.
Example: "We are going to the store."
Second Person: The second person refers to the person or people being spoken to or addressed directly. It is
used when addressing someone or when referring to the listener.
Singular: "You" is used when addressing an individual.
Example: "You should come with me."
Plural: "You" is also used when addressing a group of people.
Example: "You all should come with me."
Third Person: The third person refers to someone or something that is being talked about or described. It is
used when the subject of the sentence is not the speaker or the listener.
Singular: "He," "She," "It," or a specific noun is used to refer to a single person or thing.
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 Example: "She is studying for her exams."
Plural: "They" is used to refer to multiple people or things.
Example: "They are going on vacation."

3. GENDER AND ITS TYPES

Gender comes from Latin genus, kind or sort.
You know that living beings are of either the male or the female sex. Now compare
The words in the following pairs:
Boy (Lion, Hero, Cock-sparrow)
Girl (Lioness, Heroine, Hen-sparrow)
What do you notice?
The first word of each pair is the name of a male animal. The second word of each pair is the name of a
female animal.
Genders are of four types in English Grammar:
(a) Masculine Gender : A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the Masculine Gender.
Example: Pronouns that specifically refer to male individuals or entities are considered to have masculine
gender such as; “He” (subject pronoun), “Him” (object pronoun) and “His” (possessive pronoun)
Nouns: Some nouns inherently refer to male beings and thus have masculine gender.
Examples include: Name of male individual, Man, boy, king, uncle, father, etc.
(b) Feminine Gender : A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the Feminine Gender.
Example : Pronouns like She ( Subject Pronoun), her (Object Pronoun/ Possessive Pronoun )
Nouns : Name of female individual, Woman, Girl, Queen, Aunt, Mother etc.
(c) Common Gender : A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the Common Gender
Example: Parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, relation, enemy, cousin, person, orphan, Student, baby,
monarch, neighbour, infant. It is usually denoted by the pronouns like “It” and “They”.
(d) Neuter Gender : A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (i.e., thing without life) is
Said to be of the Neuter Gender.
Example: Book, pen, room, tree [Neater means neither, that is, neither male nor female]
It will be thus seen that in Modern English the Gender of a noun is entirely a matter of Sex or the absence
of sex. It has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which determines Its gender in many other languages,
e.g., in Urdu where bagiche is masculine and lakri is Feminine.
Objects without life are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they were living beings. We then regard
them as males or females.
The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence;
As, The Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death,
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The sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.
The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and gracefulness;
as, The Moon, the Earth, Spring, Autumn, Nature, Liberty, Justice, Mercy, Peace, Hope, Charity.
The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.
Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.
Ways of Forming the Feminine of Nouns
There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:
1. By using an entirely different word; as
Masculine – Feminine
Bachelor – maid, spinster Boy – girl
Brother – sister Buck – doe
Bull (or ox) – cow Bullock – heifer
Cock – hen Colt – filly
Dog – bitch Drake – duck
Drone – bee Earl – countess
Father – mother Gander – goose
Gentleman – lady Hart – roe
Horse – mare Husband – wife
King – queen Lord – lady
Man – woman Monk (or friar) – nun
Nephew – niece Papa – mamma
Ram – ewe Sir – madam
Son – daughter Stag – hind
Uncle – aunt Wizard – witch
2. By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc) as,
Masculine – Feminine
Author – authoress Baron – baroness
Count – countess Giant – giantess
Heir – heiress Host – hostess
Jew – Jewess Lion – lioness Manager – manageress
Mayor – mayoress Patron – patroness Poet – poetess

[Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending]

Masculine – Feminine
Actor – actress Benefactor – benefactress
Conductor – conductress Enchanter – enchantress
Founder – foundress Hunter – huntress
Instructor – instructress Negro – negress
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Abbot – abbess Duke – duchess
Emperor – empress Prince – princess
Songster – songstress Tempter – temptress
Tiger – tigress Traitor – traitress
Waiter – waitress Master – mistress
Murderer – murderess Sorcerer – sorceress

Note:- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the masculine, and is the
only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
Masculine – Feminine
Hero – heroine Testator – testatrix
Czar – czarina Sultan – sultana
Signor – signora Fox – vixen
3. By placing a word before or after; as,
Masculine – Feminine
Grandfather – grandmother Great uncle – great aunt
Manservant – maidservant Landlord – landlady
Milkman – milkwoman Peacock – peahen
Salesman – saleswoman Washerman – washerwoman

4. CASE AND ITS TYPES

In English grammar, a “case” refers to the grammatical category that marks the relationship between nouns,
pronouns, and adjectives with other words in a sentence. Cases help indicate the roles these words play
within the sentence’s structure. While English doesn’t have a complex case system like some other languages
(e.g., Latin or Russian), it still employs case distinctions, primarily through the use of word order and
prepositions. There are three main cases in English:
(a) Nominative Case (Subjective Case): The nominative case is used for the subject of a sentence or
clause, as well as for predicate nominatives (the noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and
renames the subject). Nouns and pronouns in the nominative case typically perform the action of the
verb or are associated with a state of being. Examples include:
She is a teacher. (Subject)
He is the winner. (Predicate nominative)

(b) Objective Case: The objective case is used for the object of a verb or preposition. There are two types
of objects: direct objects and indirect objects. The objective case is also used for pronouns that serve
as the object of a verb or preposition.
Examples : They visited her yesterday. (Direct object)
He gave the book to me. (Indirect object)

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 The ball hit him. (Object of a preposition)
(c) Possessive Case: The possessive case indicates ownership or possession. It is typically formed by
adding an apostrophe and an “s” (‘s) to nouns or pronouns.
Examples : John’s car is parked outside.
This is my book.

5. PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech are categories that classify words based on their grammatical function and role within a
sentence. They help to categorize and identify the various types of words in a language. These words are
called to be the basic building blocks of a constructive sentence. There are nine parts of speech as per the
modern English Grammar.

(A) Noun:
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. It is one of the fundamental parts of speech in
English. Nouns can be further classified into several types based on their characteristics and usage. Here are
the main types of nouns:
Proper Nouns: Proper nouns are used to name specific people, places, or things. They always begin with a
capital letter.

Examples : “John” (person’s name), “London” (city name), “Eiffel Tower” (specific landmark) etc.
Common Nouns: Common nouns are used to name general or nonspecific people, places, or things. They do
not begin with a capital letter unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples : “dog” (animal), “book” (object), “city” (place) etc.
Concrete Nouns: Concrete nouns are used to name things that can be perceived by the senses (sight, hearing,
touch, taste, smell). They represent tangible objects.
Examples : “table”, “apple”, “car” etc.
Abstract Nouns: Abstract nouns are used to name ideas, concepts, qualities, or states that cannot be
perceived by the senses. They represent intangible things.

Examples: “love”, “happiness”, “freedom”

Collective Nouns: Collective nouns are used to refer to a group or collection of individuals or things. They are
singular in form but represent multiple entities.
Examples : “team”, “family”, “herd”, Army, Jury etc.

Countable Nouns: Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted and have both singular and plural
forms.
Examples : “cat” (singular), “cats” (plural), “book” (singular), “books” (plural) etc.

Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be easily counted or are considered as
a whole. They do not have a plural form.

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Examples : “water”, “knowledge”, “milk”, “water”, “honey”, “furniture” etc.
Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns show ownership or possession. They are formed by adding an
apostrophe and “s” (‘s) to the end of a noun.

Examples : “John’s car”, “the dog’s tail”, “the company’s logo”

Material Nouns: Material nouns refer to substances or materials from which things are made. They represent
the raw materials used in the creation or construction of objects. Here are some examples of material nouns:
Examples: Wood, Metal: (Iron, Steel, Copper, Aluminium, Silver, Gold etc.), Glass, Plastic, Paper, Cotton,
Leather, Clay, Stone, wool etc.
These are the main types of nouns in English grammar. Understanding the different types of nouns can help
in sentence construction and grammatical accuracy.

(B) Pronoun(s)

Pronouns are a category of words that are used to replace nouns or noun phrases in a sentence. They help
avoid repetition and make the language more concise. Pronouns can refer to people, objects, places, animals,
or ideas. There are several types of pronouns:
Personal Pronouns: Personal pronouns refer to specific people or things. They can be categorized into three
groups based on their role in the sentence:
Subject pronouns: Used as the subject of a sentence.
Examples : “I,” “you,” “he,” “she,” “it,” “we,” and “they.”

Object pronouns: Used as the object of a verb or preposition.

Examples : “me,” “you,” “him,” “her,” “it,” “us,” and “them.”
Possessive pronouns: Show ownership or possession.
Examples : “mine,” “yours,” “his,” “hers,” “its,” “ours,” and “theirs.”

Demonstrative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to point to specific things or people.
Examples : “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.”
Reflexive Pronouns: These pronouns are used when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same
person or thing. They end in “-self” or “-selves.”

Examples : “myself,” “yourself,” “himself,” “herself,” “itself,” “ourselves,” “yourselves,” and “themselves.”
Interrogative Pronouns: Used to ask questions.
Examples : “who,” “whom,” “whose,” “which,” and “what.”

Relative Pronouns: Used to connect clauses or phrases to a noun or pronoun.

Examples : “who,” “whom,” “whose,” “which,” and “that.”
Indefinite Pronouns: These pronouns refer to non-specific or unidentified people or things.
Examples: “someone,” “anyone,” “everyone,” “something,” “anything,” “nothing,” “all,” “both,” “few,”
“many,” “none,” “some,” “any,” “each,” and “several.”
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Possessive Determiners: Also known as possessive adjectives, these pronouns indicate ownership before a
noun.
Examples : “my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “its,” “our,” and “their.”

Reciprocal Pronouns: These pronouns are used to indicate a mutual action or relationship between two or
more people or things.
Examples : “each other” and “one another.”
These are the main types of pronouns in English. Understanding their usage and function can help in
constructing clear and concise sentences.

(C) Verb and its types

Verbs are words that express actions, events, or states of being in a sentence. They are often considered the
central part of a sentence and convey the main idea or action. Verbs can be classified into several types based
on their functions and forms:
1. Action Verbs: These verbs describe physical or mental actions. They can be further categorized into:
2. Transitive Verbs: Verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning.
For example, “She ate an apple.”
3. Intransitive Verbs: Verbs that do not require a direct object. For example, “He laughed.”

4. Linking Verbs: These verbs connect the subject of a sentence with a noun, pronoun, or adjective that
renames or describes it. The most common linking verb is “to be” (is, am, are, was, were).
For example, “She is a teacher.”
5. Helping Verbs: Also known as auxiliary verbs, these verbs assist the main verb in expressing tense, mood,
voice, or aspect. Some common helping verbs include “is,” “are,” “am,” “was,” “were,” “have,” “has,” “had,”
“do,” “does,” “did,” “can,” “could,” “will,” “would,” “shall,” “should,” “may,” “might,” and “must.”
For example, “He is studying for the exam.”
6. Modal Verbs: Modal verbs are a subset of helping verbs that express possibility, necessity, ability,
permission, or obligation. They include “can,” “could,” “may,” “might,” “shall,” “should,” “will,” “would,”
“must,” “ought to,” and “need to.”
For example, “She can speak English fluently.”
7. Regular Verbs: These verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding “-ed” or “-d” to the base
form. For example, “walk” becomes “walked,” “talk” becomes “talked.”

8. Irregular Verbs: These verbs do not follow the regular pattern of adding “-ed” or “-d” to form the past
tense and past participle. They have unique forms. For example, “go” becomes “went,” “eat” becomes “ate,”
“drink” becomes “drank.”
9. Phrasal Verbs: Phrasal verbs are formed by combining a verb with one or more particles (prepositions or
adverbs). The meaning of the phrasal verb is often idiomatic and different from the individual meanings of
its components. For example, “turn off,” “give up,” “take on.”

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10. Finite Verbs: These verbs show tense, number, and person agreement with the subject of a sentence.
They can function as the main verb or a helping verb. For example, in the sentence “She sings beautifully,”
“sings” is the finite verb.

11. Non-finite Verbs: These verbs do not show tense, number, or person agreement. They include infinitives,
gerunds, and participles. For example, “to sing” (infinitive), “singing” (gerund), “sung” (past participle).
These are some of the main types of verbs in English. Understanding their functions and forms can help in
constructing grammatically correct and meaningful sentences.

(D) Adverb:
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They provide additional information about
how, when, where, or to what extent an action is performed or an attribute is described. Here are some types
of adverbs:
1. Adverbs of Manner: These adverbs describe how an action is performed.
Examples: slowly, quickly, beautifully, loudly, carefully
Sentence:
a) She sings beautifully.
b) He ran quickly to catch the bus.
c) The baby slept peacefully.
d) They danced joyfully at the party.

2. Adverbs of Time: These adverbs indicate when an action takes place.

Examples: now, later, soon, , always, often, yesterday, tomorrow
Sentence:
a) I will meet you later.
b) She arrived early for the meeting.
c) They visited their grandparents yesterday.
d) We always go for a walk in the evening.

3. Adverbs of Place: These adverbs indicate where an action takes place.

Examples: here, there, everywhere, inside, outside
Sentence:
a) The dog is sleeping outside.
b) Please come inside.
c) The children played happily there.
d) The keys are somewhere in the house.

4. Adverbs of Frequency: These adverbs express how often an action is performed.

Examples: always, never, often, sometimes, rarely
Sentence:
a) He rarely goes to the gym.
b) She always brushes her teeth before bed.
c) They sometimes eat breakfast together.

5. Adverbs of Degree: These adverbs indicate the intensity or extent of an action or quality.
Examples: very, quite, extremely, completely, hardly
Sentence:
a) The movie was very entertaining.
b) He was quite tired after the long journey.
c) She completely understood the instructions.
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 d) They hardly ever go out at night.

6. Adverbs of Purpose: These adverbs indicate the reason or purpose behind an action.
Examples: to, for, so, in order to
Sentence:
a) She studied hard to pass the exam.
b) They went to the store to buy groceries.
c) He exercises regularly for better health.
d) She sings to express her emotions.

7. Adverbs of Certainty: These adverbs express the level of certainty or doubt about an action or
statement.
Examples: definitely, surely, probably, maybe, certainly
Sentence:
a) They will probably arrive on time.
b) I certainly hope so.
c) Maybe we should go for a walk.
d) He is surely the best candidate.

8. Interrogative Adverbs: These adverbs are used to ask questions about manner, time, place, or
frequency.
Examples: how, when, where, how often
Sentence:
a) When did you arrive?
b) Where did they go for vacation?
c) How often do you exercise?
d) How did she complete the task?

9. Relative Adverbs: These adverbs connect a dependent clause to the main clause and indicate time,
place, or reason.
Examples: where, when, why
Sentence:
a) I remember the day when we first met.
b) This is the place where they got married.
c) Do you know the reason why he left?

10. Conjunctive Adverbs: These adverbs connect independent clauses and show relationships such as
contrast, cause and effect, or addition.
Examples: however, therefore, furthermore, nevertheless
Sentence:
a) She worked hard; however, she didn't succeed.
b) I wanted to go; therefore, I bought the tickets.
c) We have a busy schedule; nevertheless, we will find time to relax.
d) I enjoy playing basketball; furthermore, it helps me stay fit.
(E) Adjective:
Adjectives are words that modify or describe nouns or pronouns. They provide additional information about
the noun or pronoun, such as its quality, quantity, size, colour, or opinion. Adjectives help make sentences
more descriptive and provide more details. Here are some types of adjectives:

1. Descriptive Adjectives: These adjectives describe the characteristics or qualities of a noun. They
provide more information about the noun's appearance, colour, size, shape, or nature.
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 Examples : "beautiful," "tall," "round," "red," and "friendly."
Sentence:
a) The beautiful sunset painted the sky with vibrant colours.
b) I saw a tall man walking down the street.
c) She picked up a round, shiny pebble from the beach.
d) My favourite colour is red because it is bold and energetic.
e) The friendly dog wagged its tail and greeted everyone.

2. Demonstrative Adjectives: These adjectives indicate the specific noun being referred to. They point
out or demonstrate the noun's position in relation to the speaker or the listener.
Examples : "this," "that," "these," and "those."
Sentence:
a) This book is fascinating; you should read it.
b) That house on the corner looks abandoned.
c) These cupcakes are delicious.
d) Those shoes are stylish; I want to buy them.

3. Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives indicate ownership or possession. They show that something
belongs to a person or thing.
Examples : "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," and "their."
Sentence:
a) My car is parked in the driveway. e) Our team won the championship.
a) Is this your pen? f) Their garden is blooming with flowers.
a) His backpack is full of books.
b) Her house is beautifully decorated.
4. Quantitative Adjectives: These adjectives express the quantity or amount of a noun. They answer the
question "how much" or "how many."
Examples : "few," "many," "some," "several," "all," "no," "each," "every," and "much."
Sentence:
a) There are few apples left in the basket.
b) Many people attended the concert.
c) Can you pass me some sugar, please?
d) Several birds were perched on the tree.
e) All students should submit their assignments by tomorrow.
f) Each student received a certificate of achievement.
5. Numeral Adjectives: These adjectives indicate the exact number or order of a noun. They can be
either cardinal (e.g., "one," "two," "three") or ordinal (e.g., "first," "second," "third").
Sentence:
a) I have three cats as pets.
b) This is the first time I've visited this city.
c) The second book in the series is the most exciting.

6. Interrogative Adjectives: These adjectives are used to ask questions about a noun. They modify a
noun and introduce a question.
Examples : "which," "what," "whose," and "whose."
Sentence:
a) Which dress do you prefer, the red one or the blue one?
b) What book are you reading?
c) Whose phone is ringing?

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 7. Indefinite Adjectives: These adjectives are used to refer to nonspecific or unidentified nouns. They
do not point to a particular noun but indicate a general sense.
Examples : "some," "any," "several," "many," "few," "each," "every," "all," and "no."
Sentence:
a) Can I have some ice cream, please?
b) Any help would be appreciated.
c) Several people attended the meeting.
d) Many students participated in the science fair.
e) Each student should complete the assignment individually.
f) All dogs must be on a leash in the park.
g) No pets are allowed inside the building.
8. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives: These adjectives are used to compare or show degrees of
comparison between two or more things. Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things,
while superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two things.
Examples : "bigger," "more beautiful," "happiest," and "most intelligent."
Sentence:
a) This flower is more beautiful than that one.
b) She is taller than her brother.
c) He is the happiest person I know.
d) This is the most intelligent student in the class.

(F) Preposition:
These examples showcase how different types of adjectives are used to provide additional information and
enhance the descriptions of nouns in sentences.
A preposition is a word that establishes a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other elements in a
sentence. It shows the position, location, time, manner, or direction of an action or object. Here are some
types of prepositions:
1. Simple Prepositions: These prepositions consist of a single word.
Examples: in, on, at, under, above, below, beside, between, among, through
Sentence:
a) The book is on the table.
b) She lives in New York.
c) The cat is hiding under the bed.
d) The plane flew above the clouds.

2. Compound Prepositions: These prepositions are formed by combining two or more words.
Examples: in front of, on top of, because of, due to, in spite of, according to
Sentence:
a) The restaurant is in front of the park.
b) The keys are on top of the shelf.
c) He did it because of his love for music.
d) In spite of the rain, they continued the game.
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3. Prepositions of Time: These prepositions indicate when an action takes place.
Examples: at, on, in, during, for, since, before, after
Sentence:
a) He arrived at 6 o'clock.
b) The party starts at 8 p.m.
c) They went on vacation during the summer.
d) I have been waiting for you since morning.
e) They will arrive before the concert begins.
4. Prepositions of Place/Location: These prepositions indicate where an action takes place.
Examples: in, on, at, under, above, below, beside, between, among, near
Sentence:
a) The cat is sitting on the chair.
b) The pen is in the drawer.
c) The painting hangs on the wall.
d) The cat jumped off the table.
e) They sat beside each other.

5. Prepositions of Direction: These prepositions indicate the direction of an action or movement.

Examples: to, from, into, out of, towards, through, across
Sentence:
a) They walked into the room.
b) They walked to the park.
c) She ran into the house.
d) He came out of the room.
e) They sailed across the ocean.
6. Prepositions of Manner: These prepositions indicate how an action is performed.
Examples: with, by, like, as
Sentence:
a) She played the guitar with skill.
b) She wrote the letter with a pen.
c) He plays the guitar like a professional.
d) The dog barked loudly, causing a commotion.
e) She ate the cake as if she hadn't eaten for days.
7. Prepositions of Cause/Reason: These prepositions indicate the cause or reason for an action or situation.
Examples: because of, due to, owing to, on account of
Sentence:
a) The match was cancelled due to bad weather.
b) They arrived late owing to heavy traffic.
c) The party was postponed on account of illness.

8. Prepositions of Agent: These prepositions indicate the agent or doer of an action.

Examples: by, with
Sentence:
a) The painting was created by an unknown artist.
b) The problem was solved with their assistance.
9. Prepositions of Condition: These prepositions indicate the condition or state in which something happens.
Examples: if, unless, provided that, in case, as long as, in spite of etc.
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 Sentence:
a) If it rains, we will stay indoors.
b) Unless you study, you won’t pass the exam.
c) You can borrow my car provided that you return it by tomorrow.
d) Take an umbrella in case it starts to rain.
e) You can use my laptop as long as you don’t damage it.
f) He succeeded in spite of the challenges.
These are some of the main types of prepositions in English. Prepositions help provide clarity and context by
establishing relationships between words and phrases in a sentence.

(G) Interjection :
Interjections are words or phrases that express strong emotions or sudden reactions. They are often used
independently and are not grammatically connected to the rest of the sentence. Here are some types of
interjections:
1. Joy:
Examples: Yay!, Hooray!, Wow!, Bravo!
Sentence:
a) Yay! We won the game!
b) Hooray! It’s my birthday!
c) Wow! What a beautiful sunset!
d) Bravo! That was an amazing performance!
2. Surprise:
Examples: Oh!, Ah!, Wow!, Oops!
Sentence:
a) Oh! I didn’t expect to see you here.
b) Ah! You scared me!
c) Wow! That’s a stunning dress!
d) Oops! I dropped my phone.

3. Approval:
Examples: Yes!, Great!, Awesome!, Well done!
Sentence:
a) Yes! You did a fantastic job.
b) Yes! I got accepted into the university.
c) Great! You did a fantastic job on the project.
d) Awesome! You won the competition.
e) Well done! You aced the exam.

4. Disapproval:
Examples: Oh no!, Ugh!, Yuck!, Bleh!
Sentence:
a) Oh no! I forgot my keys at home.
b) Ugh! I can’t believe I made that mistake.
c) Yuck! This food tastes terrible.
d) Bleh! I don’t want to eat broccoli.

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5. Greeting:
Examples: Hello!, Hi!, Hey!, Welcome!
Sentence:
a) Hello! How are you doing?
b) Hi! Nice to meet you.
c) Hey! Long time no see.
d) Welcome! Make yourself at home.

6. Farewell:
Examples: Goodbye!, Bye!, See you!, Take care!
Sentence:
a) Goodbye! See you tomorrow.
b) Bye! Take care of yourself.
c) See you later! Have a great day.
d) Take care! Drive safely.
7. Pain:
Examples: Ouch!, Ow!, Ah!, Yikes!
Sentence:
a) Ouch! That hurt.
b) Ow! I accidentally bumped my head.
c) Ah! I burned my finger.
d) Yikes! Be careful with that knife.
8. Surprise/Disbelief:
Examples: What?, No way!, Are you kidding me?, Seriously?
Sentence:
a) What? You won the lottery?
b) No way! I can’t believe it.
c) Are you kidding me? That’s unbelievable.
d) Seriously? I never saw that coming.

9. Agreement:
Examples: Yeah!, OK!, Alright!, Sure!
Sentence:
a) Yeah! Let’s go to the movies.
b) OK! I’ll meet you at the restaurant.
c) Alright! I understand what you’re saying.
d) Sure! I can help you with that.

10. Regret:
Examples: Alas!, Oh dear!, Sigh
Sentence:
a) Alas! I missed the train.
b) Oh dear! I forgot to bring my wallet.
c) Sigh, I wish things had turned out differently.

18
These examples showcase different types of interjections that express various emotions, reactions, greetings,
farewells, and more. Interjections add emphasis and convey the speaker’s feelings or thoughts in a concise
and direct manner.

(H) Conjunction:
A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence. It helps to join ideas,
show relationships, and indicate the logical connection between different parts of a sentence. Here are some
types of conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance.
Examples: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
Sentence:
a) I like coffee and she prefers tea.
b) He wanted to go out, but it started raining.
c) You can have cake or ice cream for dessert.
d) She neither laughed nor cried at the joke.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect a dependent clause (subordinate clause) to
an independent clause (main clause).
Examples: after, although, because, if, since, when, while
Sentence:
a) She went to bed early because she was tired.
b) After I finish my work, I will go for a walk.
c) Although it was cold, they still went swimming.
d) Because she studied hard, she aced the test.
e) If you need any help, feel free to ask.
3. Correlative Conjunctions: These conjunctions work in pairs to connect words, phrases, or clauses that
have a similar grammatical function.
Examples: either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also, such….that, so…..that, no
sooner…than, hardly…when, scarcely…when, barely…. When etc.
Sentence:
a) Either you come with us, or you stay here.
b) Either you come with us, or you stay here.
c) Neither the cat nor the dog made a sound.
d) Both my brother and I enjoy playing tennis.
e) Not only did he complete the project, but he also exceeded expectations.

4. Conjunctive Adverbs: These adverbs function as conjunctions and connect independent clauses.
Examples: however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, consequently
Sentence:
a) I studied hard; therefore, I passed the exam.
b) I studied hard; therefore, I passed the exam.
c) She loves to travel; however, she has limited vacation time.

19
 d) The movie wasn’t great; moreover, the acting was subpar.
e) I don’t agree with your decision; nevertheless, I respect it.
5. Subordinating Conjunctions of Time: These conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses that express
time.
Examples: when, while, before, after, since, until
Sentence:
a) I will call you when I reach home.
b) She sang while doing the dishes.
c) Before you go to bed, brush your teeth.
d) They have been friends since they were kids.
6. Subordinating Conjunctions of Place: These conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses that express
place.
Examples: where, wherever
Sentence:
a) Go wherever you want.
b) I will meet you at the café where we had our first date.

7. Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause/Reason: These conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses that

express cause or reason.
Examples: because, since, as, given that, for
Sentence:
a) She stayed indoors because it was raining.
b) Since you’re not feeling well, you should rest.
c) As it was getting late, we decided to leave.

9. Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition: These conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses that

express condition.
Examples: if, unless, provided that, in case
Sentence:
a) If you study hard, you will pass the test.
b) If you study hard, you will pass the test.
c) Unless you hurry, we will miss the train.
d) Provided that you finish your chores, you can go out.
10. Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison: These conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses that
express comparison.
Examples: as, than, as if, as though
Sentence:
a) She walks faster than I do.
b) He acted as if he didn’t care about the outcome.

(I) Determiner:
A determiner is a word or a group of words that introduces a noun or a noun phrase and provides information
about the specificity, quantity, or possession of the noun. It helps to clarify or limit the meaning of the noun.
Here are some types of determiners:

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l. Articles: Articles are a type of determiner that precede a noun to indicate its specificity or generalization.
There are three types of articles in English: definite article ( A or An) , indefinite article( The), and zero article.
Here’s an explanation of each type:

1. Definite Article (the): “The” is used to refer to a specific noun that is already known or has been mentioned
before. It indicates that the noun is unique or particular.
Examples:
a) The cat is sitting on the mat.
b) I saw the movie you recommended.
c) The book on the shelf is mine.
2. Indefinite Article (a/an): “A” is used before singular countable nouns that are nonspecific or unknown,
while “an” is used before singular countable nouns that begin with a vowel sound. They indicate that the
noun refers to any member of a general category.
Examples:
a) I bought a book from the store.
b) She is an actress in the new film.
c) I saw a cat in the garden.
d) An apple fell from the tree.
3. Zero Article: The zero article is used when no article is used before a noun. It indicates a general,
nonspecific, or plural meaning.
Examples:
a) Cats are playful animals.
b) I love eating ice cream.
II. Demonstratives: Demonstratives are words that indicate or point to specific people, objects, or ideas. They
are used to refer to something in relation to the speaker and the listener. There are four types of
demonstratives in English: “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.
Examples: this, that, these, those
a) This book belongs to me.
b) This book is really interesting.
c) I can’t believe this happened.
d) Look at that beautiful sunset.
e) That car belongs to my neighbour.
f) These flowers are so colourful.
g) I can’t find my keys. Have you seen these?
h) I like those shoes you’re wearing.
i) Those birds are nesting on the tree.
j) This car belongs to me.
k) That house is for sale.
l) These shoes are too small.
m) Those flowers are beautiful.

III. Possessives:

Possessives are words or grammatical constructions used to show ownership or possession. They indicate
that someone or something possesses or owns something else. There are three types of possessives in
English:
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1. Personal Possessive Pronouns: Personal possessive pronouns show possession by replacing a noun and
functioning as pronouns. They include “mine,” “yours,” “his,” “hers,” “ours,” and “theirs.”
Examples:
a) This book is mine.
b) Is this pen yours?
c) The house is theirs.
2. Possessive Adjectives: Possessive adjectives modify nouns to show ownership or possession. They include
“my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “its,” “our,” and “their.”
Examples:
a) My car is parked outside.
b) I like your new haircut.
c) Their house is beautiful.
d) Can I borrow your pen?
e) Her cat is very playful.
f) Their house is painted blue.
3. Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns are formed by adding an apostrophe and “s” (‘s) to a noun. They
indicate ownership or possession by a specific person or thing.
Examples:
a) John’s car is red.
b) The cat’s tail is fluffy.
c) The company’s profits have increased.
IV. Quantifiers: Quantifiers are words or phrases that provide information about the quantity or amount of
something. They help specify the scope or extent of a noun or noun phrase. Here are some types of
quantifiers:
1. Definite Quantifiers:
All: It refers to the entire or complete quantity.
Example:
All students must attend the meeting.
All students must submit their essays.
Every: It refers to each individual item or member of a group.
Example: Every child loves ice cream.
Each: It emphasizes individual members or items separately.
Example:
Each student received a certificate.
Each student should raise their hand.

2. Indefinite Quantifiers:
Some: It refers to an unspecified but positive quantity.
Example:
Some people enjoy hiking.

22
 I bought some apples from the market.
Any: It refers to an unspecified quantity or choice.
Example:
You can choose any colour you like.
Are there any books left?
Several: It refers to an indefinite but small number.
Example:
Several cars were parked outside.
3. Universal Quantifiers:
None: It indicates the absence or zero quantity.
Example: None of the students submitted their assignments.
Every: It includes all members or items in a group.
Example: Every student passed the exam.
Every child deserves an education.
Whole: It refers to the entire or complete quantity.
Example: He ate the whole cake.
4. Partitive Quantifiers:
Some: It indicates an unspecified but positive quantity.
Example: Can I have some water, please?
I bought some apples from the market.
Any: It refers to an unspecified quantity or choice.
Example: Is there any milk left in the fridge?
A lot of: It indicates a large quantity or number.
Example: She has a lot of friends.
Few: It indicates a small number or quantity.
Example : There are only a few apples left in the basket.
I have a few friends coming over for dinner.
She has few opportunities for career advancement.
Few students completed the assignment.
Both: It indicates two specific people or places or things together. Or It refers to two items or
individuals together.
Example: Both options are valid.
Both of my parents will be attending the graduation ceremony.
She enjoys both reading and writing.
I have both a cat and a dog as pets.
Many: It indicates a large number or quantity (often used with countable nouns).
There are many books on the shelf.
She has attended many conferences this year.
How many people are attending the event?

Much: It indicates a large quantity or amount (often used with uncountable nouns).
I don’t have much time to finish this project.
There isn’t much milk left in the fridge.
He doesn’t have much money to spend on vacation.
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V. Numbers or Numerals:
1. Cardinal Numbers: Cardinal numbers are used to count or indicate quantity. They answer the question
“How many?” Examples: one, two, three, four, five, etc. For larger numbers, cardinal numbers can also be
expressed in numerical form: 10, 20, 100, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers: Ordinal numbers are used to indicate the order or position of something in a series or
sequence. They answer the question “What order?” Examples: first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. Ordinal
numbers are formed by adding the suffix “-th” to the corresponding cardinal number: tenth, twentieth,
hundredth, etc.
Examples: one, two, three, first, second, third
Sentence:
a) I have three cats as pets.
b) She was the first person to arrive.
c) The second chapter is quite interesting.
VI. Interrogatives: Interrogative determiners are used to form questions and introduce interrogative noun
phrases. They help specify which person or thing is being asked about. The main interrogative determiner in
English is “which,” although “what” can also function as an interrogative determiner in some cases. Here are
examples of interrogative determiners in use:
Which:

Which book do you recommend?

Which team won the game?
Which movie did you watch last night?
Which colour do you prefer, blue or green?
What (as an interrogative determiner):

What time is it?

What book are you reading?
What car did he buy?
What movie did they watch?
What time is the meeting?
Whose: (As a possessive interrogative determiner)
Whose bag is this?
In these examples, the interrogative determiners “which” and “what” are used to introduce a noun phrase
that seeks specific information or a choice from a range of options. They modify the noun and help form the
question.
Interrogatives (Wh) also known as interrogative words or question words, are used to ask questions and seek
information. They are essential in generating inquiries and gathering specific details. Here are some common
interrogatives and their examples:

Who: Used to ask about a person or people.

24
Who is your best friend?
Who won the race?
What: Used to ask about things, actions, or ideas.

What is your favourite colour?

What are you doing tomorrow?
When: Used to inquire about time or an occasion.
When is the meeting scheduled?

When did you arrive at the airport?

Where: Used to ask about a location or place.
Where is the nearest grocery store?
Where did you go on vacation?

Why: Used to inquire about the reason or cause.

Why are you upset?
Why did you choose that career path?
How: Used to ask about the manner, method, or way something is done.
How did you solve the problem?

How are you feeling today?

Which: Used to seek a choice or selection among options.
Which book do you recommend?
Which team won the match?

Whose: Used to ask about possession or ownership.

Whose car is parked outside?
Whose idea was it to go hiking?
Whom: Used to ask about the object of a verb or preposition.

Whom did you invite to the party?

With whom are you going to the concert?
How many: Used to ask about quantity or number.
How many people attended the event?

VII. Exclamatives: Exclamative determiners ( What, Such, So, How, Quite, Rather) are words that
express strong emotions or surprise. They are used to make exclamatory statements or exclamations.
Here are some examples of exclamative determiners:
What:
What a beautiful sunset!
25
 What a clever idea!
What a delicious cake!
Such:
Such a lovely day!
Such a talented musician!
Such incredible talent!
So:
So many stars in the sky!
So much excitement in the air!
So delicious!
How:
How amazing the view is!
How thoughtful of you!
How delicious the food tastes!
Quite:
Quite a surprise!
Quite a challenge!
Quite an accomplishment!
Rather:
Rather an interesting movie!
Rather a difficult task!
These exclamative determiners are used to add emphasis and intensity to a statement, expressing strong
emotions such as admiration, surprise, joy, or appreciation. They are typically followed by a noun or noun
phrase and an exclamation mark to convey the exclamatory nature of the sentence.
VIII. Distributives: Distributives are words or phrases that emphasize individual members or items within a
group. They help to distribute or divide something among the members of a group. Here are some examples
of distributives:
Each: Emphasizes individual members of a group separately.
Each student received a certificate.
Each team member has a specific role.
Each student should complete the assignment.
Either choice is fine.
Every: Refers to each individual item or member of a group.
Every child loves ice cream.
Every employee must attend the meeting.
Every house on the street has a garden.
Either: Indicates one of two options or choices.
You can choose either the red or the blue shirt.
Either he comes with us, or he stays at home.
Neither: Indicates none of two options or choices.
Neither option is suitable for me.
Neither of the candidates received enough votes.
Neither option seems appealing.
Any: Refers to an unspecified quantity or choice.
You can take any seat you like.
26
 Do you have any questions?
Both: Emphasizes two items or individuals together.
Both of my parents will be attending the ceremony.
Both books are interesting in their own way.
All: Indicates the entire or complete quantity.
All students must submit their assignments.
All the chairs were occupied.
These distributives help specify how something is distributed, shared, or divided among the members of a
group. They are used to emphasize the individuality of each member or item within the group or to indicate
options or choices available. The choice of distributive depends on the context and the specific distribution
or division being referred to.

IX. Indefinite Determiners:

Indefinite determiners are a type of determiner that refer to non-specific nouns or an indefinite quantity.
They are used when we do not need to specify or identify a particular noun but rather refer to it in a general
or non-specific way. Here are the main types of indefinite determiners:
Some: Used to refer to an unspecified or non-specific quantity of something.
Example: Can I have some cookies?
Any : Used to refer to one or more unspecified items or to ask if there are any available.
Example: Do you have any questions?
Many: Used to refer to a large, indefinite quantity.
Example: Many people attended the event.
Few : Used to refer to a small, indefinite quantity.
Example: Few students completed the assignment.
Several : Used to refer to more than a few but not many.
Example: Several books were left on the table.
All : Used to refer to the entire quantity or every item in a group.
Example: All students must submit their assignments.
No one : Used to refer non-specific person.
Example: No one called me yesterday.
Most: Used to refer to the majority or the greatest part of something.
Example: “Most people enjoy traveling.”
None: Used to refer to no amount or zero quantity of something.
Example: None of the applicants met the requirements.
Each: Used to refer to every individual item or person in a group.
Example: Each student received a certificate.
Every: Used to refer to each and every item or person in a group.
Example: Every house on the street is painted.

6. SENTENCE AND ITS TYPES

Sentence: A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or idea. It typically consists of
a subject and a predicate.
Examples:
a) Latha sings a beautiful song.
27
 b) She is studying to become a doctor.
c) It is raining outside.
Here are the definitions and examples of different types of sentences:

I. Assertive or Declarative Sentence: An assertive or declarative sentence expresses a statement, fact,

information, belief or idea.
Types of assertive or declarative sentences:
Assertive or declarative sentences make statements or provide information. They express a fact, opinion,
belief, or observation. Here are some types of assertive or declarative sentences:
1. Simple Declarative Sentence: It consists of a subject and a predicate and makes a straightforward
statement.
Example: I like to read books.
2. Affirmative Declarative Sentence: It affirms or confirms something.
Example: The concert was fantastic.
3. Negative Declarative Sentence: It negates or denies something.
Example: I don't want to go to the party.
4. Descriptive Declarative Sentence: It provides description or details about something.
Example: The sky is clear and blue.
5. Explanatory Declarative Sentence: It explains or provides information about a subject.
Example: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight into energy.
6. Factual Declarative Sentence: It presents a factual statement or information.
Example: The Earth revolves around the Sun.
7. Opinion Declarative Sentence: It expresses an opinion or personal belief.
Example: In my opinion, the movie was disappointing.
8. Informative Declarative Sentence: It imparts knowledge or gives information.
Example: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
9. Scientific Declarative Sentence: It states a scientific fact or theory.
Example: Gravity is a force that attracts objects towards each other.
10. Historical Declarative Sentence: It provides information or facts about history.
Example: The American Revolution began in 1775.

Some more examples -

a) I love to read books.
b) The cat is sleeping on the mat.
c) I enjoy playing the piano.
d) The movie was fantastic.
e) The sun rises in the east.
f) The Earth revolves around the Sun.

II. Interrogative Sentence: An interrogative sentence asks a question. There are actually two major types of
interrogative sentences such as single interrogative and double interrogative sentences.

(1) Single interrogative: The sentence which begins with auxiliary verb to ask a question is called to be
single interrogative sentence. Auxiliary verbs like do, does, did, has, have, had, is am, are, was, were,
be etc. including modal auxiliaries are used.
Examples:
28
 a) Are you writing something?
b) Do you have a pen ?
(2) Double interrogative: The sentence which begins with 'Wh' words like what, when, where, which,
whose, how etc. to ask a question is called to be double interrogative sentence.
a) What are you writing?
b) When do you leave for school?
c) Who is your class teacher?

Some more examples together :

a) Did you finish your homework?
b) Have you finished your breakfast?
c) What time is the meeting?
d) Did you enjoy your vacation?
e) Can you help me with this problem?
f) Where is the nearest post office?
Types of interrogative sentences:
Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions and seek information. They are characterized by their
interrogative word order or the presence of a question word. Here are some types of interrogative sentences
with examples:
1. Yes/No Interrogative Sentence: It expects a simple "yes" or "no" answer.
Example:
a) Did you finish your homework?
b) Are you coming to the party?
c) Can I borrow your pen?
2. Wh- Interrogative Sentence: It begins with a question word (who, what, when, where, why, how, etc.) and
seeks specific information.
Example: "
a) What time does the train depart?
b) Who is your favourite author?
c) What time does the train arrive?
d) Where did you go for your vacation?
3. Choice Interrogative Sentence: It presents options and seeks a choice or preference.
Examples:
a) Would you like coffee or tea?
b) Do you prefer cats or dogs?
c) Should we go to the movies or stay home?

4. Tag Interrogative Sentence: It includes a tag question at the end to seek confirmation or agreement.
Example:
a) You have finished your report, haven't you?
b) We're going to the park, aren't we?
c) It's a beautiful day, isn't it?
5. Alternative Interrogative Sentence: It presents two or more alternatives and asks for a preference.

29
 Example:
a) Do you want to go to the beach or the park?
b) Should I wear the blue dress or the red one?
c) Do you want to eat pizza or pasta for dinner?
d) Are you going to study or relax this evening?
6. Disjunctive Interrogative Sentence: It expresses surprise, disbelief, or doubt.
Example:
a) You actually did that?
b) You did that on purpose, didn't you?
c) You really think I'm going to believe that?
d) You expect me to do all the work?
7. Rhetorical Interrogative Sentence: It asks a question for rhetorical effect without expecting an answer.
Example:
a) Can't you do anything right?
b) Do you think I was born yesterday?
c) Can't you see what you've done?
d) Isn't it obvious that I'm upset?
8. Indirect Interrogative Sentence: It is a question embedded within a larger sentence.
Example:
a) I wonder where she went.
b) She asked where I was going.
c) He wondered how they managed to solve the problem.
d) I'm not sure what time the meeting starts.
9. Inverted Interrogative Sentence: It has a verb-subject inversion, typically used in formal or written English.
Example:
a) Have you ever travelled abroad?
b) Did you hear about the new restaurant in town?
c) Can you believe what happened yesterday?
10. Polite Interrogative Sentence: It uses polite language to ask a question.
Example:
a) Would you mind passing me the salt, please?
b) Could you please help me with this task?
c) May I ask you a question
III. Imperative Sentence: An imperative sentence expresses a command, order, or makes a request.
Example:
a) Please pass me the salt.
b) Shut the door before you leave.
c) Be quiet during the presentation.
d) Clean your room before dinner.
Imperative sentences are used to give commands, make requests, or express instructions. They are
characterized by their imperative verb form or the absence of a subject. Here are some types of imperative
sentences with examples:
1. Direct Command:
a) Close the door quietly.
b) Please sit down.
30
 c) Stop talking and listen.
2. Polite Request:
a) Could you pass me the salt, please?
b) Would you mind turning off the lights?
c) Please help me with this heavy box.
3. Instruction:
a) Mix the ingredients thoroughly.
b) Read the instructions carefully before assembling.
c) Press the red button to start.
4. Warning:
a) Be careful with that glass; it's fragile.
b) Watch your step on the icy path.
c) Don't touch the hot stove.
5. Advice:
a) Take a deep breath and relax.
b) Get a good night's sleep before the exam.
c) Eat a balanced diet for better health.
6. Prohibition:
a) Don't smoke in this area.
b) Do not enter without permission.
c) No parking allowed.
7. Suggestion
a) Let's go for a walk in the park.
b) Why not try the new restaurant downtown?
c) How about watching a movie tonight?
8. Invitation:
a) Join us for dinner at our place.
b) Come to the party this Saturday.
c) Be our guest at the concert.
9. Verbal Cue:
a) Listen carefully to what I'm about to say.
b) Imagine a peaceful place in your mind.
c) Picture yourself achieving your goals.
10. Wish or Blessing:
a) Have a great day!
b) Enjoy your vacation!
c) May all your dreams come true.

IV. Exclamatory Sentence: An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion or surprise.

Examples:
a) What a beautiful sunset!
b) I can't believe I won the lottery!
c) Wow, that concert was amazing!
d) How delicious this cake tastes!
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 e) What a surprise party!
V. Optative sentence: An optative sentence expresses a wish, desire, hope or curse.
Examples:
a) May you have a wonderful birthday!
b) I wish I could travel the world.
c) Oh, that it would stop raining!
d) May all your dreams come true.
e) I hope you find happiness in your new job.
f) I curse you to never find happiness in your life.
g) May all your efforts be in vain and your dreams shattered.
h) I wish upon you eternal misery and despair.
VI. Conditional Sentence: A conditional sentence expresses a condition and its outcome.
Examples:
a) If it rains, we will stay indoors.
b) I will buy that dress if it goes on sale.
c) If you study hard, you will get good grades.
d) We can go to the beach if the weather is nice.
e) If I finish early, I will join you for dinner.
VII. Simple Sentence: A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
Examples:
a) She runs every morning.
b) The bird sings beautifully.
c) The sun is shining brightly.
d) I love chocolate ice cream.
e) They are going to the park. She sings beautifully.
VIII. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by
coordinating conjunctions.
Examples:
a) I went to the store, and I bought some groceries.
b) I like to swim, and my brother likes to hike.
c) She studied hard for the exam, but she still didn't pass.
d) The cat is sleeping, yet the dog is barking.
e) I want to travel to Europe, or maybe I'll go to Asia.

IX. Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
Examples:
a) She studied hard because she wanted to pass the exam.
b) After I finish my work, I will go for a walk.
c) She sings beautifully because she practices every day.
d) I will help you with your homework if you need assistance.

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 e) Since it's raining, we will stay indoors.
f) The book that I borrowed from the library was very interesting.
X. Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and
at least one dependent clause.
Examples :
a) I went to the store, and I bought some groceries, but I forgot to buy milk.
b) She was reading a book while her brother was watching TV, and their mother was cooking dinner.
c) Although I was tired, I stayed up late to finish my project, but I didn't complete it.
d) The students studied hard for the exam, so they were well-prepared, but the test was
unexpectedly difficult.
e) After the rain stopped, we went outside, and we played games, but it started raining again.

7. PHRASES:
Phrases are groups of words that work together as a unit but do not contain a complete subject and verb.
They serve various functions in a sentence and can be categorized into different types based on their
structure and role in the sentence. Here are some common types of phrases:
I. Noun Phrase: A noun phrase consists of a noun (or pronoun) and other words that modify or describe it. It
can function as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence.
Example:
a) The big blue car is parked outside.
b) The bright sun warmed the beach.
c) My younger brother loves to play soccer.
d) The tall oak tree provided shade in the park.
II. Verb Phrase: A verb phrase includes a main verb and any auxiliary verbs (also known as helping verbs) that
modify the main verb. It expresses an action or state of being.
Example:
a) She is writing a novel.
b) They have been studying all night.
c) We should have finished the project by now.
d) She will be studying abroad next semester.
III. Adjective Phrase: An adjective phrase consists of an adjective and other words (such as adverbs or other
adjectives) that modify or describe a noun or pronoun.
Example:
a) The book is very interesting.
b) The cake is deliciously moist.
c) He is extremely intelligent.
d) It was a beautiful sunny day.
IV. Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase comprises an adverb and other words that modify a verb, adjective, or
another adverb.
Example:
a) He ran very quickly.
b) She spoke very softly.
c) He runs quite slowly.
d) They worked incredibly hard.
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V. Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun,
known as the object of the preposition. It shows the relationship between the object and other parts of the
sentence.
Example:
a) She walked through the forest.
b) The keys are on the table.
c) They went to the beach for vacation.
d) The cat is under the table.
VI. Gerund Phrase: A gerund phrase starts with a gerund (a verb ending in “-ing” used as a noun) and includes
any modifiers or complements related to that gerund.
Example:
a) Running a marathon requires a lot of training.
b) Swimming in the pool is her favourite activity.
c) I enjoy reading novels in my free time.
d) His hobby is playing the guitar.
VII. Infinitive Phrase: An infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive verb (to + base form of the verb) and
includes any objects or modifiers related to that verb.
Example:
a) She wants to read the book.
b) She wants to become a doctor.
c) I need to finish my homework.
d) He loves to cook delicious meals.
VIII. Participial Phrase: A participial phrase starts with a present or past participle (a verb form ending in “-
ing” or “-ed” respectively) and includes any modifiers or complements related to that participle.
Example:
a) Exhausted from the journey, she went straight to bed.
b) Excited about the trip, they packed their bags.
c) Broken and shattered, the vase lay on the floor.
d) Smiling happily, she accepted the award.
IX. Appositive Phrase: An appositive phrase renames or provides additional information about a noun or
pronoun. It usually appears next to the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Example:
a) My friend Alex, a talented musician, played the guitar.
b) My sister, a talented artist, painted a beautiful mural.
c) The movie star, Tom Cruise, arrived at the premiere.
d) Our teacher, Ms. Johnson, is very knowledgeable.

8. CLAUSES
Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a predicate (verb) and can function as a sentence or
a part of a sentence. They are essential building blocks of sentences, and they can be classified into various
types based on their structure and purpose. Here are four examples of each type of clause:

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I. Independent Clauses : An independent clause is a complete sentence that can stand alone and express a
complete thought.
a) She loves to read novels.
b) They went to the park for a picnic.
c) I enjoy playing the guitar.
d) He studied hard for the exam.
II. Dependent Clauses (Subordinate Clauses): A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence and relies on an independent clause for meaning.
a) Because she loves to read novels, she spends a lot of time in the library.
b) When they went to the park for a picnic, the weather was perfect.
c) Although I enjoy playing the guitar, I haven’t practiced much lately.
d) After he studied hard for the exam, he felt confident.
III. Noun Clauses: A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence and can act as a subject, object, or
complement.
a) What she said made everyone laugh.
b) Where they went for the vacation is a beautiful place.
c) Whether he can come to the party is uncertain.
d) What he wants for his birthday remains a mystery.
IV. Adjective Clauses (Relative Clauses): An adjective clause provides more information about a noun or
pronoun in the sentence.

a) The book that I borrowed from the library is fascinating.

b) The person who won the competition was very talented.
c) The car which broke down on the highway has been repaired.
d) The house where they used to live is now vacant.

V. Adverb Clauses: An adverb clause functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb in the
main clause.
a) She sings beautifully when she is happy.
b) They will go hiking if the weather is nice.
c) He runs faster than I expected.
d) We’ll wait here until the train arrives.

VI. Conditional Clauses: A conditional clause expresses a condition that must be met for the main clause to
occur.
a) If it rains tomorrow, we’ll stay indoors.
b) Unless you study, you won’t pass the exam.
c) When he arrives, we’ll start the meeting.
d) Provided you finish the project on time, you’ll get a bonus.
Conditional clauses, also known as if-clauses, express a condition that must be met for another action or
result to occur. There are four main types of conditional clauses, each with its structure and examples:
Zero Conditional:
Structure: If + Present Simple, Present Simple
Example: If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
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First Conditional:
Structure: If + Present Simple, Will + base form of the verb
Example: If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.
Second Conditional:
Structure: If + Past Simple, Would + base form of the verb
Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
Third Conditional:
Structure: If + Past Perfect, Would have + Past Participle
Example: If she had studied harder, she would have passed the exam.
These conditional clauses are used to talk about different degrees of possibility and likelihood based
on specific conditions. They are essential in constructing complex sentences that express hypothetical
situations, predictions, and imagined outcomes.
Exercise : Rewrite the Sentences :
Type: First Conditional
1. He is careful, so he won’t make mistakes.
2. They have enough money, so they will buy a new car.
3. If she doesn’t hurry, she will miss the bus.
4. We finish early, so we can catch the movie.
5. If they save enough money, they will go on vacation.
Type: Second Conditional
1. I am not a chef, so I can’t cook gourmet meals.
2. If he had a map, he wouldn’t get lost.
3. We don’t have a telescope, so we can’t see the stars clearly.
4. If she spoke French, she would get a job in Paris.
5. He doesn’t exercise, so he can’t run a marathon.
Type: Third Conditional
1. She missed the train because she didn’t wake up on time.
2. If they had studied harder, they would have passed the test.
3. He lost the race because he tripped and fell.
4. If I had known about the party, I would have attended.
5. They didn’t invest in the company, so they didn’t make a profit.

Type: Zero Conditional

1. If you apply heat, ice melts.
2. When the sun sets, it gets dark.
3. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
4. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
5. Plants die if they don’t get sunlight.
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Note: For the exercises involving rewriting the sentences, the answers may vary based on individual creativity
and language preferences. The key is to maintain the correct conditional type in each rewrite.
VII. Relative Clauses (Restrictive Clauses): A relative clause provides essential information about the noun
it modifies and is usually introduced by relative pronouns.

a) The book that I borrowed from the library is fascinating.

b) The person who won the competition was very talented.
c) The car which broke down on the highway has been repaired.
d) The house where they used to live is now vacant.

VIII. Non-Relative Clauses (Non-Restrictive Clauses): A non-relative clause provides additional, non-essential
information about the noun it modifies and is usually set off by commas.
a) His brother, who is a doctor, visited him yesterday.
b) The concert, which was held in the park, was fantastic.
c) My favourite dessert, which is chocolate cake, is always a treat.
d) The movie, which I saw last night, was really entertaining.

9. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The basic rules for forming sentences in active voice and passive voice, along with some examples:
Active Voice:
In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb.
The structure of an active voice sentence is usually: Subject + Verb + Object.
Examples:
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 a) She wrote a letter. (Subject: She, Verb: wrote, Object: a letter)
b) The cat chased the mouse. (Subject: The cat, Verb: chased, Object: the mouse)
c) They built a house. (Subject: They, Verb: built, Object: a house)
Passive Voice:
In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb.
The structure of a passive voice sentence is usually: Object + Verb (past participle) + By + Subject (optional).
Examples:
a) A letter was written by her. (Object: A letter, Verb: was written, By: her)
b) The mouse was chased by the cat. (Object: The mouse, Verb: was chased, By: the cat)
c) A house was built by them. (Object: A house, Verb: was built, By: them)
Note: The "By" phrase is optional in passive voice sentences. It indicates the agent performing the action but
can be omitted if it's not necessary or unknown.
➢ Now, let's look at some general rules and transformations when converting active voice to passive
voice:
➢ The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
➢ The verb is changed to its corresponding past participle form.
The subject of the active sentence may become the agent in the passive sentence (introduced by "by"), but
it can also be omitted or replaced with a prepositional phrase.
Examples:
Active: They are building a bridge.
Passive: A bridge is being built (by them).
Active: She cooks delicious meals.
Passive: Delicious meals are cooked (by her).
Active: He wrote a book about history.
Passive: A book about history was written (by him).
Active: They have opened the new store.
Passive: The new store has been opened.
Remember that not all sentences can or should be converted to passive voice. The choice between active
and passive voice depends on the context and the emphasis you want to give to the subject or object of the
sentence.
Some more examples
a) Active: The chef prepares the meal.
Passive: The meal is prepared by the chef.
b) Active: John painted the picture.
Passive: The picture was painted by John.

c) Active: They will organize the event.

Passive: The event will be organized by them.
d) Active: The company awarded her a promotion.
Passive: She was awarded a promotion by the company.
e) Active: The teacher explained the lesson.
Passive: The lesson was explained by the teacher.
f) Active: We have booked the tickets.
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 Passive: The tickets have been booked by us.
g) Active: The storm destroyed the house.
Passive: The house was destroyed by the storm.
h) Active: They are conducting the experiment.
Passive: The experiment is being conducted by them.
i) Active: The team won the championship.
Passive: The championship was won by the team.
j) Active: The police arrested the suspect.
Passive: The suspect was arrested by the police.
Using different tenses (Active to Passive voice )

Simple Present:

a) A: He reads a book.
P: A book is read by him.
b) A : They play football every weekend
P: Football is played by them every weekend.
c) A: She speaks three languages fluently.
P: Three languages are spoken fluently by her.
Present Continuous:
a) A: We are watching a movie.
P: A movie is being watched by us.
b) A: The children are playing in the garden.
P: The garden is being played in by the children.
c) A: He is studying for his exams.
P: Studying is being done by him for his exams.

Present Perfect:
a) A: She has finished her assignment.
P: Her assignment has been finished.
b) A: They have visited Paris.
P: Paris has been visited by them.
c) A: He has won the competition.
P: The competition has been won by him.

Simple Past:
a) A: She wrote a letter.
P: A letter was written by her.
b) A: They visited their grandparents last summer.
P: Their grandparents were visited last summer.
c) A: He played the piano beautifully.
P: The piano was played beautifully by him.
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Past Continuous:
a) A: We were studying all night.
P: Studying was being done by us all night.
b) A: The team was practicing for the match.
P: Practice was being done by the team for the match.
c) A: She was cooking dinner when I arrived.
P: Dinner was being cooked by her when I arrived.

Past Perfect:
a) A: They had completed the project before the deadline.
P: The project had been completed before the deadline.
b) A: He had already eaten when I called him for dinner.
P: He had already eaten when he was called for dinner.
c) A: She had visited that city before.
P: That city had been visited by her before.
Simple Future:
a) A: He will buy a new car.
P: A new car will be bought by him.
b) A: They will attend the conference next week.
P: The conference will be attended by them next week.
c) A: She will complete her degree in two years.
P: Her degree will be completed in two years.
Future Continuous:
a) A: We will be traveling to Europe this summer.
P: Europe will be travelled to by us this summer.
b) A: The team will be practicing for the championship.
P: Practice will be done by the team for the championship.
c) A: She will be working on her thesis all night.
P: Her thesis will be worked on all night.

Future Perfect:
a) A: They will have finished the construction by next month.
P: The construction will have been finished by next month.
b) A: He will have completed his studies by the end of the year.
P: His studies will have been completed by the end of the year.
c) A: She will have achieved her goal by the age of 30.
P: Her goal will have been achieved by the age of 30.
Active and passive voice some more examples
Here are 30 sentences in active voice and passive voice each showcasing a different tense:

Simple Present: She reads a book.

Simple Present: A book is read by her.
Present Continuous: They are studying for the exam.

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Present Continuous: The exam is being studied for by them.
Present Perfect: He has finished his homework.
Present Perfect: His homework has been finished.

Simple Past: We visited the museum yesterday.

Simple Past: The museum was visited by us yesterday.
Past Continuous: The children were playing in the park.
Past Continuous: The park was being played in by the children.

Past Perfect: She had already taken her dinner when I arrived.
Past Perfect: When I arrived, her dinner had already been taken.
Simple Future: They will attend the conference next month.
Simple Future: The conference will be attended by them next month.

Future Perfect: By this time next year, they will have completed their studies.
Future Perfect: By this time next year, their studies will have been completed.
Present Infinitive: He loves to swim.
Present Infinitive: Swimming in the ocean is loved by him.
Past Infinitive: She wanted to visit the beach.

Past Infinitive: The beach was wanted to be visited by her.

Future Infinitive: They hope to win the competition.
Future Infinitive: To win the competition is hoped for by them.
Present Gerund: They enjoy swimming in the ocean.

Present Gerund: Swimming in the ocean is enjoyed by them.

Past Gerund: She remembered meeting him before.
Past Gerund: Meeting him before was remembered by her.
Future Gerund: We anticipate traveling to new places.

Future Gerund: Traveling to new places are anticipated by us.

Present Participle: He is running in the race.
Present Participle: Running in the race is being done by him.
Past Participle: The cake is baked and ready to eat.

Past Participle: The cake is baked and ready to be eaten.

Future Participle: Meeting you is being looked forward to by them.
Future Participle: They are looking forward to meeting you.
Zero Conditional: If you heat ice, it melts.
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Zero Conditional: If ice is heated, it melts.
First Conditional: If it rains, we will stay indoors.
First Conditional: If it rains, we will stay indoors.

Second Conditional: If I had money, I would buy a new car.

Second Conditional: If I had money, a new car would be bought (by me)
Third Conditional: If she had studied, she would have passed the test.
Third Conditional: If she had studied, the test would have been passed.

Passive Voice: The document was signed by the CEO.

Active voice: The CEO signed the document.
Causative: He had his car repaired at the mechanic.
Causative: His car was repaired at the mechanic’s.

Modal Verbs: She can play the piano.

Modal Verbs: The piano can be played by her.
Reported Speech: He said, “I will come tomorrow.”
Reported Speech: He said that he would come the next day.
Imperative: please open the door.

Imperative: The door, please, should be opened.

Imperative sentences: imperative sentences in active voice transformed into passive voice:
1. A : Close the door.
P: Let the door be closed.
P: You are ordered to close the door.
2. A : Please pass the salt.
P: Let the salt be passed, please.
P : You are requested to pass the salt.

3. A: Write your name on the paper.

P : Let your name be written on the paper.
P : You are requested/instructed to write your name on the paper.

4. A: Bring me a glass of water.

P: Let a glass of water be brought to me.
P: You are requested/ordered to bring me a glass of water.
5. A: Cook the meal on low heat.
P: Let the meal be cooked on low heat.

42
 P: You are instructed/suggested to cook the meal on low heat.
6. A: Clean the room before guests arrive.
P: Let the room be cleaned before guests arrive.

P: You are commanded/ ordered to clean the room before the guests arrive .
Remember that passive voice constructions may not always be as common or natural for imperative
sentences in English. Imperatives are usually more direct and clear in active voice. Passive voice is often used
for more formal or objective communication.

10. Direct and Indirect speech

Direct speech and indirect speech, also known as reported speech, are two ways of expressing what someone
else said. Let's explore both of them:

Direct Speech:
Direct speech is when we quote someone's exact words within quotation marks. It is as if the person's words
are being directly reported without any alteration. For example:
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Direct Speech: She said, "I am going to the store."
In this example, the exact words spoken by the person are presented within quotation marks ("I am going to
the store").

Direct Speech (Question): John asked, "Are you coming to the party?"
Again, the exact words spoken by John are quoted directly with the use of quotation marks ("Are you coming
to the party?").
Indirect Speech (Reported Speech):

Indirect speech is when we report what someone said without using their exact words. Instead, we convey
the meaning of their statement in our own words. In indirect speech, the verb tense and pronouns may
change to reflect the shift from the original speaker's perspective to the reporting speaker's perspective. For
example:

Indirect Speech: She said that she was going to the store.
In this example, the original statement "I am going to the store" is reported indirectly by using a reporting
verb ("said") and changing the pronoun from "I" to "she," and the verb tense from "am" to "was."
Indirect Speech (Reported Question): John asked if I was coming to the party.
Here, the original question "Are you coming to the party?" is reported indirectly by using a reporting verb
("asked") and changing the pronoun from "you" to "I," and the verb tense from "are" to "was."
Indirect speech is often used when we are narrating or summarizing what someone said, and it is more
common in writing than in casual conversation. It helps to make the conversation flow smoothly and allows
the speaker to add context or explanation while reporting what was said.

In summary, direct speech quotes someone's exact words within quotation marks, while indirect speech
reports what someone said using a reporting verb and may involve changes in verb tense, pronouns, and
other elements to fit into the overall sentence structure. Both direct and indirect speech have their uses, and
the choice between them depends on the context and style of communication.

Rules to change Direct speech into Indirect speech

When transforming sentences from direct speech to indirect speech or vice versa, there are several rules to
follow:

Change the Verb Tense:

In indirect speech, the verb tense is often shifted to reflect the time shift from the original speaker’s
perspective to the reporting speaker’s perspective.

44
For example, present simple changes to past simple, present continuous changes to past continuous, and so
on.
➢ When the reporting verb is in “simple past”, then the reported Verb Tenses will be changed into the
past form of the verb tenses.
➢ Exception: If the reported clause holds statement like general truth, scientific truth, quotation and
strong obligation, then tense of reported clause remain unchanged.

Direct Indirect
Present simple Past simple
He said, “I love chocolate.” He said that he loved chocolate.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
He said, “Are you coming to the party?” He asked if I was going to the party.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
He said, “I have already booked the tickets.” He informed them that he had already booked the tickets.
Present perfect continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said, “ I have been living here.” He said that he had been living there.

Past simple Past Perfect

He said, “Did you finish your homework?” He asked if I had finished my homework.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said, “we were walking on the road.” He said that they had been walking on road.
Past Perfect Past Perfect ( unchanged )
She said, “Had you had your dinner?” She asked if I had had my dinner.
Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
They said, “He has been playing the guitar.” They said that he had been playing the guitar.

Simple Future Past Conditional (would)

She said, “I will call you later.” She said that she would call me later.
Future Continuous Past Continuous Conditional (would be)
I said, “ I will be writing my exam.” I said that I would be writing my exam.
Future Perfect Past Perfect conditional (would have )
He said, “ I will have completed my project.” He said that he would have completed his project.
Future Perfect Continuous Past Perfect cont. Conditional ( Would have been )
Rani said, “ I will’ve been going.” Rani said that she would have been going.

➢ In case, reporting clauses are found in simple present or future, then the reported verb tense will
remain unchanged, only the subject and auxiliary verbs of the reported clause will be changed
according to the reporting subject and verb.
Example : Direct: She says, “ I am waiting for my result.”
Indirect: She says that she is waiting for her result.
Direct: She will say, “ I have not got any call.”
Indirect: She will say that She has not got any call.
Change Pronouns:

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In indirect speech, the pronouns may change to reflect the shift from the original speaker to the reporting
speaker.
For example,

"I" may change to "he/she,"

“We” may change to “ they”
"you" may change to "I/he/she,"
“He/She/It” may change into “ He/She/It”

Change Adverbs of Time and Place:

➢ Adverbs of time and place may need to be modified to reflect the time and place shift in indirect
speech.
➢ Use Reporting Verbs and Introductory Phrases:
➢ Use reporting verbs and introductory phrases to introduce the reported speech.
➢ Common reporting verbs include "said," "told," "spoke," "explained," and more.
Change Punctuation and Quotation Marks:
In direct speech, the reported words are enclosed in quotation marks. In indirect speech, quotation marks
are not used, and the reported words are not enclosed in quotation marks. Punctuation may need to be
adjusted accordingly.
Change Imperatives and Questions:
Imperative sentences (commands) are often transformed into infinitive ( to V1 e.g, to come, visit etc.)
structures in indirect speech. Questions may change from a direct question format to an indirect question
format.
Example: Direct : He said to me, “ work hard and you will pass the exam. ”
Indirect : He advised me to work hard and pass the exam.
Omitting 'That':

In some cases, the word 'that' can be omitted in indirect speech without changing the meaning. Use
'Whether' for Indirect Questions: When reporting yes/no questions in indirect speech, the word 'whether' is
often used instead of 'if.'

Change Modals and Auxiliaries:

Modals and auxiliaries may need to be changed to fit the verb tense and context in indirect speech.
For example,
“ shall/will “ may change to “ would “ (past form)
“ can” may change to “ could ” (past form)
“ may” change to “ might “ (past form)
“ must” change to “ had to” (with past time reference only)
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“ could, would, might, ought, must” remain unchanged because these modal auxiliaries are following the
present time reference while changing direct into Indirect speech.
➢ Change of Interrogative clauses and exclamatory clauses into assertive clauses while changing from
direct to indirect.
Example: Direct speech: She said, “ what have you done this?”
Indirect speech: She asked what I had done that.
Direct Speech: She said, “ What a melodious song is this !
Indirect speech: She exclaimed with admiration that it was such a melodious song.
Words change while changing Direct speech into indirect speech

Direct Indirect
Today That day
Yesterday The day before / the previous day
Tomorrow The next/following day
Now Then
Last week The previous week
Next week The following week
Ago Before
This That
These Those
Here There
Come Go
Bring Take
Thus / Hence So

Exercise 1
1. She said, “I like chocolate.”
2. He mentioned, “They finished their work.”
3. They stated, “You will join us for lunch.”
4. The teacher confirmed, “You have studied for the test.”
5. She acknowledged, “They are coming to the party.”
6. He affirmed, “You can help me with this problem.”
7. They admitted, “He called you yesterday.”
8. The coach mentioned, “You will be participating in the competition.”

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 9. She acknowledged, “I have seen my keys.”
10. He confirmed, “You are going to the concert.”
11. They stated, “She finished her presentation.”
12. The teacher affirmed, “They will be attending the field trip.”
13. She confirmed, “You have read the new book.”
14. He stated, “You have plans for the weekend.”
15. They admitted, “She passed the exam.”
16. The interviewer confirmed, “You will be available for the interview.”
17. She affirmed, “You have been to that restaurant before.”
18. He admitted, “You met the new manager.”
19. They confirmed, “She will be coming to the meeting.”
20. The teacher acknowledged, “You have completed your homework.”
21. She stated, “They are arriving tomorrow.”
22. He confirmed, “You played soccer yesterday.”
23. They acknowledged, “You will be joining us for the trip.”
24. The boss confirmed, “You finished the report.”
25. She said, “You know the answer.”
26. He mentioned, “They watched the movie.”
27. They confirmed, “You will be attending the conference.”
28. The teacher acknowledged, “You understood the lesson.”
29. She affirmed, “You have plans for the holidays.”
30. He stated, “You like the new car.”
Exercise 2

1. She asked, “Do you like chocolate?”

2. He wondered, “Did they finish their work?”
3. They asked, “Will you join us for lunch?”
4. The teacher inquired, “Have you studied for the test?”
5. She wanted to know, “Are they coming to the party?”
6. He asked, “Can you help me with this problem?”
7. They wondered, “Did he call you yesterday?”
8. The coach asked, “Will you be participating in the competition?”
9. She inquired, “Have you seen my keys?”
10. He wanted to know, “Are you going to the concert?”
11. They asked, “Did she finish her presentation?”
12. The teacher wondered, “Will they be attending the field trip?”
13. She inquired, “Have you read the new book?”
14. He asked, “Do you have any plans for the weekend?”
15. They wondered, “Did she pass the exam?”
16. The interviewer asked, “Will you be available for the interview?”
17. She inquired, “Have you been to that restaurant before?”
18. He asked, “Did you meet the new manager?”
19. They wondered, “Will she be coming to the meeting?”
20. The teacher asked, “Have you completed your homework?”
21. She wanted to know, “Are they arriving tomorrow?”

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 22. He asked, “Did you play soccer yesterday?”
23. They wondered, “Will you be joining us for the trip?”
24. The boss inquired, “Have you finished the report?”
25. She asked, “Do you know the answer?”
26. He wanted to know, “Did they watch the movie?”
27. They asked, “Will you be attending the conference?”
28. The teacher wondered, “Have you understood the lesson?”
29. She inquired, “Do you have any plans for the holidays?”
30. Direct speech: “Have you read the assigned chapters for tomorrow’s class?”

Exercise 3
1. He said, “What a beautiful sight!”
2. She said, “Wow! I can’t believe it!”
3. My friend Said “What an amazing performance!”
4. The child said, “How delicious this cake is!”
5. The passenger said, “Oh no! I missed the bus!”
6. She said, “How incredible is this view!”
7. My brother said, “What a fantastic surprise!”
8. My colleague said, “How beautifully you have decorated the house!”
9. My friend said, “What a stunning dress!”
10. My friend said, “How kind of you to help!”
11. My Dad said, “Oh wow! That’s incredible news!”
12. My Uncle said, “How thoughtful of them to remember my birthday!”
13. “What a fantastic performance by the team!”
14. “How brave you were to face your fears!”
15. “What a great achievement!”

Exercise 4
1. She said, “Please pass me the salt.”
2. He said, “Close the door behind you.”
3. The patient said, “Clean your room before going out.”
4. The yoga master said, “Take a deep breath and relax.”
5. The teacher said, “Complete your homework on time.”
6. The speaker said, “Listen carefully to the instructions.”
7. The mother said, “Don’t touch the hot stove!”
8. He said, “Help me with this heavy box.”

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 9. The teacher said, “Be kind to others.”
10. She said, “Read this book for your assignment.”
11. The teacher said, “Stand in a line and wait for your turn.”
12. The teacher said, “Put your phone on silent during the class.”
13. The librarian said, “Be quiet in the library.”
14. The supervisor said, “Follow the safety rules at all times.”
15. My father said, “Finish your meal before leaving the table.”

11. Tenses
Tense in grammar refers to the time of an action or event in relation to the time of speaking. It helps to
establish when something occurred or will occur. English has several tenses, and each tense has its own
structure and usage. Let’s go through some of the basic tenses along with their structures and definitions,
including the perfect continuous tense.
Tenses are of three types:
A. Past Tense : The past tense is used to describe actions or events that have already happened before the
current moment.

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B. Present Tense : The present tense is used to describe actions or events that are happening now or are
generally true.
C. Future Tense : The future tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen after the current
moment.
Each of the tenses has four sub tenses such as;
1. Present Simple Tense : Used for habitual actions, general truths, scientific facts, universal truths, work and
scheduled events.
Structure:
(a) Assertive or Positive: Subject + Base Form of Verb (+s/es for third person singular)
Example: She reads books every day.
The sun rises in the east.
Dogs bark loudly.
(b) Negative : Subject + does/do not + v1 + object.
Example – She does not write a letter.
We do not play.
Interrogative : Does/do + subject + v1 + s/es + object?
Example – Does she write a letter?
Do we play?
Interrogative negative assertive – Does/Do + sub + not + v1 + + object?
Example : Does he not write a letter.
Do they not play?
2. Past Simple Tense : Used for completed actions in the past.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + Past Tense of Verb
Example: They visited Paris last year.
He finished his homework yesterday.
Negative : Subject + did not + v1 + object.
Example – They did not visit Paris last year.
He did not finish his homework yesterday.
Interrogative : Did + subject + v1 + object?
Example : Did they visit Paris last year?
Did he finish his homework yesterday?
Interrogative negative assertive – Did + sub + not + v1 + + object?
Example : Did they not visit Paris last year?
Did he not finish his homework yesterday?
3. Future Simple Tense: Used for actions or events that will happen in the future.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + will / shall+ Base Form of Verb
Example: I will finish my work tomorrow.
They will travel to Paris next month.
She will attend the conference next week.
Negative : Subject + will/shall not + v1 + object.
Example : I will not finish my work tomorrow.
They will not travel to Paris next month.
She will not attend the conference next week.
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Interrogative : Shall/Will + subject + v1 + object?
Shall I finish my work tomorrow?
Will they travel to Paris next month?
Will she attend the conference next week?
Interrogative negative assertive : Shall + sub + not + v1 + + object?
Example : Shall I not finish my work tomorrow?
Will they not travel to Paris next month?
Will she not attend the conference next week?
4. Present Continuous Tense: Used for actions happening right now or around the present time.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + “am/is/are” + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example: You are reading a book right now.
She is cooking dinner at the moment.
Negative : Subject + “am/is/are” + not + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example – You are not reading a book right now.
She is not cooking dinner at the moment.
Interrogative : Am/Is/Are + subject + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example – Are You reading a book right now.?
Is she cooking dinner at the moment?
Interrogative negative assertive – Am/Is/Are + subject + not + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Are you not reading a book right now?
Is she not cooking dinner at the moment?
5. Past Continuous Tense: Used for actions that were ongoing in the past.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + “was/were” + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example: They were studying for the exam all night.
She was singing on the stage during the performance.
Negative : Subject + “was/were” + not + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example : They were not studying for the exam all night.
She was not singing on the stage during the performance.
Interrogative : Was/Were + subject + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Were they studying for the exam all night?
Was she singing on the stage during the performance?

Interrogative negative assertive – Was / Were + subject + not + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example: Was she not studying when the phone rang?
Were they not studying for the exam all night?
6. Future Continuous Tense : Used for actions that will be in progress at a specific future time.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + “will be” + Present Participle (v1+ing form)
Example: They will be working late tonight.
She will be traveling to New York this time tomorrow.
Negative: Subject + will + not + be + Present Participle (v1 +ing form)
They will not be working late tonight.
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 She will not be traveling to New York this time tomorrow.
Interrogative : Shall/Will + subject + be + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Will they be working late tonight?
Will she be singing on the stage during the performance?
Interrogative negative assertive : Shall/Will + subject + not + be + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Will they not be working late tonight?
Will she not be singing on the stage during the performance?
7. Present Perfect Tense : Used for actions that happened at an indefinite time in the past and have relevance
to the present.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + has / have + Past Participle (v3)
Example: She has visited that museum before.
They have seen that movie multiple times.
Negative : Subject + has/have + pat participle (v3)
Example: She has not visited that museum before.
They have not seen that movie multiple times.
Interrogative: Has/ Have + Sub + Past participle + O?
Example: Has she visited that museum before?
Have they seen that movie multiple times?
Interrogative negative assertive : Has/ Have + Sub + not + Past participle + O?
Example: Has she not visited that museum before?

Have they not seen that movie multiple times?

8. Past Perfect Tense : Used for actions that were completed before a certain point in the past.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + had + Past Participle (v3)
Example: She had gone home.
We had arrived.
Negative : Subject + had + not + pat participle (v3)
Example: She had not gone home.
We had not arrived.
Interrogative : Had + Sub + Past participle + O?
Example: Had she gone?
Had we arrived?

Interrogative negative assertive : Had + Sub + not + Past participle + O?

Example: Had she not gone?
Had we not arrived?
9. Future Perfect Tense : Used for actions that will be completed before a certain future time.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + will have + Past Participle
Example: She had gone.
We had arrived.
Negative : Subject + will + not + pat participle (v3)
Example: She had not gone home.
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 We had not arrived.
Interrogative : Had + Sub + Past participle + O?
Example: Had she gone?
Had we arrived?
Interrogative negative assertive : Had + Sub + not + Past participle + O?
Example: Had she not gone?
Had we not arrived?
10. Present perfect continuous tense : Used for actions that started in the past, have continued up to the
present, and may continue the future.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive: Subject + has /have been + Present Participle (V1+ing form)
Example: You have been reading a book.
She has been cooking dinner.
Negative : Subject + has / have + not + + bee + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example: You have not been reading a book.
She has not been cooking dinner.
Interrogative : Has/Have + subject + been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example – Have you been reading a book ?
Has she been cooking dinner ?
Interrogative negative assertive – Has/Have + subject + not + been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Have you not been reading a book ?
Has she not been cooking dinner?

11. Past Perfect Continuous Tense: Used for actions that were ongoing for a period of time before another
past action.
Structure: Subject + “had been” + Present Participle (-ing form)
Assertive or Positive: Subject + had been + Present Participle (V1+ing form)
Example: You had been reading a book.
She had been cooking dinner.
Negative : Subject + had + not + + bee + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example: You had not been reading a book.
She had not been cooking dinner.
Interrogative : Had + subject + been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Had you been reading a book ?
Had she been cooking dinner ?
Interrogative negative assertive – Had + subject + not + been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : Had you not been reading a book ?
Had she not been cooking dinner?
12. Future perfect continuous tense:
Definition : The future perfect continuous tense is used to describe actions that will have been ongoing for
a certain duration before a specified future time. It emphasizes the duration of the action leading up to that
future point. This tense combines elements of both the future tense and the perfect continuous aspect.
Structure:
Assertive or Positive : Subject + “will have been” + Present Participle (-ing form) + Time Expression
Examples: By next month, I will have been working at this company for five years.
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 - In this sentence, the speaker is emphasizing the ongoing duration of their work up to a specific point in
the future, which is next month.

2. She will have been studying French for six months by the time she goes to Paris.
- Here, the focus is on the duration of her studying (ongoing action) leading up to the moment she goes to
Paris.
3. They will have been living in that house for a decade when they decide to move.
- This example highlights the duration of their residence in the house before they make the decision to
move.
Negative : Subject + shall /will + not + have been + Present Participle (V1+ ing form)
Example: By next month, I will not have been working at this company for five years.
They will not have been living in that house for a decade when they decide to move.
Interrogative : Shall /Will+ subject + have been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : By next month, will I have been working at this company for five years?
Will they have been living in that house for a decade when they decide to move?
Interrogative negative assertive – Shall /Will + subject + not + have been+ Present Participle (V1+ ing form)?
Example : By next month, will I not have been working at this company for five years?
Will they not have been living in that house for a decade when they decide to move?

12. Degrees of comparison

Degrees of comparison

The degrees of comparison are the forms of adjectives that are used to compare a person or thing possessing
the same quality with another. It is related to the adjective or adverb in a sentence. The Collins Dictionary
defines the ‘degree of comparison’ as “the listing of the positive, comparative, and superlative forms of an
adjective or adverb.” In other words, it can be said that one can use the degree of comparison to make a
comparison between nouns having comparable quality or qualities.
In English grammar, there are three degrees of comparison and they are,

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 1. Positive Degree of Comparison
2. Comparative Degree of Comparison
3. Superlative Degree of Comparison
Let us now look at each of the above-mentioned degrees of comparison in detail.
1. Positive Degree of Comparison
The positive degree of comparison is basically the original form of the adjective. This degree does not allow
you to make any comparison. It only gives the audience the information about a particular quality possessed
by a noun.
For example: Lisa is happy.
This dress is pretty.
He looks handsome.
Meena is tired.
The sun is bright.
2. Comparative Degree of Comparison
The comparative degree of comparison is used to compare between two nouns that have the same quality
or the particular quality of a noun at two different times. It shows which one of the two has the greater or
lesser degree of the particular quality being referred to.
For example: Tina looks sadder than Katie.
This bed is more comfortable than the other bed.
The sun is brighter than yesterday.
Your hair is longer than hers.
My brother is taller than me.
3. Superlative Degree of Comparison
The superlative degree of comparison is the highest degree of comparison. It is used to compare the similar
qualities shared by more than two nouns. It shows which of these nouns being compared has the greatest or
least degree of the mentioned quality or qualities.
For example:
We climbed the highest mountain.
The last group was the best of all.
The Himalayas are the longest mountain ranges.
Sanjana is the tallest girl in our gang.
Adharsh is the most silent boy in class.

Interchange of degree of comparison :

Rules I
Type I : Change positive to comparative degree
Structure: Subject+ is/am/are/was/were +as+adj.+as+ Subject (positive degree)
Subject+ is/am/are/was/were + adj(Comp.) than / not adj(Comp.) than + subject or object
pronoun
Sentence: He is as wise as his brother. (positive)
His brother is not wiser than He is. (Comparative)
Rony is as strong as his brother. (Positive)
Rony’s brother is not stronger than/ weaker than he is. ( Comparative)
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Type II : Positive (Negative sentence) to comparative degree
Structure : Subject+ is + not + so +adjective ( positive) + as + subject (Noun/pronoun/object pronoun)
Manju is not so beautiful as her sister. (Positive)
Manju’s sister is more beautiful than she is or her. (Comparative)
Rule II : Change positive to comparative and superlative and vice-versa.
Structure :
Very few + Subject (Noun plural form) + are / were or modal aux.+ as + adj.+ as + subject (Noun
plural/Singular) – Positive degree
Subject+ is + compa. degree adjective+ than + most other / many other + subject ( Noun Plural) (Compa.)
Subject+ is + one of the + superlative degree adj. + Subject (plural) ( Superlative degree)
Ex : Very few cricketers in the world are as famous as Virat Kohli. (Positive)
Virat Kohli is more famous than most other cricketers in the world. (Comparative)
Virat Kohli is one of the most famous cricketers in the world.
Rule III : Change positive to comparative and superlative and vice-versa.
Structure:
No other + subject (Singular Noun) + is/ was + so/as +adj. (P)+ as + Singular Noun (positive)
Sub+is/was+adj.(C) + than+ any other/anyone+ Subject (Singular Noun) (Comparative)
Subject+ is /was +the + adj.(S) + subject (Singular). (Superlative)
Ex : No other poet in English is so/as great as William Wordsworth. (Positive)
William Wordsworth is greater than any other poet in English. (Comparative)
William Wordsworth is the greatest poet in English. ( Superlative
Rule IV : Change positive to comparative and superlative and vice-versa.
Structure : Some other cities in India are at least as big as Hyderabad. (Positive)
Some other cities in India are bigger than Hyderabad. (Comparative)
Or
Hyderabad is not bigger than Some other cities in India. (Comparative)
Hyderabad is not the biggest city in India. (Superlative)

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