Section 8.

4: Random Variables and probability distributions of discrete random variables

In the previous sections we saw that when we have numerical data, we can calculate descriptive statistics
such as the mean, the median, the range and the standard deviation. When we perform an experiment,
we are often interested in recording more than one piece of numerical data for each trial. For example,
when a patient visits the doctor’s office, their height, weight, temperature and blood pressure are
recorded. These observations vary from patient to patient, hence they are called variables. In fact they
are called random variables, because we cannot predict what their value will be for the next trial of the
experiment (for the next patient). Rather than repeat and write the words height, weight and blood
pressure many times, we tend to give random variables names such as X, Y ....... We usually use capital
letters to denote the name of the variable and lowercase letters to denote the values.
A Random Variable is a rule that assigns a number to each outcome of an experiment. There may
be more than one random variable associated with an experiment.
Example 1 An experiment consists of rolling a pair of dice, one red and one green, and observing the
pair of numbers on the uppermost faces (red first). We let X denote the sums of the numbers on the
uppermost faces. Below, we show the outcomes on the left and the values of X associated to some of
the outcomes on the right:
{(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) Outcome X
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) (1, 1) 2
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) (2, 1) 3
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) (3, 1) 4
(5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) (4, 1) 5
(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)} .. ..
. .
(a) What are the possible values of X?
1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, . . . , 6 + 6 = 12.
(b) We see that there are 2 outcomes of this experiment for which X has a value of 3, namely (2, 1) and
(1, 2). How many outcomes of the above experiment are associated with the values of X shown in the
table below:
Value of X Number of possible (associated) outcomes
2
3 2
4
5
6
.. ..
. .

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 Number of possible
Value of X (associated)outcomes
2 1 (1,1)
3 2 (1,2), (2,1)
4 3 (1,3), (2,2), (3,1)
5 4 (1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)
6 5 (1,5), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (5,1)
7 6 (1,6), (2,4), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)
8 5 (2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2)
9 4 (3,6), (4,5), (5,4), (6,3)
10 3 (4,6), (5,5), (4,6)
11 2 (5,6), (6,5)
12 1 (6,6)

(c) We could also define other variables associated to this experiment. Let Y be the product of the
numbers on the uppermost faces, fill in the values of Y associated to the outcomes given below:
Outcome Y
(1, 1)
(2, 1)
(3, 1)
(4, 1)
.. ..
. .
Outcome Y Outcome Y
Outcome Y
(1, 1) 1 Outcome Y (4, 4) 16
(2, 2) 4
(2, 1), (1, 2) 2 (3, 3) 9 (4, 5), (5, 4) 20
(3, 2), (2, 3) 6
(3, 1), (1, 3) 3 (4, 3), (3, 4) 12 (4, 6), (6, 4) 24
(4, 2), (2, 4) 8
(4, 1), (1, 4) 4 (5, 3), (3, 5) 15 (5, 5) 25
(5, 2), (2, 5) 10
(5, 1), (1, 5) 5 (6, 3), (3, 6) 18 (5, 6), (6, 5) 30
(6, 2), (2, 6) 12
(6, 1), (1, 6) 6 (6, 6) 36
(d) What are the possible values of Y ?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 30, 36

Example An experiment consists of flipping a coin 4 times and observing the sequence of heads and
tails. The random variable X is the number of heads in the observed sequence. Fill in the possible
values of X and the number of outcomes associated to each value in the table below:

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 Value of X Number of possible (associated) outcomes

Number of possible x
Value of X (associated) outcomes
4 HHHH
3 HHHT, HHTH, HTHH, THHH
2 HHTT, HTHT, HTTH, THHT, THTH, TTHH
1 HTTT, THTT, TTHT, TTTH
0 TTTT

For some random variables, the possible values of the variable can be separated and listed in either a
finite list or and infinite list. These variables are called discrete random variables.Some examples
are shown below:

Experiment Random Variable, X

Roll a pair of six-sided dice Sum of the numbers
Roll a pair of six-sided dice Product of the numbers
Toss a coin 10 times Number of tails
Choose a small pack of M&M’s at random The number of blue M&M’s in the pack
Choose a year at random The number of people who ran the Boston Marathon in that year
On the other hand, a continuous random variable can assume any value in some interval. Some
examples are:

Experiment Random Variable, X

Choose a patient at random Patient’s Height
Choose an apple at random at your local grocery store Weight of the apple
Choose a customer at random at Subway The length of time the customer waits to be served

Probability Distributions For Random Variables

For a discrete random variable with finitely many possible values, we can calculate the probability
that a particular value of the random variable will be observed by adding the probabilities of the
outcomes of our experiment associated to that value of the random variable (assuming that we know
those probabilities). This assignent of probabilities to each possible value of X is called the probability
distribution of X.

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Example If I roll a pair of fair six sided dice and observe the pair of numbers on the uppermost face, all
1
outcomes are equally likely, each with a probability of 36 . Let X denote the sum of the pair of numbers
observed. We saw that a value of 3 for X is associated to two outcomes in our sample space: (2, 1) and
(1, 2). Therefore the probability that X takes the value 3 or P (X = 3) is the sum of the probabilities
2
of the two outcomes (2, 1) and (1, 2) which is 36 . That is
2
P (X = 3) = .
36

If X is a discrete random variable with finitely many possible values, we can display the probability
distribution of X in a table where the possible values of X are listed alongside their probabilities.
Example I roll a pair of fair six sided dice and observe the pair of numbers on the uppermost face.
Let X denote the sum of the pair of numbers observed. Complete the table showing the probability
distribution of X below:
X P(X)
2
3
4
{(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) 5
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) 6
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) 7
(5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) 8
(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)}
9
10
11
12

X P(X) X P(X)
1 5
2 8
36 36
2 4
3 9
36 36
3 3
4 10
36 36
4 2
5 11
36 36
5 1
6 12
36 36
6
7
36
Probability Distribution: If a discrete random variables has possible values x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xk , then
a probability distribution P (X) is a rule that assigns a probability P (xi ) to each value xi . More

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specifically,

• 0 ≤ P (xi ) ≤ 1 for each xi .

• P (x1 ) + P (x2 ) + · · · + P (xk ) = 1.

Example An experiment consists of flipping a coin 4 times and observing the sequence of heads and
tails. The random variable X is the number of heads in the observed sequence. Fill in probabilities for
each possible values of X in the table below.

X P(X)
0
1
2
3
4
X P(X)
1
0
16
4
1
16
6
2
16
4
3
16
1
4
16
We can also represent a probability distribution for a discrete random variable with finitely many
possible values graphically by constructing a bar graph. We form a category for each value of the
random variable centered at the value which does not contain any other possible value of the random
variable. We make each category of equal width and above each category we draw a bar with height
equal to the probability of the corresponding value. if the possible values of the random variable are
integers, we can give each bar a base of width 1.
Example An experiment consists of flipping a coin 4 times and observing the sequence of heads and
tails. The random variable X is the number of heads in the observed sequence. The following is a
graphical representation of the probability distribution of X.

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 0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0 1 2 3 4

Example The following is a probability distribution histogram for a random variable X.

0.2

0.1

1 2 5 6 X
3 4

What is P (X 6 5)?
P (X 6 5) = P (X = 5)+P (X = 4)+P (X = 3)+P (X = 1) = 0.2+0.1+0.2+0.2+0.1 = 0.8

OR

P (X 6 5) = 1 − P (X = 6) = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8.

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Example In a carnival game a player flips a coin twice. The player pays $1 to play. The player then
receives $1 for every head observed and pays $1, to the game attendant, for every Tail observed. Find
the probability distribution for the random variable X = the player’s (net) earnings.
There are 4 possible outcomes HH, HT , T H, T T . The return to the player in the
case HH is 1, the return to the player in the case HT or T H is −1, and the return
1 2
to the player in the case T T is −3. Hence P (X = 1) = , P (X = −1) = and
4 4
1
P (X = −3) = .
4

Example In Roulette, if you bet $1 on red, you get your $1 back + $1 profit if the ball lands on red. If
the ball does not land on red, the attendant keeps your money and you get nothing back. The roulette
wheel (Vegas) has 18 red numbers, 18 black numbers and 2 greens. The ball is equally likely to go into
any of the pockets. What is the probability distribution for your earnings for this game if you bet $1
on red.
There are only two outcomes: you win $1
or you get −$1.
18 18
P (X = 1) = = .
18 + 18 + 2 38
18 + 2 20
P (X = −1) = = .
18 + 18 + 2 38

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 Extras
Example: Netty’s Scam Netty the Incredible runs the following scam in her spare time:
She has a business where she forecasts the gender of the unborn child for expectant couples, for a small
price. The couple come for a visit to Netty’s office and, having met them, Netty retires to her ante-room
to gaze into her Crystal Ball. In reality, Netty flips a coin. If the result is “Heads” , she will predict a
boy and if the result is “Tails”, she will predict a girl. Netty returns to her office and tells the couple
of what she saw in her crystal ball. She collects her fee of $100 from the couple and promises to return
$150 if she was wrong.
What is the probability distribution for Netty’s earnings per consultancy in this business?
Netty will win $100 if she wins and lose $50 if she loses.
Let X be the random variable which is the amount Netty
wins in one consultancy. Hence P (X = 100) = 0.5 and
P (X = −50) = 0.5.

Example Harold and Maude play a card game as follows. Harold picks a card from a standard deck
of 52 cards, and Maude tries to guess its suit without looking at it. If Maude guesses correctly, Harold
gives her $3.00; otherwise, Maude gives Harold $1.00. What is the probability distribution for Maude’s
earnings for this game (assuming she is not “psychic”) ?
If X is the random variable which is the amount
Maude wins in one round. Either Maude wins $3
4 1
or she looses $1. Hence P (X = 3) = =
52 13
48 12
and P (X = −1) = = .
52 13

Example At a carnival game, the player plays $1 to play and then rolls a pair of fair six-sided dice. If
the sum of the numbers on the uppermost face of the dice is 9 or higher, the game attendant gives the
player $5. Otherwise, the player receives nothing from the attendant. Let X denote the earnings for
the player for this game. What is the probability distribution for X?
The player either wins $5 - $1 = $4 or looses $1.
4+3+2+1 10 26
P (X = 4) = = and P (X = −1) = .
36 36 36

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Example The rules of a carnival game are as follows:

1. The player pays $1 to play the game.

2. The player then flips a fair coin, if the player gets a head the game attendant gives the player $2
and the player stops playing.

3. If the player gets a tail on the coin, the player rolls a fair six-sided die. If the player gets a six,
the game attendant gives the player $1 and the game is over.

4. If the player does not get a six on the die, the game is over and the game attendant gives nothing
to the player.

Let X denote the player’s (net) earnings for this game, what is the probability distribution of X?
A tree diagram could help.

net earning = 1
0.5

0 1
net earning = 0
6
0.5
T

5
6
net earning = -1

1 1 1 1 5 5
P (X = 1) = 0.5; P (X = 0) = · = ; P (X = −1) = · = .
2 6 12 2 6 12

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 Example: Requires True Grit. The rules of a carnival game are as follows:

• The player pays $5 to play.

• The attendant then deals a random selection of 5 cards from a standard deck of 52 cards to the
player.

• If the player has at least three aces in the 5 cards he/she is dealt, the attendant gives the player
$100 and the game is over.

• Otherwse the player selects 3 cards from the 5 he/she was dealt and discards them. The attendant
gives the player a random selection of 3 cards from the remaining cards in the deck to replace the
ones discarded.

• The player now has 5 cards and if the player has at least 3 aces among the 5 cards, then the
attendant gives the player $100 and the game is over.

• If the player does not have at least 3 aces among the 5 cards, then the attendant gives the player
nothing and the game is over.

Let X denote the player’s (net) earnings for this game, what is the probability distribution for X. (Hint:
use a tree diagram classifying outcomes according to the number of aces dealt.)

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A tree diagram could help again.

net earning = 95

P (3 or 4 aces)

0 net earning = -5
P (2 aces) P r2 (0 aces)
P r2 (1 or 2 aces)
• net earning = 95
P (1 ace)
P (0 aces)
P r1 (2 or 3 aces)
• net earning = 95

P r1 (0 or 1 ace)
• net earning = -5
P r0 (3 aces)

net earning = 95
P r0 (0, 1 or 2 aces)

net earning = -5

We have calculated the needed probabilities before. The probability of getting k aces
C(4, k) · C(48, 5 − k)
in round 1 is .
C(52, 5)
The probabilities P rk are a bit different. There are only 47 cards in round 2 and
the number of aces in the round 2 deck is 4 minus the number of aces we got in round
1. You are only dealt 3 cards, not 4.

In any case, the only two outcomes are a net earning of $95 or -$5. There are 4
paths which end in $95. Here are the pieces.
C(4, 3) · C(48, 2) + C(4, 4) · C(48, 1)
P (3 or 4 aces) =
C(52, 5)
C(4, 2) · C(48, 3) C(4, 1) · C(48, 4) C(4, 0) · C(48, 5)
P (2 aces) = , P (1 ace) = or P (0 aces) = .
C(52, 5) C(52, 5) C(52, 5)
C(2, 1) · C(45, 2) + C(2, 2) · C(45, 1)
P r2 (1 or 2 aces) =
C(47, 3)
C(3, 2) · C(44, 1) + C(3, 3) · C(44, 0)
P r1 (2 or 3 aces) =
C(47, 3)
C(4, 3) · C(43, 0)
P r0 (3 aces) =
C(47, 3)

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