PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

Synopsis of Thesis Problem of Post Graduate Student: M.Sc.

Name of the student: ARSH TANEJA Admission number: L-2022-A-280-M

Major Subject: Soil Science Minor Subject: Chemistry
Major Advisor: Dr. Sumita Chandel
1. Title

ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH RISK IN

FATEHGARH SAHIB AND RUPNAGAR DISTRICTS OF PUNJAB
2. Introduction

Adequate and quality water is a fundamental requirement for human life, socioeconomic
progress, and environmental sustainability. However, the security of our limited freshwater resources
is under threat due to the competing demands of rapidly growing populations and global economies.
Furthermore, ongoing conflicts and the compounding effects of climate change make these resources
even more vulnerable. There is growing concern about the groundwater quality (GQ) deterioration.
The use of poor-quality groundwater poses severe threats to sustainable agriculture and human health.
In order to expedite efforts in addressing water security challenges, the United Nations General
Assembly has designated the period from 2018 to 2028 as the water action decade for sustainable
development. This initiative aligns with and complements the 2030 agenda for sustainable
development (SDGs 2015-2030). Punjab is the most intensively cultivated Indian state, where 95% of
the population depends on groundwater for irrigation and drinking purposes (Singh et al 2013).
Approximately 98.9 % of Punjab's total agricultural land is irrigated, and out of this, 71% is irrigated
through tube wells (ESOPB 2020). Tactlessly, almost half of the groundwater in Punjab is unsafe and
polluted with hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials beyond the permissible limit
(Anonymous 2020). While 10 % of the groundwater is unsafe for even irrigation, 30-40 % is marginal
to moderately saline or alkaline that humans cannot use. Almost 16 districts of Punjab have fluoride
concentration above the permitted limit, i.e.1.5 mg L -1, in 19 districts nitrate concentration above 45
mg L-1 and in 6 districts arsenic was above 0.05 mg L -1. In addition, Punjab has a maximum
percentage of tube-well showing groundwater depletion. Groundwater extraction has increased from
149 to 165 % in 2018 through 2013. Punjab is extracting the groundwater at the highest speed in the
country (CAG 2019). Insufficient rainfall also prompts a higher demand for groundwater in
agriculture, leading to increased stress on groundwater resources and raising concerns about food
security. Groundwater depletion leads to quality deterioration is well confirmed fact (Custodio 2002;
Tularam and Krishna 2009).
 The districts Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar are the agrarian regions located in Satluj river
Basin of Punjab. They have high dependency on groundwater for agriculture, domestic and industrial
purpose. These districts have experienced rapid growth within the Punjab state and are already as an
over exploited region. Fatehgarh Sahib is well known steel town of northern India, effluents from
these industries are affecting the quality of water. Shallow aquifers have been determined to be
contaminated with several potentially toxic metals at levels reaching the maximum allowable
threshold (Ministry of MSME 2011; Bindra et al 2020). Mandi Gobindgarh, situated in Fatehgarh
Sahib, is an industrial town where groundwater has been identified as being contaminated with
potentially harmful elements like Zn, Pb, Cu, F, U, Nitrate etc (Saigal 2007; Shrivastava 2015).
Arsenic and chromium are the potential carcinogens in the groundwater of some parts of Fatehgarh
Sahib (Kumar et al 2020). Groundwater extraction is 110 % in the Rupnagar district and that leads to
GQ deterioration (CGWB 2013). Chromium and Cobalt are the major heavy metal present in
Rupnagar wetland which poses high risk of non-cancer and carcinogenic problems (Sharma et al
2019). Drinking of poor quality water abundantly affects the health of consumers and the environment
(Li and Wu 2019). Assessment of the GQ of the area can be a tool for its management, that will
identify the most affected areas of any region or determine the high risk of potentially toxic levels of
the elements. The information would be helpful in developing preventive measures for reducing
health risk linked to drinking and irrigation of groundwater.

GQ assessment is a scientific approach of determining the risk in a specific area that will
become contaminated based on a variation in physical and chemical parameters. These parameters
influence the movement of pollutants through the unsaturated zone to the water table. GQ maps of
particular regions, assist in categorizing water for residential, agricultural industries, and delineating
zones that could be utilized for residential, agricultural, or industrial purposes, town planning,
establishing industries, and special economic zones. By using such maps, government bodies are able
to plan effective strategies for monitoring groundwater. Various models have been developed for
evaluating groundwater adulteration vulnerability, and each model is unique because it is applicable
to different types of geo environments (Gogu and Dassargues 2000; Kumar et al 2015). In the past
few years, machine learning techniques have been employed to tackle a wide array of challenges,
including landslides, floods, and GQ assessments. A combination of multivariate statistical and
machine learning methods is usually used in hydrology research (Rodriguez et al 2014). Machine
learning methods such as artificial neural networks (ANN), random forests (RF), decision trees (DT),
and maximum entropy (ME) can be used to map groundwater sensitivity and vulnerability (Rahmati
et al.2016). Lahjouj et al (2020) generated the GQ maps using the groundwater vulnerability indexes
predicted through machine learning algorithms that helped to predict the NO 3-N pollution in the
groundwater of Sais basin Morocco. Lots of studies have been published on GQ assessment for
drinking and irrigation in Fatehgarh sahib and Rupnagar districts of Punjab (Sahoo et al 2014; Bindra
et al 2021). Though, there is no literature on groundwater vulnerability and human health risk
assessment through machine learning algorithms in these areas. Furthermore, the study will deal with
the intensive grid based groundwater sampling. This will be helpful in quick and reliable information
for decision making and implementation of different strategies related to GQ problems.
A) Knowledge gap:
Groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes through machine learning
techniques has not been assessed in Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar districts of Punjab.

B) Objectives:
1. To determine the important variables of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking
purposes in Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar districts
2. To identify the area vulnerable to potentially toxic level of groundwater quality variables

3. Expected new knowledge:

Groundwater quality assessment will help in tracing hotspots of groundwater pollution and its
management in Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar districts of Punjab.

4. Review of Literature

Groundwater quality is a critical concern for both agriculture and human health. The advent
of mechanization and the utilization of fertilizers, the majority of agricultural land practices have
emerged as significant contributors to widespread groundwater pollution (Capri et al 2009).
Degradation of groundwater quality can be in attributed to different sources of contaminations
(Ishaku et al 2011). Human activities have a significant impact on groundwater quality, which can be
categorized into two main types: direct and indirect factors. Direct factors involve activities such as
excessive pumping of groundwater, unregulated use of fertilizers, mining operations and waste
disposal sites. On the other hand, indirect factors include the expansion of urban areas, local climatic
conditions, and disturbances in water basins and river networks. Additionally, natural processes such
as seawater intrusion, can also contribute to the degradation of groundwater quality. Natural
processes include seawater intrusion, interactions between rocks and water leading to leaching and
the radioactive decay of isotopes like uranium and thorium that can impact groundwater quality
(Stefanakis et al 2017).

Agricultural activities in the region have a direct or indirect impact on the levels of numerous
inorganic chemicals present in groundwater. These chemicals contribute NO 3, Cl, SO4, K, Mg, Ca, Fe,
Cu, B, Pb, and Zn, along with a wide range of pesticides and other organic compounds. The presence
of elevated levels of NO3 and NaCl indicates that the vicinity surrounding the springs has experienced
persistent contamination from untreated sewage and agricultural waste (Elhatip et al 2003; Baba and
Ayyıldız 2006). Excessive chemical fertilizers leads to the enrichment of NO 3 −N in groundwater (Li
et al 2016). NH4–N and NO2–N can be transformed into NO 3−N under different conditions, which is
another reason responsible for high nitrate concentration (Zhang et al 2018). Majumdar et al (2000)
also explained that drinking groundwater contaminated with high levels of nitrate can have
detrimental effects on human health. It has been associated with several disorders such as
methemoglobinemia, gastric cancer, goitre, birth malformations, hypertension, and more.

Groundwater quality of irrigation can be measured by-EC, RSC, permeability index, Wilcox
diagram. High levels of magnesium in groundwater can have adverse effects on soil, leading to
decreased soil fertility and impaired plant growth (Bhardwaj and Singh 2011). The groundwater in
Pratapgarh district, UP exhibits alkaline characteristics, with higher concentrations of Mg ⁺⁺ and Na ⁺
cations and abundant HCO3- and Cl- anions. In most groundwater samples, alkaline earths (Ca 2+ +
Mg2+) are more prevalent than alkali cations (Na, K+), and HCO3 is the dominant anion compared to
(SO42- + Cl-). The prevailing hydrogeochemical facies are Ca-Mg-HCO 3 and Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 (Tiwari
and Singh 2014)
Kim et al (2002) reported that in Canada, the highest concentration of As in groundwater
reached approximately 100 mg/L, primarily attributed to thermal springs and mining activities
occurring under oxidizing conditions. Australia, on the other hand, has been identified as the most As-
contaminated country globally, with reported concentrations of As reaching up to 300 mg/L. The
sources of As release in Australian groundwater are attributed to mining activities, oxidation of
sulfide-bearing minerals, and volcanic eruptions (Boyle et al 1998). In India Acharyya et al (2000)
explains that in the Ganges delta and some other areas in the Bengal basin, occurrence of arsenic
release into groundwater likely caused by two main factors: excessive extraction of groundwater for
irrigation purposes and the use of phosphate fertilizer. These activities have led to changes in the
movement of groundwater, which, in turn, has resulted in the mobilization of phosphate from the
fertilizer and decayed organic matter. As a result, arsenic is being released into the groundwater in
these regions.

Tiwari et al (2020) assessed the concentrations of metals and arsenic in groundwater across
different districts of Punjab and reveals that higher levels of lead (Pb) were found throughout Punjab,
Central Punjab showed the highest concentration of nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), and arsenic (As)
found that Cr concentrations were within the permissible limit of 50 μg/L. As posed significantly
higher health risks than any other metal, and its carcinogenic risks exceeded the recommended limits
in all three Punjab regions (i.e. Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Amritsar) because of the high concentrations of
Ni, Cr and As, the groundwater in the study area is not suitable for drinking. The nitrate concentration
in the research area was higher than that recorded in Jalandhar and Patiala (Purushothman et al 2012)
but lower than that of previously reported in Punjab's Muktsar and Patiala districts (Kumar et al 2007,
2009).
 While uranium has various practical applications, it is important to note that prolonged
exposure to uranium and its radioactive decay products can have harmful effects on human health,
including increased cancer risks and potential damage to internal organs. Proper handling and disposal
measures are crucial to minimize these risks. Mehra et al (2007) conducted a study for uranium in
water samples of Malwa region of Punjab by the fission track registration technique. Uranium content
in water samples of Punjab area ranged from 5.41 to 43.39 µg/l. that were within the safe limits as per
WHO and US EPA the values are within the safe limits. Further Virk et al (2016) conducted a
experiment in Mohali and Fatehgarh district by LED Fluorimeter method for testing uranium in water
samples and described that cancer risk due to U is minimal or negligible we can say. Uranium content
in North Punjab districts is much lower than South Punjab. Moreover in 2019 Virk conducted a same
experiment in numerous villages of Barnala district by using Inductively coupled plasma mass
spectroscopy (ICPMS). The uranium concentration in groundwater samples obtained from Tube-wells
or RO raw water exceeds the safe limit of 60 µg/l, as advised by AERB, India and cancer risk is
highest among all districts in India. Kumar et al (2020) found 25% of sites of Sutlej river basin were
exceeded in uranium and selenium content than the prescribed limits by WHO/BIS. TDS, HCO 3 and
total hardness of groundwater was also higher than the limit. They stated that presence of heavy metal
is geogenic as they poorly correlate with soil parameters as soil sample were contaminated by
industrial effluents i.e. Cr, Zn and Pb.

In the Malwa region of Punjab, Ahada and Suthar (2018) conducted a hydrogeochemical
analysis and found elevated levels of sodium (Na +) ranged from 26.05 to 735.5 mg/L. The fluoride
content was also observed to exceed the permissible limit (1.5 mg/L), ranging from 1.59 to 5.07 mg/L.
The majority of sites (80.3%) exhibited a low Water Quality Index (WQI), indicating poor water
quality, particularly for irrigation purposes. The long-term use of such water quality poses significant
health risks. Additionally, using the GIS-DRASTIC model, Ahada and Suthar (2018) also assessed
the aquifer vulnerability in the Malwa region of Punjab, revealing a DRASTIC index value ranging
from 95 to 166. The study highlighted the increased risk of contamination in the eastern and western
Punjab aquifers due to the leaching and infiltration of surface pollutants. Kumar et al (2016) assessed
the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination using DRASTIC Model in Fatehgarh sahib district.
DRASTIC model has identified the presence of a moderately contaminated zone in the area. The
contamination of groundwater in this region can be attributed to the excessive use of tube wells,
which has led to increased levels of pollutants. Furthermore, the utilization of contaminated
groundwater for cultivation and farming activities has heightened the potential risk of introducing
toxic elements, such as selenium, into the local food chains.

Plaka et al (2017) reported the occurrence of dental fluorosis among school children in
Fatehgarh Sahib, indicating a high concentration of fluoride (F -). Conversely, water samples collected
from Ellenabad demonstrated fluoride levels within the limits set by the Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS). Additionally, Ravindra et al (2019) noted that the lower levels of fluoride (>0.8 mg/L)
suggested a potential risk of dental caries based on the same study. Bindra et al (2020) worked on
various physio-chemical parameters in the groundwater samples. The nitrate (NO 3-) concentration was
found to be within the acceptable limits prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 2012).
However, a noteworthy observation was that 80% of the samples exhibited fluoride concentrations
above the BIS acceptable limits, indicating potential fluoride contamination. Furthermore, 60% of the
samples showed moderate to severe hardness, suggesting elevated mineral content in the groundwater.

Nas and Berktay (2010) conducted an experiment for groundwater quality assessment using
GIS approach in Konya city, Turkey. A total number of 177 groundwater samples were taken to
determine various distribution of groundwater quality constraints such as pH, EC, Cl −, SO42-,
hardness, and NO3 − concentrations, and for map groundwater quality in the training area by using
GIS and Geostatistics techniques and resulted that the southwest of the city has optimum groundwater
quality and the groundwater quality decreases south to north of the city. Moreover, Sridhar et al 2014
highlighted the significance of GIS in providing valuable information for groundwater quality
assessment and emphasized the need for awareness among the public, local administrators, and the
government regarding the area's poor groundwater quality crisis. Kaura et al 2014 employed both the
DRASTIC and GALDIT models to comprehensively assess the vulnerability of groundwater to
anthropogenic pollution and seawater intrusion. The results provided a comprehensive vulnerability
assessment specifically tailored to small islands, addressing the potential risks associated with
contamination from human activities and the intrusion of seawater. Further Lahjouj et al (2020) utilize
random forest model to access groundwater vulnerability in Sais basin, Morocco. Different variables
were considered rainfall, organic matter, soil texture (sand, silt and clay), altitude, lithology, land use,
C/N ratio, piezometric level, CaCO3, slope, hydraulic gradient, and soil classification and it resulted
that 48 and 63% of the total surface area was under high to very high vulnerability to nitrate content.

Kourgialas et al (2017) generated a Fertilizer Water Pollution Index (FWPI) map to assess the impact
of agricultural fertilizers on drinking and irrigation water quality. Using a combination of eight
factors, areas with elevated groundwater contamination due to excessive fertilizer use were identified.
They reported that drinking water in the study area was moderately to slightly polluted in certain
regions. The study also analyzed groundwater flow direction and velocity, providing additional
indicators of potential pollution risks. Overall, the FWPI, combined with spatial distribution analysis
and wellhead protection zone delineation in a GIS environment, offers valuable insights for effective
groundwater management and protection policies. The detailed studies on groundwater quality
assessment signifies its depth of importance. So, it becomes imperative to have a detailed
investigation of the groundwater quality of Fatehgarh and Rupnagar districts of Punjab.

Technical Programme of work

5.1 A) Experiment 1: Evaluation of groundwater quality variables for drinking and irrigation in
Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar districts of Punjab
a) Location: NRM laboratory, Department of Soil Science, PAU, Ludhiana.
b) Methodology

⮚ Grid sampling (3 km ×3 km¿ of groundwater will be done

⮚ The location data of each sample will be collected using GPS

⮚ Analysis of water samples will be done for irrigation as well as for drinking water quality

parameters

⮚ Number of districts: Two (Fatehgarh Sahib and Rupnagar)

⮚ Number of water samples to be taken from each district

Fatehgarh Sahib: 155

Rupnagar: 160

Total number of samples from both districts = 315

c) Observations to be recorded
i. Physical parameters
Colour, Odour, Turbidity, Temperature, Total hardness (EDTA titration method); Total
dissolved
solids.
ii. Chemical parameters
1. Conductivity (Jackson 1967); pH (Jackson 1967); Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Chloride
(Richards 1954); Sulphate-sulphur-(Chesnin and Yein 1951); Nitrate-Nitrogen (UV
spectrophotometer screening method); soluble cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+) (Flame
photometer method); Fluoride, F- (SPADNS spectrophotometric method); Phosphate, PO 43-
(spectrophotometry)
2. Heavy metal: Arsenic, Boron, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron, Lead,
Molybdenum, Nickel, Selenium, Uranium and Zinc (ICP MS method)
d) Ground water quality indices for drinking and irrigation will be computed on the basis of the
above-mentioned water quality parameters
e) Human risk assessment will be computed as per EPA (USEPA 2011)

B) Experiment 2: To identify the area vulnerable to potentially toxic levels of water quality
variables

a) Location: NRM Laboratory, Department of Soil Science, PAU, Ludhiana/ Punjab Remote
Sensing Centre

b) Methodology

• Variables used in the algorithm- Land use, % sand, % clay, soil organic matter, slope and
total wetness index.

• Raster layers of input variables will be created using QGIS to a resolution of 3  3 km.

• The data will be randomly split into two sub-datasets- training (80%) and testing (20%) in R
for predictive model building and predicted results will be mapped in QGIS.

5.2 Statistical Analysis

• One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used to study the variation of different
parameters (p < 0.01) in different district.

• Model accuracy will be determined using confusion matrix and kappa coefficient.

6. Schedule work-flow diagram

Activity Semester I Semester II Semester III Semester IV

F M A M Ju J A S O N D J F M A M Ju J A S O N D

1. Collection of * * * *
literature

2. Preparation and * * * * * * *

Submission of
synopsis

3. Sampling * * * * * *

4. Labwork * * * *

5. Analysis and * * * *
data
compilation
6. Thesis writing * * *

7. Thesis seminar *
and rough
submission

8. Thesis *
submission

7. Collaboration with other departments: Nil

8. References

Acharyya S K, Lahiri S, Raymahashay B C and Bhowmik A (2000) Arsenic toxicity of

groundwater in parts of the Bengal basin in India and Bangladesh the role of
quaternary stratigraphy and Holocene sea-level fluctuation. Environ Geol 39:1127-
37.

Ahada C P and Suthar S (2018) A GIS based DRASTIC model for assessing aquifer
vulnerability in Southern Punjab, India. Model Earth Syst Environ 4:635-45.

Ahada C P and Suthar S (2018) Assessing groundwater hydrochemistry of Malwa Punjab,

India. Arab J Geosci 11:1-15.

Ahamad A, Raju N J, Madhav S, Gossel W and Wycisk P (2019) Impact of non-engineered

Bhalswa landfill on groundwater from quaternary alluvium in Yamuna flood plain
and potential human health risk, New Delhi, India. Quat Int 507:352-69.

Anonymous (2020) Just 60% Punjab of Punjab groundwater is fit for use. The Tribune
https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/just-60-punjab-groundwater-fit-for-use-
43185

Baba A and Ayyildiz O (2006) Urban groundwater pollution in Turkey: A National Review
of Urban Groundwater Quality Issues. In Urban Groundwater Management and
 Sustainability Springer Netherlands pp 93-110.

Bhardwaj V and Singh D S (2011) Surface and groundwater quality characterization of

Deoria District Ganga plain India. Environmental Earth Sciences 63:383-95.
Bindra D, Ravindra K, Chanana N, and Mor S (2021) Assessment of on-site sanitation
practices and contamination of groundwater in rural areas of Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab,
India. Environ Dev Sustain 23:4594-613.

BIS (2012) Drinking water specification IS: 10500:2012. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian
Standards.

Boyle D R, Turner R J W and Hall G E M (1998) Anomalous arsenic concentrations in

groundwaters of an island community, Bowen Island, British Columbia. Environ
Geochem Health 20:199-212.

CAG (2019) Social, general and economic sectors report of comptroller and auditor general
of India and government of Punjab.

Capri E, Civita M, Corniello A, Cusimano G, De Maio M, Ducci D, Fait G,

Fiorucci A, Hauser S, Pisciotta A, Pranzini G, Trevisan M, Delgado Huertas
A, Ferrari F, Frullini R, Nisi B, Offi M, Vaselli O and Vassallo M (2009) Assessment
of nitrate contamination risk. The Italian experience. J Geochem Exploration 102:71-
86.
Chesnin L and Yien C H (1951) Turbidimetric determination of available sulfates. Soil Sci
Soc Am J 15:149-51

CGWB (Central Groundwater Board) (2013) Report on dynamic groundwater resources of

Punjab state (as on March 2011). Central Groundwater Board, North Western
Region, Chandigarh. pp 1-135

Custodio E (2002) Aquifer overexploitation, what does it mean? Hydrogeol J 10:254–77

Elhatip H, Afsin M, Kuscu I, Dirik K, Kurmac Y and Kavurmaci M (2003) Influences of

human activities and agriculture on groundwater quality of Kayseri Incesu–
Dokuzpınar springs, Central Anatolian Part of Turkey. Environ Geol 44:490–4

ESOPB (2020) Statistical abstract of Punjab. Chandigarh: Economic and Statistical

Organisation, Government of Punjab.
Gorai S, Ratha D, and Dhir A (2023) Prediction of agricultural water deficiency and its
management using long-term rainfall trends. Sustain Water Resor Mana 9:102.

Gogu RC, Dassargues A (2000) Current trends and future challenges in groundwater
vulnerability assessment using overlay and index methods. Environ Geol 39:549–59

Ishaku J M, Ahmed A S, and Abubakar M A (2011) Assessment of groundwater quality using

chemical indices and GIS mapping in Jada area, Northeastern Nigeria. J Earth Sci
and Geotech Eng 1:35-60.

Jackson M (1967) Soil chemical analysis prentice. Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
pp 498.

Kim M J, Nriagu J and Haack S (2000) Carbonate ions and arsenic dissolution by
groundwater. Environ Sci Technol 34:3094-3100.

Kourgialas N N, Karatzas G P, and Koubouris G C (2017) A GIS policy approach for

assessing the effect of fertilizers on the quality of drinking and irrigation water and
wellhead protection zones (Crete, Greece). J Environ Manag 189:150-59.

Kumar M, Kumari K, Ramanathan AL, Saxena R (2007) A comparative evaluation of

groundwater suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes in two intensively
cultivated districts of Punjab, India. Environ Geol 53:553–74

Kumar M, Kumari K, Singh UK, Ramanathan AL (2009) Hydrogeochemical processes in the

groundwater environment of Muktsar, Punjab: conventional graphical and
multivariate statistical approach. Environ Geol 57:873–84

Kumar P, Thakur P K, Bansod B K and Debnath S K (2016) Assessment of the effectiveness

of DRASTIC in predicting the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination: a case
study from Fatehgarh Sahib district in Punjab, India. Environ Earth Sci 75:1-13.

Kumar R, Mittal S, Peechat S, Sahoo P K and Sahoo S K (2020) Quantification of

groundwater–agricultural soil quality and associated health risks in the agri-intensive
Sutlej River Basin of Punjab, India. Environ Geochem Health, 42:4245-68.

Kura N U, Ramli M F, Ibrahim S, Sulaiman W N A, Aris A Z, Tanko A I, and Zaudi M A

(2015) Assessment of groundwater vulnerability to anthropogenic pollution and
seawater intrusion in a small tropical island using index-based methods. Environ Sci
Pollut Res 22:1512-33.
Lahjouj A, El Hmaidi A, Bouhafa K and Boufala M H (2020) Mapping specific groundwater
vulnerability to nitrate using random forest: case of Sais basin, Morocco. Model
Earth Syst Environ 6:1451-66.

Li P, Zhang Y, Yang N, Jing L and Yu P (2016) Major ion chemistry and quality assessment
of groundwater in and around a mountainous tourist town of China. Expos Health
8:239-52.

Li P and Wu J (2019) Drinking water quality and public health. Expos Health 11:73-9.

Majumdar D, and Gupta N (2000) Nitrate pollution of groundwater and associated human
health disorders. Indian J Environ Health 42:28-39.

Mehra R Singh S and Singh K (2007) Uranium studies in water samples belonging to Malwa
region of Punjab, using track etching technique. Radiation Measur 42:441-45.

Ministry of MSME GOI (2011) Brief industrial profile of district Fatehgarh Sahib. S. M. E.
D. I. Micro, Govt. of India Ministry of MSME. Ludhiana.

Nas B and Berktay A (2010) Groundwater quality mapping in urban groundwater using GIS.
Environ Monit Assess 160:215-27.

Plaka K, Ravindra K, Mor S and Gauba K (2017) Risk factors and prevalence of dental
fluorosis and dental caries in school children of North India. Environ Monit Assess
189:1-9.

Purushothman P, Rao MS, Kumar B, Rawat YS, Krishan G, Gupta S, Marwah S, Bhatia AK,
Kaushik YB, Angurala MP and Singh GP (2012) Drinking and irrigation water
quality in Jalandhar and Kapurthala Districts, Punjab, India: using hydrochemistry.
Int J Earth Sci Eng 5:1599-1608

Rahmati O, Pourghasemi H R and Melesse A M (2016) Application of GIS-based data driven

random forest and maximum entropy models for groundwater potential mapping: a
case study at Mehran Region, Iran. Catena 137:360–72.

Ravindra K, Mor S, Singh A, Singh V J, Dhanda N, Rani P and Mor S (2019) Hydro-
chemistry of groundwater in a North Indian city and its suitability assessment for
drinking and irrigation purposes. J Environ Biol 40:200-10.

Richards L A (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline alkali soils, agriculture, 160,
Handbook 60. US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC.
Rodriguez-Galiano V, Mendes M P, Garcia-Soldado M J, Chica-Olmo M and Ribeiro L
(2014) Predictive modelling of groundwater nitrate pollution using random forest and
multisource variables related to intrinsic and specific vulnerability: a case study in an
agricultural setting (Southern Spain). Sci Total Environ 476:189–206.
Sahoo S, Kaur A, Litoria P and Pateriya B (2014) Geospatial modelling for groundwater
quality mapping: a case study of Rupnagar district, Punjab, India. The Int Arch
Photogram, Rem Sen Spatial Info Sci 40: 227.
Saigal SK (2007) Ground water information booklet Fatehgarh Sahib District. Chandigarh,
Central Groundwater Board North Western Region, Punjab.
Sharma S, Nagpal A K and Kaur I (2019) Appraisal of heavy metal contents in groundwater
and associated health hazards posed to human population of Ropar wetland, Punjab,
India and its environs. Chemosphere 227:179-90.

Shrivastava B K (2015) Elevated uranium and toxic elements concentration in groundwater in

Punjab state of India: extent of the problem and risk due to consumption of unsafe
drinking water. Water Qual Expo Health 7:407-21.

Singh K, Singh D, Hundal H S and Khurana M P S (2013) An appraisal of ground water

quality for drinking and irrigation purposes in southern part of Bathinda district of
Punjab, northwest India. Environ Earth Sci 70:1841-1851.

Sridhar N, Poongothai S, and Ravisankar N (2014) Spatial analysis of groundwater quality for
Tarangabadi taluk, Nagappatinam district, Tamilnadu using GIS. Int J Emerg
Technol Adv Eng 4:251-58.

Stefanakis A I, ZOUZIAS D and Marsellos A N T O N I O S (2017). Groundwater pollution:

Human and natural sources and risks. Env sci Eng Vol 4.

Tiwari A K and Singh A K (2014) Hydrogeochemical investigation and groundwater quality

assessment of Pratapgarh district, Uttar Pradesh. J Geol Soc India 83:329-43.

Tiwari R, Aulakh R S, Bedi J S, Gill J P S and Kumar A (2020) Occurrence and spatial
distribution of metals and arsenic in groundwater sources of Punjab (India), and their
health risk assessment. Toxicol Environ Chem 102:425-38.

Tularam G A, Krishna M (2009) Long term consequences of groundwater pumping in

Australia: a review of impacts around the globe. J Appl Sci Environ Sanit 4:151–66.

Vikas Pahal V, Rana ruchika, Singh G and Sawroop K (2020) Assessment of various
physico–chemical parameters of treated and untreated waste water from district
 Fatehgarh sahib, Punjab, India. Poll Res 39: 123-129.

Virk H S (2019) Uranium content anomalies in groundwater of Barnala district of malwa belt
of Punjab (India) for the assessment of excess cancer risk. Research & Reviews: J
Oncol Hematol 8:19-26.

Virk H S, Jakhu R and Bangotra P (2016) Natural uranium content in ground waters of
Mohali and Fatehgarh Districts of North Punjab (India) for the assessment of excess
cancer risk. Glob J Hum Soc Sci 16:12-7.

Zhang Y, Wu J and Xu B (2018) Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrogen

pollution in Jinghui canal irrigation area of the loess region, northwest China.
Environ Earth Sci 77:1-12.

______________________
Signature of the student
ADVISORY COMMITTEE

S. No. Name Designation and Department Signature

1 Dr. Sumita Chandel Soil Chemist
(Major Advisor) (Department of Soil Science)

2 Dr. Harsimran Kaur Assistant Professor

(Department of Soil Science)

3 Dr. Manpreet Kaur Associate Professor

(Department of Chemistry)
4 Dr. Sashikant Sahoo Scientist SD
(Geology, water resources and
Geoinformatics division, PRSC)
5 Dr. Kuldip Singh Principal Soil Chemist
(Nominee of Dean PGS) (Department of Soil Science)

Forwarded five copies to the Dean, Postgraduate Studies, for approval of Synopsis Approval
Committee.

_____________________

Head of the Department

Memo No.: _______________

Dated : _______________

Dean

Postgraduate Studies

P. A. U., Ludhiana