Tanta University Electrical Power and Machines Department

Faculty of Engineering
Fourth Year- Second Term
2020-2021

Power System Protection

Section #2

Sheet #2

Eng. Eatmad Nahas

 Transformer Protection
Mechanical Protection Electrical Protection

Temperature Pressure 1-87 T differential

2- 87 N Restricted earth differential

Oil Winding Oil 3- 50/51 overcurrent

4- 50/51 N Neutral overcurrent

Sudden Relieve 5- 67 directional

6- 24 Over excitation
7- 49 Overload
 Factors affecting on differential protection

1- Magnetizing inrush current , Over excitation, CT saturation

2- Different voltage level

3- Phase shift in delta-star connection

4- Transformer Taps

5- Phase shift or voltage tap in regulating transformer

 Differential Protection
Biased Relay
or
High impedance relay
or
Percentage differential Relay
𝑰𝒐 = 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐
Setting are:
Trip
 Iomin
Iomin
 Slope
No operation
𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐
𝑰𝑹=
𝟐
 Sheet (2)
1- A single-phase transformer is rated at 110/33 kV, 50 MVA. It has an overload capability of 120 %. The 110 kV side
has a tap changer with (5/8) % step size, and with a range of 99 to 121 kV. Determine CT ratios for a percentage
differential relay to protect this transformer. Assume a maximum CT error of 5 % in either of the two CTs. What is the
minimum slope of the percentage differential characteristic of the relay? Assume that both the relay windings are
provided with taps for 3.0, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 6.0 A, and determine the appropriate taps which will minimize the
required slope of the relay characteristic. What pickup current setting for the relay would you recommend?

 Full load current  Full load current

𝑆 50 ∗ 1000 𝑆 50 ∗ 1000
𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 454.54 𝐴 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 1515.15𝐴
𝑉 110 𝑉 33

CTR= 500/5 CTR= 2000/5

𝑖1 = 454.54 ∗ (5/500) = 4.54 𝐴 𝑖2 = 1515.15 ∗ (5/2000) = 3.78 𝐴

 Sheet (2)
 Full load current  Full load current
𝑆 50 ∗ 1000 𝑆 50 ∗ 1000
𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 454.54 𝐴 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 1515.15𝐴
𝑉 110 𝑉 33

CTR= 500/5 CTR= 2000/5

𝑖1 = 454.54 ∗ (5/500) = 4.54 𝐴 𝑖2 = 1515.15 ∗ (5/2000) = 3.78 𝐴

 Min. slope = ∑ errors + SM = CT mismatch error + CT error +ULTC error +SM

 ULTC………… Tap changer in main winding of transformer (± 5 % , ± 10 % , ± 15 % , +5 %,-10 %...)
 CT error ………Depending on the CT classes ( 5% , 10%)

𝑖1−𝑖2 4.54−3.78
 CT mismatch error…. = *100 = *100 =15.2 %
5 5

4.54 3.78
 Choose taps from : taps for 3.0, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 6.0 A , ( − )*100 =0.083 %
4.8 4

 ∑ errors = 0.1+5+10=15.1 %, ∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 20 % , 𝐼𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝐴

 Sheet (2)
2- If the transformer of problem 1 had no tap changer, could you accept a lower slope? Explain your answer.

 Min. slope = ∑ errors + SM = CT mismatch error + CT error +ULTC error +SM

 ULTC……… Tap changer in main winding of transformer (± 5 % , ± 10 % , ± 15 % , +5 %,-10 %...)

 CT error ………Depending on the CT classes ( 5% , 10%)

𝑖1−𝑖2 4.54−3.78
 CT mismatch error…. = *100 = *100 =15.2 %
5 5

4.54 3.78
Choose taps from : taps for 3.0, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 6.0 A , ( − )*100 =0.083 %
4.8 4

∑ errors = 0.1+5=5.1 %, ∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 10 % , 𝐼𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝐴

 Sheet (2)
3- Consider the three-phase transformer bank. The transformer is rated 500 MVA at 34.5(delta)/500(wye) kV,
assume that an internal three-phase fault develops at the bushings on the wye side (within the zone of protection of
the differential relay) of the power transformer. On the transformer base, the system impedances on the wye and the
delta sides are (0.0 + j0.3) pu and (0.0 + j0.2) pu, respectively. The leakage impedance of the transformer is (0.0 +
j0.08) pu on its own base. What are the currents in the restraining and operating windings of the differential relays?
Will the relay operate?

Solution
1- Draw the differential protection

𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 IA Ia
A a
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 IB ia
B (iA-iC) Ib b
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 IC
C (iB-iC) Ic ib c
ic
(iC-iB)

io3 io2 io1

i1 i'1
(ic-ib)
i2 i'2
(ib-ia)
i3 i'3
(ia-ic)
2- Select CTR and determine the relay characteristics
 Full load current  Full load current
𝑆 500 ∗ 1000 𝑆 500 ∗ 1000
𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 8367.3 𝐴 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 577.3𝐴
3𝑉 3 ∗ 34.4 3𝑉 3 ∗ 500

3 ∗ 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = 3 ∗ 577.3=999.99A

CTR= 9000/5 CTR= 1000/5

𝑖1 = 8367.3 ∗ (5/9000) = 4.64 𝐴 𝑖2 = 999.99 ∗ (5/1000) = 4.99 𝐴

 Min. slope = ∑ errors + SM = CT mismatch error + CT error +ULTC error +SM

 ULTC………… Tap changer in main winding of transformer (± 5 % , ± 10 % , ± 15 % , +5 %,-10 %...)

 CT error ………Depending on the CT classes ( 5% , 10%)

𝑖1−𝑖2 4.64−4.99
 CT mismatch error…. = *100 = *100 =7 %
5 5

4.64 4.99
 Choose taps from : taps for 3.0, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 6.0 A , ( − )*100 =3.1 %
4.8 5

 ∑ errors = 3.1+10=13.1 %, ∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 15 % , 𝐼𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝐴

 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 IA
3- Internal 3-Ph fault at star side A Ia
a
1 IB
𝐼𝑓 = = −𝑗2.63 𝑝𝑢 B (iA-iC) 𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶
Ib
ia
b
𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.3
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 IC
 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝑨 , C (iB-iC)
Ic ib c

 𝑰𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 = −𝒋𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 A ic
(iC-iB)

 At 500 KV side io3 io2 io1

(ic-ib)

i1 i'1
𝐼𝑎 = 1519.4∠-90 A
𝐼𝑏 = 1519.4∠30 A
i2 i'2
𝐼𝑐 = 1519.4∠-150 A (ib-ia)

i3 i'3
 At 34.5 KV side (Phase current) (ia-ic)

𝐼𝐴 = 12709.4∠-90 A
𝐼𝐵 = 12709.4∠30 A + ve seq. impedance
𝐼𝐶 = 12709.4∠-150 A
X1g X1tr
 (Line current)
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 =22013.3 ∠-120 A Vg
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 =22013.3 ∠0 A
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 =22013.3 ∠120 A
3- Internal 3-Ph fault at star side

1
𝐼𝑓 = = −𝑗2.63 𝑝𝑢
𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.3
 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝑨 , 𝑰𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 = −𝒋𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 A
For Secondary of CTs sides:
 At 500 KV side
𝐼𝑎 = 1519.4∠-90 A 𝑖1′ = 𝑖2′ = 𝑖3′ = 0 𝐴
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖𝐴 = 12.2 𝐴
𝐼𝑏 = 1519.4∠30 A
𝐼𝑐 = 1519.4∠-150 A
𝑖2 = 𝑖𝐵 − 𝑖𝐶 = 12.2 𝐴
 At 34.5 KV side (Phase current)
𝐼𝐴 = 12709.4∠-90 A 𝑖3 = 𝑖𝐴 − 𝑖𝐵 = 12.2 𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = 12709.4∠30 A
𝐼𝐶 = 12709.4∠-150 A
𝑖𝑜1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ = 𝑖1 =12.2 A 𝑖𝑅1 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖1′ )/2
 (Line current) 𝑖𝑜2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖2′ = 𝑖1 =12.2 A
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 =22013.3 ∠-120 A
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 =22013.3 ∠0 A
𝑖𝑜3 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖3′ = 𝑖1 =12.2 A 𝑖𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑅3
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 =22013.3 ∠120 A
All Relays will trip
 3- External 3-Ph fault at star side
1
𝐼𝑓 = = −𝑗2.63 𝑝𝑢
𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.3
 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝑨 , 𝑰𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 = −𝒋𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 A
𝑖𝑎 = ……………. A
 At 500 KV side 𝑖𝑏 = …………….A For Secondary of CTs sides:
𝐼𝑎 = 1519.4∠-90 A 𝑖𝑐 = …………….A
𝐼𝑏 = 1519.4∠30 A 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 = ……………. A 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖𝐴 = 12.2 𝐴 𝑖1′ = 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖𝐴 = 6.5 𝐴
𝐼𝑐 = 1519.4∠-150 A 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑐 = ……………. A
𝑖𝑐 − 𝑖𝑎 = …………….A 𝑖2 = 𝑖𝐵 − 𝑖𝐶 = 12.2 𝐴 𝑖2′ = 𝑖𝐵 − 𝑖𝐶 = 6.5𝐴
 At 34.5 KV side (Phase current)
𝐼𝐴 = 12709.4∠-90 A 𝑖3′ = 𝑖𝐴 − 𝑖𝐵 = 6.5 𝐴
𝑖3 = 𝑖𝐴 − 𝑖𝐵 = 12.2 𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = 12709.4∠30 A
𝐼𝐶 = 12709.4∠-150 A
𝑖𝑜1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ =5.7 A 𝑖𝑅1 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖1′ )/2
 (Line current)
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 =22013.3 ∠-120 A 𝑖𝑜2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖2′ =5.7 A 𝑖𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑅3 = 9.35𝐴
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 =22013.3 ∠0 A
𝑖𝑜3 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖3′ =5.7 A
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 =22013.3 ∠120 A
All Relays will not trip
4- For a phase-to-phase fault (outside the zone of the differential relay) on the wye side of the transformer of
problem 3, calculate the restraining and operating currents in each of the relays. Will the relay operate for this fault?
How do the fault currents compare with the three-phase fault currents determined in problem 3?
4- External Ph-Ph fault at star side

+ve seq. impedance

X1g X1tr
1
𝐼1 = −𝐼2 =
2(𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.3)
Vg

-ve seq. impedance

𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑏 = −𝐼𝑐 = −𝑗 3𝐼1
X2g X2tr
𝐼𝑎 = 0 A
4- For a phase-to-phase fault (outside the zone of the differential relay) on the wye side of the transformer of
problem 3, calculate the restraining and operating currents in each of the relays. Will the relay operate for this fault?
How do the fault currents compare with the three-phase fault currents determined in problem 3?
4- External Ph-Ph fault at star side
𝑰𝒇 =
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑰𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝑨 , 𝑰𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 = … … … .A
For Secondary of CTs sides:
𝑖𝑎 = ……………. A
 At 500 KV side 𝑖𝑏 = …………….A
𝐼 = … … … .A
𝑎
𝑖𝑐 = …………….A 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖𝐴 = 𝑖1′ = 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖𝐴 =
𝐼𝑏 = ⋯ … … .A 𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 = ……………. A
𝐼𝑐 = ⋯ … . .A 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑐 = ……………. A 𝑖2′ = 𝑖𝐵 − 𝑖𝐶 =
𝑖𝑐 − 𝑖𝑎 = …………….A 𝑖2 = 𝑖𝐵 − 𝑖𝐶 =
 At 34.5 KV side (Phase current) 𝑖3′ = 𝑖𝐴 − 𝑖𝐵 =
𝐼𝐴 = ……………A 𝑖3 = 𝑖𝐴 − 𝑖𝐵 =
𝐼𝐵 = ⋯ … … … .A
𝐼𝐶 = ⋯ … … .A
𝑖𝑜1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ = 𝑖𝑅1 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖1′ )/2

 (Line current) 𝑖𝑜2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖2′ = 𝑖𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑅3 =

𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 = … … . .A
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 = ⋯ … … …A 𝑖𝑜3 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖3′ =
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 = ⋯ … …A All Relays …………….trip
 Report # 1
4. For a phase-to-phase fault (outside the zone of the differential relay) on the wye side of the
transformer of problem 3, calculate the restraining and operating currents in each of the relays.
Will the relay operate for this fault? How do the fault currents compare with the three-phase
fault currents determined in problem 3?

5. For a three phase- fault (inside the zone of the differential relay) on the wye
side of the transformer of problem 3, Calculate the maximum fault resistance Rf
that make the relay will not operate for this internal fault ?
 Sheet (2)
5- Assume for this problem that the 69 kV system (Figure 1) is open and make the following calculation:
 Draw the differential protection on the main transformer
 Select CT ratio and relay setting
 Calculate the internal fault current in the three phases for a solid phase-c to-ground fault on the 69 kV terminals.
 Will the relay operate or not ?
 Calculate the internal fault current in the three phases for phase-a to-ground fault on the 69 kV terminals through
10 Ω. Will the relay operate or not?
 For the internal phase-a to-ground fault on the 69 kV terminals through 10 Ω, Find the percentage of unprotected
winding.

Xo=36 %
Xo=24 %
 Sheet (2)
1- Draw the differential protection

𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 IA Ia
A a
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 IB ia
B (iA-iC) Ib b
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 IC
C (iB-iC) Ic ib c
ic
(iC-iB)

io2 io1 (ic-ib)

io3
i1 i'1

i2 i'2
(ib-ia)
i3 i'3
(ia-ic)
 Sheet (2)
2- Select CTR and determine the relay characteristics
 Full load current  Full load current
𝑆 50 ∗ 1000 𝑆 50 ∗ 1000
𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 2091.8 𝐴 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = = = 418 𝐴
3𝑉 3 ∗ 13.8 3𝑉 3 ∗ 69

CTR= 2200/5 3 ∗ 𝐼𝑓.𝑙 = 3 ∗ 418=724.6 A

CTR= 750/5

𝑖1 = 2091.8 ∗ (5/2200) = 4.75 𝐴 𝑖2 = 724.6 ∗ (5/750) = 4.83 𝐴

 Min. slope = ∑ errors + SM = CT mismatch error + CT error +ULTC error +SM

 ULTC………… Tap changer in main winding of transformer (± 5 % , ± 10 % , ± 15 % , +5 %,-10 %...)

 CT error ………Depending on the CT classes ( 5% , 10%)

𝑖1−𝑖2 4.75−4.83
 CT mismatch error…. = *100 = *100 =1.6 %
5 5

 ∑ errors = 1.6+10=11.6 %
 ∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 15 % , 𝐼𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝐴
 Sheet (2)
3- Internal L-G fault at star side

+ ve seq. impedance

X1g X1tr

Vg

-ve seq. impedance

X2g X2tr

Zero seq. impedance

Xog Xotr
 Sheet (2)
3- Internal L-G fault at star side

 PU calculation:
𝑆𝑏 = 50 𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝑏2 = 69 𝑘𝑉, 𝑉𝑏1
∘
= 13.8 𝑘𝑉 , 𝐼𝑏2 = 418 𝐴
1∠120 ∘
𝐼𝑓 = 3 𝐼𝑜 = 3 ∗ = 4.6∠30 𝑝𝑢
2 ∗ 𝑗0.12 + 2 ∗ 𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.24
∘
𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1959.3∠30 A
 During internal L-G:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑓

Equivalent Circuit

X1g X1tr X2g X2tr Xotr

Vg 𝑰𝒐
 Sheet (2)
3- Internal L-G fault at star side
During internal L-G:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑓
69/√3
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐵 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑓 * = 5656.2∠30 ∘ 𝐴
13.8
For Secondary of CTs sides:
∘
𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 = 5656.2∠30 𝐴 𝑖1′ = 𝑖2′ =𝑖3′ = 0 𝐴
∘
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐶 = 5656.2 ∠150 𝐴
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐴 = 0 𝐴
𝑖1 = 12.8 𝐴
𝑖2 = 12.8 𝐴
𝑖3 = 0 𝐴

𝑖𝑜1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ 𝑖𝑅1 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖1′ )/2

𝑖𝑜1 = 12.8 𝐴 𝑖𝑅1 = 6.4 𝐴
𝑖𝑜2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖2′ = 12.8 𝐴 𝑖𝑅2 = 6.4 𝐴
𝑖𝑜3 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖3′ =0 A 𝑖𝑅3 =0 A
 𝑰𝒐 = 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐

Trip

No operation
Iomin

𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐
𝑰𝑹=
𝟐
 Sheet (2)
 3- Calculate the internal fault current in the three phases for phase-a to-ground fault on the 69 kV terminals through 10 Ω.
Will the relay operate or not?

+ ve seq. impedance IA
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 Ia
X1g X1tr A a

𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐶 IB ia
B (iA-iC) Ib b
Vg 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐴 IC
C (iB-iC)
Ic ib c

ic
(iC-iB)
-ve seq. impedance
(ic-ib)
io2 io1
io3
X2g X2tr i1 i'1

i2 i'2
(ib-ia)

Zero seq. impedance i3 i'3

(ia-ic)
Xog Xotr
 Sheet (2)
3- Internal L-G fault at star side
 PU calculation:
𝑆𝑏 = 50 𝑀𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝑏2 = 69 𝑘𝑉, 𝑉𝑏1 = 13.8 𝑘𝑉 , 𝐼𝑏2 = 418 𝐴,
𝑉𝑏2)𝑝ℎ
𝑍𝑏2 = = 95.3 Ω
𝐼𝑏2
𝑅𝑓𝑝𝑢 = 0.104 𝑝𝑢
1 ∘
𝐼𝑓 = 3 𝐼𝑜 = 3 ∗ = 6.2∠ − 64 𝑝𝑢
2 ∗ 𝑗0.12 + 2 ∗ 𝑗0.08 + 𝑗0.24 + 3 ∗ 0.104
∘
𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1761.2∠ − 64 A
 During internal L-G:
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑏 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓

Equivalent Circuit
X1g X1tr X2g X2tr Xotr

Vg 𝑰𝒐 3 Rf
 Sheet (2)
3- Internal L-G fault at star side
During internal L-G:
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑏 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓
69/√3 ∘
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 = 0 𝐴 , 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝑓 * = 5084.2∠ − 64 𝐴
13.8
For Secondary of CTs sides:

𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 = 0𝐴 𝑖1′ = 𝑖2′ =𝑖3′ = 0 𝐴

∘
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐶 = 5084.2∠ − 64 𝐴
∘
𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐴 = 5084.2∠ − 244 𝐴
𝑖1 = 0 𝐴
𝑖2 = 11.55𝐴
𝑖3 = 11.55 𝐴

𝑖𝑜1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ 𝑖𝑅1 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖1′ )/2

𝑖𝑜1 = 0 𝐴 𝑖𝑅1 = 0 𝐴
𝑖𝑜2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑖2′ = 11.55 𝐴 𝑖𝑅2 = 5.7 𝐴
𝑖𝑜3 = 𝑖3 − 𝑖3′ =11.55 A 𝑖𝑅3 =5.7 A
 𝑰𝒐 = 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐

Trip

No operation
Iomin

𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐
𝑰𝑹=
𝟐