712 714 74 76 78 79 80 A digital signals, in essence, represents data and information as a sequence of discrete values at any given time. The digital signal has a limited number of values. Example : Digital watches, Digital videos, CDs, DVDs etc. Q. 2. What is semiconductors ? Explain its types. Ans. Semiconductor : A semiconductor can be defined as a substance with properties ofa conductor and insulator both. Semiconductors can be pure elements such as silicon or germanium or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. Types of semiconductors : There are mainly two types of semiconductors : (1) Intrin- sicand (2) Extrinsic. (1) Intrinsic semiconductor : A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known asan initrinsic semiconductor. At room temperature, electron-hole pairs are created. When clectric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the current conduction takes place bytwo processes, namely; by free electrons and holes. Therefore, the total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free electrons and holes. Both the electron current and hole current cancelling each other because of opposite direction. So, intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction capability at room temperature. pron | Conduction Band vstonee Rand REESEConduction Band (2) Extrinsic semiconductor : It is also called impure semiconductor. Unlike intrin- sicsome impurities are added to increase its con- ducting properties. The process of adding impu- rities to a semiconductor is known as doping. The amount and type of such impurities have to be closely controlled during the preparation of ex- trinsic semiconductor. Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is added. The basic purpose of adding impurity is to in- crease either the number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal. Depending upon the ‘ype of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into- n-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor. Q.3. Explain p and n-type semiconductors. a ‘Ans. n-type semiconductor : When a small amount of pentavalent impurity like Ar- Senic (Atomic no. 33), Antimony (atomic no. 51) is added to a pure semiconductor it is known as n-type semiconductor. Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductor are known as donor impurities because they donate or provide free electrons to the semiconduc-ee a Ba ad anne YAS the holes are positively Sa aeaee ney are co-v' : oles : directed towards the negative terminal, constituting what is ae Se Q.4. Write difference between n-Type and p-Type ‘Ans. Difference between n-Type and p-Type semiconductor : p-Type semiconductor S.No. n-Type semiconductor ; 1. | These are formed by introducing These are formed by introducing impurities of pentavalent elements. the impurities of trivalent elements. 2. | Electrons are majority chargecarriers | Holes are majority charge carriers and and holes are minority charge carriers. | electrons are minority charge carriers. 3. | Number of electrons in conduction Number of holes in valence band is band is greater than the number of greater than the number of electrons holes in valence band. inthe conduction band. 4." | The Fermi energy level is near the r The Fermi energy level is near the conduction band. valence band.vepietion region widens in reverse base (i) The potential barrier is increased. (ii) The junction offers very high resistance to current flow. (iii) No current flows in the circuit due to establishment of high resistance path. Q. 6. What is transistor ? Explain n-p-n & p-n-p transistor. Ans. Junction transistor is an electronic device made by sandwiching a p-type semi- conductor into two n-type semiconductor or by sandwiching a n-type semiconductor into two p-type semiconductor. In Junction transistor, there are three semiconductor surface, which are known as emitter, base and collector. The middle portion is called base, which is very thin of the order of 10m. The other two are known as emitter and collector : There are two types of transistors : (1) n-p-n Transistor, (2) p-n-p Transistor. (1) n-p-n Transistor : When a thin section of p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two thicker section of n-type crystals, a n-p-n transistor is formed. The circuit symbol is shown in figure. The central part is called base, while left and right are called emitter and collector respectively. E c rc P 2 | T T T B e ba brter bet Cale : : ndition is E i G a (2) p-n-p Transistor : When a thin section of n-type semiconductor is sandwiched "between two thicker section of p-type crystals, a p-n-p transistor is formed. a The circuit diagram is shown in figure. The proper reason for such a symbol will be _ dealt in its working. E CaaeE i ™ c me a P 1 ‘ T T T Emitter Base Collector E B c B(3) Ifwe get the carry by adding pv ich wilt u~ ment of the result w! result is positive else take 2’s complet Ex.: Ifa=2,6=3 output =—1 ; To subtract b from a,write the expression (a-b)=a+-8) xpression can be no Now ~ bean be written as (2's complement of b) so the above xP! Ww written as. (a— 6) = a+ (2's complement of b) . ent of 5" So the problem now reduces to “Add a {0 the 2’s complem Binary representation of 3 is oo1l 1's complement of 3 is 1100 2's complement of 3 is, 1100 +1 — 1101 (2’s complement of 3) 0010 (2 in binary) + lol ©) 1101 (1) Q. 6. Explain underflow and overflow with example. ‘Ans, Underflow and Overflow : Underflow : The term underflow any arithmetic operation on n bits data and it produce less than n bits data is acondition ina computer which occurs when we perform in the answer. For Example : It we want to then we have to consider 1111 as N and 1101 as M. subtract 1111 from 1101 using 2’s complement method M-— 1101 No 1 Now findout the 2’s complement of N. 0000 +1 2's complement ofN > 0001 Now add M and 2’s complement of N then we get : 1101 ooo 1110So find answer is — 0010 that is ~ 10. Temeans we perform the calculations on four digit binary data but we get 2 bit answer, Soproduced data have smaller number of bits from operational data. Overflow : Overflow is also a condition which occurs when we perform calculations on n bits data and it produce more than n bits data, For Example : Addition of 1101 and 1001 will be as : 1101 1001 10110 Soin the above example the input data are of four bit but after calculation it generates five bit data, Q. 7. Write short notes on : (1) ASCIT code, (2) EBCDIC code, (3) Gray code, (4) Excess-3 code, (5) BCD code. Ans. (1) ASCII code : ASCII stands for “American standard code for information interchange”. It has become a world standard alphanumeric code for micro-computers. It is a7 bit code and it can represent maximum 27 = 128 different characters. These character represent 26 uppercase letters (A ~ Z), 26 lowercase letters (a — 2), 10 digits (0 — 9), 33 special symbols character and 33 control characters. The 7 bit of this codes are divided into two parts, First left most 3 bits are called zone bits and next four bits of right side are called numeric bits. An 8 bits version of ASCII code is also available, which is known as USACC-II or ASC IL-8. They can represent maximum of 256 characters. (2) EBCDIC code : EBCDIC stands for “Extended binary coded decimal interchange”. Itis basically used for large computers like mainframe. Itis 2 8 bts codes and with the help of this code we can represent maximum 2° = 256 characters. The 8 bits of EBCDIC code is basically divided into two parts that is first four bits of EBCDIC code is known as zone bits and last four bits are known as numeric bits. (3) Gray code : Digital system processes data into discrete form. Many system sup- plies continuous or analog data but it should be converted before using it in the digital system, Sometimes Gray code is used for digital system. Gray code belongs to the catego- ries of minimum changes code, in which only one bit in the code changes when moving from one code to the next. Gray code is non weighted code it means it not contain any weight according to its position. The Gray code is a reflective digital code which has the special property that any two subsequent number's codes differ by only one bit. aO10 5 6 o110 7 OL 8 1000 9 1001 10 1010 uw 1o1L 12 1100 13 1101 14 1110 15 mi 1000 (4) Excess-3 Code : Excess-3 code is a important 4 bit code, which is generally used with BCD code. To find Excess-3 code of any given number first we add 3 in individual digit then find 4 digit binary number for it. It is also a non-weighted binary code. For Example : If we want to find Excess-3 code for 3, 4 and 8, then 3 4 8 8 8 38 6 7 1 O10 olll 1011 But in any situation we have a number like 15, for which we want to find Excess-3 code, so in that situation we add 3 on | and 5 and then find binary number for individual number. 1 5 a ay 4 8 0100 1000 (6) BCD Code : BCD stands for binary coded decimal. It is a non weighted binary code. It is a strait assignment of the binary equivalent. In this code we find binary number for individual bit.— Digital Electrontes | 37 For Example : Ifwe want BCD code for 237 then we have to find three digit binary code for individual digit, 2-010 3011 To Q.8. Explain Error detection and Correction code. Ans. Error detection and Correction code : For reliable transmission of data from one end to another end or storage of digital data in memory sometimes error detection and correct in code are required. Error detection : When we transmit the data from one end to another end so their is 2 possibility that the data may change during the transmission and correct data is not trans- mitted during the transmission. So in that case we require some methodology to find out the error on data that is called error detection code, Some of the error detection code are given as bellow : 1, Parity bit Error detection method : It is just an error detection method. When we are sending data from one end to another end then extra bit added with the original message and the added extra bits known as parity bt. They are of two types : (1) Even parity and (2) odd parity. In both of parity bit method we count number of 1’s in the original data and according to number of I's we add | or 0 as a parity bit into the message and at the receiver end this message is again checked out if it matches at both end so transaction of data is correct and ifit is not matches of both end then it is considered as changes on the original data at the time of transaction. (1) Even parity : In this parity bit method we count number of 1’s and if number of | is even then in that case we set 0 as parity bit and ifnumber of | is odd then in that case we set 1 as parity bit. Example : — —— Sibit binary deg No. of 1’s in words Parity Bit Data 0 11001100 No. of | is four 1 11001110 No. of 1 is six (2) Odd parity : In this parity bit method we count number of I's and ifnumber of 1 is odd then in that case we set 0 as parity bit and if number of | is even then it that case we set 1 as parity bit. Example: 8 bit binary data - Parity Bit Daal No, of 1’s in words 0 11001000 No. of | is three 1 11110000 No. of 1 is five0 1110111 |f sum Error-Correetion Code : An Enfor-Correction Code (ECC) is a system of adding redundant data, or parity data, toa message, such that it can be recovered by a receiver even when a number of errors were introduced, either during the process of transmission, or on storage. Since the receiver does not have to ask the sender for retransmission of the data. Error-Correction Codes are usually distinguished between Convolutional codes and Block codes : (1) Convolutional codes are processed a bit-by-bit basic. They are particularly suit- able for implementation in hardware. (2) Block codes are processed on a block by block basis. Early examples of block codes are repetition codes, Hamming codes. Hamming code method : With the help of Hamming code method only one bit error can be detected and corrected. If error occurs on two bits then this method can not detect but it can detect errors on three bits but it is not capable to distinguish it. In the Hamming code we can detect errors on n bit data and for this purpose we have to add 2"=n, means r+ | extra parity bit, which is decided by the other bits, this process is performed in both ends and finally we add parity bit of both ends then it returns the position number where actually error occurred.UNIT V COMBINATIONAL AND SEQUENTIAL CiRcUIT Q. 1. Explain combinational and se, Ans. Combinational circuit : It is se ‘quential circuits using examples. al t of logic gates which produce a specified output forcertain specified combinations of input variables, with no storage iavahed, In this, the output variables are atall times dependent on the combination of input variables. In the combinational circuit, let X be the set of n inputs variables { Xo, x1) --+ Xt} and Y be the set of m output variables {¥os Yis «+++ You}- The combinational function F, os on the set X, to produce the output variable, Y. The output thus related to input as Y Xo seccec am cf Combinational |» y; ninput Logic + moutput variables | Circuit ' variables Xt a Combinational Cireui Sequential circuit : We have studied that combinational circuit is a set o. sogic gates only, output are not required to be generated in accordance with the sequence it. which the input signals are received. These applications require outputs to be generated that are not only dependent on the present input conditions but they also depend upon the past history of these inputs. So, other major aspect of digital system is analysis and design of sequential circuits. Figure show the block diagram of sequential circuit/finite state machine (FSM). As shown in figure, memory elements are connected to the combinational circuit as a feedback path. The information stored in the memory elements at any given time defines the present state of the sequential circuit. The present stateand the extemal inputs determine the outputs and the nest state of the sequential circuit. Thus we can specify the sequential circuit by a time sequence of external inputs, internal states (present states and next states), and outputs. ‘Combinational circuit (Combinational component) Outputs Inputs [Memory | elements (Sequential component) Present state Next state Sequential circuit60 | Navbodh B.C.A. Part-I Saral Adhyayan Comparison between combinational and sequential circuits : S.No. Combinational Circuit ‘Sequential circuits lL In combinational circuits, the output variables are at all times dependent on the combination of input varia- bles of these input variables. Memory unit is not required in com- binational circuits in the sequential circuit. Combinational circuits are faster in speed because the delay between input and output is due to propaga- tion delay of gate only. Combinational circuits are easy to design. Parallel adder is a combinational circuit. In sequential circuits, the output variable depend not only on the present input variables but they also depend upon the past history. Memory unit is required to store the past history of input variables. Sequential circuits are slower than the co- mbinational circuits. Sequential circuits are comparatively harder to design. Serial adder is a sequential circuit. Q. 2. What is adder ? Explain half adder and full adder by circuit diagram. Ans. Adder : Binary adders are the combinational circuit which takes two or more than two bits as input and after addition return the Sum and Carry. They are of two types:2wo Decoder So S; 8, Q. 6. What do you understand by Demultiplexer ? Ans, Demultiplexer : They are digital switches which connect data from one input source to one of n outputs. Usually implemiented by using n to 2" binary decoders where the decoder enable line is used for input data of the demultiplexer. The figure below shows the block diagram of DEMUX. a es Demultiplexer ae n Ouptut signals a m-control signals Fig. D-Multiplexer,Digital Electronics | 73 Use of Demultiplexer : * The demultiplexer receive the output signals ofthe multiplexer and converts them eck to the original form of the data at the receiving end. * The output of ALU can be stored in multiple registers or storage units with the help ofdemultiplexer. * Aserial to parallel converter is used for reconstructing parallel data from incoming serial data stream. * Demultiplexer are also used for reconstruction of parallel data and ALU circuits. There are different tune af NEMTTY «74 | Navbodh B.C.A, Part-I Saral AdmyayaM ‘74 | Navbodh B.C.A, Part-I Saral Adhyay Truth Table : ATE LE LS LR DLS Ss) Se | 7 io 5 a ; 0 D 0 ° ; | 0D 9 2 : ‘ ‘ 9 Chr oho op oD Q 0.) 1 1 0 0 0 . " ° 10 fo) 0 | 0) Oe ee ee 0 |e) ooo fo fo DY o] o Tit} of 0 | 0 | 0 | sOu) 30 Bl Bul, 0 Le i} 0 |. 0 0 0 o e el) Q. 7. What is Flip-Flop ? Explain. Aus. Flip-Flop : Flip-Flop is a basic digit memory. Which have generally two stable states that is “Q” and “1”. The devices or memory which contains only two states are called “Bistable”. For example in a Toggle switches there are two states (1) open and (2) close, In this switches memory is considerable because they store or set in a single state until itis not changed into the other state. Flip-Flop is also Bistable electronic circuit in which we can store only two states that is “0” and “1”. Ans. D Flip-Flop : In RS Fli this Flip-Flop “S$” j *Vee +Veo Output Flip Flop OV, DC = State '0' = State '1' Basic Diagram for Flip-Flop. Q. 8. Explain ‘D' Flip-Flop functions, ip-Flop there a re two input si «R” ands”. is Set to be in high to store uae Put Signals that is “R” and effe ena cloc inp[- 1 0 0 Logic symbol 1 1 1 Truth table of D flip-flop Q. 10. What is Shift Register ? Explain. Ans. Shift Register : As we know that Flip-Flops are used to store the states like “0” and “1” and these are called register. To store individual bit in computer we requires a Flip- Flop individually. For example to store 4 bit number then it requires 4 Flip-Flop for this purpose, and they are in arranged order in which they (numbers) can be stored, retrieved, shifted. Group of Flip-Flop in which binary maybe shift in or shift out are called shift register. There are two methods to shift the bit from register to another. In first method a single bit transferred from one register to another register it means a single bit at a time. Shifting of bits may be performed in any order it may be either started from most significant bit (MSB) or least significant bit (LSB) it doesn’t matter. This type of shifting is also known as serial shifting. In the second method of shifting we shift all the bit at a time from one register to another. This type of shifting is known as parallel shifting. It means we have two methods to shift the binary bits from one register to another register. That is (1) serial, (2) parallel.Digital Electronics | 79 According to the method of shi (i Serial in serial out ing. Shift registers are fallen in to four categories : (ii) Serial in parallel out (iii) Parallel in serial out. (iv) Parallel in- parallel out. Serial-in, Serial-out, Shift Register : This type of shift register accepts data serially, i.e., one bit at a time and also outputs data serially. Serial Serial Serial Serial cea pb DAs daa ad f DL freee pu ‘Output at s SISO, Shit Right, CO"? Output “So Suieien, nett Shift Register Shift Register The logic diagram of a 4-bit serial-in, serial-out, shift right, shift register is shown in figure (a) with four stages, i.e., four FFs, the register can store upto four bit of data. Serial data is applied at the D input of the first FF. The Q output of the FF is connected to the D inputof the second FF, the Q output of the second FF is connected to the D input of the third FF and the Q output of the third FF is connected to the D input of the forth. The data is outputted from the Q terminal of the last FF. Serial 1D, Q, D, Q D; Q, Dz Qup-Serial lata data Input FF, Fl FF, | Output CLK ig. 4 bit SISO, Shift Right, Shift Register. When serial data is transferred into a register, each new bit is clocked into the first FF at the positive-going edge of each clock pulse. The bit that was previously stored by the first FF is transferred to the second FF. The bit that was stored by the second FF is transferred to the third FF, and so on. The bit that was stored by the last FF is shifted out. Q. 11. What is counter ? Explain Ripple or Asynchronous counter ? ‘Ans. A digital binary counter is a device used for counting binary number. Digital counter mainly use flip-flops and some combinational circuits for special features. Ripple counter : Ripple counter is an Asynchronous counter, It got its name because the clock pulse ripple counter contains n number of flip-flops and the circuit can count up to 2" values before it resets itself to the initial value. Types of Asynchronous or Ripple Counters : (1) Up counter : Ripple up counters starts counting from 0 and counts up to its maxi- mum range. Its range depends on the number of flip-flop being used. Ripple up counter can be made using T-flop-flop and D-flip-flop. Designing of counters using flip-flops differs from each other with the type of flip-flop being used. (2) Down counter : This counter counts down numbers from highest possible count to0 and then resets back from the highest count. (3) Ripple Up/Down counter : This counter can do both up counting and down count- ing depending on the mode select switch. Mode select is a switch that selects between up-80 | Navbodh B.C.A. Part-I Saral Adhyayan counting and down counting. When M = 1, the counter will countup and when M = 0, the counter will count down. (4) Ripple Binary coded decimal : Ripple BCD counter is a decade counter which, has mod = 10. Mod means the number of states the counter have. BCD counter count, decimal numbers from 0 to 9 and resets back to default 0, with each clock pulse, the ‘Counter counts up a decimal number. Ripple BCD counter is same as Ripple up counter, the only difference is when BCp counter reached to count 10 it resets its flip-flop. Q. 12. What is synchronous counter ? Ans. The synchronous counter can be defined as, a counter which uses a clock signal for transforming their transition. So, these counters mainly depends on the input of the clock tomodify state values. In this counter, all flip-flops are associated with the same clock signal to activate simultaneously. Types of synchronous counter : @) Binary counter : A binary counter is an electronic circuit made with flip-flop where one flip-flop output is given as an input to the next flip-flop within a series. Based on the connection of flip-flop in the circuit, a binary can be used either synchronous or asyn- chronous. 2) 4 Bit synchronous up counter : The designing of a 4-bit synchronous up counter can be done like a 3-bit synchronous up counter but the difference is in the number of flip- flops used. (3) 4 Bit synchronous down counter : The main counter of this counter is to count the numbers in decreasing order. As compared to the up counter, the down counter is also the same but it must reduce its count. (4)2 Bit synchronous counter : A 2-bit synchronous counter is designed through two reversible JK flip-flops and two feynman gates. Here, the feynman gate is a CNOT or con- trolled-not gate which is used to copy signal because in reversible logic circuits fanout is not allowable, so this gate is used like a fanout gate for copying a signal. () Synchronous Up/Down counter : The synchronous counter is designed to oper- ate as an Up/Down counter using control signals because it is capable of counting in any direction so it is also known as a bidirectional counter. In this counter, a JK flip-flop is used asaT flip-flop for bit storing.