Industrial Electronics

LAB REPORT NO.7

INTRODUCTION SENSORS, SWITCHES AND CONTROLL VALVES

1-Objectives
Upon completion of this lab, one will be able to
 Understand Sensors.
 Performance of sensors.
 Temperature sensors and their types.
 Input Switches for PLC and their types.
 Control valves used and practice examples.
 Valves sequencing.
 Design examples in PLC Simulator to provide a study of the fundamentals of developing,
drawing and understanding event driven devices.

2-Pre task
Sensors:

The term sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to a
specified physical input. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor which converts a temperature
difference into an electrical output. The term transducer is generally used for a device that
converts a signal from one form to a different physical form. Thus sensors are often transducers,
but also other devices can be transducers, e.g. a motor which converts an electrical input into
rotation.

 Sensors which give digital/discrete, i.e. on−off, outputs can be easily connected to the
input ports of PLCs.

 Sensors which give analogue signals have to be converted to digital signals before
inputting them to PLC ports.

2-1. Performance of sensors:

 Accuracy
 Error
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 Response time, rise and settle time.

 Sensitivity, stability, repeatability, reliability.

2-2. Temperature sensors:

A simple form of temperature sensor which can be used to provide an on–off signal when
a particular temperature is reached is the bimetal element.
 This consists of two strips of different metals, e.g. brass and iron, bonded together.
 The two metals have different coefficients of expansion. Thus when the temperature of
the bimetal strip increases the strip curves, in order that one of the metals can expand
more than the other.
 The higher expansion metal is on the outside of the curve.
 As the strip cools, the bending effect is reversed. This movement of the strip can be used
to make or break electrical contacts and hence, at some particular temperature, give an
on−off current in an electrical circuit. The device is not very accurate but is commonly
used in domestic central heating thermostats.


2-3. Resistive temperature detector (RTD):
The electrical resistance of metals or semiconductors changes with temperature. In the case
of a metal, the ones most commonly used are platinum, nickel or nickel alloys, the resistance
of which varies in a linear manner with temperature over a wide range of temperatures,
though the actual change in resistance per degree is fairly small. Semiconductors, such as
thermistors, show very large changes in resistance with temperature. The change, however,
is non-linear. Such detectors can be used as one arm of a Wheatstone bridge and the output
of the bridge taken as a measure of the temperature fig (a).

Another possibility is to use a potential divider circuit with the change in resistance of the
thermistor changing the voltage drop across a resistor fig (b). The output from either type of
circuit is an analogue signal which is a measure of the temperature.

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2-4. Thermo diodes and thermo transistors:

They are used as temperature sensors since the rate at which electrons and holes diffuse across
semiconductor junctions is affected by the temperature.

Integrated circuits are available which combine such a temperature-sensitive element with the
relevant circuitry to give an output voltage related to temperature. A widely used integrated
package is the LM35 which gives an output of 10 mV/degree C when the supply voltage is +5 V
as shown below in fig (a).

 A digital temperature switch can be produced with an analogue sensor by feeding the
analogue output into a comparator amplifier which compares it with some set value,
producing an output giving a logic 1 signal when the temperature voltage input is equal to
or greater than the set point and otherwise an output which gives a logic 0 signal.

 Integrated circuits, e.g. LM3911N, are available, combining a thermo-transistor

temperature-sensitive element with an operational amplifier. When the connections to the
chip are so made that the amplifier is connected as a comparator (Figure (b)), then the
output will switch as the temperature traverses the set point and so directly give an
on−off temperature controller.

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2-5. thermocouple:

The thermocouple consists essentially of two dissimilar wires A and B forming a junction
(Figure 2.13). When the junction is heated so that it is at a higher temperature than the other
junctions in the circuit, which remain at a constant cold temperature, an e.m.f. is produced which
is related to the hot junction temperature. The voltage produced by a thermocouple is small and
needs amplification before it can be fed to the analogue channel input of a PLC. There is also
circuitry required to compensate for the temperature of the cold junction since its temperature
affects the value of the e.m.f. given by the hot junction. The amplification and compensation,
together with filters to reduce the effect of interference from the 50 Hz mains supply, are often
combined in a signal processing unit.

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3- pressure sensors:

Commonly used pressure sensors which give responses related to the pressure are diaphragm and
bellows types. The diaphragm type consists of a thin disc of metal or plastic, secured round its
edges. When there is a pressure difference between the two sides of the diaphragm, the center of
it deflects. The amount of deflection is related to the pressure difference. This deflection may be
detected by strain gauges attached to the diaphragm (see Figure 2.18(b)), by a change in
capacitance between it and a parallel fixed plate or by using the deflection to squeeze a
piezoelectric crystal (Figure 2.19(a)). When a piezoelectric crystal is squeezed, there is a relative
displacement of positive and negative charges within the crystal and the outer surfaces of the
crystal become charged. Hence a potential difference appears across it. An example of such a
sensor is the Motorola MPX100AP sensor (Figure 2.19(b)). This has a built-in vacuum on one
side of the diaphragm and so the deflection of the diaphragm gives a measure of the absolute
pressure applied to the other side of the diaphragm. The output is a voltage which is proportional
to the applied pressure with a sensitivity of 0.6 mV/kPa. Other versions are available which have
one side of the diaphragm open to the atmosphere and so can be used to measure gauge pressure,
others allow pressures to be applied to both sides of the diaphragm and so can be used to
measure differential pressures.

A mechanical switch generates an on/off signal or signals as a result of some mechanical input
causing the switch to open or close. Such a switch might be used to indicate the presence of a
work piece on a machining table, the work piece pressing against the switch and so closing it.
The absence of the work piece is indicated by the switch being open and its presence by it being
closed. Thus, with the arrangement shown in Figure (a), the input signals to a single input channel of the
PLC are thus the logic levels:

Work piece not present 0

Work piece present 1

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The 1 level might correspond to a 24 V D.C. input, the 0 to a 0 V input.

With the arrangement shown in Figure(b), when the switch is open the supply voltage is applied
to the PLC input, when the switch is closed the input voltage drops to a low value. The logic
levels are thus:
Work piece not present 1
Work piece present 0
Switches are available with normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts or can be
configured as either by choice of the relevant contacts. An NO switch has its contacts open in the
absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is used to close the switch. An NC
switch has its contacts closed in the absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is
used to open the switch.
Proximity switches:
Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without
making contact with it. There are a number of forms of such switches,
some being only suitable for metallic objects.
The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil which is energized
by a constant alternating current and produces a constant alternating
magnetic field. When a metallic object is close to it, eddy currents are
induced in it (Figure(a)). The magnetic field due to these eddy
currents induces an e.m.f. back in the coil with the result that the voltage
amplitude needed to maintain the constant coil current changes. The
voltage amplitude is thus a measure of the proximity of metallic objects.
The voltage can be used to activate an electronic switch circuit, basically
a transistor which has its output switched from low to high by the voltage
change, and so give an on−off device. The range over which such objects
can be detected is typically about 0.5 to 20 mm.

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Reed switch:
Another type is the reed switch. This consists of two overlapping, but
not touching, strips of a springy ferromagnetic material sealed in a glass
or plastic envelope (Figure b)). When a magnet or current-carrying
coil is brought close to the switch, the strips become magnetized and
attract each other. The contacts then close. The magnet closes the contacts
when it is typically about 1 mm from the switch. Such a switch is widely
used with burglar alarms to detect when a door is opened; the magnet
being in the door and the reed switch in the frame of the door. When the
door opens the switch opens.
Proximity switches:
A proximity switch that can be used with metallic and non-metallic
objects is the capacitive proximity switch. The capacitance of a pair of
plates separated by some distance depends on the separation, the smaller
the separation the higher the capacitance. The sensor of the capacitive
proximity switch is just one of the plates of the capacitor, the other plate
being the metal object whose proximity is to be detected (Figure(c)).
Thus the proximity of the object is detected by a change in capacitance.
The sensor can also be used to detect non-metallic objects since the
capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric between its plates. In
this case the plates are the sensor and the earth and the non-metallic object
is the dielectric. The change in capacitance can be used to activate an
electronic switch circuit and so give an onoff device. Capacitive
proximity switches can be used to detect objects when they are typically
between 4 and 60 mm from the sensor head.
4- Direction control valves:

The valve may be used to control the directions of flow of pressurized air or oil and so used to
operate other devices such as a piston moving in a cylinder. Figure shows one such form, a spool
valve, used to control the movement of a piston in a cylinder. Pressurized air or hydraulic fluid is
inputted from port P, this being connected to the pressure supply from a pump or compressor and
port T is connected to allow hydraulic fluid to return to the supply tank or, in the case of a
pneumatic system, to vent the air to the atmosphere. With no current through the solenoid the
hydraulic fluid of pressurized air is fed to the right of the piston and exhausted from the left, the
result then being the movement of the piston to the left.

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When a current is passed through the solenoid, the spool valve switches the hydraulic fluid or
pressurized air to the left of the piston and exhausted from the right. The piston then moves to
the right.

4.1- valve sequencing:

Consider tasks involving directional control valves, are specified in terms of the number of ports
and number of control positions they have. Figure shows a 4/2 valve, when the push button is
pressed, port A is connected to T, the symbol of a vent to the atmosphere or return of hydraulic
fluid to the sump, and port P is connected to B, the symbol for the pressure supply. Hence,
pushing the button causes air or hydraulic fluid to flow from P to B and vented to the atmosphere
or returned to the sump via the connection of A to T. When the push button is released, the
spring pushes the connections to the state indicated in the box attached to the spring. Thus port B
is now connected to T and port P to A. The air or hydraulic fluid now flows from P to A and is
vented to the atmosphere or returned to the sump via B. Alternatively we might have the valve
controlled by two solenoids.

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3- lab tasks
Task1: Temperature control

 Consider the task of using PLC as an ON/OFF controller for heater.

 The heater will switch ON if the temperature falls below the required temperature and
it will turns OFF if the temperature is above the rated temperature.

 This will be done by simple NOT gate as an application.

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Ladder diagram:

Simulation:

Task2:

 Consider a complex control of temperature sensing.

 A boiler is providing hot water for use at home and also for radiator to make the room
hot.

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 There are three sensor, one for room temperature sensing and other two are boiler
sensor and hot water sensor.

 A clock is also provided to run the operation at specific time of the day.

Memory allocation for ladder programing variables:

Ladder diagram and simulation:

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Task3:
direction control valves and sequencing:

Consider the task of obtaining cyclic movement of a piston in a cylinder. This might be to
periodically push work pieces into position in a machine tool with another similar, but out of
phase, arrangement being used to remove completed work pieces. Figure shows the valve and
piston arrangement that might be used, a possible ladder program and chart indicating the
timing of each output.

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Timing diagram

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Ladder diagram:

Simulation

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Consider both timers set for 10 s. When the start contacts X400 are closed, timer T450 starts.
Also there is an output from Y431. The output Y431 is one of the solenoids used to actuate the
valve. When it is energized it causes the pressure supply P to be applied to the right-hand end
of the cylinder and the left-hand side to be connected to the vent to the atmosphere. The
piston thus moves to the left. After 10 s, the normally open T450 contacts close and the
normally closed T450 contacts open. This stops the output Y431, starts the timer T451 and
energizes the output Y430. As a result, the pressure supply P is applied to the left-hand side of
the piston and the right-hand side connected to the vent to the atmosphere. The piston now
moves to the right. After 10 s, the T451 normally closed contacts are opened. This causes the
normally closed contacts of T450 to close and so Y431 is energized. Thus the sequence repeats
itself.

post task:
• Consider a task involving three pistons A, B and C that have to be actuated in the
sequence: A to the right, A to the left, B to the right, B to the left, C to the right, C to the
left (such a sequence is often written A+, A−, B+, B−, C+, C−).

• Give a delay of 4 seconds for each movement to stay.

Ladder diagram:

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Simulation:

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Conclusion:

The desired output is achieved.

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