MODULE 6 COUNTING TECHNIQUES

COUNTING TECHNIQUES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Learn to count using the fundamental counting principle,

permutations, and combinations.

Fundamental principles of counting

The Fundamental Counting Principle (also called the counting rule)

is a way to figure out the number of outcomes in a probability problem.
Basically, you multiply the events together to get the total number of
outcomes. The fundamental counting principle states that in counting, the
simplest method is done by enumerating all the possible outcomes.

Consider the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. Suppose we want to determine the

total two-digit numbers that can be formed if these numbers are combined.
First, let us assume that no digit is to be repeated. Thus, the possible two-
digit numbers that can be formed can be enumerated as follows:

12 21 31 41
13 23 32 42
14 24 34 43

If the numbers can be repeated or repetition is allowed, then the possible

two-digit numbers are as follows:

11 22 33 44
12 21 31 41
13 23 32 42
14 24 34 43
 If the first activity can be done in n1 ways and the second activity in n2
ways then the total number of ways in which the two activities can be done
in equal to n1 x n2.

Example 1: How many two-digit numbers can be formed from the

numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 if a) repetition is allowed? b) repetition is not
allowed?

Solution:

a) Repetition is allowed

Let n1 = be the number of filling the tens place = 4

n2 = be the number of filling the units place = 4

So, n1 x n2 = 4x4 = 16 ways

b) Repetition is not allowed

Let n1 = be the number of filling the tens place = 4

n2 = be the number of filling the units place = 3

So, n1xn2 = 4x3=12 ways

Example 2: How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 if any of the numbers can be repeated?

Solution:

Let n1 = be the number of filling hundreds place = 5

n2 = be the number of filling tens place = 5
n3 = be the number of filling units place = 5

So, n1 x n2 x n3 = 5x 5 x5 125 ways

Note: Fundamental Counting Principle can be used to find the number of
possibilities when given several groups. How? Multiply the number of
elements in each group together.

Permutations and Combinations

A permutation of some objects is an arrangement of those objects in a

definite order.

It is obvious that if you have two different pool balls, there are two
ways to arrange them in a row:

But what if there were three balls, or four, or twelve? To see how to
find the answer for any number of balls, think of placing the balls as a
sequence of two tasks: first choose the left ball, and then choose the right.
You have two choices for the left ball, but then only one for the right, so there
is 2⋅1=2 ways to arrange the balls altogether. Similarly, if you have three
balls, there will be 3⋅2⋅1=6 ways to arrange them in order:

An arrangement of objects in a definite order is called a permutation of

those objects. We’ve just seen that there are two possible permutations of
two different objects and six possible permutations of three different objects.
These examples make it clear that if we have n different objects, then there
is n (n−1) (n−2) ⋯ (2) (1) possible permutations of those objects.
Example 1. John wants to give a novel and a cookbook to his friend. He has
four different novels and three different cookbooks to choose from. How
many different choices can he make?

Solution:

John has two tasks to do: pick a novel and pick a cookbook. As he has
four different novels to choose from, he has four ways to accomplish that
task; as he has three cookbooks to choose from, he has three ways to do that.
Thus, he has 4⋅3=12 ways to pick a novel and then a cookbook.

Example 2. The Thursday special at Lisa’s Pizza is a large pizza with any
combination of toppings (but no more than one of each). The available
toppings are pepperoni, mushrooms, onions, sausage, peppers, olives, and
pineapple. How many different Thursday specials can be ordered?

Solution:

Think of ordering a Thursday special as a sequence of seven different

tasks: choose whether or not to have pepperoni, and then choose whether or
not to have mushrooms, and so on. There are two choices for each task, so
there is 2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2=27=128 different ways to order.

For any positive integer n, we define n factorial, denoted n! to be the

product of all the positive integers up to and including n itself. That is, n! =
n (n−1) (n−2) ⋯ (2)(1). Clearly there are n! Possible permutations
of n different objects.

Suppose we have five pool balls and a box with only three slots.
Assuming that the order of the balls in the box matters, in how many
different ways could we choose three balls to put in the box?

This is not much different from the earlier question: we have five
choices for the first ball, then four for the second, and then three for the third,
so there is 5⋅4⋅3=60 ways to choose the three balls. Notice that 5⋅4⋅3=5! /
(5−3)! This leads to the following formula:

Number of Permutations

The number of permutations of r objects chosen from among n different

objects is

nPr = n! / (n−r)!

So, for example, 5P3=5! / (5−3)! =5⋅4⋅3=60 permutations/ways

Note. Sometimes n P r is written P(n,r). You need to know both

notations.

1. Permutation with things that are alike

The number of permutations of n objects taken altogether, where r1, is

of one kind, r2 of the other kind, and so on is given by

Formula: nPn = n! /r1! x r2! x…rk!

Example 1. Determine the number of permutations that can be formed using

the letters of the word DADDY

Solution:

n=5
D = r1 = 3
A = r2 = 1
Y = r3 = 1

5P5= 5! / 3! x 1! x1! = 120/6 = 20 Therefore, there are 20 possible

permutations
 2. Circular Permutations

If n distinct objects are arranged in a circle, then the arrangement is

known as circular permutation. The number of circular permutations of n
objects taken altogether is n-1 P n-1 = (n-1)!

Example: In how many ways can 6 persons be seated around a table with 6
chairs?

Solution:

6-1 P 6-1 = (6-1)! = 5! = 120 ways

Combinations

A combination of r objects chosen from among n different objects is a

choice of the r objects without regard to order.

The number of combinations of r objects chosen from among n different

objects is

n C r=n! /(n−r)! r!

Other notations for n C r are C (n, r) and (r n). You need to know all these
notations.

Suppose we had five pools balls and wanted to choose four of them to
throw in a bag. In how many different ways could we choose the four balls?

Clearly, the only thing that matters here is which balls are chosen, not
the order in which they’ve chosen. If we choose Ball 2, then Ball 3, then Ball
1, then Ball 4, for example, we get the same result as if we choose Ball 1, then
Ball 2, then Ball 3, then Ball 4. A choice like this, where order does not matter,
is called a combination.

Example 1. Jerrold has five different pool balls. In how many different ways
can he choose four balls to put in a bag?

Solution:

5C4=5! / 4! (5−4)! =5, so there are five ways in which he can choose.

Example 2. A certain restaurant allows a customer to choose three different

side dishes when he buys an entrée. If there are twelve side dishes to choose
from, how many different choices of side dishes can a customer make?

Solution:

Because the order in which side dishes are ordered does not matter,
this is a combinations problem. So, there are 12C3=12! /3! (12−3)!
=12⋅11⋅10⋅9⋅8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1/(3⋅2⋅1)(9⋅8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1)
=12⋅11⋅103⋅2⋅1=660 different choices.

Example 3. A box contains 7 red and 6 green balls. In how many ways can 2
balls be drawn such that

a) They are both green?

b) 1 is red and 1 is green?

Solution:
The condition requires that the two balls when drawn must be both
green. This can be done in 6C2 ways. Since, only 2 balls shall be drawn, it
follows that no red ball shall be taken which can be done in 7C0 way. Hence,
by the fundamental principle of counting we have;
 a) 6C2 * 7C0 = 6! / (6-2)! 2! * 7! / (7-0)! 0! = 15 *1 = 15 ways
b) 7C1 *6C1 = 7! / (7-1)! 1! *6! / (6-1)! 1! = 7*6= 42 ways

Activity

Solve the following problems. Show all pertinent solutions.

1. In how many ways can a president, a vice president, a secretary, and a

treasurer be elected from a class with 39 students?
2. In how many ways can 6 persons be seated around a table with 6
chairs if two individuals wanted to be seated side by side?
3. In how many ways can a student answer 5 out of 8 questions if he is
required to answer 3 of the first 4 questions?
4. Suppose 4 different mathematics books and 5 different physics books
shall be arranged on a shelf. In how many ways can such books be
arranged if the books of the same subject shall be placed side by side?
5. In how many ways can 2 balls be drawn from a box containing 7 red
and 6 green balls?

References:

1. Alex Bolaños (2012) Probability and Statistical Concepts: An

Introduction. Rex Bookstore
2. Spiegel, et, al (2013) Schaum’s Outlines Probability and Statistics 4th
Edition. Mc Graw Hill