Paper: Management

Information System
(UNIT-II)

NEERAJ K PHOOKAN & BINOD KALITA 1

What constitutes a firm’s information
technology (IT) infrastructure?
• Computer hardware
• Computer software
• Data management technology
• Networking and telecommunications technology
• Network
• Internet
• Intranets Refer to Slide Nos 19 – 23 of Unit I
• Extranets
• World Wide Web
• All of these technologies, along with the people required to run
and manage them, represent resources that can be shared
throughout the organization and constitute the firm’s information
technology (IT) infrastructure

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….continued….
• IT infrastructure provides the foundation, or platform,
on which the firm can build its specific information
systems
• Each organization must carefully design and manage its
IT infrastructure so that it has the set of technology
services it needs for the work it wants to accomplish
with information systems
• Take the example of UBER

• Let’s look at the business model of UBER….

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Example: Uber

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Defining IT Infrastructure
• An IT infrastructure consists of a set of physical
devices and software applications that are required
to operate the entire enterprise
• IT Infrastructure also includes a set of firmwide
services budgeted by management and composed
of both human and technical capabilities
• These services include – computing services,
telecommunications services, data management
services, application software services, physical
facilities management services, IT management
services, IT standards services, IT education
services, IT research and development services
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Computing Services

• Computing platforms used to provide computing

services that connect employees, customers and
suppliers into a coherent digital environment,
including large mainframes, midrange computers,
desktop and laptop computers and mobile
handheld and remote cloud computing services

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Telecommunications Services

• Telecommunication Services provide data, voice

and video connectivity to employees, customers
and suppliers

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Data Management Services

• Data management services store and manage

corporate data and provide capabilities for
analyzing the data

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Application Software Services

• Application Software Services, including online

software services, provide enterprise-wide
capabilities such as enterprise resource planning,
customer relationship management, supply chain
management and knowledge management
systems that are shared by all business units

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Physical facilities Management
Services
• Physical facilities management services develop
and manage the physical installations required for
computing, telecommunications, and data
management services

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IT Management Services

• IT management services plan and develop the

infrastructure, coordinate with the business units
for IT services, manage accounting for the IT
expenditure and provide project management
services

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IT Standards Services
• IT Standards Services provide the firm and its
business units with policies that determine which
information technology will be used, when, and
how

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IT Education services

• IT Education Services provide training in system

use to employees and offer managers training in
how to plan for and manage IT investments

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IT Research and Development
Services
• IT research and development services provide the
firm with research on potential future IT projects
and investments that could help the firm
differentiate itself in the marketplace

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Stages of IT Infrastructure (Evolution)

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Let’s discuss the stages
• The IT infrastructure in organizations today is an
outgrowth of more than 50 years of evolution in
computing platforms
• There have been five stages in this evolution, each
representing a different configuration of computing
power and infrastructure elements
• The five eras are general-purpose mainframe and
minicomputer computing, personal computers,
client/server networks, enterprise computing, and
cloud and mobile computing

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General-Purpose Mainframe and
Minicomputer Era (1959 to Present)
• The introduction of the IBM 1401 and 7090 transistorized
machines in 1959 marked the beginning of widespread
commercial use of mainframe computers
• In 1965, the mainframe computer truly came into its own with
the introduction of the IBM 360 series
• The 360 was the first commercial computer that could provide
time sharing, multitasking, and virtual memory in more
advanced models
• In 1965, minicomputers were introduced produced by Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC)
• DEC minicomputers (Programmed Data Processor-11 and later
the Virtual Address eXtension machines) offered powerful
machines at far lower prices than IBM mainframes, making
possible decentralized computing, customized to the specific
needs of individual departments or business units rather than
time sharing on a single huge mainframe
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Personal Computer Era (1981 to
Present)
• Although the first truly personal computers (PCs) appeared in the
1970s (the Xerox Alto, the Micro Instrumentation Telemetry
Systems Altair 8800, and the Apple I and II, to name a few), these
machines had only limited distribution to computer enthusiasts
• The appearance of the IBM PC in 1981 is usually considered the
beginning of the PC era because this machine was the first to be
widely adopted by businesses.
• At first using the DOS (Disk Operating System), a text-based
command language, and later the Microsoft Windows operating
system, the Wintel PC computer (Windows operating system
software on a computer with an Intel microprocessor) became
the standard desktop personal computer
• Worldwide PC sales have declined because of the popularity of
tablets and smartphones, but the PC is still a popular tool for
business

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Client/Server Era (1983 to Present)
• In client/server computing, desktop or laptop computers called
clients are networked to powerful server computers that provide
the client computers with a variety of services and capabilities
• Computer processing work is split between these two types of
machines
• The client is the user point of entry, whereas the server typically
processes and stores shared data, serves up web pages, or
manages network activities
• The term server refers to both the software application and the
physical computer on which the network software runs
• The server could be a mainframe, but today, server computers
typically are more powerful versions of personal computers,
based on inexpensive chips and often using multiple processors in
a single computer box or in server racks.

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Enterprise Computing Era (1992 to
Present)
• In the early 1900s, firms turned to networking
standards and software tools that could integrate
disparate networks and applications throughout the
firm into an enterprise-wide infrastructure
• As the internet developed into a trusted
communications environment after 1995, business
firms began seriously using the Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) networking
standard to tie their disparate networks together
• The resulting IT infrastructure links different pieces of
computer hardware and smaller networks into an
enterprise-wide network so that information can flow
freely across the organization and between the firm
and other organizations
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Cloud and Mobile Computing Era
(2000 to Present)
• The growing bandwidth power of the Internet has
pushed the client/server model one step further,
toward what is called the “cloud computing
model”
• Cloud computing refers to a model of computing
that provides access to a shared pool of computing
resources (computers, storage, applications, and
services) over the network, often the Internet
• These “clouds” of computing resources can be
accessed on an as-needed basis from any
connected device and location

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Technology Drivers of
Infrastructure Evolution
The most important developments are:
1. Moore’s Law and Microprocessing Power
2. The Law of Mass Digital Storage
3. Metcalfe’s Law and Network Economics
4. Declining Communications Costs and the Internet
5. Standards and Network Effects

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1. Moore’s Law and
Microprocessing Power
• Moore’s Law: The observation that the number of
transistors on computer chips doubles
approximately every two years is known as Moore’s
Law.
• Moore’s Law is not a law of nature, but an
observation of along-term trend in how technology
is changing

Computer
Transistors
Chips
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Let’s understand the basics of
Computer Chips and Transistors
• A microchip (also called a chip, a computer chip, an
integrated circuit or IC) is a set of electronic circuits on
a small flat piece of silicon. On the chip, transistors act
as miniature electrical switches that can turn a current
on or off.
• A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that
regulates or controls current or voltage flow in addition
amplifying and generating these electrical signals and
acting as a switch/gate for them
• Silicon is used because silicon is a 'semiconductor',
meaning that its conductive properties can be
increased by mixing it with other materials such as
phosphorus or boron

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Moore’s Law & Microprocessor
Performance

MIPS = Million
Instructions per Second

1 million = 10 lakh

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2. The Law of Mass Digital Storage
• A second technology driver of IT infrastructure
change is the Law of Mass Digital Storage
• The amount of digital information is roughly
doubling every year
• Fortunately, the cost of storing digital information is
falling at an exponential rate of 100 percent a year

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3. Metcalfe’s Law and Network
Economics
• Moore’s Law and the Law of Mass Digital Storage help us understand
why computing resources are now so readily available
• But why do people want more computing and storage power?
• The economics of networks and the growth of the Internet provide
some answers
• the value or power of a network grows exponentially as a function of
the number of network members
• Metcalfe and others point to the increasing returns to scale that
network members receive as more and more people join the network
(Increasing Returns to Scale is when the output increases by a larger
proportion than the increase in input)
• As the number of members in a network grows linearly, the value of the
entire system grows exponentially and continues to grow as members
increase
• Demand for information technology has been driven by the social and
business value of digital networks, which rapidly multiply the number of
actual and potential links among network members
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4. Declining Communications Costs
and the Internet
• A fourth technology driver transforming IT
infrastructure is the rapid decline in the costs of
communication and the exponential growth in the size
of the Internet
• As communication costs fall toward a very small
number and approach zero, utilization of
communication and computing facilities explode
• To take advantage of the business value associated with
the Internet, firms must greatly expand the power their
Internet connections, including wireless connectivity
and greatly expand the power of their client/server
networks, desktop clients and mobile computing
devices
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5. Standards and Network Effects
• Today’s enterprise infrastructure and Internet computing
would be impossible – both now and in the future – without
agreements among manufacturers and widespread
consumer acceptance of technology standards
• Technology standards are specifications that establish the
compatibility of products and the ability to communicate in
a network
• Technology standards unleash powerful economies of scale
and result in price declines as manufacturers focus on the
products built to a single standard
• Without these economies of scale, computing of any sort
would be far more expensive than is currently the case

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What are the current trends in
computer hardware platforms?
1. The Mobile Digital platform
2. Consumerization of IT and BYOD
3. Quantum Computing
4. Virtualization
5. Cloud Computing
6. Edge Computing
7. Green Computing
8. High-Performance and Power-Saving Processors
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1. The Mobile Digital platform

• iPhone
• Android smartphones
• iPad
• Digital e-book readers such as Amazon’s Kindle

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2. Consumerization of IT and BYOD

• Employees use their personal mobile devices in

workplace
• BYOD = Bring Your Own Device

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3. Quantum Computing
• Quantum computing uses the principles of
quantum physics to represent data and perform
operations on these data
• Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that
deals with the behavior of matter and light on a
subatomic and atomic level
• While conventional computers handle bits of data
as either 0 or 1 but not both, quantum computing
can process units of data as 0, 1, or both
simultaneously

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4. Virtualization
• Virtualization is the process of presenting a set of
computing resources (such as computing power or
data storage) so that they can all be accessed in
ways that are not restricted by physical
configuration or geographic location

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5. Cloud Computing

• Cloud computing is a model of computing in which

computer processing, storage, software, and other
services are provided as a shared pool of virtualized
resources over a network, primarily the Internet
• These clouds of computing resources can be
accessed on an as-needed basis from any
connected device and location

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6. Edge Computing

• Edge computing is a method of optimizing cloud

computing systems by performing some data
processing on a set of linked servers at the edge of
the network, near the source of the data
• This reduces the amount of data flowing back and
forth between local computers and other devices
and the central cloud data center

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7. Green Computing
• Green computing, or sustainable computing, is the
practice of maximizing energy efficiency and
minimizing environmental impact in the ways
computer chips, systems and software are designed
and used
• Example: solar powered portable battery chargers

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8. High-Performance and Power-
Saving Processors
• Way to reduce power requirements and hardware
sprawl is to use more efficient and power-saving
processors
• Multicore Processor: An integrated circuit to which
two or more processor cores have been attached
for enhances performance, reduced power
consumption, and more efficient simultaneous
processing of multiple tasks

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What are the current computer
software platforms and trends?

1. Linux and Open Source Software

2. Software for the Web: Java, JavaScript, HTML,
and HTML5
3. Web services and service-oriented architecture
4. Software outsourcing and cloud services

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1. Linux and Open Source Software

• Most well known open source software

• Python, Mozilla Firefox: example of open source
software

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2. Software for the Web: Java,
JavaScript, HTML, and HTML5
• Java: programming language and platform that is
utilized for Android development, web development,
artificial intelligence, cloud applications, and much
more
• Java is an OOP programming language while Java Script
is an OOP scripting language
• Scripting languages are used for smaller tasks, whereas
programming languages help build large and complex
software applications
• The Hyper Text Markup Language or HTML is the
standard markup language for documents designed to
be displayed in a web browser
• HTML5 includes several new features that make web
development easier and more efficient
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3. Web services and service-
oriented architecture
• Web services refer to a set of loosely coupled software
components that exchange information with each
other using universal web communication standards
and languages
• Service-oriented architecture (SOA) is a method of
software development that uses software components
called services to create business applications
• For example, an individual in sales or marketing could
perform an SOA service request from a customer
relationship management system, which provides
access to customer data
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4. Software outsourcing and cloud
services
• WhatsApp: iOS development is outsourced
• Igor Solomennikov, an iOS developer from Eastern
Europe, on RentACoder.com (a platform for hiring
freelancers)
• Microsoft Office 365 is an example of cloud service
provider
• User can access, share, store and secure
information in “the cloud”
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Challenges of managing IT
infrastructure and solutions
• Creating and managing a coherent IT infrastructure
raises multiple challenges:

• Dealing with platform and technology change (including

cloud and mobile computing)
• Management and Governance
• Making wise infrastructure investments

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Databases
• Let’s take the example of Electric Utility Database

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Definition of Database
• A database is an integrated collection of logically
related data elements
• A database consolidates records previously stored
in separate files into a common pool of data
elements that provides data for many applications
• The data stored in a database are independent of
the application programs using them and of the
type of storage devices on which they are stored
• Thus, databases contain data elements describing
entities and relationships among entities
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A database has the following
restricted properties:
• A database represents some aspects of the real
world, sometimes called the Mini world or the
Universe of Discourse (UOD). Changes to the Mini
world are reflected in the database
• A database is a logically coherent collection of data
with some inherent meaning
• A database is designed, built, and populated with
data for a specific purpose. It has an extended
group of users and some preserved applications in
which these users are interested

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Database Management System
(DBMS)
• A database management system (DBMS) is a
collection of programs that enables users to create
and maintain a database
• The DBMS is a general-purpose software system
that facilitates the process of defining,
constructing, and manipulating databases for
various applications
• Examples: MySQL Database, MS-Access etc.

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Data structure

• A data structure is a data organization,

management, and storage format that is usually
chosen for efficient access to data
• Five fundamental database structures are the
hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented,
and multidimensional models

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Object-oriented

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Multidimensional

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Hierarchical Structure
• Early mainframe DBMS packages used the hierarchical
structure , in which the relationships between records form
a hierarchy or treelike structure
• In the traditional hierarchical model, all records are
dependent and arranged in multilevel structures, consisting
of one root record and any number of subordinate levels
• Thus, all of the relationships among records are one-to-
many because each data element is related to only one
element above it
• The data element or record at the highest level of the
hierarchy (the department data element in this illustration)
is called the root element
• Any data element can be accessed by moving progressively
downward from a root and along the branches of the tree
until the desired record (e.g., the employee data element) is
located.
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Network Structure
• The network structure can represent more complex
logical relationships and is still used by some
mainframe DBMS packages
• It allows many-to-many relationships among
records; that is, the network model can access a
data element by following one of several paths
because any data element or record can be related
to any number of other data elements
• It should be noted that neither the hierarchical nor
the network data structures are commonly found in
the modern organization

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Relational Structure
• The relational model is the most widely used database
structures
• In the relational model, all data elements within the
database are viewed as being stored in the form of simple
two-dimensional tables, sometimes referred to as relations
• The tables in a relational database are flat files that have
rows and columns.
• Each row represents a single record in the file, and each
column represents a field
• The major difference between a flat file and a database is
that a flat file can only have data attributes specified for one
file
• In contrast, a database can specify data attributes for
multiple files simultaneously and can relate the various data
elements in one file to those in one or more other files
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Object-oriented Structure
• The object-oriented model is considered one of the key
technologies of a new generation of multimedia Web-
based applications
• An object consists of data values describing the
attributes of an entity, plus the operations that can be
performed upon the data
• This encapsulation capability allows the object-oriented
model to handle complex types of data (graphics,
pictures, voice, and text) more easily than other
database structures
• The object-oriented model also supports inheritance
• Inheritance allows new objects to be automatically
created by replicating some or all of the characteristics
of one or more parent objects
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Multidimensional Structure
• The multidimensional model is a variation of the
relational model that uses multidimensional
structures to organize data and express the
relationships between data
• You can visualize multidimensional structures as
cubes of data and cubes within cubes of data. Each
side of the cube is considered a dimension of the
data
• Each cell within a multidimensional structure
contains aggregated data related to elements along
each of its dimensions

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Types of Databases

1. Operational Databases
2. Distributed Databases
3. External Databases
4. Hypermedia Databases

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1. Operational Databases
• Operational databases store detailed data needed
to support the business processes and operations
of a company
• They are also called subject area databases (SADB),
transaction databases, and production databases
• Examples are a customer database, human
resource database, inventory database, and other
databases containing data generated by business
operations

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2. Distributed Databases
• Many organizations replicate and distribute copies or
parts of databases to network servers at a variety of
sites
• These distributed databases can reside on network
servers on the World Wide Web, on corporate intranets
or extranets, or on other company networks
• Distributed databases may be copies of operational or
analytical databases, hypermedia or discussion
databases, or any other type of database
• Replication and distribution of databases improve
database performance at end-user work sites
• Example: Netflix uses a DDBMS so that data can be
stored locally in locations with the highest demand

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3. External Databases
• Access to a wealth of information from external databases is
available for a fee from commercial online services and
with or without charge from many sources on the World
Wide Web
• Web sites provide an endless variety of hyperlinked pages of
multimedia documents in hypermedia databases for you to
access
• Data are available in the form of statistics on economic and
demographic activity from statistical databanks, or you can
view or download abstracts or complete copies of hundreds
of newspapers, magazines, newsletters, research papers,
and other published material and periodicals from
bibliographic and full-text databases
• Whenever you use a search engine like Google or Yahoo to
look up something on the Internet, you are using an
external database—a very, very large one! Also, if you are
using Google, you are using one that averages 112 million
searches per day.
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4. Hypermedia Databases
• The rapid growth of Web sites on the Internet and
corporate intranets and extranets has dramatically
increased the use of databases of hypertext and
hypermedia documents
• A Web site stores such information in a hypermedia
database consisting of hyperlinked pages of multimedia
(text, graphic and photographic images, video clips,
audio segments, and so on)
• That is, from a database management point of view, the
set of interconnected multimedia pages on a Web site
is a database of interrelated hypermedia page
elements, rather than interrelated data records.

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What is Data Warehouse?
• A data warehouse stores data that have been
extracted from the various operational, external,
and other databases of an organization.
• It is a central source of the data that have been
cleaned, transformed, and cataloged so that they
can be used by managers and other business
professionals for data mining, online analytical
processing, and other forms of business analysis,
market research, and decision support.

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What is Data Marts?

• Data warehouses may be subdivided into data

marts, which hold subsets of data from the
warehouse that focus on specific aspects of a
company, such as a department or a business
process

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What is Metadata?
• Metadata means "data about data"
• Metadata is defined as the data providing information
about one or more aspects of the data
• It is used to summarize basic information about data
that can make tracking and working with specific data
easier
• Some examples include: Means of creation of the
data; Purpose of the data; Time and date of creation;
Creator or author of the data; Location on a computer
network where the data was created; Standards used;
File size; Data quality; Source of the data; Process
used to create the data
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What is Data Mining?
• Data mining is a major use of data warehouse
databases and the static data they contain.
• In data mining, the data in a data warehouse are
analyzed to reveal hidden patterns and trends in
historical business activity.
• This analysis can be used to help managers make
decisions about strategic changes in business
operations to gain competitive advantages in the
marketplace
• Examples of Data Mining Tools and Software: Zoho
Analytics, Teradata, R-Programming, H2O, Qlik,
RapidMiner etc.
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How data mining extracts business
knowledge from a data warehouse?

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Major Capabilities of DBMS
1.Data Storage.
2.Data Retrieval.
3.Data Deletion
4.Data Updation.
5.Data Security.
6.Data Independence.

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What are the principal tools and
technologies for accessing
information from databases to
improve business performance
and decision making?
• Big Data
• Business Intelligence Infrastructure
• Analytical Tools: Relationships, Patterns, Trends
• Databases and the Web
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Big Data
• We are witnessing an explosion of data from web
traffic, email messages, and social media contents as
well as machine generated data from sensors or from
electronic trading systems
• These data may be unstructured or semi structured and
thus not suitable for relational database products that
organize data in the form of columns and rows
• To describe these datasets with volumes so huge that
they are beyond the ability of typical DBMS to capture,
store and analyze, we term these as big data

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…continued….Big Data
• Big Data is often characterized by the “3Vs”:
• The extreme volume of data
• The wide variety of data types and sources
• The velocity at which data must be processed
• Big Data doesn’t designate any specific quantity but usually refers
to data from billions (1 × 10⁹) to trillions (1 trillion = 1 Lakh Crore)
of records, many from different sources
• Big Data are produced in much larger quantities and much more
rapidly than traditional data
• Businesses are more interested in big data because they can
reveal more patterns and interesting relationships than smaller
data sets

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Business Intelligence Infrastructure
• If you work in a large company, the data you need
might have to be pieced together from separate
systems, such as sales, manufacturing, and accounting
and even from external sources, such as demographic
or competitor data
• A contemporary infrastructure for business intelligence
has an array of tools for obtaining useful information
from all the different types of data used by businesses
today
• These capabilities include – data warehouses and data
marts, Hadoop, in-memory computing, and analytical
platforms

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Hadoop
• For handling unstructured and semi structured data
in vast quantities, as well as structured data,
organizations are using Hadoop
• It breaks a big data problem down into
subproblems, distributes them among up to
thousands of inexpensive computer processing
nodes, and then combines the result into a smaller
data set that is easier to analyze.
• Hadoop is an open-source software framework for
storing data and running applications on clusters of
commodity hardware

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In-memory computing
• Another way of facilitating big data analysis is to use in-
memory computing, which relies primarily on a computer’s
main memory (RAM) for data storage (Conventional DBMS
use disk storage systems)
• Users access data stored in system primary memory,
thereby eliminating bottlenecks from retrieving and reading
data in a traditional, disk-based database and dramatically
shortening query response times
• In-memory processing makes it possible for very large sets
of data, amounting to the size of a data mart or small data
warehouse, to reside entirely in memory
• Complex business calculations that used to take hours or
days are able to be completed within seconds, and this can
even be accomplished using handheld devices.

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Analytical platforms
• Commercial database vendors have developed
specialized high-speed analytic platforms using
both relational and nonrelational technology that
are optimized for analyzing large data sets
• Some companies are starting to pour all types of
data into a data lake
• A data lake is a repository for raw unstructured
data or structured data that for the most part has
not yet been analyzed, and the data can be
accessed in many ways

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Analytical Tools: Relationships,
Patterns, Trends
• Once data have been captured and organized using
the business intelligence technologies, they are
available for further analysis using software for
database querying and reporting, multidimensional
data analysis and data mining

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Databases and the Web

• Web servers deliver static content, like HTML (Hyper

Text Markup Language) pages, images, videos, and files.
Application servers deliver dynamic content, like real-
time updates, personalized information, and customer
support
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Overview of the technologies that
have the greatest impact on business
and society
• Digital Assistants
• Internet of Things
• Artificial Intelligence
• Virtual & Augmented Reality
• Blockchain
• 3D Printing
• Drones
• Robotics & Automation
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Digital Assistants
• Digital assistants are various types of software that are
capable of performing rule-based work processes and
communicating with people through writing and speech
• The digital assistants are represented by technologies such
as the Robotics Process Automation (RPA), chatbots and
voice assistants
• These assistants are new digital colleagues that will help the
organizations of the future meet the demands for
productivity and accessibility, as well as supporting the shift
from “doing-jobs” to activities that add value for analogue
employees.
• Digital assistants are a good solution for businesses that
want to increase accessibility and quality, as well as improve
response times in relation to their customers or employees.

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Internet of Things
• The Internet of Things (IoT) comprises objects,
often electronics and sensors, that are identifiable
and can communicate with each other and
exchange data via the Internet and cloud solutions.
• IoT objects could be anything from a sensor that
monitors a pump at a manufacturing facility to the
smartphone you use to unlock your car or house.
• IoT is opening the door to opportunities that entail
more than just the improvement and digitalisation
of individual processes

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Artificial Intelligence
• AI (artificial intelligence) is a broad term that refers to a
computer program’s or computer’s ability to appear
intelligent.
• AI usually has the ability to capture data about its
environment and can learn or adapt in order to achieve
a given goal.
• In order to build an AI system that adds value, large
volumes of data and an algorithm are used that are
suitable for what the system is intended to achieve.
• After consuming the data, the system can make
decisions based on the knowledge it has built up.

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Virtual & Augmented Reality
• Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that allows the user to
interact in a computer-simulated recreation of a real
environment.
• Augmented reality (AR) is a fusion of VR where reality and a
computer-simulated environment are merged, which we
have seen for example with Pokemon Go or with lenses in
Snapchat.
• In industrial environments, AR is used in a similar way to
present drawings or status information for equipment that
you are filming or looking at through glasses or a
tablet/iPad.
• The use of VR and AR technology allows improved customer
journeys and contributes to increased quality and speed in
manual work processes.

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Blockchain
• A blockchain is a distributed transactional database in which all
the parties are always in possession of the same information
about the transactions.
• It is not possible to change information in the database unless the
majority of participants agree that the change complies with the
rules defined for a transaction to be approved.
• A blockchain therefore makes it possible to carry out transactions
securely between multiple parties without the need for the
transaction to be verified by a third party (such as a bank).
• Blockchains establish trust between the parties in a network who
will be interacting.
• It is not known when blockchains will have a serious impact on
the business world, but there is little doubt that the technology
has the potential to play a central role in relation to value
creation and innovation

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3D Printing
• 3D printing is a digitally-operated manufacturing technology
in which physical objects are printed by a 3D printer based
on the specification of a digital 3D model.
• The manufacturing process is additive, which means that an
object is produced layer by layer rather than milling or
turning a larger object down to the desired shape.
• Production using a 3D printer is carried out by allowing an
object to be printed in successive horizontal layers of
materials such as plastic or metal until the object has been
fully produced.
• Each of these layers can be viewed as a thinly cut horizontal
cross-section of the object being produced.
• 3D printing uses fast and precise machinery that prints
complex three-dimensional objects with a high level of
quality.
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Drones
• A drone is an unmanned aircraft that can fly (or
dive) autonomously using software or be remotely
controlled by people.
• For example, drones can be used for searching,
surveillance and transportation.
• Businesses are investing in drone technology in
order to explore how the technology is contributing
to increased efficiency in operational processes, as
well as access to new and improved data.

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Robotics & Automation
• Automation of physical work duties is a growing trend
within several sectors.
• This means that physical robots and machines are
increasingly taking over work duties previously carried
out by human employees.
• At present, this development has come furthest within
processes associated with warehousing, logistics and
surveillance, but it is also moving into a number of
other sectors.
• Physical automation of work processes improves
quality and increases uptime in processes, while freeing
up human resources to work with other tasks that add
value.

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The End of UNIT - II

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