Artificial neural network

Artificial neural networks (ANN) or connectionist

systems are computing systems vaguely inspired by the
biological neural networks that constitute animal
brains.[1] Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by
considering examples, generally without being
programmed with task-specific rules. For example, in
image recognition, they might learn to identify images
that contain cats by analyzing example images that have
been manually labeled as "cat" or "no cat" and using the
results to identify cats in other images. They do this
without any prior knowledge of cats, for example, that
they have fur, tails, whiskers and cat-like faces. Instead,
they automatically generate identifying characteristics
from the examples that they process.

An ANN is based on a collection of connected units or

nodes called artificial neurons, which loosely model the
neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the An artificial neural network is an interconnected
synapses in a biological brain, can transmit a signal to group of nodes, inspired by a simplification of
neurons in a brain. Here, each circular node
other neurons. An artificial neuron that receives a signal
represents an artificial neuron and an arrow
then processes it and can signal neurons connected to it. represents a connection from the output of one
artificial neuron to the input of another.
In ANN implementations, the "signal" at a connection is
a real number, and the output of each neuron is
computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections are called edges.
Neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or
decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Neurons may have a threshold such that a signal is
sent only if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, neurons are aggregated into layers.
Different layers may perform different transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer
(the input layer), to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain
would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from
biology. ANNs have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition,
machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games, medical diagnosis and even
in activities that have traditionally been considered as reserved to humans, like painting.[2]

Contents
History
Models
Components
Organization
 Hyperparameter
Learning
Learning paradigms
Other
Types
Network design
Use
Applications
Theoretical properties
Computational power
Capacity
Convergence
Generalization and statistics
Criticism
Training
Theory
Hardware
Practical counterexamples
Hybrid approaches
Gallery
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts[3] (1943) opened the subject by creating a computational model for
neural networks.[4] In the late 1940s, D. O. Hebb[5] created a learning hypothesis based on the
mechanism of neural plasticity that became known as Hebbian learning. Farley and Wesley A. Clark[6]
(1954) first used computational machines, then called "calculators", to simulate a Hebbian network.
Rosenblatt[7] (1958) created the perceptron.[8] The first functional networks with many layers were
published by Ivakhnenko and Lapa in 1965, as the Group Method of Data Handling.[9][10][11] The basics
of continuous backpropagation[9][12][13][14] were derived in the context of control theory by Kelley[15] in
1960 and by Bryson in 1961,[16] using principles of dynamic programming.

In 1970, Seppo Linnainmaa published the general method for automatic differentiation (AD) of discrete
connected networks of nested differentiable functions.[17][18] In 1973, Dreyfus used backpropagation to
adapt parameters of controllers in proportion to error gradients.[19] Werbos's (1975) backpropagation
algorithm enabled practical training of multi-layer networks. In 1982, he applied Linnainmaa's AD
method to neural networks in the way that became widely used.[12][20] Thereafter research stagnated
following Minsky and Papert (1969),[21] who discovered that basic perceptrons were incapable of
processing the exclusive-or circuit and that computers lacked sufficient power to process useful neural
networks. In 1992, max-pooling was introduced to help with least shift invariance and tolerance to
deformation to aid in 3D object recognition.[22][23][24] Schmidhuber adopted a multi-level hierarchy of
networks (1992) pre-trained one level at a time by unsupervised learning and fine-tuned by
backpropagation.[25]

The development of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) very-large-scale integration (VLSI), in the form

of complementary MOS (CMOS) technology, enabled the development of practical artificial neural
networks in the 1980s. A landmark publication in the field was the 1989 book Analog VLSI
Implementation of Neural Systems by Carver A. Mead and Mohammed Ismail.[26]

Geoffrey Hinton et al. (2006) proposed learning a high-level representation using successive layers of
binary or real-valued latent variables with a restricted Boltzmann machine[27] to model each layer. In
2012, Ng and Dean created a network that learned to recognize higher-level concepts, such as cats, only
from watching unlabeled images.[28] Unsupervised pre-training and increased computing power from
GPUs and distributed computing allowed the use of larger networks, particularly in image and visual
recognition problems, which became known as "deep learning".

Ciresan and colleagues (2010)[29] showed that despite the vanishing gradient problem, GPUs make
backpropagation feasible for many-layered feedforward neural networks.[30] Between 2009 and 2012,
ANNs began winning prizes in ANN contests, approaching human level performance on various tasks,
initially in pattern recognition and machine learning.[31][32] For example, the bi-directional and multi-
dimensional long short-term memory (LSTM)[33][34][35][36] of Graves et al. won three competitions in
connected handwriting recognition in 2009 without any prior knowledge about the three languages to be
learned.[35][34]

Ciresan and colleagues built the first pattern recognizers to achieve human-competitive/superhuman
performance[37] on benchmarks such as traffic sign recognition (IJCNN 2012).

Models
ANNs began as an attempt to exploit
the architecture of the human brain to
perform tasks that conventional
algorithms had little success with.
They soon reoriented towards
improving empirical results, mostly
abandoning attempts to remain true to
their biological precursors. Neurons
are connected to each other in various
patterns, to allow the output of some
neurons to become the input of others. Neuron and myelinated axon, with signal flow from inputs at
The network forms a directed, dendrites to outputs at axon terminals
weighted graph.[38]

An artificial neural network consists of a collection of simulated neurons. Each neuron is a node which is
connected to other nodes via links that correspond to biological axon-synapse-dendrite connections. Each
link has a weight, which determines the strength of one node's influence on another. [39]

Components
Neurons
ANNs are composed of artificial neurons which retain the biological concept of neurons, which receive
input, combine the input with their internal state (activation) and an optional threshold using an
activation function, and produce output using an output function. The initial inputs are external data, such
as images and documents. The ultimate outputs accomplish the task, such as recognizing an object in an
image. The important characteristic of the activation function is that it provides a smooth, differentiable
transition as input values change, i.e. a small change in input produces a small change in output.[40]

Connections and weights

The network consists of connections, each connection providing the output of one neuron as an input to
another neuron. Each connection is assigned a weight that represents its relative importance.[38] A given
neuron can have multiple input and output connections.[41]

Propagation function
The propagation function computes the input to a neuron from the outputs of its predecessor neurons and
their connections as a weighted sum.[38] A bias term can be added to the result of the propagation.[42]

Organization
The neurons are typically organized into multiple layers, especially in deep learning. Neurons of one
layer connect only to neurons of the immediately preceding and immediately following layers. The layer
that receives external data is the input layer. The layer that produces the ultimate result is the output
layer. In between them are zero or more hidden layers. Single layer and unlayered networks are also
used. Between two layers, multiple connection patterns are possible. They can be fully connected, with
every neuron in one layer connecting to every neuron in the next layer. They can be pooling, where a
group of neurons in one layer connect to a single neuron in the next layer, thereby reducing the number
of neurons in that layer.[43] Neurons with only such connections form a directed acyclic graph and are
known as feedforward networks.[44] Alternatively, networks that allow connections between neurons in
the same or previous layers are known as recurrent networks.[45]

Hyperparameter
A hyperparameter is a constant parameter whose value is set before the learning process begins. The
values of parameters are derived via learning. Examples of hyperparameters include learning rate, the
number of hidden layers and batch size.[46] The values of some hyperparameters can be dependent on
those of other hyperparameters. For example, the size of some layers can depend on the overall number
of layers.

Learning
Learning is the adaptation of the network to better handle a task by considering sample observations.
Learning involves adjusting the weights (and optional thresholds) of the network to improve the accuracy
of the result. This is done by minimizing the observed errors. Learning is complete when examining
additional observations does not usefully reduce the error rate. Even after learning, the error rate typically
does not reach 0. If after learning, the error rate is too high, the network typically must be redesigned.
Practically this is done by defining a cost function that is evaluated periodically during learning. As long
as its output continues to decline, learning continues. The cost is frequently defined as a statistic whose
value can only be approximated. The outputs are actually numbers, so when the error is low, the
difference between the output (almost certainly a cat) and the correct answer (cat) is small. Learning
attempts to reduce the total of the differences across the observations.[38] Most learning models can be
viewed as a straightforward application of optimization theory and statistical estimation.

Learning rate
The learning rate defines the size of the corrective steps that the model takes to adjust for errors in each
observation. A high learning rate shortens the training time, but with lower ultimate accuracy, while a
lower learning rate takes longer, but with the potential for greater accuracy. Optimizations such as
Quickprop are primarily aimed at speeding up error minimization, while other improvements mainly try
to increase reliability. In order to avoid oscillation inside the network such as alternating connection
weights, and to improve the rate of convergence, refinements use an adaptive learning rate that increases
or decreases as appropriate.[47] The concept of momentum allows the balance between the gradient and
the previous change to be weighted such that the weight adjustment depends to some degree on the
previous change. A momentum close to 0 emphasizes the gradient, while a value close to 1 emphasizes
the last change.

Cost function
While it is possible to define a cost function ad hoc, frequently the choice is determined by the functions
desirable properties (such as convexity) or because it arises from the model (e.g., in a probabilistic model
the model's posterior probability can be used as an inverse cost).

Backpropagation
Backpropagation is a method to adjust the connection weights to compensate for each error found during
learning. The error amount is effectively divided among the connections. Technically, backprop
calculates the gradient (the derivative) of the cost function associated with a given state with respect to
the weights. The weight updates can be done via stochastic gradient descent or other methods, such as
Extreme Learning Machines,[48] "No-prop" networks,[49] training without backtracking,[50] "weightless"
networks,[51][52] and non-connectionist neural networks.

Learning paradigms
The three major learning paradigms are supervised learning, unsupervised learning and reinforcement
learning. They each correspond to a particular learning task

Supervised learning
Supervised learning uses a set of paired inputs and desired outputs. The learning task is to produce the
desired output for each input. In this case the cost function is related to eliminating incorrect
deductions.[53] A commonly used cost is the mean-squared error, which tries to minimize the average
squared error between the network's output and the desired output. Tasks suited for supervised learning
are pattern recognition (also known as classification) and regression (also known as function
approximation). Supervised learning is also applicable to sequential data (e.g., for hand writing, speech
and gesture recognition). This can be thought of as learning with a "teacher", in the form of a function
that provides continuous feedback on the quality of solutions obtained thus far.
Unsupervised learning
In unsupervised learning, input data is given along with the cost function, some function of the data
and the network's output. The cost function is dependent on the task (the model domain) and any a priori
assumptions (the implicit properties of the model, its parameters and the observed variables). As a trivial
example, consider the model where is a constant and the cost .
Minimizing this cost produces a value of that is equal to the mean of the data. The cost function can be
much more complicated. Its form depends on the application: for example, in compression it could be
related to the mutual information between and , whereas in statistical modeling, it could be related
to the posterior probability of the model given the data (note that in both of those examples those
quantities would be maximized rather than minimized). Tasks that fall within the paradigm of
unsupervised learning are in general estimation problems; the applications include clustering, the
estimation of statistical distributions, compression and filtering.

Reinforcement learning
In applications such as playing video games, an actor takes a string of actions, receiving a generally
unpredictable response from the environment after each one. The goal is to win the game, i.e., generate
the most positive (lowest cost) responses. In reinforcement learning, the aim is to weight the network
(devise a policy) to perform actions that minimize long-term (expected cumulative) cost. at each point in
time the agent performs an action and the environment generates an observation and an instantaneous
cost, according to some (usually unknown) rules. The rules and the long-term cost usually only can be
estimated. At any juncture, the agent decides whether to explore new actions to uncover their costs or to
exploit prior learning to proceed more quickly.

Formally the environment is modeled as a Markov decision process (MDP) with states
and actions . Because the state transitions are not known, probability distributions are
used instead: the instantaneous cost distribution , the observation distribution and the
transition distribution , while a policy is defined as the conditional distribution over
actions given the observations. Taken together, the two define a Markov chain (MC). The aim is to
discover the lowest-cost MC.

ANNs serve as the learning component in such applications.[54][55] Dynamic programming coupled with
ANNs (giving neurodynamic programming)[56] has been applied to problems such as those involved in
vehicle routing,[57] video games, natural resource management[58][59] and medicine[60] because of ANNs
ability to mitigate losses of accuracy even when reducing the discretization grid density for numerically
approximating the solution of control problems. Tasks that fall within the paradigm of reinforcement
learning are control problems, games and other sequential decision making tasks.

Self learning
Self learning in neural networks was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-
learning named Crossbar Adaptive Array (CAA).[61] It is a system with only one input, situation s, and
only one output, action (or behavior) a. It has neither external advice input nor external reinforcement
input from the environment. The CAA computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and
emotions (feelings) about encountered situations. The system is driven by the interaction between
cognition and emotion.[62] Given memory matrix W =||w(a,s)||, the crossbar self learning algorithm in
each iteration performs the following computation:
 In situation s perform action a;
Receive consequence situation s’;
Compute emotion of being in consequence situation v(s’);
Update crossbar memory w’(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s’).

The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation.
The CAA exists in two environments, one is behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is
genetic environment, where from it initially and only once receives initial emotions about to be
encountered situations in the behavioral environment. Having received the genome vector (species
vector) from the genetic environment, the CAA will learn a goal-seeking behavior, in the behavioral
environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.[63]

Other
In a Bayesian framework, a distribution over the set of allowed models is chosen to minimize the cost.
Evolutionary methods,[64] gene expression programming,[65] simulated annealing,[66] expectation-
maximization, non-parametric methods and particle swarm optimization[67] are other learning
algorithms. Convergent recursion is a learning algorithm for cerebellar model articulation controller
(CMAC) neural networks.[68][69]

Modes
Two modes of learning are available: stochastic and batch. In stochastic learning, each input creates a
weight adjustment. In batch learning weights are adjusted based on a batch of inputs, accumulating errors
over the batch. Stochastic learning introduces "noise" into the process, using the local gradient calculated
from one data point; this reduces the chance of the network getting stuck in local minima. However,
batch learning typically yields a faster, more stable descent to a local minimum, since each update is
performed in the direction of the batch's average error. A common compromise is to use "mini-batches",
small batches with samples in each batch selected stochastically from the entire data set.

Types
ANNs have evolved into a broad family of techniques that have advanced the state of the art across
multiple domains. The simplest types have one or more static components, including number of units,
number of layers, unit weights and topology. Dynamic types allow one or more of these to evolve via
learning. The latter are much more complicated, but can shorten learning periods and produce better
results. Some types allow/require learning to be "supervised" by the operator, while others operate
independently. Some types operate purely in hardware, while others are purely software and run on
general purpose computers.

Some of the main breakthroughs include: convolutional neural networks that have proven particularly
successful in processing visual and other two-dimensional data;[70][71] long short-term memory avoid the
vanishing gradient problem[72] and can handle signals that have a mix of low and high frequency
components aiding large-vocabulary speech recognition,[73][74] text-to-speech synthesis,[75][12][76] and
photo-real talking heads;[77] competitive networks such as generative adversarial networks in which
multiple networks (of varying structure) compete with each other, on tasks such as winning a game[78] or
on deceiving the opponent about the authenticity of an input.[79]

Network design
Neural architecture search (NAS) uses machine learning to automate ANN design. Various approaches to
NAS have designed networks that compare well with hand-designed systems. The basic search algorithm
is to propose a candidate model, evaluate it against a dataset and use the results as feedback to teach the
NAS network.[80] Available systems include AutoML and AutoKeras.[81]

Design issues include deciding the number, type and connectedness of network layers, as well as the size
of each and the connection type (full, pooling, ...).

Hyperparameters must also be defined as part of the design (they are not learned), governing matters
such as how many neurons are in each layer, learning rate, step, stride, depth, receptive field and padding
(for CNNs), etc.[82]

Use
Using Artificial neural networks requires an understanding of their characteristics.

Choice of model: This depends on the data representation and the application. Overly
complex models slow learning.
Learning algorithm: Numerous trade-offs exist between learning algorithms. Almost any
algorithm will work well with the correct hyperparameters for training on a particular data
set. However, selecting and tuning an algorithm for training on unseen data requires
significant experimentation.
Robustness: If the model, cost function and learning algorithm are selected appropriately,
the resulting ANN can become robust.
ANN capabilities fall within the following broad categories:

Function approximation, or regression analysis, including time series prediction, fitness

approximation and modeling.
Classification, including pattern and sequence recognition, novelty detection and sequential
decision making.
Data processing, including filtering, clustering, blind source separation and compression.
Robotics, including directing manipulators and prostheses.
Control, including computer numerical control.

Applications
Because of their ability to reproduce and model nonlinear processes, Artificial neural networks have
found applications in many disciplines. Application areas include system identification and control
(vehicle control, trajectory prediction,[83] process control, natural resource management), quantum
chemistry,[84] general game playing,[85] pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, signal
classification,[86] 3D reconstruction,[87] object recognition and more), sequence recognition (gesture,
speech, handwritten and printed text recognition), medical diagnosis, finance[88] (e.g. automated trading
systems), data mining, visualization, machine translation, social network filtering[89] and e-mail spam
filtering. ANNs have been used to diagnose cancers, including lung cancer,[90] prostate cancer, colorectal
cancer[91] and to distinguish highly invasive cancer cell lines from less invasive lines using only cell
shape information.[92][93]
ANNs have been used to accelerate reliability analysis of infrastructures subject to natural
disasters[94][95] and to predict foundation settlements.[96] ANNs have also been used for building black-
box models in geoscience: hydrology,[97][98] ocean modelling and coastal engineering,[99][100] and
geomorphology.[101] ANNs have been employed in cybersecurity, with the objective to discriminate
between legitimate activities and malicious ones. For example, machine learning has been used for
classifying Android malware,[102] for identifying domains belonging to threat actors and for detecting
URLs posing a security risk.[103] Research is underway on ANN systems designed for penetration
testing, for detecting botnets,[104] credit cards frauds[105] and network intrusions.

ANNs have been proposed as a tool to simulate the properties of many-body open quantum
systems.[106][107][108][109] In brain research ANNs have studied short-term behavior of individual
neurons,[110] the dynamics of neural circuitry arise from interactions between individual neurons and
how behavior can arise from abstract neural modules that represent complete subsystems. Studies
considered long-and short-term plasticity of neural systems and their relation to learning and memory
from the individual neuron to the system level.

Theoretical properties

Computational power
The multilayer perceptron is a universal function approximator, as proven by the universal approximation
theorem. However, the proof is not constructive regarding the number of neurons required, the network
topology, the weights and the learning parameters.

A specific recurrent architecture with rational-valued weights (as opposed to full precision real number-
valued weights) has the power of a universal Turing machine,[111] using a finite number of neurons and
standard linear connections. Further, the use of irrational values for weights results in a machine with
super-Turing power.[112]

Capacity
A model's "capacity" property roughly corresponds to its ability to model any given function. It is related
to the amount of information that can be stored in the network and to the notion of complexity.

Convergence
Models may not consistently converge on a single solution, firstly because local minima may exist,
depending on the cost function and the model. Secondly, the optimization method used might not
guarantee to converge when it begins far from any local minimum. Thirdly, for sufficiently large data or
parameters, some methods become impractical.

Convergence behavior of certain types of ANN architectures are more understood than others. Such as
when the width of network approaches to infinity, the ANN resembles linear model, thus such ANN
follows the convergence behavior of linear model also [113]. Another example is when parameters are
small, it is observed that ANN often fits target functions from low to high frequencies [114] [115] [116]
[117]. Such phenomenon is in opposite to the behavior of some well studied iterative numerical schemes

such as Jacobi method.

Generalization and statistics
Applications whose goal is to create a system that generalizes well to unseen examples, face the
possibility of over-training. This arises in convoluted or over-specified systems when the network
capacity significantly exceeds the needed free parameters. Two approaches address over-training. The
first is to use cross-validation and similar techniques to check for the presence of over-training and to
select hyperparameters to minimize the generalization error.

The second is to use some form of regularization. This concept emerges in a probabilistic (Bayesian)
framework, where regularization can be performed by selecting a larger prior probability over simpler
models; but also in statistical learning theory, where the goal is to minimize over two quantities: the
'empirical risk' and the 'structural risk', which roughly corresponds to the error over the training set and
the predicted error in unseen data due to overfitting.

Supervised neural networks that use a mean squared error (MSE)

cost function can use formal statistical methods to determine the
confidence of the trained model. The MSE on a validation set can
be used as an estimate for variance. This value can then be used
to calculate the confidence interval of network output, assuming a
normal distribution. A confidence analysis made this way is
statistically valid as long as the output probability distribution
stays the same and the network is not modified.

By assigning a softmax activation function, a generalization of Confidence analysis of a neural

the logistic function, on the output layer of the neural network (or network
a softmax component in a component-based network) for
categorical target variables, the outputs can be interpreted as
posterior probabilities. This is useful in classification as it gives a certainty measure on classifications.

The softmax activation function is:

Criticism

Training
A common criticism of neural networks, particularly in robotics, is that they require too much training
for real-world operation. Potential solutions include randomly shuffling training examples, by using a
numerical optimization algorithm that does not take too large steps when changing the network
connections following an example, grouping examples in so-called mini-batches and/or introducing a
recursive least squares algorithm for CMAC.[68]

Theory
A fundamental objection is that ANNs do not sufficiently reflect neuronal function. Backpropagation is a
critical step, although no such mechanism exists in biological neural networks.[118] How information is
coded by real neurons is not known. Sensor neurons fire action potentials more frequently with sensor
activation and muscle cells pull more strongly when their associated motor neurons receive action
potentials more frequently.[119] Other than the case of relaying information from a sensor neuron to a
motor neuron, almost nothing of the principles of how information is handled by biological neural
networks is known.

A central claim of ANNs is that they embody new and powerful general principles for processing
information. Unfortunately, these principles are ill-defined. It is often claimed that they are emergent
from the network itself. This allows simple statistical association (the basic function of artificial neural
networks) to be described as learning or recognition. Alexander Dewdney commented that, as a result,
artificial neural networks have a "something-for-nothing quality, one that imparts a peculiar aura of
laziness and a distinct lack of curiosity about just how good these computing systems are. No human
hand (or mind) intervenes; solutions are found as if by magic; and no one, it seems, has learned
anything".[120] One response to Dewdney is that neural networks handle many complex and diverse
tasks, ranging from autonomously flying aircraft[121] to detecting credit card fraud to mastering the game
of Go.

Technology writer Roger Bridgman commented:

Neural networks, for instance, are in the dock not only because they have been hyped to
high heaven, (what hasn't?) but also because you could create a successful net without
understanding how it worked: the bunch of numbers that captures its behaviour would in all
probability be "an opaque, unreadable table...valueless as a scientific resource".

In spite of his emphatic declaration that science is not technology, Dewdney seems here to
pillory neural nets as bad science when most of those devising them are just trying to be
good engineers. An unreadable table that a useful machine could read would still be well
worth having.[122]

Biological brains use both shallow and deep circuits as reported by brain anatomy,[123] displaying a wide
variety of invariance. Weng[124] argued that the brain self-wires largely according to signal statistics and
therefore, a serial cascade cannot catch all major statistical dependencies.

Hardware
Large and effective neural networks require considerable computing resources.[125] While the brain has
hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a
simplified neuron on von Neumann architecture may consume vast amounts of memory and storage.
Furthermore, the designer often needs to transmit signals through many of these connections and their
associated neurons – which require enormous CPU power and time.

Schmidhuber noted that the resurgence of neural networks in the twenty-first century is largely
attributable to advances in hardware: from 1991 to 2015, computing power, especially as delivered by
GPGPUs (on GPUs), has increased around a million-fold, making the standard backpropagation
algorithm feasible for training networks that are several layers deeper than before.[126] The use of
accelerators such as FPGAs and GPUs can reduce training times from months to days.[127][125]
Neuromorphic engineering addresses the hardware difficulty directly, by constructing non-von-Neumann
chips to directly implement neural networks in circuitry. Another type of chip optimized for neural
network processing is called a Tensor Processing Unit, or TPU.[128]

Practical counterexamples
Analyzing what has been learned by an ANN, is much easier than to analyze what has been learned by a
biological neural network. Furthermore, researchers involved in exploring learning algorithms for neural
networks are gradually uncovering general principles that allow a learning machine to be successful. For
example, local vs non-local learning and shallow vs deep architecture.[129]

Hybrid approaches
Advocates of hybrid models (combining neural networks and symbolic approaches), claim that such a
mixture can better capture the mechanisms of the human mind.[130][131]

Gallery

A single-layer feedforward artificial A two-layer feedforward artificial

neural network. Arrows originating neural network.
from are omitted for clarity.
There are p inputs to this network
and q outputs. In this system, the
value of the qth output, would
be calculated as

An artificial neural network. An ANN dependency graph.

A single-layer feedforward artificial A two-layer feedforward artificial
neural network with 4 inputs, 6 neural network with 8 inputs, 2x8
hidden and 2 outputs. Given hidden and 2 outputs. Given
position state and direction position state, direction and other
outputs wheel based control environment values outputs
values. thruster based control values.

Parallel pipeline structure of

CMAC neural network. This
learning algorithm can converge in
one step.

See also
Hierarchical temporal memory
20Q
ADALINE
Adaptive resonance theory
Artificial life
Associative memory
Autoencoder
BEAM robotics
Biological cybernetics
Biologically inspired computing
Blue Brain Project
Catastrophic interference
Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller (CMAC)
Cognitive architecture
Cognitive science
Convolutional neural network (CNN)
 Connectionist expert system
Connectomics
Cultured neuronal networks
Deep learning
Encog
Fuzzy logic
Gene expression programming
Genetic algorithm
Genetic programming
Group method of data handling
Habituation
In Situ Adaptive Tabulation
Machine learning concepts
Models of neural computation
Neuroevolution
Neural coding
Neural gas
Neural machine translation
Neural network software
Neuroscience
Nonlinear system identification
Optical neural network
Parallel Constraint Satisfaction Processes
Parallel distributed processing
Radial basis function network
Recurrent neural networks
Self-organizing map
Spiking neural network
Systolic array
Tensor product network
Time delay neural network (TDNN)

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External links
The Neural Network Zoo (http://www.asimovinstitute.org/neural-network-zoo/) – a
compilation of neural network types
The Stilwell Brain (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rA5qnZUXcqo) – a Mind Field
episode featuring an experiment in which humans act as individual neurons in a neural
network that classifies handwritten digits

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