CALLP

NAME: ________________________________________Course & Sec.
: ___________________Date: _______________
COURSE TITLE: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles UNITS: 3
INSTRUCTOR: MRS. MERIAM BITASOLO-GABAISEN, MSMath- INSTRUCTOR 1
INTRODUCTION: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development
Lesson 1: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

- Brenda B. Corpus, PhD
Objectives:
 Define human development in your own words.
 Distinguish between the traditional and life-span approach of development.
CONCEPT NOTES:
All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and entrances, And one
man in his time plays many parts… - William Shakespeare
Two approaches to human development
If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in
adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in
adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective? Paul Baltes (Santrock,2002),
an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue developing even in
adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout the life-
span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “ I am too old for that…”. Niether Kenn nor Naschielle
will be too old to learn something. Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines
can be prevented or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults were improved
through retraining (Willies & Schose, 1994 cited by Santrock J., 2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and
socioemotional process (Santrock, 2002)
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The brains of Naschille and Ken develop. They
will gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty, and
cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All these show the common biological processes in development.
Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development .htm) Naschielle and Kenn will learn to
sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to
the hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth in size, weight and future
differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so
on). This is the cephalo-caudal pattern. These development patterns are common to Naschielle and Kenn.
Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm) Naschielle and Kenn won’t
develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The
bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some changes occur in a flash of insight,
more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental
characteristics.
Cognitive process involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Naschielle and Kenn
develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to
memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a
teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive process in
development.
Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions,
and changes in personality. As babies Naschielle and Kenn responded with sweet smile when affectionately touched and
frowned when displeased and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From
aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors.
They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All these
reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development.
These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined. While these processes are
studied separately, the effect of one process or factor on a person’s development is not isolated from the other processes.
If Kenn and Naschielle were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about to separate, they
could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would fail and repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and
drop out of school, revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and so forth. See how a biological
process, affects the cognitive process which in turn, affects the socioemotional process.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals respond to and act
on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical environment, cognitive
processes, historical, social and cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002) Naschielle’s and Kenn’s biological make up,
social and cultural contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each other.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3)
goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as
individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance
and regulation take the center stage.
Worksheet No. 1: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
I. Directions: Answer the following.
1. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and their implications to child care,
education and parenting.
Characteristics of human development from a life-span Educational Implication to Child Care, Education and
perspective Parenting
1.Development is life long.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2. “Growth is an evidence of life” or “development is an evidence of life”. What does it mean? What does this
imply to a person’s development?
II.Directions: Put a check (/) before a correct statement and an (x) before a wrong one. If you put x, explain why.
_______1. Development is a pattern of change.
_______2. Development is either growth or decline.
_______3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.
_______4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
_______5. Individuals develop uniformly.
_______6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_______7. Development is unidimensional
_______8. Development takes place in a vacuum.

NAME: ________________________________________Course & Sec.: ___________________Date: _______________
Lesson 2:The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Objectives:
 Define developmental tasks in your own words.
 Describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage.
CONCEPT NOTES:
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What happens when the expected
developmental tasks are not achieved at the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these
developmental tasks?
Concept of Developmental tasks

In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual. Robert Havigurst defines
developmental tasks as one that “arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later
tasks.” (Havigurst, 1972).
Developmental Stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock
are the same with Havigurst’s six (6) developmental stages only that (Havigurst did not include prenatal period. Havigurst
combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental
stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.
The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage as described by Santrock and compare
them to those listed by Havigurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) – It involves tremendous growth-from a single cell to an organism complete
with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months)- A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are just
beginning-language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1)- These are the preschool years. Young children learn to become
more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with
peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The fundamental skills of reading,
writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement
becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence- (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age). Begins with rapid physical changes-dramatic gains
in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of
the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and identity are
prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) – it is a time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way,
starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40-60 years of age) – it is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility;
of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) it is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement,
and adjustment to new social roles.
Developmental Tasks
Infancy and Early Middle Childhood Adolescence (13- Early Adulthood Middle Adulthood Later maturity
childhood (0-5) (6-12) 18) (19-29) (30-60) (61-and over)
1. Learning to 1. Learning 1. Achieving 1. Selecting a 1. Helping 1. Adjusting to

walk physical skills mature mate teenage decreasing
2. Learning to take necessary for relations with 2. Learning to children to strength and
solid foods ordinary games both sexes live a partner become health
3. Learning to talk 2. Building a 2. Achieving a 3. Starting a happy and 2. Adjusting to
4. Learning to wholesome masculine or family responsible retirement
control the attitude toward feminine social 4. Rearing a adults and reduce
elimination of oneself role children 2. Achieving income
body wastes 3. Learning to get 3. Accepting 5. Managing a adult social 3. Adjusting to
5. Learning sex along with age- one’s physique home and civic death of
differences and mates 4. Achieving 6. Starting an responsibility spouse
sexual modesty 4. Learning an emotional occupation 3. Satisfactory 4. Establishing
6. Acquiring appropriate sex independence 7. Assuming career relations with
concepts and role of adults civic achievement one’s own
language to 5. Developing 5. Preparing for responsibility 4. Developing age group
describe social fundamental marriage and adult leisure 5. Meeting
and physical skills in family life time activities social and
reality reading, 6. Preparing for 5. Relating to civic
7. Readiness for writing, and an economic one’s spouse obligations
reading calculating carrier as a person 6. Establishing
8. Learning to 6. Developing 7. Acquiring 6. Accepting satisfactory
distinguish right concepts values and an physiological living
from wrong and necessary for ethical system changes of quarters
developing a everyday living to guide middle age
conscience 7. Developing behavior 7. Adjusting to
conscience, 8. Desiring and aging parent
morality and a achieving
scale of values socially
8. Achieving responsible
personal behavior
independence
9. Developing
acceptable
attitudes toward
society
Worksheet No. 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
I. Directions: Put a check (/) before a correct statement and an (x) before a wrong one. If you put x, explain
why.
______________1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human development.
______________2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means failure for the learner to
master the developmental tasks in the next stage.
______________3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
______________4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
______________5. Teenage is middle childhood.
______________6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
______________7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.
______________8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle childhood.
Lesson 3: Issues on Human Development

Objectives:
 Analyze an issue related to human development.
CONCEPT NOTES:
The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which more important, nature or nurture, is like
asking which is more important to a rectangle, height or width- - William Greenough
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other people’s development. These paradigms of
human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for
understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human development. Back up by
solid research, they take stand on issues on human development.
Nature vs. Nurture
When trying to explain development, it is important to consider the relative contribution of both nature and nurture.
Developmental psychology seeks to answer two big questions about heredity and environment:
1. How much weight does each contribute?
2. How do nature and nurture interact?
Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. One of the reasons why the
development of human beings is so similar is because our common specifies heredity (DNA) guides all of us through
many of the same developmental changes at about the same points in our lives. Nurture refers to the impact of the
environment, which involves the process of learning through experiences.
There are two effective ways to study nature-nurture.
1. Twin studies: Identical twins have the same genotype, and fraternal twins have an average of 50% of their genes
in common.
2. Adoption studies: Similarities with the biological family support nature, while similarities with the adoptive
family support nurture.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Think about how children become adults. Is there a predictable pattern they follow regarding thought and
language and social development? Do children go through gradual changes or are they abrupt changes?
Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. The continuity view says that
change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking, talking or acting much the same way as they get taller.
The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes that produce different behaviors in
different age-specific life periods called stages. Biological changes provide the potential for these changes.
We often hear people talking about children going through “stages” in life (i.e. “sensorimotor stage.”). These are called
developmental stages-periods of life initiated by distinct transitions in physical or psychological functioning.
Psychologists of the discontinuity view believe that people go through the same stages, in the same order, but not
necessarily at the same rate.
Stability vs. Change
Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change
theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
This capacity for change is called plasticity. For example, Rutter (1981) discovered than somber babies living in
understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and affectionate when placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes.
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist. Without genes, there is no
person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and
environment operate together – or cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s intelligence, temperament, height,
weight… ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or contribution, heredity or environment?
The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive. So we can’t say 50% is a contribution of heredity
and 50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic expression happens once, around conception or birth,
after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life
span, in many different environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending on how harsh or nourishing those
environments are. (Santrock, 2002).
Worksheet No. 3: Issues on Human Development
I. Directions: Here is an interesting article titled: “How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of your life” form
the October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then answer the following questions given below
the article.
How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious, overweight or
asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?
There’s a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are because it’s in our genes.
We turn out the way we do because of our childhood experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the
lifestyle choices we make as adults.
But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life as a fetus. The
nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs, and infections you were exposed to during gestation;
your mother’s health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you – all these factors shaped you as a baby
and continue to affect you to this day.
This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers assert that the nine
months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine)
influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the heart, liver and pancreas. In the
literature on the subject, which has exploded over the past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of
cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest
edge of fetal-origins “research, scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence not only
our physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about fetal origins. But two years ago,
when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was
true that my actions over the next nine months would affect my offspring for the rest of his life, I needed to know
more
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message that what she does affects her
fetus. She hears it at doctor’s appointments, sees it in the pregnancy guidebooks: Do not eat this, don’t drink that,
be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month
slog, full of guilt and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.
But the scientists I met weren’t full of dire warnings but of the excitement of discovery – and the hope that
their discoveries would make a positive difference. Research on fetal origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in
thinking about where human qualities come from and when they begin to develop. Its turning pregnancy into a
scientific frontier: the National Institutes of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will examine its
subjects before they’re born. And it makes the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering
public-health scourges like obesity and heart disease through interventions before birth.
Time Magazine, October 4, 2010
1. Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s choice are the factors that contribute to what a
person may become?
2. Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word, PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the
issue on stability versus change. Does word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first
experiences have made of us (stability)? Explain your answer.
II. Directions: Which statement is correct and which one is wrong? Put a check (/) before the correct statement
and mark (x) the wrong one. If you mark a statement x, explain why.
________1. Heredity a greater influence on human development than environment.
________2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no longer be changed.
________3. From the perspective of life-span developmentalists, later experiences are the key determinants of
a person’s development.
Lesson 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

Objectives:
 Explain the basic principles of research.
 Demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and producers of developmental research.
 Read researches on child and adolescent development and make simple research abstracts out of researches
read.
CONCEPT NOTES:
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This Module is not intended to be a substitute for that
three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you got or will still get in the Research course.
As you have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the development of the child and the
adolescent are products of research. It might interest you to know how these concepts/theories were arrived at. Or after
having been exposed to a number of researches cited in this course, hopefully, you may be so inspired that you, too, would
like to start conducting researches on your own or join a group for research.
As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard for research. Best practices in education are
usually borne out of research. Research informs practice.
Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about child and adolescent development. When
conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner, it becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the things you will
do as an effective teacher.
Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research
Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in decision-making for the benefit of
learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most authoritative research findings.
Research enables teachers to come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions
related to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes, and even those involving research, too.
It can help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the developmental levels of our
learners.
Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let
us learn how to conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the research methods and designs
with focus on child and adolescent development.
The Scientific Method
One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since research is a systematic and a
logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific
method. They are as follows:
1. Identify and define the problem

2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is followed by stating a tentative answer to
the research problem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is also referred to as “educated guess”. How correct is
your “educated guess” or “hypothesis”? If your research problem is concerned with determining the cause of an effect
or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyze data derived from an experiment. This is true with experimental
research. However, if your research problems is concerned with describing data and characteristics about the subjects
or phenomenon you are studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After
analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.
Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original hypothesis is correct or not. If
your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your hypothesis does not
jibe with your finding and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.
Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with valuable information about child
and adolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is important that you know various research
designs and different data-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are given and described
below:
Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

1. Case Study An in-depth look at an It provides information about Need to exercise caution
individual. an individual’s fears, hopes, when generalizing from the
fantasies, traumatic information; the subject of a
experiences, upbringing, case study is unique, with a
family relationships, health genetic make-up and
and anything that helps a experiences no one else
psychologist understand that shares; involves judgements
person’s development of unknown reliability in that
(Santrock, 2002). usually no check is made to
see if other psychologists
agree with other observations.
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational Study A research design that Useful because the more Because correlational
determines associations strongly two events are research does not involve the
correlated, the more we can manipulation of factors, it is
predict one from the other not a dependable way to
isolate cause (Kantowitz, et.
Al, 2001 cited by Santrock,
2002).
3. Experimental A research design that The only true reliable method Experimental research is
determines cause-and-effect of establishing cause and limited to what is observable,
relationships. The effect. testable and manipulable.
experimental method
involves manipulating one Failure to achieve
variable to determine if randomisation may limit the
changes in one variable cause extent to which the study
changes in another variable. sample is representative of the
This method relies on parent population and, with it,
controlled methods, random generalizability of the
assignment and the findings of the study.
manipulation of variables to
test a hypothesis. Experimentation with humans
is subject to a number of
external influences that may
dilute the study results
(Donnan, 2000). A further
limitation of experimental
research is that subjects may
change their behavior or
respond in a specific manner
simply because of awareness
of being observed.
-Hawthorne Effect (Haughey,
1994, Clifford, 1997)
4. Naturalistic A research design that One of the advantages of this The disadvantages of
Observation focuses on children’s type of research is that it naturalistic observation
experiences in natural allows the researcher to include the fact that it can be
settings. directly observe the subject in difficult to determine the
a natural setting. exact cause of a behavior and
This does not involve any the experimenter cannot
intervention of manipulation control outside variables.
on the part of the researcher.
This technique involves

observing subjects in their
natural environment. This
type of research is often
utilized in situations where
conducting lab research is
unrealistic, cost-prohibitive or
would unduly affect the
subject’s behavior.
5. Longitudinal This research design studies Allows them to record and They are expensive and time-
and follows through a single monitor developmental consuming.
group over a period of time. trends.
The same individuals are The longer the study lasts, the
studied over a period of time, more subjects drop-out. They
usually several years. more get sick, lost interest,
etc. Subjects can bias the
outcome of a study, because
those who remain may be
dissimilar to those who drop
out.
6. Cross-sectional A researcher strategy in Allows them to record and It gives no information about
which individuals of different monitor developmental how individuals change or
ages are compared at one trends. The researcher does about the stability of their
time. not have to wait for the characteristics (Santrock,
individuals to grow up or 2002).
become older.
7. Sequential This is the combined cross- Allows them to record and It is complex, expensive, and
sectional and longitudinal monitor developmental time-consuming.
approaches to learn about trends. It provides
life-span development information that is impossible
(Schaie, 1993, cited by to obtain from cross-sectional
Santrock, 2002). or longitudinal approaches
This starts with a cross- alone (Santrock, 2002).
sectional study that includes
individuals of different ages.
A number of months or years
after the initial assessment,
the same individuals are
tested again-this is the
longitudinal aspect of design.
At this later time, a new
group of subjects is assessed
at each grade level.
Action Research Action research is a reflective Appropriate in a particular Typically, takes place in one
process of progressive setting when the purpose of organization only at a
problem solving led by the study is “to create particular time and could not
individuals working with changes & gain information be interpreted within different
others in teams or as part of a on the processes and outcome organizations in the same
“community of practice” to of the strategies used” (Hunt way. Therefore, research
improve the way they address 1987) findings are hard (impossible)
issues and solve problems to generalize.
(Wikipedia, the free Uses different methods, can
encyclopedia). get the best out of the If research participants do not
different methods employed, feel they understand and
In the context of teaching, if done well. ‘own’ the research project,
action researches of teachers this could lead to a potential
stem from their own Stakeholders are included conflict of interest between
questions about and throughout and so researchers the researcher and those
reflections on their everyday are more likely to make a participating in the
classroom practice. “difference”. organization, but also
between the researcher with
some participants , om the
one hand and other members
of the organization, on the
other.
Data-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering Technique Definition/Description

1. Observation Observations can be made in their laboratories or natural settings. In naturalistic
observation, behavior is observed in the real world like classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators of children’s development such as, among others, heart rate, hormonal
Measures levels, bone growth, body weight, and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals’ performance in different domain. These test
are administered in a consistent manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide information about themselves based on the
Questionnaires interview or questionnaire given by the researcher.
Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by
mail, in person or on-line.
Information is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so that every participant is
asked the same questions in the same manner. It entails asking participants for information
in some structured format.
5. Life-History Records These are records of information about a lifetime chronology of events and activities. They
often involve combination of data records on education, work, family and residence. These
include public records or historical documents or interviews with respondent.
Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical principles. Just as we
have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct
of research. These ethical standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the subjects of
our study and to maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these ethical principles are found in documents such
as the following:
1. Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association http://www.aera.net

/uploadFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards/EthicalStandards.pdf
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children-Society for Research in Child Developmet (USA)
http://www.scrd.org/index.php? Option=com_content&task=view&id=68&Itemid=110
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research
http://www/lcsc.edu/Policy/1.112a.PDF
Please read and reflect on them.

Common among the three standards given above are the following considerations for researches conducted with
young children and other vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.

2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in which they may participate,
including possible risks and benefits. Their decision to participate must be based on what is called “informed
consent.” There must be informed consent procedures with research participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner and in ways that children can
understand. Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with children should remain
confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal information or the identity of participants in written or oral
reports and discussions.
The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)
This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “To protect the fundamental human right of privacy of
communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote innovation and growth.”
The law states that the collection of personal data “must be a declared, specified, and legitimate purpose and that
… consent is required prior to the collection of all personal data”.
For more details, read RA 10173.
Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers
Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to lose when they get involved in the
research process. Evidence suggests that:
1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective, more critical and analytic in their
teaching and more open and committed to professional development (Oja & Pine 1989; Henson 1996; Keyes
2000; Rust 2007).
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in their decision-making and actions
in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and
self-transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer 2007).
4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher
or teacher educator and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers that learning to teach is
inherently connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb, 2007).
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from thinking about teacher
research as something done to teachers to something done by teachers (Zeinchner 1999; Lampert, 2000).
A Research Abstract- A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the beginning of the article. It has the
following parts:
 Title
 Researchers
 Date of Research
 Introduction
 Methods
 Findings/Results of the Study
 Conclusions and Recommendations
 References
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further explanation. The introduction, as the title
implies, introduces the problem or issue that is being studied. It includes a concise reviews of research relevant to
the topic, theoretical ties, and one or more hypotheses to be tested. The method section consists of a clear
description of the subjects evaluated in the study, the measures used and the procedures that were followed. The
results section reports the analysis of the data collected. The conclusions and recommendations state the author/s’
answers to the specific problems of the study and suggestion on the next steps based on the finding and conclusions
of the study. Methods, Findings/results of the Study and Conclusions and Recommendations constitute the Body of
the Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These include bibliographic information for each source
cited in the research report.
Worksheet No. 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development
I. Directions: Write T if the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.
1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate purpose, researchers must be governed by
ethical principles.
3. Research design and gathering technique to use has nothing to do with the nature of the research problem and
objective/s of the research.
4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are consumers or end users of
knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve instruction.
5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers’ self-understanding and on their classroom practice. It enables
teachers to develop a better understanding of themselves, their classrooms, and their practice through the act of
reflective inquiry.
II. Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/ researches on child and adolescent development. Select
one research abstract then using the matrix given below, write the problem, the research methodology, the
findings and conclusions.
PROBLEM RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Source: (bibliography entry format)
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________
How are the finding of this research useful to teachers?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Republic of the Philippines

BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

INTRODUCTION: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
Lesson 1: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD
Objectives:
 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
 Draw implications of Freud’s Theory to education.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can be considered the most well-
known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development.
Although a lot of his views were criticized and some considered them debunked (he, himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Freud’s theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting point of
many other theories, notable of which is Erickson’s psychosocial theory.
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present different views about how
personality develops. As mentioned, Freud presents a very interesting theory about personality, its components and
development. Read on and hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more your own personality.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also probably the most
controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes
through the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or
not, determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many
because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that
become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person
will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is
focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is, have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink, alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or
use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in
relating with people.
Anal Stage (18months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds
satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to
work on toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to 3 years the child’s favorite word maybe
“No!”. Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate,
or may choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can
result in being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal expulsive where the person
may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During preschool age, children
become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals.
Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys
then see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these
feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Methology,
Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and marred hi mother Jocasta.
Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing unconscious sexual
attraction towards their father. This is referred to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of their father, boys
eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys develop
masculine characteristics and identify themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A
fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual
identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It is during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The children’s
focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this
stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of
puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.
Freud’s Personality Components
Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego, and the superego.
For each person, the first emerge is the id, followed by ego, and last to develop is the superego.
The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as
a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on
immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. It is id wants food or
milk… so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain,
too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented towards considering
reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of the day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether
mommy is tired and daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with the
environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also
have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences
later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality.
Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego develops.
The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who
exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one
considers right and wrong.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment
Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help satisfy the needs of the id
without going against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it
is not easy for the ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person becomes
too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find superego so
strong that the ego is overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others’ actions. The
person’s best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego’s expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was brought up. His
experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extent to which he has allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and
also how he was taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a
person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early during childhood years.
Topographical Method
The unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and
impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our
unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our
awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our
thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious
mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part
of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can
reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we
search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood
friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any
given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s
surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been made
part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
Freud’s Conception of the Human Psyche

(The Iceberg Metaphor)
Worksheet No. 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Directions: Answer the following.
1. Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.

(In 5 sentences)
2. Write three implications of Freud’s Theory to education.

Lesson 2: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Objectives:
 Describe Piaget’s Stages in your own words.
 Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children.
 Match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology. This
theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct
knowledge.
As you read this module you will come to understand cognitive development of children and adolescents and also
identify ways of applying this understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His research method involved
observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later
known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was interested in how
knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a background in philosophy.
Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his researches,
Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also to intelligence and moral
development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum design especially in the preschool and
elementary curricula.
Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a
thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has
had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It
has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog ‘on file’ in his mind.” When he
sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and says, “four
legs, tail, barks, furry… That’s a dog!”
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema. It the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing
by adding this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees another animal
that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look
mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” then the mommy explains, “That’s not a funny looking dog.
That’s a goat!” With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a
new file in his filing cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to understand how the world works
and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation
and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation
and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like
Bruner and Vygotsky.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. It focuses
on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the
world. In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating
environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object is still exists even when out of sight. This
ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. It covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool
years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and
is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something
else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real
MRT train. It gradually develops in the period that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she
already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around 4 years of age, however, Nico, may,
after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the
child can pretend to play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is 6, can do a whole ninja turtle routine
without any costume nor “props”. Tria, who is 7 can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his
same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy
truck for his mother’s birthday. Or a 3 year old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy “uncle”
and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child
will say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an
obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only
focused or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass, that it is taller glass. The child was not able to perceive that
the new glass is also narrower. The child only centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in
determining the amount of water in the glass.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that
2+ 3 is 5, but cannot understand 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of the children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, Mr. Sun is asleep”.
Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor
deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B causes A. For example,
since her mommy comes home everyday around six o’clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the
child will say, “because my mom is already home”.
Stage 3. Concrete-operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in
terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years.
The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No
longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when
dealing with concrete objects and situations.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operations can be done
in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is
the reverse of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back
into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not
change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the child’s ability of decentering and
also reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but
narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to
attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight,
volume, or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years,
thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is
characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and
weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgement. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The
individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage
can make an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to _____________. The individual will
reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then
Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now
understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or
situation. For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole.
Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require
adaptation (i.e.. assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor and mental operations for a child
of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.
Worksheet No. 6: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members. Choose a story you want to use for this
activity. It can be from a story you have read or a movie or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to watch. Use the
matrix below to relate the characteristics to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
Title of Story/Movie: ____________________________________
Write a brief summary of the story:
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________
Character Piagetian Connection

Description
Father What is his stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (what he thought of, how he
thought, his reactions and attitudes)
Mother What is her stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (what she thought of, how she
thought, her reactions and attitudes)
Children What is her stage of cognitive development?

1. Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (what s/he thought of, how s/he
thought, her/his reactions and attitudes)
2. What is her stage of cognitive development?

Examples: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (what s/he thought of, how s/he
thought, her/his reactions and attitudes)

Lesson 3: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Objectives:
 Explain the 8 stages of life to someone you care about.
 Write a short story to your life using Erikson’s stages as framework.
 Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded and meaningful theory. Life is
continuous process involving learning and trials which help us to grow. Erickson’s enlightening theory guides us and
helps to tell us why.
INTRODUCTION TO THE 8 STAGES:

1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words – namely psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’
relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart of
Erikson’s theory. Occasionally you’ll see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in
biological.
2. Erikson’s theory was largely influence by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and incorporated cultural
and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented theory.
3. It’s also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own journey through the
“psychosocial crisis” stages model that underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erickson’s model is simple and well designed. The theory is a basis for broad or
complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating personal
development – of self and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time
understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own and his student’s personality and behavior.
5. Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible and obviously relevant to modern
life, from several different perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develops in
people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing
with conflict and generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social
theory (bio refers to biological, which in this context means life); Erikson’s human development cycle or life cycle,
and variations of these. All refer to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson’s most distinct work
and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, “This principle says that we develop through a predetermined
unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or
lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time,
in a certain order, which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of
development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower.”
Erikson’s theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as a foundation of
the later stages. The theory highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experiences
gradually build upon the next and result into one’s personality.
8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A helpful term used by Erikson for these
opposing forces is “contrary dispositions”. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent
challenges. Erikson used the words “syntonic” for the first-listed “positive” dispositions in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and
“dystonic” for the second-listed “negative” disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting
relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word “versus”.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will help us through the rest
of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves “achieving” a healthy ratio or balance
between the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, as well as endanger all
our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves
too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
11. The crisis stages are not simply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and mingle from one stage to the next and to
the preceding stages. It’s a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates precisely across
all people and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is “overlapping”. Crisis stages connect with each other
like interlaced fingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don’t suddenly wake up one morning and be in
a new life stage. Changes don’t happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and
organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in his theory. The terms are linked.
Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each other, especially among families, and particularly between parents
and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s experiences as they pass through the
different crisis stages. Generativity, actually a need disposition within one of the crisis stages (Generativity vs.
Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best interests of children-one’s
own children, and in a way everyone else’s children-the next generation, and all following generations.
Now you are ready to go over the eight stages.

Stage One:
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a half of life. The crisis is trust vs mistrust. The
goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity of mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents
can give the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that the world
is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the
infant or harm it. Of other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant’s needs to satisfy their own instead,
then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and suspicious around people.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn’t mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact, parents who are overly
protective of the child, who are their the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into maladaptive tendency
which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment; Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would
mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did
him wrong. Worse, of course is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side. They will develop the
malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, even when things
are not going well, they will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when
the child isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her need: Mom or Dad doesn’t have
to be perfect; I trust them enough to believe that, if they can’t be here immediately, they will be here soon; things may be
tough now, but they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our
careers, and many other domain of life.
Stage 2:
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four years old. The task is to achieve
a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a toddler,
to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The
parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advise new
parents to be “firm but tolerant” at this stage, and the advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control
and self-esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If the
parents come down hard on any attempt to explore the independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she
cannot and should not act on his/her own. We should keep in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at the
toddler’s efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities. There are other ways to lead
children to shame and doubt. If you give the children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help
children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also give them the impression that they are not good for
much. If you aren’t patient enough to wait for your child to ties his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie
them, and will assume that this is too difficult to learn!
Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but beneficial. Without it, you will develop the
maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and
even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too much shame
and doubt, which leads to malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being
rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps you from
mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always
doubt yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path. And give
yourself a little slack too!
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower
or determination. One of the most admirable – and frustrating – things about two – and three year- olds is their
determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it)
we are much better off as adults.
Stage three
Psychosocial Crisis
It is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much
guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept and
encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for play, not for formal education. The child is now
capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn’t reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make
that on-reality a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-
year old flushes my watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no “evil intentions”. It was just a matter of
a shiny object going around and round and down. What fun! But if my five year old does the same thing… well, she
should know what’s going to happen to the watch, what’s going to happen to daddy’s temper, and what’s going to happen
to her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal experience in this stage. From his
perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex
parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to “grow up – You’re not a baby anymore!” But if
this process is done too harshly and to abruptly, the child learn to feel guilty about his or her feelings.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to
be heartless or unfeeling or be “without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their plans,
whether it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just that they don’t care who they step on to achieve
their goals. The goals are the only things that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The
extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the
malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing
ventured, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a
project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is something many people crave
for in their lives, yet many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I
think an even better word for this virtue would have been courage, the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of
your limitations and past failings.
Stage Four
Psychosocial Crisis
It is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry
while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to
education and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social sphere at work
now: The parents and the family members are joined by teachers and peers and other family members of the community at
large. They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is
pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in
school or on playground, academic or social.
A good way to tell the difference, between a child in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to look at the way
they play games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding the rules, may change
them several times during the course of the game, and be very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing
the pieces at their opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them pretty much
sacred, and is more likely to get upset of the game is not allowed to come to its required conclusions.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she
will develop instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority
Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success is related to who
you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in children who aren’t
allowed to “be children” the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of competence, without allowing the
development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, athletes, child musicians, child prodigies
of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority
complexes” Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do well in
mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we took another math class. Others were humiliated instead in the gym
class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills – the most
important skills of all – and so we never go out in public. We become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority – that’s, mostly industry with just a touch
of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have the virtue called competency.
Stage Five
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task during
adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most,
and the patterns he saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other stages. Ego identity means knowing who
you are and how you fit into the rest of society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned about life and yourself and
mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful. There are a number of things that make
things easier: First, we should have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent’s respect, one with good
adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish
the adult from the child. In primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the village for a
period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be
required to go through certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonious or educational events. In one way or another, the
distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of
adulthood, is made clear.
Without those things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an uncertainty about one’s place in society and
the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an identify crisis.
In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask is a straight forward question of identity: “Who am I?” One of
Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence in our society is the psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little “time
out”. If you have a money, go to Europe. If you don’t bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get a job. Quit your job
and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want to get to “success” as fast as
possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala
Lakota, perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is such a thing as too much “ego identity,” where a person is so involved in a particular role in a particular
society or subculture that there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency of fanaticism. A
fanatic believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency
to see things in black-and white. These people will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and life-styles
without regard to others’ right to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here as repudiation.
To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for an
identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against the norms to form their identity: religious cults,
militaristic organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands and
mainstream society. They may become involved in destructive activities-drugs, or alcohol – or they may withdraw into
their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being bad or being “nobody” is better than not knowing who you are!
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the
ability to live by societies standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not
talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if you love your
community, you will want to see it become the best it can be. But fidelity means that you have a place in that community,
a place that will allow you to contribute.
Stage Six
Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts from about 18 to about 30. The
ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, the people may differ dramatically. The task is to
achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in society. Because you have a
clear sense of who you are, you no longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do. The “fear of
commitment” some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this stage. This fear isn’t always obvious. Many
people today are always putting off the progress of their relationships: “I’ll get married (or have a family, or get involved
in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon as …. If
you’ve been engaged for the last ten years, what’s holding you back?
Neither should the young adult need to prove him-or herself anymore. A teenage relationship is often a matter of
trying to establish identity through “couple-hood”. Who am I? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be
a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when
we frown on a relationship between a young adult and a teenager: We see the potential for manipulation of the younger
member of the party by the older.
Erikson call the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become intimate too
freely, too easily, and without any depth to your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and
neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers. The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the
tendency to isolate oneself form love, friendship, and community and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for
one’s loneliness.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest of your life the virtue of
psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and
antagonisms through “mutuality of devotion”. It includes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love
between friends and the love of one’s neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot as well.
Stage Seven
Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the period during
which we are actively involved in raising children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between
the middle twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next generation and all future
generations. As such, it is considerably less “selfish” than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between
lovers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessary mutual. With generativity, the individual, like a parent, does
not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a “return on their
investment” from their children; if they do, we don’t think of them as very good parents!
Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising children, there are many other ways as
well. Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally contributing to
the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well- anything, in fact, that satisfies that old “need to be needed”.
Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member
of society.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have “stagnation” in our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson
calls overextension illustrates the problem: Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for
themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well. I’m sure we all know
someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is devoted to so many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold so many
jobs that they no longer have time for any of them! More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too
little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or contributing to society. And much of
what we call “the meaning of life” is a matter of how we participate and what we contribute.
This is the stage of the “midlife crisis”. Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and ask that big, bad
question “what am I doing all this for?” Notice the question carefully: because their focus is on themselves, they ask what,
rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at getting older and not having experienced or accomplished what
they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flamboyant
examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some “hip” new clothes, and start hanging
around single’ bars. Of course, they seldom find what they are looking for, because they are looking for the wrong thing!
Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of
your life.
Stage Eight
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately as old age, begins sometime
around retirement, after the kids have gone, say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts
when you feel old and so on, but that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding
any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson’s theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that
earlier problems retarded your development!
The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage, seems like the most difficult of
all. First comes a detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire form
jobs they’ve held for years; others find their duties as parents coming to a close; most find that their input is no longer
requested or required. Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to.
Women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause. Men often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion”. Then
there are the illnesses of old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and prostate
cancers. There come fears about things that one was never afraid of before- the flue, for example, or just falling down,
Along with the illnesses come concerns of death. Friends die, Relatives die. One’s spouse dies. It is of course, certain that
you, too, will have your turn. Faced with all this, it might seem like everyone would feel despair.
In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that’s where things were
better. Some become preoccupied with their failures, the bad decision they made, and regret that (unlike some in the
previous stage) they really don’t have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become depressed,
spiteful paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developing the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with the end if life. If you are
able to look back and accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then you
needn’t fear death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by considering
your life up to now. We’ve all made mistakes, some of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn’t made these mistakes,
you wouldn’t be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and made very few mistakes,
your life would not have been as rich as is.
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a person “presumes”
ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He
does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means a
contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom. He call it a gift to children
because healthy’ children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death”. He suggests that a
person must be somewhat gifted to be truly wise, but I would like to suggest that you understand “gifted” in as broad as
fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their
wise words, but by their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by their “generosity of spirit”.
Worksheet No.7: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as framework. Go through each of the stages that
apply to you (most probably, stage 1-5 or 6). Ask information from your parents and other significant persons in your life.
Look at old baby books and photo albums. Write a narrative for each stage.
You may choose to have this project in PowerPoint slides or in scrapbook style print outs. For every psychosocial stage
include pictures of yourself and significant persons in your life. Discuss your own psychosocial development using
Erikson’s theory. Consider the crisis, maladaptations/malignancies and the virtues.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Lesson 4: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Objectives:
 Explain the stages of moral development.
 Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher later on.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decision, exercise their own
ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He
based his theory on the finding of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from wrong is tied
with our ability to understand and reason logically.
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’ work, and set the groundwork for the present debate within psychology
on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through their experiences which
include understandings of moral concepts such as justice rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the
development of moral judgment and extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining
moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive development of children,
Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The case you read in the Activity part of this module was written
for this module but was based on how Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the
individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the responses were right or
wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels. Each
level represents a significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the person.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages:
Level Stage Description
Preconventional Level 1 Punishment/Obedience
Moral reasoning is based on the One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid
consequence/result of the act, not on punishment.
the whether the act itself is good or 2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain
bad. later. You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.
Conventional 3 Social Approval. One is motivated by what others expect in behavior –good
Moral reasoning is based on the boy, good girl. The person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear to
conventions or “norms” of society. others. He/she gives importance on what people will think or say.
This may include approval of others, 4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. The
law and order. person will follow the law because it is the law.
Post-conventional 5 Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on
Moral reasoning is based on enduring social justice and the common good.
or consistent principles. It is not just 6 Universal Principles. This is associated with the development of one’s
recognizing the law, but the principles conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to possess moral
behind the law. responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself.
Examples of persons are Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Worksheet No. 8: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Directions: Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
______1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is kind and will like her to be their
friend.
______2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his Mom will take his play station away if he gets bad
grades.
______3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the government allows
this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes abortion).
______4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah agreed to let her copy during their sibika test.
______5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that people will praise her honesty and think she’s
such a nice girl.
______6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he believes it is right thing to do.
______7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the school rules and regulations.
______8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he u-turns in a no u-turn spot.
______9. Liza volunteers to tutor children-at-risk children in her community for free so they will learn to love school and
stay in school.
______10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Lesson 5: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Objectives:
 Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory
 Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
 Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
CONCEPT NOTES:
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development.
He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context
within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to
assist the learner accomplish a task.
When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic Method. This method was
a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels
of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize
social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-
Cultural Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920’s and 30’s but they had clear
differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding module, it
would be easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky’s.
PIAGET VYGOTSKY
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal stages of cognitive development Did not propose stages but emphasized on cultural factors in
cognitive development.
Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive development.
Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget’s work on Piagetian’s
tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s cognitive development became evident through the individual’s cognitive
development became evident through the individual’s own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave
more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social
environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the
social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners’ environment all contribute to the
process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand,
cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of
children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive
development that allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky,
on the other hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one
cultures view about education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the
child.
Language. It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can use
language to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves a social function but it also has an
important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to themselves.
Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, “gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang
airport (holding two long blocks).” For Vygotsky, this “talking –to-oneself” is an indication of the thinking that goes on
in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the
child’s thinking and action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best through hands-on
activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with
knowledgeable adults and peers.
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she
may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development. However, with the
guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a
higher level of competency. The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish
with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development. The zone represents a
learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the
child’s development.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently is called
scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the
child. Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child’s tetra pack juice for him is not
scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from
zone of actual to the zone of proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the
lunch bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food container lid just a
bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding. Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw
through the tetra pack hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow the child to accomplish the
task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner’s current skill levels and the
desired skill level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do
without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when
done appropriately can make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for
assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.
Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learner’s readiness and ability to learn and the
difficulty of the skill being learned.
Worksheet No.9: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
An exercise in scaffolding:
1. Choose a skill you are good in. _________________________

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will benefit from scaffolding.
_____________________________
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill. _____________________________
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will do to scaffold.
_______________________________________________________
5. Teach the skill to the individual. ______________________
6. Describe how the learning activity went. __________________________________________________
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Lesson 6: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Objectives:
 Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.
 Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development.
 Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and adolescent
development.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different factors that exert influence on
an individual’s development. It points out the ever widening spheres of influence that shape every individual, form his/her
immediate family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bio ecological Systems theory presents child development within the
context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that
has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
“bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development. Through
the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his immediate family/community environment, and
the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other
layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also
at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment h
The microsystem. It is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structures which the child direction interacts with. It
includes structures such as one’s family, school and neighborhood. As, such, the microsystem covers the most basic
relationships and interactions that a child has in his/her immediate environment. Does the child have strong and nurturing
relationships with the parents and family? Are his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happen in two
directions- both away from the child and toward the child. This means that the child is affected by people with whom he
interacts, and in turn these people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother’s deep affection for her child
moves her to answer to the baby’s needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby smiles and coos bring the mother
feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good mother. The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs
of the parents, however, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parents. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-
directional influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what
Erikson termed as “mutuality” in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into the interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between
layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at
outer layers still influence the structures of the microsystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem. For
example, the mesosystem will include the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health
services or the community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function directly. This
includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child’s
development by somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem. This includes the circumstances of the
parents’ work like the location, schedules. We see a change in the children’s routine when for example the mother works
in a call center. That was seen in that burger chain commercial where the mom and the children meet up at the fast-food
for breakfast just before the children go to school and the mom going home from work in a call center. The child may not
interact directly with what is in exosystem, but he is likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it
interacts with the child’s own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child’s environment. It includes the cultural,
values customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one’s microsystem permeates all the interactions in the other
layers and reaches the individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most of the young people are expected to
be more independent by the time they end their teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are expected to
support or at least want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see even married
children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts of the world, sons are more valuable than
daughters. This may pose challenges for girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs,
children from different parts of the world experience different child-rearing practices and therefore differences in
development as well.
The chronosystem. It covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s environments. This involves “patterns of
stability and change” in the child’s life. This involves whether the child’s day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also look into the pace of the child’s
everyday life. Is it a hurried or relax pace? This system can affect or influence the child externally, like the timing of other
siblings coming or the timing of parental separation or even death. Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes
that occur within the developing child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls. As children get older, they may react
differently to environmental changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope and decide to what extent
they will allow changes around them to affect them.
No longer Nature vs Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
For decades, if not for centuries, there was a long drawn debate on which had more impact on child development,
nature or nurture. Another way of putting it is, it is heredity or environment that influences child development more. More
and more research now point out that both a child’s biology and his environment play a role in the child’s growth and
development. Development theories now stress on the role played by each and the extent to which they interact in ongoing
development.
The ecological system theory focuses on the quality context of the child’s environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out
that as a child develops, the interplay with the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic
interactions of the system happens meantime, the child’s physical and cognitive structures also grow and mature. This bio
ecological theory helps us determine how the different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect the
child as he or she goes through the more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood program in the US. He concluded that
“the instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’s development,” Researches tells
us that absence or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development. According to the bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the
child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be
present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These
deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as antisocial behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to
provide self-direction.”
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very important role. If there is a lack of support,
care and affection from the home, if there is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child’s life, what can the
school, the teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into every child’s environmental systems in order to
understand more about the characteristics and needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can
contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to support and not replace the relationships in the home.
Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that
is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child’s influence.
Schools and teacher’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such exists, but to work so that the school
becomes an environment that welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value
work done on behalf of children at all level, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work
supervisors, legislators.
Worksheet No. 10: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Directions: Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your parents for some information.
Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents __________________________________________________.

2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were____________________________________________.
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show ____________________________.
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in _____________________________________________.
5. I cannot forget my teacher who ________________________________________________________.
6. When I was growing up, I was away from _________________________________________________.
7. When I was in high school, I was close to _________________________________________________.
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about ________________________________________________.
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was ______________________________________.
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was _________________________.
Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where it belongs.
Culture, sub culture

Social class
Extended family
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Pre-natal Period
Lesson 1: Pre-natal Development

- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
Objectives:
 Trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went through.
 Explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
 Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.
CONCEPT NOTES:
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt in the developmental process after birth. None
of them was concerned with what development went on before birth. To make the description of human development
complete, it may be good to understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent, the learners.
This is the concern of this Unit or Module-prenatal or antenatal development.
The Stages of Pre-natal Development
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods-germinal, embryonic and fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) – This includes the
a) Creation of the zygote
b) Continued cell division
c) The attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
The following are the details of development during this period:
a) 24-30 hrs. after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female(egg) chromosome unite
b) 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2) cells
c) 48 hours (2 days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hours (3 days) – 4 cells becomes a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e) 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f) 4-5 days –inner cell mas (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g) 6-7 days –blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h) 11-15 days- blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it (implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are
formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the
embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition
and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004)
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – in this stage, the name of the mass cells, zygote, become
embryo. The following developments take place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies
b) Life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c) Organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The embryo’s endoderm,
the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two
parts – the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first
two months of pre-natal development is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These life-support
systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consist of a
disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessel from the mother and the offspring intertwine by do not join.
The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an
envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems
develop form the fertilized egg and not from the mother’s body.
3. Fetal period (2 moths to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development continue dramatically during
this period. The details of the development process are as follows (Santrock, 2002)
a) 3 months after conception –fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce; fetus has become active,
moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin
can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be
identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception – fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4-7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in the
body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother fells arm and leg movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conception- fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin
(fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are
completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head grasping reflex is present and irregular movements
occur.
e) 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f) 8-9 months after conception –fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is what which causes
birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means “monster”.
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:
1) Prescription and nonprescription drugs – These include prescription as well as non-prescription drugs. Antibiotic is
an example of a prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills,
aspirin and coffee.
Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate
their morning sickness that gave rise to several deformed babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is associated with reduced birthweight, length and head circumference
(Hurt, et. Al 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired motor development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
impaired –information processing (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills (Bandstra,
2000 cited by Snatrock, 2002).
2) Psychoactive drugs – These include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm
deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee
(Exkanazi et al, 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of
abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities
include facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of these children are below
average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted by Santrock 2002).
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher incidences of preterm births
and lower birthweights among children with smoking mothers (Wang, et al, 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of
toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth, and breech deliveries.
3) Environmental hazards- These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and
prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among
the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time
being the first several weeks after when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002). Researchers
found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide, mercury and lead caused defects in animals exposed to high doses.
For instance, early exposure to lead affects children’s mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002).
Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the children’s toys with high lead content manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mother’s body temperature creating
fever that endangers the fetus. The high temperature due to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth
defects or even fetal death of the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).
4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), suphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and
stress, age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neo-natal (newborn) deaths and more
than 20,000 affected infants who were born with malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness and
heart problems (Santrock, 2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye lesions, which can cause
blindness, and skill lesions. When syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract, can develop.
About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth canal die; another one-fourth become brain
damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways:
1) During gestation across the placenta
2) During delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids , and
3) Postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding.
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and reduced birth weight. Other
studies have shown that increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
(familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20the-effects-of-stress-during-pregnancy)
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs to be conducted for more conclusive
findings. It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. If
a fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the rate of the cell division is seriously hampered. An extremely deprived
fetus may have 20% fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has been malnourished both in utero an infancy, the
brain may be as much as 60% smaller than of the normal child.
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth
defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the ‘neural tube’. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube
defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees
of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation. (http://www/squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant)
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.
A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches
30. Buy age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher
before age 18. (Santrock, 2002)
5) Paternal factors – Fathers’ expose to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities
in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer. As in the case of older mothers, older fathers
also may place offspring at risk for certain defects. (Santrock, 2002)
Human Life Begins at Conception
That which is in the mother’s womb is indeed in a developing human being. An unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is
not essentially different from one of eighteen (18 weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From conception to zygote, the
embryo and the fetus are undeniably human life.
Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we are have been there at the
moment of conception! The fact that you have brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will
turn bald at age 50 have been there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of
development is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw, “The Silent Scream”. The mother submitted herself to a medical
doctor for abortion in her third month of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman’s womb
to crush the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus has his/her mouth open like he was screaming for help
as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That’s why the film was given the title “The Silent Scream.” This
only means that the developing being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be safest of all places for human
development. Unfortunately, however, with the scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb! The development that
takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being.
Worksheet No. 111: Pre-natal Development
1. Here are 3 boxes for you to write the stages of prenatal development.
2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer,
Prenatal
Development
-Zygote,
Embryo,
Fetus

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Infancy and Toddlerhood
Lesson 1: Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
Objectives:
 Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants and toddlers.
 Identify factors that enhance/impede the physical development of infants and toddlers
 Draw implications of these principles and processes to child care, education and parenting.
CONCEPT NOTES:
We have just trace the development process before birth. We shall continue to trace the developmental process
by following the infant or the baby who is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal
or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two years
of life.
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than
the body. This cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies in the first
months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head
area because the top parts of the head – the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of
the body outwards. This is also applies in the first months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular
control of the trunk and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the
proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.
Height and Weight
 It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 – 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth.
That is due to baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting,
they grow rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months. After six months,
breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
 In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady
development.
Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the spreading connections of
dendrites to each other.
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat
cells. Begins prenatally and continues after birth. The process of myelination or myelinization increases the
speed at which information travels through the nervous system.
 At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about
75% of its adult weight.
 Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between neurons that it can possibly use.
The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally
waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made.
 A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the brains of rats that grew up in the
enriched environment developed better than the brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions.
The brains of the “enriched” animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal connections and had
higher levels of neurochemical activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who live in
impoverished environments can produce positive changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed environment. (Circhetti,
2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).
Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine
motor skills.
Reflexes
 The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before
they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few
months as the baby grows and matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: It is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong
sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in
some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: It is most evident when an infant’s check is stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her
head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding.
Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and
most babies can support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infants respond by curling his or her toes.
When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs out,
and throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back
into their bodies.
Galant Reflex: It is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will
respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: It is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child’s
head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.
(http;//www.mamashealth.com/child/inreflex.asp)
Gross Motor Skills

Study the figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor skills.
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the infant’s first year of life. This dramatic
motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the cabinet, to
chase the ball and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills
These are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The
development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand coordination. The
development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show
only crude shoulder and elbow movements. But later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of.
Some research finding about newborn’s visual perceptions:
 Their vision is about 10-30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and
by the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by
Santrock, 2002)
 Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz (1963
cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric
circles rather that at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception has an
innate basis” (Santrock. 2002). Among the first few things that babies learn to recognize is their mother’s face,
as mother feed and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
 The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby
hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How
soothing it must have been for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby.
 Infants
 Sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder to be
heard by a newborn than by an adult.
Can newborn differentiate odors?
 In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were breastfed showed a clear
preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show
when the babies were only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize
their mother’s breast pad odor.”
Can newborn feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
 They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than
prior to the surgery (Taddio et. Al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002).
 Babies respond to touch.
Can newborn distinguish different tastes?
 In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made diferent facial expression when they tasted
sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002)
 When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
 This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable if intermodal perception?
 Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information about two or more sensory
modalities such as vision and hearing.
 In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as at 3 ½ months old, infants looked
more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.
 The capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various models gets
sharpened considerably through experience.
Worksheet No. 12: Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers
I. Directions: Choose the best answer.
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is TRUE?

The cephalocaudal growth patterns shows ___________________.
a. Development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
b. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
c. Simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs.
d. Development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers
2. As a normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go through?
a. Development of motor skills from the body outward to the center
b. Development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
c. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
d. Simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body
3. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants and toddlers?
a. Depressed environment
b. Early brain stimulation
c. Being the only child
d. Being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do?

I. encourage your child to sit when eating.
II. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop motor skills.
III. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
a. II & III b. I & III c. I & II d. I, II, and III
III. Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as a
future parent or as caregiver of children, reflect on:
 What you should do more often for infants and toddlers?

 What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and development?

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
Objectives:
 Trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlers.
 Identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of infants and toddlers
 Draw implications of cognitive development to child care, education and parenting.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks. This includes his/her
language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering’
learning to talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.
Here are the 6 substages of the sensorimotor developmental stage (Santrock, 2002):
Sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. “In this stage, infants construct
an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric
actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. An infant progresses from
reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.” Piaget divided
the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:
Sub-stage Age Description

1. Simple Reflexes Birth-6 Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors. Three
weeks primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth,
following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the
hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over the
first six weeks life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for
example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping
2. First habits and primary 6 weeks Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and
circular reactions phase – 4 primary circular reactions.
months Primary reaction because the action is focused on the infant’s body.
Circular reaction because it is a repetition of an action that initially
occurred by chance. As an example of this type of reaction, infants might
repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this
phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can
begin. Infants tend to repeat interesting sensations.
3. Secondary circular reactions 4-8 Development of habits. Infants become more object-oriented, moving
phase months beyond self-preoccupation repeat actions that bring interesting or
pleasurable results. This stage is associated primarily with the development
of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur
at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular
reactions, and differentiations between ends and means.
At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the directions of a
desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary
circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object
begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. This
means that a secondary action is focused on an object outside the body of
an infant. The differentiation between means and ends also occurs. This is
perhaps one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies
the dawn of logic.
4. Coordination of reactions 8-12 Coordination of vision and touch-hand-eye coordination; of schemes and
stage secondary circular months intentionality. This stage is associated primarily with the development of
logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely
important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the “first proper
intelligence”. Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the
deliberate planning of steps to meet and objective. The action is directed
towards a goal.
5. Tertiary circular reactions, 12-18 Infants become intrigued by the many proper of objects and by the many
novelty, and curiosity months things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new
behavior. This stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new
means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the
“young scientist”, conducting pseudo experiments to discover new
methods of meeting challenges.
6. Internalization of Schemes 18-24 Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring
(Invention of New means months mental representations. This stage is associated primarily with the
through Mental beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the
combination) preoperational stage.
Evidence of an internal representational system. Symbolizing the problem-
solving sequence before actually responding.
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent. Object
permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/piaget %27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#Sensorimotor_stage)
Sensorimotor Stage
 An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive development shows that
development begins from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive
development of infants evolves in orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or
world-oriented, from one that is action based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve
much of coordination of schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking
that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
 Piaget’s substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the world involves repeated actions.
Circular reactions are attempts to repeat an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building
blocks for intelligence (Pasek, P and Golinkoff, R, 2003).
 Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant’s own body, whereas secondary circular reactions are
aimed toward the environment including others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn’t know how to do it again. She waves
her hand around and, after many attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to
do it at will (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating events which 4-10 month old babies
observe outside of their own bodies, such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K and R.
Golinkoff, 2003).
 Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when a baby does things over and over
again, just a little differently each time. e.g, when a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over again
in many different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events. Piaget described the baby at this
stage as “the scientist”. When parents don’t understand their child’s behavior, they see this act as abusive and
get frustrated.
 From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby discovers a pattern “objects fall down –
not up”. They create the patterns with their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern
seekers (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 “Acquiring the sense of object permanence, is one of the infant’s most important accomplishments, according
to Piaget”. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not
immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant’s acquisition of the sense of object permanence,
the principle that applies is, “out of sight, out of mind”.
There are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development. One criticism from other
developmental theorists is his fundamental assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of
discontinuous spurts across task domains, tasks, and contexts. Many theorists (e.g. Brainerd, 1978) believer that
cognitive development occurs as a continuous process rather than in discontinuous stages of development.
Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants support the view that Piaget underestimated young
infant’s cognitive ability. Furthermore, Piaget’s methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact that he
simply observed his three children and a few others which were limited only to European children.
Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning have been proven to apply to infants.
We’ll ask you to research on researches that prove this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young
(Spear, 1979). Generally, we can remember little or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5 years,
and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories
usually involve memories of significant events (e.g., birth of a sibling or the death of a parent; ( Fivush and Hammond,
1991). For example, some adults have recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far back as age 2
years, and the death of a parent or a family move may be recalled from as far back as age 3 years (Usher and Neisser,
1993).
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment with the specific goal
of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably acute language earning abilities even form an early age (Marcus,
Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 199 cited by Sternberg, Robert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we human seem to progress through the following stages in producing language
(Sternberg, 2003);
1. Cooing which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people’s ears, the babbling of infants
growing up among speakers from different language groups sounds very similar
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the consonants they utilize (Ingram,
1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing vocabulary acquisition
The infant utters his/her first word- followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a few more. The infant
uses these one word utterances termed holophrases-to convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words
are nouns describing familiar objects that the child observes) e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada)
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (Siegler, 1986). Because the young
child’s vocabulary is very limited at this point in the development process, the child overextends the meaning of
words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example the general
term for any kind which a new word is lacking. For example the general tem for any kind of four-legged animal may
be “doggie”. In linguistics this called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single word to produce two-word
utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions
missing are referred to as telegraphic speech.
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2 years of age to about 1,000
words at about 3 years of age. At about 4 years, incredibly children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and
language structure (Sternberg, 2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above
show, the acquisition of language comes in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances, to
two-or three word utterances or even more but without articles an prepositions thus called telegraphic speech.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate language acquisition
device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical organ that is responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed
to pump blood this language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this language acquisition device is
preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language community children find themselves in”.
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to acquire language.
Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit understanding of the many rules of language
structure, as well as for applying those rule to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why
children are said to learn language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito pf Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and her colleagues
conducted a recent study that concluded that “by 5 months of age, babies are already specializing by using the left
side of their brains for a language sounds and the right side for expression emotion… we all speak out from the right
side of their mouths.”
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left side of the body is
controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain are contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right
side of their mouths for babbling, then babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
Worksheet No. 13: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers

1. In which order do the following sub stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage take place in the toddler’s cognitive
development?
1. simple reflexes
2. first habits and primary circular reactions phase
3. secondary circular reactions phase
4. coordination of secondary circulation reactions stage
5. tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity
6. internationalization of schemes
a. 1-2-3-4-5-6
b. 2-3-1-4-6-5
c. 6-5-1-2-3-4
d. 1-3-4-2-5-6
2. Which practice can enhance cognitive development among toddlers?
a. Shared reading
b. Early enrolment in found school
c. Making child compete with other toddlers
d. Buying expensive toys for the toddler
II. Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of pre-operational stage of cognitive development, reflect on
how you, as a future mother or nursery teacher can:
1. Enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development or

2. Impede infants and toddlers cognitive development

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Lesson 3: Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

Objectives:
 Describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
 Identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
 Draw implications of socio-emotional development concepts to child care, education and parenting.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a person’s ability to
master one’s emotions and the ability to relate to others. It necessarily includes temperament, attachments and social
skills.
For Formative Years
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human development. They are so-called the
formative years that is why, parents and other caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in
the development of infants and toddlers.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with a wholesome socio-emotional
development of children.
Attachment
 For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring emotional bond
characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful
situation. This is the social phenomenon of attachment.
 According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginning of attachment occur within 6
months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby
cries, gazes into her mother’s eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of
attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them than any stranger whom she seldom sees. This is
what Bob Greene must have experienced.
 The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive interaction with the baby (k.
Pasek and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies
seem to let us know when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver’s response to the baby is
important.
 Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003) in their book “Einstein
Never Use Class cards” are given below:
 What is absolutely central to babies ‘emotional well-being is not so much feeding but the consistent
involvement of caregivers. Being fed by your mother is not what attached you to her. It is consistent,
close nurturing that matters in early relationships.
 Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make better adjustments in a number of
areas in future life. But remember, having a good attachment in infancy gives you a great start but
can’t carry you through life. You have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you
are to develop favorably.
 Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing emotional relationships with
multiple caregiver at once.
 Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours per week, the family contributes more to
child’s social and cognitive well-being than does the child care arrangement. Parents matter and
children are attached to parents even when children are in child care
 Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by working with them and by serving as
their models.
Temperament
1. Another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is temperament. Temperament is a word
that ‘captures the ways that people differ, even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity
level, attention span, persistence, and ability to regulate regulate their emotions”. (K. Pasek and R. Golinkofff,
2003). Every baby expresses personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds emotionally to
objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual temperament.
2. Researches Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament categories (Honig, 2010, Secure
Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
 Activity level
 Mood
 Threshold for distress
 Rhythmicity
 Intensity of response
 Approach-Withdrawal
 Distractibility
 Adaptability
 Persistence
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations:
Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot and, as toddlers, are always on
the move. At this stage, they must be watched carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached emotionally to their teachers,
others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.
Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset very easily when stressed.
Other babies can more comfortably wait when they need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and predictable basis. Other
babies sleep at varying times, urinate or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different
times. They are hard to put on a “schedule”.
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby’s threshold for distress has been reached, some babies
act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are
stressed. They shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and fearful of new teachers, being
placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a new setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or
new play possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding bustle or noise in a room.
Others are easily distracted.
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations with distress, but recover fairly
rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after a very long period.
Child’s attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They continue with an activity for a fairly
long time. Others flit from one activity to another.
 Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess studied babies
temperament and clustered temperaments into 3 basic types:
1) the easy child
2) the difficult child
3) the slow-to-warm—up child and those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types.
The “easy child” easily readily establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to
new experiences. The “difficult child” is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences and tends to
react negatively and intensely to new things while the “slow-to-warm-up child” shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new experiences.
The development of emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’s emotional development and social development.
Early Infancy (birth – six months)
 It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using adult facial expressions as the
standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other pleasure-indicative actions
and sounds, including cooing and mouthing. This social smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to a wider variety of contexts.
They may smile when they see a toy they have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or
four months, requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child can recognize
incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on
the abdomen or a caregiver playing peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter
promotes social development.
Later infancy months (7-12)

 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and anger because of the maturation
of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although
some infants respond to distressing events with sadness anger is more common.
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an unfamiliar event with what they
know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the
presence of an adult stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is
called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves
them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotions begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is significant in the infant’s
acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their emotions, and
the degree of acceptability associated with different types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants begin to recognize the
emotions of others, and use this information when reacting to novel situations and people. As infants explore
their world they generally rely on the emotional expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the
safety or appropriateness of a particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or embarrassment and pride. These
emotions nature in all children and adults contribute to their development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to verbally express
their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of
emotional self-regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. If they are
uncomfortable they may be able to communicate this state by crying, but have little hope of alleviating the
discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions with the
emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this process. Being able to articulate an
emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in that it enables children to communicate their feelings to a
person capable of helping them manage their emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate,
using soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
 Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in toddlerhood, usually by age
two. The development of empathy requires that children read other’s emotional cues, understand
that other people are entities distinct form themselves, and take the perspective of another person
(put themselves in the position of another). (source: http://psychology/jrank.org)
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply at the periods of infancy and
toddlerhood that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (infants, 0-1 year)
 Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met by the parents. The infant
depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of
the world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to
warmth, regularity and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fails
to provide a secure environment and to meet the child’s basic need as sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik
Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers,
regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort and affection, an infant learns trust-
that others are dependable and reliable. It they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns
mistrust – that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (toddlers, 2-3 years)
 Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
 Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their
surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will.
The parents’ patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are
more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their
own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage
self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy – a sense of being able to handle many problems on their
own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or
ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead, develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle
problems (en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erikson’s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-)
Worksheet No. 14: Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Directions: Choose the best answer.
1. What does the social phenomenon of attachment mean in an infant’s and toddler’s healthy socio-emotional
development?
The infant/toddler.
a. Wants to interact with people and the world

b. Understands that mother continues to exist even if she is not seen
c. Needs to establish an enduring emotional bond manifested in a tendency to maintain closeness to a specific
figure
d. Thrives on social interaction
2. Which is/are TRUE of the infant and toddler socio-emotional?
I. Can self-regulate feelings/emotions
II. Capable of empathy
III. Develops healthy attachments to significant adults
a. I and II c. I and III
b. II and III d. I, II and III
3. Which does not an infant learn when caregivers are neglectful or even abusive?
I. Learns mistrust
II. Learns trust
III. Learns that the world is hostile
a. I and III c. I and II
b. II and III d. I, II, and III

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Early Childhood (The Preschooler)
Lesson 1: Preschooler’s Physical Development

Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe preschool children’s physical growth.
 Identify the different gross and fine motor skills.
 Draw implications of these concepts on physical development on teaching preschoolers.
CONCEPT NOTES:
The preschooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal schooling begins”. It roughly covers 3-5
years of age. Although it is known as the years before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school
years. The preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage, preschoolers
achieve many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to teach and care for
preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an intentional and effective teacher.
This module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses on the acquisitions of gross and fine motor
skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep, and what teachers and caregivers should do to maximize the
preschoolers’ development.
What have you observe about preschoolers physical development?
Yes! They love to move. They enjoy being active. They are also interested to work with their fingers, like with
blocks. They have a more balanced stance than toddlers. Read on an you will learn more about the typical physical
development of preschoolers, the important concerns and issues, and how teachers and caregivers can help maximize
the preschoolers’ growth and development.
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There is significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.

2. The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the preschoolers
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the appropriate adaptation
made in the classroom, materials and activities.
Significant changes in Physical Growth
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace than in infancy and
toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward
a more slender appearance of a child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly distributed. Toddlers have their center of
gravity at a high level, about the chest level. This is why they have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling
down. Preschoolers on the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly button.
This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than toddler. The preschool moves from the unsteady stance of
toddlerhood to a more steady bearing. They no longer “toddle” that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This is also allows
the preschooler to move more “successfully” than the toddler. Some say that the later part of the preschooler years at
around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating.
By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary or deciduous, or what are also called “baby or milk”
teeth are already in place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age six are also developing. The
preschooler years are therefore a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles. These gross motor skills are
categorized into three: locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative skills.
 Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to another, like walking, running, climbing,
skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping and dodging.
 Non-locomotor skills are those where the child stays in place, like bending, stretching, turning and swaying.
 Manipulative skills are those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, dribbling and
bouncing.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three and becomes a little less as
preschooler gets older. Preschoolers should be provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow
them to use their large muscles. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy bones,
muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or delay hypertension, reduce feelings of
depression and anxiety and increase capacity of learning.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the arm, hands and fingers
purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and
using a writing implement. It also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning,
zipping, combing, and brushing.
Different environments provide different experiences with fine motor skills. For example the availability of
information and communications technology in largely urban areas makes younger and younger children proficient
in keyboarding and manipulation of the mouse and the use of smart phones and tablets. While other children use
their fine motor skills in digging in soil, making toys out of sticks, cans and bottle caps. Still others, enjoy clay, play
dough, and finger paint.
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their thumb and fingers, draw
pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and threading activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and
dressing up independently. Significant progress in fine motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if they are
aptly supported and appropriate activities are provided them.
Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually established around 4 years of
age. Earlier than this, preschoolers can be observed to do tasks using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a
preschooler shifting the crayon from left to right and back again while working on a coloring activity.
Preschoolers’ Artistic Development
At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of artistic expressions. This
form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of
drawing in early childhood:
Stage 1: Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later become circular markings. Soon, discrete
shapes are drawn. The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Stage 2: Preschematic stage. May already include early representations (This is also becomes very significant when we
discuss about the cognitive development). At this point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this
stage tend to give the same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head with
basic elements. Later arms, legs, hands and even facial features are included.
Stage 3: Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw the experience and exposure.
Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually
drawings appear to follow a ground line.
Everyone who observes a preschooler go through these stages of drawing would surely say one thing: that the
preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a hundred time! Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if
the supply of scratch papers, crayons, and pens will ever be enough. Adults should remember to have a neat supply of
these or they will find the preschoolers’ drawings on the furniture and walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities
to gain mastery of the fine motors skills involved.
Also important to remember is that the preschoolers’ representation or drawings does not only involve fine
motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children’s drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves
and the world around them.
Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep
The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effects on his physical growth and development. The
preschooler’s nutritional status is the result of what nutrients he or she actually takes in checked against the nutritional
requirement for his/her age. Obviously, having too much or too little both have their negative effects. Here in our
country, we can see the extreme of preschoolers not having enough food and those on the other end of the extreme
where we find preschoolers who are not just overweight but obese. The celebration of the Nutrition month every July is
aimed at advocating for proper nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good nutritional habits while
government programs on giving out fortified bread, milk and even noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep. Preschoolers benefit from about 10-
12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are asleep that vital biological processes that affect physical and cognitive
development take place. During sleep, especially in the dream stage (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are
released. Blood supply to the muscles are likewise increased helping preschoolers regain energy. At this state while
dreaming, increased brain activity is also attained.
Worksheet No. 15: Preschooler’s Physical Development
Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take
their pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do.
PHYSICAL DOMAIN SKILLS PROPOSED LEARNING ACTIVITIES
COGNITIVE DOMAIN SKILLS
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DOMAIN SKILLS

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Lesson 2: Preschooler’s Cognitive Development

Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD & Brenda B. Corpus, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe preschool children’s cognitive development.
 Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive development in preschool teaching in child care.
 Take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching practices.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle and wonder; as if creation rose, bathed in
light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When
the world seems familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has become an adult”.
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you remember how you were as preschooler?
What do you remember most as a preschooler? What did you enjoy doing?
Preschoolers’ Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
There are two sub stages of Piaget’s preoperational thought, namely, symbolic sub stage and intuitive sub stage.
In the symbolic stage, preschool children show progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are
not present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive sub stage, preschool
children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability
facilitates their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their
improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.
Preschool children believe that inanimate objects have ‘lifelike’ qualities and are capable of action. This is referred
to as animism (Santrock, 2002). Preschool children who use animism fail to distinguish the appropriate occasions
for using human and nonhuman perspectives.
Piaget calls egocentrism when a child unable to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’
perspective (Santrock, 2002).
Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive thought process. They have limitation of preoperational
thought, which is focusing or on centering of one’s attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of others
(Santrock, 2002). This is also referred to us unidimensional thought. This is also and evidence that preschoolers
have lack of conservation, the awareness that the basic property of an object or a substance is conserved (is not
changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed.
They are not capable of reversible thinking or working backwards in solving problems. This process is called
irreversibility.
They do not use deductive or inductive reasoning; instead they jump from one particular to another and see cause
when none exists. This is transductive reasoning.
Children at this stage are making significant advancements in their cognitive abilities like the acquisition of
symbolic thought. Symbolic thought is shown in their ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.
They do not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an object, person, or event in order to think about it. They
are symbolic thought in a play, reading, and writing when, for instance, children pretend that one thing represents
another such as a wooden block used as microphone in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog Bantay
while in a sociodramatic play. In reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events in a story and that
letters represent sounds used in language.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young children have been of great
interest to the field for early childhood. Brain research finding point us to more effective ways to care for and teach
preschoolers. From science lessons you had in high school or even in elementary, you will remember that our brain is
composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect each other to function. Cell connections are what we call
synapses, sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections.
Did you know that:
 The human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth?

 By age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be made during one’s lifetime?
 Around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking patterns?
All these facts point to the enormous potential that the preschooler’s brain has. The child’s billion cells have the
ability to make almost countless connections that prepare the child for intricate pathways to learn language, acquire
logical-mathematical skills, interact with people, grow in his feelings and emotions and even express himself in art. As
such preschool teacher would often observe how a child now has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and
independent preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy “reading” a book, tell his own stories among friends. Build
beautiful block structures and wear his jacket all by myself.
Language development
Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go through early childhood,
their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology, semantics, and pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly conclude that sounds link
together to make words and words represent ideas, people, and things. Throughout the preschool years, children’s
language development becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas:
 Phonology – speech sounds

 Semantics –word meaning
 Syntax-sentence construction
 Pragmatics-conversation or social uses of language
As they advance in age and as they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or
twice in conversation. Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into sentences in an increasingly
sophisticated manner.
Language and Social Interaction

Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and to plan, guide and monitor
their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion-called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during
early childhood. Full cognitive development requires social interaction and language. Children must use their own
thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies the importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language
development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive development (language
development included) on their own and that they can improve their cognitive development through use of scaffolding
from more-skilled children and adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer tasks too
difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children
(Santrock, 2002). In short, the ZPD captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing.
The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is “the level of cognitive development reached
by the preschool child independently. The upper limits the level of additional responsibility of the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor”. (Santrock, 2002)
Closely linked the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the concepts of scaffolding, a term that
refers to the “changing support over the course of a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to
fit the child’s current performance level (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language
development?
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

The information processing model is another way of examining and understanding how children develop
cognitively. This model conceptualizes children’s mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing
encoding, storing, and decoding data.
The preschoolers’ attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The child’s ability to pay attention changes
significantly during the preschool years.
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool years are those involving short-term memory. In short-
term memory, (STM) retain information for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep
information in STM for a much longer period (Santrock, 2002).
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to :
a) Rehearsal
b) Speed and efficiency of processing information
Older children rehearse items more than younger children. On this count, preschool children may have shorter
memory span than primary information is an important aspect of the child’s cognitive abilities.
Between the ages of 2 and 5, long term memory begins to form, which is why most people cannot remember
anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.
Part of long memory involves storing information about the sequence of events during familiar situations as “scripts”.
Scripts help children understand, interpret, and predict what will happen in future scenarios.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their cognitive abilities for specific purposes. For
example, children can learn to pay attention to and memorize lists of words or facts. This skill is obviously crucial for
children starting school who need to learn new information, retain it and produce it for tests and other academic
activities’. Children of this age have also developed a larger overall capacity to process information. This expanding
information processing capacity allows young children to make connections between old and new information.
In early childhood, as information –processing increases in speed, memory becomes increasingly longer. Young
children can remember a great deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts. Sometimes, however,
the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate
prompts and cues. Rehearsal and organizing information are deliberate mental activities that can be employed to improve
the processing of information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal and organization.
The Young Children Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work (Santrock, 2002).
By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs, emotions, and mental states.
When a preschool child says, “I forgot my doll,” “I want my ice cream”, these imply that he/she is aware that a mind
exists. Cognitive terms such as know, remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional terms, but are
used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world an ability to remember and solve problems improve, children start to reflect on
their own thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas about mental activities
(Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly between the ages of three and five. It includes
awareness of one’s own thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to
deceive, ability to distinguish appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy from reality (Preschoolers
cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young age? Various speculations and research
finding suggest that social experience is very important. Social experience includes
1) Early forms of communication

2) Imitation
3) Make-believe play
4) Language
5) Social interaction
The role of Caregivers (Parents and teachers) in Cognitive Development of Preschoolers
Learning about how preschoolers think and learn, one will realize that parents and teachers can do a lot either to help
preschoolers develop their cognitive skills or impede them. With the best intentions, one can do more harm than good if
the approach to teaching preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the role of preschools is to prepare the
children to pass the entrance examinations of elementary schools, and so they “harass” the preschoolers to master
academic skills. This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a negative disposition about school and about
learning. Two prominent organizations that have position statements about the appropriate practices in the care and
education of preschoolers are the National Association for Education of Young Children. –NAEYC (www.naeyc.or) and
the Association for Childhood Education International – ACEI (ww.acei.org) Below are some appropriate practices that
help develop the cognitive skills of preschoolers. (Adapted from a list of tips for caregivers and teachers by Lesia
Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family studies, Iowa State University)
For three year-olds

1. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask question and listen.
2. Add new information to your children’s sentences. “Yes that’s a flower- its’s a tall, red flower and it smells so
good”.
3. Teach children to memorize the first and last names.
4. Provide books for children to read, and read some books to them. Read poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage a
child to repeat a story and discuss the ideas and events. Read titles and point to important words on pages, packages
and street signs.
5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing a grocery list or note for parents. Provide paper, small
notebooks, and markers or use in dramatic play.
6. Count objects of interests; for example cookies, cups, napkins, or dolls. It is better to use objects that you can
move one at a time as you and the children count. Measure, and have children help measure and counts as you follow a
recipe.
7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of a reference book. Help them do simple science activities like
magnetic attraction, freezing water, planting seeds, making a terrarium, and flying kites on a windy day.
8. Provide sets- toys and other objects that go together. Discuss similarities and differences. For example, point out
sequences in cooking.
9. Sing simple songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or milk can drums, rattles of mongo beans in a
box, etc. encourage a variety of body movements and dance to music of many kinds. Play musical games such as
“London Bridge”, Ring –around-the-Rosie” and etc.
For four-year-olds
1. Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their own. Provide alternative reading materials
with a collection of outdated coupons, junk, mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
2. Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together. Encourage 4-year olds to tell stories to younger children.
3. Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and notebooks for writing. Print letters and
numerals on art work, and label toy shelves with pictures and words that describe objects.
4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything’s in sight, like silverware, socks, rocks,
leaves, etc. Talk about things being in, on, under behind, beside, before and after, larger than, too far, etc.
5. Teach children the correct use of the telephone.
6. Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They will love to water plants daily and will enjoy
measuring plant growth.
For Five-year-olds
1. Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for different characters. While reading a
familiar story, stop before the end and ask children to add their own end to the story.
2. Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall or refrigerator. You can also record the
child telling the story and let him listen to himself later.
3. Ask “what if” questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead of 3? What if Little Red Riding Hood saw a rabbit
instead of a wolf?
4. Involve children in writing “thank you” notes, holiday greeting cards and letters. If a 5-year-old enjoys copying
letters, let him dictate a short message to you and copy it from your writing.
5. Give him opportunities to sort, group, match, count and sequence with real life situations such as setting the table,
counting the number of turns, sorting out socks, and matching fabric swatches. Expose to games involving matching
pairs.
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and why. Give answers they can understand.
7. He will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage them to count anything of interest – cups, leaves, drums,
bells number of children absent, etc.
8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, riddles by reading humorous stories, riddles nonsense. Join them in jokes
from school, books, and tv.
9. Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest. Teach children how to move their bodies to dramatize
the opening of a flower, falling leaves, or rain; wiggly worms and snakes and laundry blowing in the wind.
Worksheet No. 16: Preschooler’s Cognitive Development
I. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschoolers’

1) Animism
2) Egocentrism
3) Centration
4) Lack of conservation
5) Irreversibility
6) Transductive reasoning
II. To enhance the preschoolers’ development in his symbolic thinking, language, attention, memory function,
and metacognition, what developmental appropriate practices would you recommend? What developmental
inappropriate practices would you not recommend?
III. Does preschool matter? Doesn’t preschool rob the child of his irretrievable childhood? Defend your stand.

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Lesson 3: Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler’s
Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD
Objectives:
 Explain Erikson’s “crisis” of early childhood, initiative versus guilt.
 Explain the development of the preschooler’s sense of self and self-esteem.
 Describe how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers affect the preschooler.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of parents and teachers and preschool
administrators say that attending preschool is more for “socialization” than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom
in this. During the preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment. Preschoolers now discover their
new roles outside their home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. A lot of very
important social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These skills can
even determine the individual’s later social adjustment and consequent quality of relationships in adult life.
Read through this module and you will surely understand more why they manifested the social behavior that you have
observe.
Big Ideas on Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development
1. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.

2. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
4. Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play.
5. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socio-emotional development.
6. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.
Preschoolers’ Initiative
Erikson’s view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that happen during the preschool years.
As discussed in Module 8, preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of initiative versus guilt. Erikson believed
that healthy preschoolers develop initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take action and assert themselves.
They will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risks and engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When
parents, teachers and other adults support these attempts and provide a stimulating environment, the preschooler’s sense
of initiative will grow. On the other hand, if the adults show overprotection, extreme restriction and criticisms, the
preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so much energy in doing imaginative play
activities. Every place becomes a playground to explore, every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with. Adults
sometimes get exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the preschooler as “naughty” or “makulit”. Some parents
and teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the
preschooler just to establish “control”. Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a good amount of
guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt hampers emotional growth
preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view of themselves as being “salbahe” (bad)
“bobo” (dumb) or “walang kwenta” (worthless). This is really sad because childhood years should be happy years. One
poster says, “You don’t have to hit to hurt”. The message emphasizes that even the things we say and the way we deal
with preschoolers can already hurt them at this vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply “judicious permissiveness”. This involves setting realistic boundaries that
keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and others, while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and
to engage in creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming, encouraging and
stimulating environment.
Self-concept and the Preschooler
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a separate and distinct person. With
their ability to make representations, they can now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one
sees himself, a general view about one’s abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The preschooler’s self-concept mainly
focuses on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschool say,
“kaya ko na! (I can do it!)”Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko!”(I wore my shoes all by myself!) An important aspect of self-
concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one’s judgments about one’s worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive.
Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if they
don’t succeed with something. However, they may become negative because of repeated frustration and disapproval.
Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement from adults.
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development
As the preschoolers’ ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of gender typing, the process of
forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender
stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to associate certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even actions or
behaviors as being “only for boys” or only for girls”. Consequently, they form their own gender identity, the view of
oneself being masculine or feminine.
Gender typing and gender identity are influenced by environmental factors such as the family, teachers, peers and the
mass media. This is where Bronfenbrenner’s model comes into play. Different spheres of influence determine the
preschooler’s development of a gender schema. Differences in parental expectations and behavior towards daughters and
sons affect gender typing and gender identity. More often, boys are expected to show more emotional control and be more
competitive while girls are expected to be warm and soft and demure. Parents also expect their children to play with toys
that are “right” for their gender. The expectations of other people in the preschoolers’ lives also influence their gender
schema. This includes their relatives’ teachers, classmates and other playmates.
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the internet, computer games also offer various image of
what it means to be a boy or a girl. In the US, there is growing debate about Lesbian-Gay-Bi-sexual-transgender issues
which is collectively known as LGBT issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do a “balancing act” on how to
deal with these issues with children so that schools are still able to be on the side of respect for diversity without necessary
confusing children who are at a stage of forming their own gender schemas.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present notions of what boys and girls can do especially in the
discussion about occupations or community helpers.
Parten’s Stages of Play
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As the preschooler develops, social
interaction with playmates increases. Mildren Parten, in 1930’sdid a study on children’s play behavior which led to
Parten’s Stages of play. Since then, numerous studies have followed using these stages as framework. The stages describe
the play development of children and the gradual increase of social interaction as they go through these stages. It begins
with the very young child’s unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel play, associative and cooperative play. Play
becomes an important venue for the child’s development of social skills like entering or joining a play station, taking-
turns, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working together. Play is indeed the child’s major business!
Parten’s Stages of Play

The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything that
1. Unoccupied interest him.
The child spends time watching othetrs play. He may talk to them but does not
2. Onlooker enter into play with them.
The child starts to play on his own. He seems not to notice other children playing
3. Solitary play nearby.
The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays beside and not
4. Parallel play with them. No interaction takes place.
5. Associative The child plays with others. There is interaction among them, but no task
Friendships in Preschool
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends. This should be encouraged in the
preschool years as friendships benefit the preschoolers development by providing stimulation, assistance, companionship,
social comparison and affection (Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice different social
roles like being a leader, a follower, someone who take risks and someone who helps out and comforts. Friendships are
very important because they provide added sense of belongings and security. In the preschool years, parents and teachers
must expose children to experiences that help them learn skills in establishing friendships, maintaining positive
relationships and resolving conflicts. Parents and teachers, when seeing preschoolers in a “fight”, should not just say
“Tama na…ano bayan…isa pa ha… Tama na, friends na kayo…Say sorry na…” Responses like those do not foster social
skills among preschoolers. Parents and teachers need to take time and process with children how to resolve conflicts.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect eh socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers here refer to both parents and
teachers and even other adults that care for the child. Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of
caregiving styles. This was based on a longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the development of
children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960’s. Decades later she identified varying degrees of
demandingness and responsiveness as determinants of four styles of caregiving. Marion (2007) expounded on these
determining factors.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behavior that pertain to expression of affection and communication. It refers to how
warm, caring and respectful the adult is to the child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain
things in ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This
involves discipline and confrontation strategies.
Authoritative Permissive
High demandingness/ Low demandingness/
high responsiveness high responsiveness
Authoritarian Negligent
high demandingness/ low demandingness/
low responsiveness low responsiveness
Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles

Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles and their Effects on Children
Caregiving Style Description Effect on the preschooler

The caregivers/parents/teachers with this caregiver style
has the following descriptions:
Authoritative (high  Expect behavior appropriate to the age of the  Makes the preschooler feel safe
demandingness, high child and secure
responsiveness  Maintain reasonable and fair limits  Teaches the child to take
 Closely monitor the activities of the child responsibility for his/her actions
 Warm and nurturing
 Have realistic expectations of the child
Authoritarian  Communicate messages in a kind, firm and  Develops good self-control
high demandingness/ consistent manner  Develops a realistic view of
low responsiveness
 Discipline approach focuses more on teaching oneself
than punishing  Builds the child’s capacity for
empathy
Permissive  Set subjective or unreasonable limits  Lead to aggressive behavior of

Low demandingness/  Communicate messages the child
high responsiveness
 Strive to have strong psychological control  Brings about poor self-control
punishment, sarcasm, withdrawal of love,  Results in port self-esteem
threats
 Not able to teach children a better way to
behave
Negligent  Permit the preschoolers to regulate their own  Has difficulty controlling his/her
low demandingness/ behavior and make their own decisions even impulses
low responsiveness
when preschoolers are not yet ready to do so  Tends to be dependent
 Do not set rules or very few if any  Tends to be demanding of their
 Do not demand good behavior or task caregivers
accomplishment  Tends not to persist or easily
 May lack confidence in their ability to gives up on a task
influence the child  Does not easily follow
 Maybe disorganized and ineffective in  Maybe rebellious
managing the family and household/class  Does not handle frustration well
 Shows undemanding indifferent and rejecting  Has inadequate emotional
action towards the child control
 Has little commitment to their roles as  Difficulties in school performance
parents/caregivers When parent’s Behavior is to the
 Maybe depressed or overburdened by many extreme or if child experiences this style
concerns like poverty, marital problems, or early, the child may have:
absence of support from others  Attachment problems
 Delayed cognitive development
 Poor social and emotional skills
 Delinquent behavior later in
adolescence
The Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional Development of the Preschooler
The important role that parents and teachers play in the socio-emotional development of the preschooler. The
following tips are given the caregivers (parents and teachers):
1. Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere and respectful to each child.
2. Read story books that deal about friendships and different feelings.
3. Develop routines in the home or in school that encourage working together and getting along.
4. Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by providing opportunities for them to play in small
groups.
5. Play games that involve social interaction and team work.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to request, bargain, negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words that they can use to express how
they feel. “I can see you are SAD about your pet, ANGRY at your sister ….”
8. Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express feelings appropriately.
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say, “Nalulungkot ka dahil hindi ka nakasama sa party”.
(You see, sad that you did not go the party). When we do this, we are able to model to the preschooler that is
important to listen and that have feelings, even negative ones, are okay.
10. Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish something. Be specific in your praise. Do
not just say “good job” or Very good.” Instead say, “When I saw you pack-away your toys, I felt, really happy.
Remember to always pack-away.”
Worksheet No. 17: Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler’s
The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that you have learned from this Module, make a list of 10
qualities that an authoritative preschool teachers should have:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Middle Childhood (The Primary

Schooler)
Lesson 1: Physical Development of Primary Schooler’s

Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe the different physical characteristics of early school-aged children in your own words.
 Enumerate ideas how you can apply the concepts in this module in the teaching-learning process
 Discuss several ways on how to encourage an age-appropriate active physical lifestyle to primary
school children.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Physical development involves any different factors: height, weight, appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities.
Primary school children undergo many different changes as they go through this stage of development. This could be
caused by different factors, both natural and environmental.
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage, physical development involves:
1) Having good muscle control and coordination

2) Developing eye-hand coordination
3) Having good personal hygiene
4) Being aware of good safety habits.
In this developmental stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their primary years –
Grades 1 to 3.
These children are extremely active. Because most of the activities traditional schools are sedentary, they often
release their unusual amount of energy in some forms of nervous habits including fidgeting, nail biting and pencil
chewing.
Primary-school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical and mental exertions both at home and in
school. Hence, activities should be alternated between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet activities (example: storytelling
time after the Math period).
Height and weight
This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the changes in their bodies. An average
increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will introduce them to many different activities
that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer appearance compared to their
preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop
additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the body that they were
before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in the body will take place:
 Genes  Climate  Medical conditions
 Food  Exercise  Disease/illnesses
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years – bones grow longer and broader. This is the best time for
parents and teachers to educate children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones
throughout their lives. Replacement of primary teeth, also known as baby teeth, with permanent teeth occur around
ages 6-7years and up until age 12, most children will have all the primary teeth replaced. May lifestyle factors, like
nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer minerals than
adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them, in strengthening bones and muscles.
Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still have difficulty holding a pencil properly
or coloring inside the lines. We have to limit writing time, since children may develop a negative attitude towards
writing.
Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage. Most activities which use heavy pressure will
be very difficult for growing bones, muscles and ligaments. If students are engaging in too much strenuous activities
to test their strengths, teachers may suggest or provide more coordinated physical activities or competition or rotate
players during sports or games.
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies. Most children have a
good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle strength and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks and
activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because they are more in tune with everything that is happening
around them.
Children during this stage lover to move a lot- they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance. Because their
gross motor skills are already developed, they can now perform activities like catching a ball with one hand and tying
their shoelaces. They can manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi-manual (requiring the use of two hands) activities
becomes easier. Children’s graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still
developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility and power. Let’s look into the definitions
of the different motors skills:
 Coordination- is a series of movement organized and time to occur in a particular way to bring about a
particular result (Strickland, 200). The more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.
Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when they play games and sports.
 Balance- is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions. It
is a basic skill needed especially in this stage, when children are very active.
 Static balance- is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one foot.
 Dynamic balance- is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006).
 Speed – is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.
 Agility – is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely
important in most sports.
 Power- is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports. Development of these skills
may spell the difference between success and failure in future endeavors of the child. Large scale body movements
are key in this stage. Most of the time, boys develop motor skills slightly faster than girls except for skills involving
balance and precise movements.
Here are some motor milestones of primary school-age children: (Bergin and Bergin, Child and Adolescent
Development in your Classroom, Third Edition: 2018, Boston M.A USA)
Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills

 Zip zippers and lace shoes  Hop
 Able to learn piano or violin  Skip on alternating feet
 Control pencil with the finger and thumb.  Jump rope
Movement comes from the elbow.  Walk on a balance beam
 Write and draw with more control, but writing  Throwing, catching, and kicking become
looks choppy and uneven. Letters are getting smoother
smaller, Uppercase letters are somewhat  Begin to participate in organized games (e.g.,
mastered, but lowercase letters continue to be hopscotch) and sports (e.g., basketball)
challenging through 3rd grade, especially letters  Skate, ski, bike, and other specialized skills with
with slant and curves. training
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

 Obesity
This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers, since it seems it’s becoming
a trend. According to the World Health Organization –Western Pacific Region.”… The Philippines is not spared from
this scenario, and the results of national nutrition survey are showing slow but increasing childhood overweight and
obesity rates. Prevalence of overweight among children 5-10 years old has risen from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1 % in 2013.
Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related consequences. Evidence also shows
that overweight and obese children are likely to stay obese well into their adulthood and are more prone to develop
non-communicable diseases like diabetes and some cardiovascular diseases at a much younger age.
 Childhood Nutrition
Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This has been proven to have serious
effect on the physical and mental development of children. For most Filipino children, poverty is the chief reason why
they do not get the nutrients and energy required for their age.
School-age children’s diet should include a good supply of vitamins, minerals and protein found in
most fruits and vegetables to combat the trend of eating out and eating too much which puts children at risk of
increased consumption of soft drinks, sugary and salty snacks like crackers and chips.
Study the illustration below presented on the 7 th National Nutrition Survey, Food and Nutrition
Research Institute in 2008.
 Sleep
Primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day (including daytime naps).
Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because of this, children
may need to go to bed earlier rather than nap.
Children’s increased sports affiliation, extra-curricular activities, TV, internet, computers and
sometimes, intake of caffeinated products could result to difficulty in falling asleep, disruptions in their sleep and
sometimes even nightmares.
Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioral problems such as hyperactivity and
cognitive problems which may impact their ability to concentrate in school.
Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically healthy is to (1) provide them
with good nutrition and (2) involve them in coordinated and age-appropriate physical activities. Specifically, health-
care providers, teachers and parents must do the following:
 Encourage children to join or enroll them in related programs during summer or their free time, if children show
interest in a particular activity or sport.
 Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by providing healthier options and accessible
healthier products.
 Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in designing classroom activities.
 Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promote motor skills but also improves strength and endurance,
builds healthy bones and muscles, and increases positive emotions,
 Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine
 Make children’s bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep computers and TV out of the bedroom.
Worksheet No. 18: Physical Development of Primary Schooler’s
I. Directions: Read each statement carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on the blank.
_______1. Why does a primary school-aged child look slimmer than a pre-school child?
a. Because the location and accumulation of the body fats shift

b. Because they have less muscle tissues
c. Because their bones are leaner
d. Because their appetite is poor
_______2. What is the general physical characteristic of a primary –school child?
a. Prefer to sit than play

b. Starts to walk and sit without being supported
c. Has difficulty balancing and often falls down
d. Are extremely active
______3. Primary school-age children use their large motor muscles over the fine motor ones. Knowing this, teachers
should ____________.
a. Offer highly and strenuous activities in school

b. Allow children to pretend and fantasize and also enjoy real-life tasks and activities
c. Practice them by holding a pencil using their thumb and fingers
d. Make them do fine embroidery activity
II. Directions: Answer the following questions: Write at least 6 answers each question.
1. What are the general physical characteristics of children in the primary school-age?
2. What are the factors affecting physical development?

CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Schooler)
Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of Primary Schooler’s

Objectives:
 Describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage.
 Explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they affect the child’s cognitive
development
 State the different cognitive milestones in primary schoolers.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist on cognitive development. According to him, intelligence is the basic
mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations. Piaget described four main periods in cognitive
development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the same at different stages.
Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development. It spans form age 7 to
approximately 11 years old. During this time, children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to
think logically about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.
 Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of inductive logic. Inductive
logic involves thinking from a specific experience to a general principle. But at this stage, children have great
difficulty in using deductive logic or beginning with a general principle leading to specific event.
 Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or
awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships
between mental categories. (For example in arithmetic, 3+ 4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3).
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. This is the stage when they leave behind
egocentric thinking and start to develop a more mature way of looking at things, which greatly enhances children’s
problem solving skills, Piaget calls this process DECENTRATION. They develop certain skills within a particular time
frame. The skills they learn are in a sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can
perform a mathematical equation. They can already take on complex, sequential and symbolic-based tasks. At this stage,
reasoning is still immature, they have ease in identifying the here and now. Each milestone that develops is dependent
upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until age 8, a child learns new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach the
age of 8, the skills they learn start to level off so there is a steady increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. Their ability to speak and express
themselves develops rapidly. In school, they share about themselves and their families. During play, they practice using
the words ad language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week. They enjoy rhymes,
riddles, and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. They are learning letters and
words. By six, most can read words or combinations of words.
Information-Processing Skills
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that can process information through the
application of logical rules and strategies. They also believe that the mind receives information, performs operations to
change its form and content, stores and locates it generates responses from it.
Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on influences of learning and achievement.
Parents, child care providers and teacher should be able to recognize these by:
 Helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses;
 Planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objectives;
 Encouraging children to read more every day to increase their vocabulary;
 Bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their perspective about the world
and people; and
 Lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face interactions.
Worksheet No. 19: Cognitive Development of Primary Schooler’s
I. Directions: Read the statements carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on the blank.
_____1. Which means that children at the primary school age have difficulty determining outcome of a specific event
using a general principle?
a. Reversibility
b. Inductive logic
c. Deductive logic
d. Discrimination
____2. Miabella has been studying about nouns since she started primary grade. In grade 1, she learned about proper and
common nouns. In grade 2, she learned about count and mass nouns. In grade 3, she learned about concrete and abstract
nouns. What principle is at work here?
a. Learning is effective when done in a sequential manner.

b. Learning should be repetitive to result in mastery.
c. Learning must be differentiated among grade levels.
d. Learning must consider multiple intelligences.
____3. Jacob loves reading comic book series of superheroes. Which cognitive characteristic is shown here?
a. They can read more words or combination of words.

b. Their attention span is longer, hence, they are more involved in serial stories.
c. Their reading orientation is correct-starting from left to right, up to down.
d. Jacob is an emergent reader.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Schooler)
Lesson 3: Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schooler’s

Objectives:
 Identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged children in this stage of development
 Discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional growth of the primary-schoolers.
CONCEPT NOTES:
The developmental theorists, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man’s psychosocial development. Each
stage is regarded as a “psychosocial crises” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages. Here, children have to resolve the
issue on Industry vs Inferiority.
Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry vs inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this stage.
Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is demanded of them.
Inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school
work.
In this stage, children will most likely have begun going to school. School experiences become the priority, with
children so busy doing school work. The encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child’s sense of
self-esteem, confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
Understanding the self
One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding personality traits, physical
characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles. It also involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and
a sense of being capable of doing good. Having healthy self-concepts does not mean that a child thinks he/she is better
than others. It means that he/she likes himself/herself, feels accepted by his/her family and friends and believes that he/she
can do well.
Primary school children’s self-concepts is influenced not only by their parents, but also by growing number of
people they begin to interact with, including teachers and classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their
place in the world. They already know that they can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and show
confidence in doing things they are good at, but also frustration in things that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from elementary to primary school, children tend to become increasingly self-confident and able
to cope well with social interactions. They are not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and
desired of others. The issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people who are
not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and reliability are being considered as well as responsibility of
kindness.
Building Friendships
“What is a Friend? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.” – Aristotle

Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children’s social and emotional growth, As soon as they are
able to walk and talk, they will tend to show natural inclination to be around other children.
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer groups are characterized by children who belong
approximately to the same age group. It is found along the stages of childhood through adolescence. But for children, until
the age of seven or eight, they think of themselves more than others. They may play well with groups but may need some
time to play alone.
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender. Many children will use their
surroundings to observe and mingle with other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends while others
remain a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adults may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other children as antisocial. When children poke,
pull, hit, or kick other children when they are first introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that children at this stage are
still forming their own word views and other children may seem like a curiosity that they need to explore. Parents and
teachers can help children make friends. You can consider the following:
 Expose the children to kid-rich environments (e.g. playgrounds, park).

 Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their classmates.
 When your children hit other children, remind them that their behaviors hurts others.
 Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have greater opportunity to interact with
other children.
Self-control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do things and their capacity to exert effort.
They like receiving positive feedback from their parents and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and
teachers to encourage positive emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate
behaviors.
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context of the child’s development
age. Health-care providers, teachers and parents should be able to:
 Gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by observing the child’s behavior at
home.
 Work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care provider to expand one’s insights on the child’s
development.
 Provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to practice emotional regulation and social skills
with peers.
 Give children activities when they can practice taking turns, sharing and playing cooperatively.
 Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions appropriately.
 Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.
Worksheet No. 20: Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schooler’s
Read the statements carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on the blank.
_____1. In Erik Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development, children will have to balance industry vs inferiority
so they can achieve the virtue of competency. What can parents do to help them attain this?
a. Allow the children to explore what they want and provide them with opportunities to do so.
b. Make them busy with school work even when they are at home.
c. Enroll the children in several after school enrichment classes.
d. Demand excellent performance from children.
____2. Which results when children have as strong sense of their personality traits?
a. They become more successful than others.

b. They think they are better than others.
c. They like and believe in themselves and feel accepted.
d. They will always be winners.
_____3. How can teachers encourage friendships among primary school-aged children?
a. Design group activities during different parts of the lesson.

b. Arrange the classroom setting alphabetically with opportunities to express their views and opinions.
c. Provide children with opportunities to express their views and opinions.
d. Rank them form the ones with highest average rating to the lowest average ratings.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Late Childhood (The Intermediate

Schooler)
Lesson 1: Physical Development of theIntermediate Schooler’s

Objectives:
 Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schoolers.
 Discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully developing physically.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Others, may call this stage as preteens. Physical changes
during their stage is fairly unpredictable among children in this age group.
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially with their increasing familiarity with
school work and other possible activities provide them with a greater opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when they were in primary school. They
become more active and have greater liberty to choose the hobbies or sports that they want to get involved in.
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry – they get so busy with their school work,
interacting with their friends, exploring other possible activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on
a leisurely pace.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the period in which the body undergoes physical
changes and becomes capable of sexual reproduction.
Early Puberty
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity, although
these developments may be determined by how close a child is to puberty. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for
girls –which is the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as
late as 13.
Puberty’s changes start when the brain triggers the production of sex hormones. Here are some changes that may
happen to both girls and boys during early puberty.
Girls Boys
Breast  Small lumps from behind the nipple  May also have swelling on their chest but
may occur, which sometime could be tends to go away within a year or two.
painful but eventually, the pain goes
away.
 It is normal for one breast to develop
more slowly than the other.
Genitals  The vulva starts in increase a bit.  Subtle increase in testicle size
 The vagina gets longer.  Penis and scrotum start to grow.
 The uterus gets bigger.  Semen may be released when he is awake or
even during sleep.
Hair Growth  Hair will start to grow in the armpits and  Hair will start to grow and become thicker.
pubic areas.  New hair will also grow in the armpits and
pubic area around the genitals.
 May start developing chest and facial hair.
Height, Weight and Muscle Development
During late childhood, a child’s weight on average, may be 2.3 to 3.2 kilograms per year. Weight increase was
mainly due to the increase in size of skeletal and muscular systems as well as several organs. An average of 2 ½ inches in
height and an average of an inch in head circumference each year. Children during this stage may experience growth
spurts – sudden boosts in height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake.
Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a normal curve of
development for both girls and boys. Other structures like the brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems mature
at their own time, thus, affecting growth patterns.
Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase
occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be “chubby” while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of height than girls. These are all
normal part of development. These differences in body composition become more significant during adolescence.
Motor Skills
During this stage, movements or the muscles and bones become more coordinated. At the age of 10 or 11 years,
most children will have learned to play sports like swimming, basketball, volleyball and running. This physical skills
become a source of pleasure and great achievement to the children. In activities that use large muscle activities, boys tend
to be more nimble than girls.
Although a significant increase in physical activity may occur in this stage, children in their late childhood is far
from being physically mature. They become overwhelmed when sitting or standing too long than when running, jumping
or playing actively. This is because they need time to refine their skills so they prefer active rather than passive
movements.
From the age of 8, children show greater coordination in writing. Their fine motor skills develop gradually which may
be evidenced by the size of the letters and numbers. Font size becomes smaller and are more even. They may even
produce good quality crafts or have greater control in playing instruments like the piano or guitar. In this skills, girls
usually surpass the boys.
Insecurities
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical appearance. Girls especially, may become
concerned about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very conscious about their dealings with
these children. Appropriate activities must be designed so that children will be guided into the right direction. Children
must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that:
 Promote healthy growth

 Give them a feeling of accomplishment, and
 Reduce the risk of certain diseases
Implications to child-care, education and parenting
During this stage, children are more physically active however, they still have a lot of physical maturity to undergo.
Here are some points to consider for health-care providers, teachers and parents:
 Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical exercise and sports.
 Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able to discover the ones they are
interested in.
 Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to address any insecurities and social concerns.
 Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits, provide them with healthier food choices.
Worksheet No. 21: Physical Development of Intermediate Schooler’s
Read each statements carefully. Select the correct answers and write the letter of the correct answers on the blank.
_______1. Children in the intermediate school age may experience early signs of puberty. How can parents best handle a
situation like this?
a. Encourage them to mingle with the opposite sex.

b. Be on the look-out for physical changes and report them to their children’s pediatrician.
c. Connect with their friends and ask them to tell you what changes are happening to their children.
d. Provide children with accurate resources that they need to be able to gain information about sex, drugs, and
changes that they experience.
______2. What can teachers do when children get teased for their physical appearance?
a. Teach the child being teased to fight back.

b. Let the teasing slide and continue with the class activity.
c. Have a private talk with the offending students and figure out why he is teasing.
d. Bring the offending students to the Guidance counselor.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Schooler)
Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of Intermediate Schooler’s

Objectives:
 Examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school children.
 Discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of intermediate school children.
 Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning environment, learning
activities and instructional materials.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development of mental skills evident.
According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize thoughts effectively, although, they can only
logically perceive the immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events that they can
manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with proper guidance and nurturance from
parents, teachers and the rest of the community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now utilize more effectively as
compared to their thinking skills during their primary years. Their school work are now more complicated, reading texts
have become longer, problem solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them chances to think about what they want and how to get it. They
now become very interested in talking about the future or even their potential careers. They develop special interest in
collections, hobbies and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts without having direct hands-on
experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of the presence of previous
knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary which enables them to understand the meanings of unknown words through
context clues – this is the “Reading to Learn” Stage in the reading development. They are no longer into the fairy tales and
magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex reading materials (e.g. fiction books and series
books).
The website www.readingrockest.org listed a few strategies in choosing age-appropriate books for intermediate
schoolers. In choosing books appropriate to their age, consider the following:
 Consider who the child is – his or her personality traits and personal preferences when choosing a book.
 Make a selection with the child in mind; choose an informational book or a novel in an area of specific interest.
 Choose books that encourage discussion and insight-building.
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger children. Their span of
attention is dependent on how much is required by the given task. In terms of school work, older children can
concentrate and focus more for long periods of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are
doing.
Creativity
“Creativity is not the finding of a thing, but making something out of it after it is found.” – James Russel
Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in children, they just need a little
guidance and support from parents, teachers and people around them. They are usually at their best when the
work is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children is encouraged when the activities:

 Encourage different responses from each child;
 Celebrate uniqueness
 Break stereotypes
 Value process over product
 Reduce stress and anxiety in children
 Support to share ideas, not only with the teacher/parent but also with other children; and
 Minimize competition and external rewards.
The Impact of Media
“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children are actively involved in learning.” –
(Anderson & Collins, 1988)
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the 1950’s. It was considered as one of the first
technological advancements in schools. The impact of the use of television and other media like the computer has gained
popularity because students are given more opportunity to:
 Communicate effectively in speech and in writing

 Work collaboratively
 Use technological tools
 Analyze problems, set goals and formulate strategies for achieving those goals; and
 Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals.
Media and Aggression
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media. According to the Public Health Summit in
2000, the following are some of the negative results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.

 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from violence.
 Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful of being a victim of violence.
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
 Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not only televisions and computers, but
also videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole
community. It should be a collective effort among the factors working together to support children in every aspect of
development.
Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition (from childhood to adolescence).
Role models also provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles of teachers is to become a
very good role model to children.
Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on influences on learning and achievement.
Parents, child-care providers and teachers should be able to recognize these through:
 Being an eager participant in children’s growth and development;

 Understanding how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make the appropriate developmental leaps in
their skills and abilities; and
 Creating an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries made while children remain safe.
Worksheet No. 22: Cognitive Development of Intermediate Schooler’s
I. Read the statements carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on blank.
_________1. When children tell you what they want to be in the future, which is the appropriate response?
a. “Don’t be too ambitious. Be realistic.”
b. “Don’t you think it’s still too early for you to plan your future?”
c. “That’s nice. But I want you to become someone better.”
d. “I’m so happy to hear that. I will support you all the way!”
_________2. Reading is an essential part in the cognitive development of intermediate school-age kids. What
can teachers do to encourage this skill?
a. Assign a mandatory reading list for children that they must finish until the end of the school year.
b. Set up a mini library that includes not only books but internet websites where children can access
different topics that interest them.
c. Read aloud to the children during classroom hours so that they will become more familiar with words
they have not heard before.
d. Make reading a grammar lesson.
_________3. Where does the responsibility lie when it comes to limiting the media exposure of intermediate
school-age children?
a. Only the parents

b. Parents and teachers
c. Parents, teachers and the whole community
d. The children themselves
II. Write the definition of the following words based on how you understood them.
1. Concrete operational thinkers
2. Attention span
3. Creativity
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Schooler)
Lesson 3: Socio-Emotional Development of Intermediate Schooler’s

Objectives:
 Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late childhood stage.
 Determine the qualities of family life that affect older children’s development including changes in
family interactions.
 Interview parent regarding their child’s socio-emotional development
CONCEPT NOTES:
At this point of socio-emotional development, children are spending less time in the home. The bulk of their time is
spent outside the home, either alone or with other children, rather than with adults. Older children have already
familiarized themselves with other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For many
of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but also different forms of learning.
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development is the acquisition of feelings of
self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he described the developmental task of middle childhood- the
social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful “work”.
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child’s definitions of self and accomplishment vary
greatly according to interpretations on the surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order for
children to develop a sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed, along with sincere
feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal and psychological characteristics and
traits. They most likely employ more social comparison – distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other
children, they show increase in perspective taking. This ability increases with age. It enables them to:
a) Judge others’ intentions, purposes and actions

b) Give importance to social attitudes and behaviors
c) Increase skepticism of others’ claims.
Emotional Development
The same with other areas of development, children in this stage, show improved emotional understanding,
increased understanding that more than one emotion can be expressed in a single experience. They may also show greater
ability to show or conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves
the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others to guide and motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main
areas:
 Developing emotional self-awareness

 Managing emotions (self-control)
 Reading emotions (perspective taking)
 Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer interaction increases. For them, good peer
relationship are very important. The approval and belongingness they receive contributes to the stability and security of
their emotional development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this stage, children
prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups.
There are five types of peer status:
 Popular- frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely disliked by peers
 Average-receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from peers
 Neglected- very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really disliked
 Rejected – infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is also disliked by peers
 Controversial –frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same time is disliked by peers
Popular children have the following skills which peers find very positive and as a result they become the most favored in
the group:
1. They give out reinforcement.

2. They act naturally.
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of neglected children and why the group or majority of the peers
develop negative feelings toward them:
1. They participate less in the classroom.
2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance.
3. They are more often reposted as being lonely.
4. They are aggressive.
A. In boys:
-They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and disruptive.
- They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down.
- They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends.
Family
Family support at this stage is crucial. If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest
(e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If families are a primary
support system, failures and setbacks become temporary and surmountable rather that something that is attributed to
personal flaws of deficits. This time is a critical time for children to develop a sense of competence. A high-quality adult
relationship, specifically, family relationships enable them to successfully go through this stage of development.
Big Ideas
This module stresses that:

 During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social changes take place across the
developmental domains.
 As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains extremely important, while the
community environment –including the school- also becomes a significant factor in shaping the child’s
development.
 During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on development; peer acceptance becomes very
important to well-being.
Implications to Child Care Education and Parenting
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context of the child’s developmental age.
Health-care providers, teachers and parents should be able to:
 Gain understanding of their children’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by
 Encouraging children to talk about their feelings without doing it forcefully
 Provide opportunities for children to build relationships with teachers and fellow classmates
 Remind children that friendships have their ups and downs and that occasional conflicts and arguments can be
healthy
 Design activities that allow children to work on their own and discover activities and hobbies that they enjoy and
 Model healthy relationships.
Worksheet No. 23: Socio-Emotional Development of Intermediate Schooler’s
Read the statement carefully. Choose the best answer and write them on the blank.
_______1. How can parents ensure industry when it comes to homework?
a. Assign a homework time and work on their home work together.

b. Let the children be responsible for their homework and just make corrections when necessary.
c. Do the homework for them and let them figure out why the answers are correct.
d. Confer with teachers and request no homework.
______2. Which of the following is an emotional milestone for an intermediate school-age child?
a. Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single experience.
b. Ability to recognize one’s own feelings and actions and of other people.
c. Self-esteem based on what others tell him/her.
d. Incapable of decentering,
______3. Family support is crucial at this stage. What can a high-quality adult relationship do to the socio-emotional
development of an intermediate school-age child?
a. Make children question and become curious about other people’s motives and actions.
b. Instills in the children to conform with the law which is necessary for the good of society.
c. Allows the children to value relationships and friendships based on loyalty, understanding and trust.
d. Makes children think that others cannot be totally trusted.
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol

Development of the Learners at Various Stages: Adolescence (The High School

Learner)
Lesson 1: Physical Development of High School Learners

Paz I. Lucido, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying puberty.
 Identify the psychological consequences of early and late physical maturation in adolescence.
 Identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional development of adolescents.
CONCEPT NOTES:
This module seeks to facilitate the learning in defining/describing the adolescent along physical development with
focus on the major change factor of puberty. Early and late physical maturation will be discussed, while identifying
dangers and opportunities for the growing teenage child. The impact of social media will be highlighted, to invite learners
to further research on topics as body-image, social media and the adolescent, and the roles and responsibilities of the
family, school and government.
Adolescence is a stage oh human development that coincides with puberty, a biological development occurring at
the average age of 11 for girls and 12 for boys. There are factors, however which contribute to early puberty and delayed
puberty. These factors include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental influence.
Defining adolescence
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-emotional changes. The period of
adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty. The specific ages for this period vary from person-to-person
but
(i) early adolescence characterized by puberty may come at the ages of 11 and 12
(ii) middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16, and
(iii) late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
This module is focused on physical development with puberty marking the major transition manifested by changes
in
(i) physical appearance
(ii) rapid rate of growth (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth spurts
(iii) resultant feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes, and
(iv) Alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship possibly accompanying puberty.
Puberty changes
Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body size and weight. Hormone flooding during
adolescent causes an acceleration known as growth spurts. Growth spurts include a change in body dimensions (leg
length, shoulder width, trunk length). Spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth.
In girls, the growth spurts generally begin at age 10 reaching its peak at age 11 and-a-half, while slow continual
growth occurs for several more years. For boys, growth spurts begin at age 12 reaching a peak at age 14 and declining at
age 15 and a half, while slow continual growth continues on for several more years.
Among girls, 98% of adult height is generally reached at age 16, while boys do so at age 17. Growth in height is
conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of size and strength. Similar growth spurts
occur for weight, muscle size, head and face maturation, and reproductive organs.
All muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth spurts during adolescence.
Factors affecting development
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones are powerful and highly specialized
chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the
entire process of sexual maturation. The process entails
(i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the base of the brain near the geometric center
of the head
(ii) Gonads which are the ovaries for the female and the testis for the male are then stimulated by the
gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones
(iii) This stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of estrogen in the female
ovary.
 In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by (i) spermache enlargement of the testis gland
that produces sperm in the scrotum, growth of the penis male organ for copulation (ii) capacity for ejaculation of
male sperms (iii) voice change (iv)facial hair development or beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair.
Occurring late in puberty, the lowering of the voice caused by enlargement of the larynx and double lengthening of
the vocal cords is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent development.
 In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, appearance of pubic hair, widening of the
hips, and menarche or first menstruation. The elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of puberty in
girls, accompanied by growth of the uterus ad vagina. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning age 11 until age
13. There are ethnic differences such as African American and European American girls exhibiting secondary sex
activities as early as 8 and 9 years; menarche as early as 11 and 12 years, respectively.
In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty and sexual maturity in boys. The need to
discharge semen-mixed with as sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland-occurs periodically. Discharge of semen
occurs during sleep caused by sexual dreams. It may also occur during conscious manipulation of the male sexual organ
known as masturbation. Religion strictly prohibits masturbation that is coupled with sexual fantasies, but science liberally
regards masturbation as a normal phenomenon unless it becomes habitual aberration that may affect confidence in
heterosexual (boy-and-girl) relationship.
The secular trend
The secular trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation during this century. In 1800s, girls in
industrial societies had their first menstrual period at age 15-17, and age later in repressed societies. Today boys reach
their maximum height at age 18-20 and 13-14 for girls, but height 100 years ago was at 23-25 for boys and 19-20 for girls.
The secular trend is ascribed to varied factors, such as: interaction of genetic and environmental influences, improved
health care and living conditions, and control of infectious diseases. Better nutrition is a major factor since this provides
more protein and calories for humans from conception upwards. Observably, the secular trend in industrial countries
appears to be levelling off while the experience of secular trends is just starting in peasant economies of the world.
Sexual Identity
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation with sexual fantasies and realities of incorporating
sexuality with one’s identity quoted by Santrock, 2005 from one’s identity (Christopher, 2001).
Adolescents are concerned about their body image sexual attractiveness how to do sex and the future of their sexual
lives. Most adolescents manage to develop a mature sexual identity but a number go through it with much confusion.
How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?
An adolescent’s sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests, and styles of behavior (Bugwell &
Rosenthal, 1996). Some adolescents are very anxious about sex and sexually active. Others are only a bit anxious about
sex and are sexually inactive.
In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is the period when most gay/lesbian and transgender begin to recognize
and make sense of their feelings. Development analyst Froiden proposed a model for the development of homosexual
identity:
(i) sensitization marked by the child’s becoming aware of same sex attractions.
(ii) Identity confusion when the youth is overwhelmed with feelings of inner turmoil regarding sexual orientation
(iii) Identity assumption when adolescents come out of the family and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian or
bisexual,
(iv) Commitment when the young adult adopts a sexual identity as a lifestyle.
Coming to terms with a positive LGBT identity is usually difficult for variety of reasons, including family,
race and religious cultures. Risks to the homosexual adolescents are real amid a heteronormative environment and
LGBTs may suffer ostracism, hurtful jokes an even violence.
Self-Esteem
A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescents is self-esteem. It is defined as one’s thoughts
and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity. Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire across all
genders and ages to maintain, protect and enhance self-esteem. There is no significant drop in self-esteem over the period
of adolescence. Baseline self-esteem is stable across adolescence, but a barometric (unstable) self-esteem may fluctuate
rapidly to cause severe distress and anxiety. Girls enjoy self-esteem through supportive relationship with friends or others
who can provide social and moral support. In contrast, boys are more prone to assert independence in defining the
relationships, deriving self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence others.
The lack of romantic-competence-failure to meet the affection of the opposite sex- can be a major contributor to low-
self-esteem in adolescent boys. In a Meyer study, the end of a romantic relationship can affect both boys and girls, but
girls are twice as likely to experience depression, while boys are three to four times more likely to commit suicide.
Implications for child care, education and parenting
To meet the physical development of adolescent’s children, parents need to be aware of manifestations of behavioral
patterns that require closer communication, guidance and support. The teen is especially addictive to modern gadgets for
music listening, video games, mobile phone communication and social media posting. These activities cause short
sleeping problems and depression. In school, teachers need to be aware of the possible drop in self-esteem among
adolescent learners. The teacher’s support is crucial to protect adolescent learners against severe distress and anxiety over
their school work and social relationships.
Adolescents and nutrition
It is necessary for adolescents to have sufficient amounts of vitamins: B12, calcium zinc, iron, riboflavin, and
Vitamin D. The vegetarian fad can be disastrous to adolescents who need vitamins, mineral and protein which purely
vegetable diets can provide. Vegetables are good but these should be balanced with food intake that form high quality
nutrition including protein sources in milk, dairy products and eggs. Poor eating habits is manifested by often skipping
meals, frequent taking of snack foods (hamburger, fries, pizza, soft drinks, etc.)
Body image and the adolescent
Consciousness about body image is strong during the adolescent period. It is important that adolescents feel
confident about how they look, but the physical features of the human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.)
depend on genetic heritage which must be respected. However there is more to body image than physical looks and these
concern good habits in relation to:
 Cleanliness and grooming

 Proper wearing of clothes according to current styles,
 Erect body posture,
 Eye contact while communicating and
 Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency.
Worksheet No. 24: Physical Development of Intermediate Schooler’s
Directions: Cite at least 5 ideas from this module, then give a reason why each ideas is important for the positive growth
or development of an adolescent.
Big Ideas from the Module Reasons why these ideas are important for the development of
adolescents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALAPE CAMPUS
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Learner)
Lesson 2: Cognitive Development of High School Learners

Paz I. Lucido, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe the cognitive development of adolescents in the light of Piaget’s and Siegler’s cognitive
development theories.
 Explain the consequences of the adolescents’ cognitive development on their behavior.
 Draw implications of these cognitive developmental concepts to high school teaching-learning and
parenting.
CONCEPT NOTES:
Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. At this stage of development, there is a decrease
egocentric thought, while the individual’s thinking takes more of an abstract form. This allows the individual to think and
reason in a wider perspective. Behavioral studies also show the development of executive functions comprised by
cognitive functions that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior. Adolescence is therefore a period of
human development that has great influence on the individual’s future life through character and personality formation.
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes during adolescence are changes in thinking patterns. These changes
are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic
connections (technically known as corpus collosum) which join and coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another
brain development is the process of correlated temporal and parietal areas (technically known as Myelination). This
second development covers the brain systems whose executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and
planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been identified by neurological scientists and these
are at age 12, age 15, and age 18.5 coinciding with operational thinking processes for logical reasoning. Accompanying
brain changes in cognitive ability, the adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or general
ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes propel the adolescent from the world of sensible and
concrete thoughts to the world of the possible and universal ideas (e.g. general ideas about the good, true and beautiful).
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of
the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible and concrete in order to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical
and possible. In this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of possible
and futuribles. More specifically, formal operational thinking consists in:
a) Propositional thinking- making assertions outside visual evidence, and stating what may be possible in things
not seen by the eyes (for example, whether an unseen objects is red or green, big or small, flat or round).
b) Relativistic thinking – subjectively making an opinion on facts – involving one’s own bias, prejudice of
distortion of facts – which may be either right or wrong (for example, arguing for or against the superiority of the
races, whether white, brown, yellow or black).
c) Real versus possible – examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms of situations or solutions (e.g.
possible success in implementing a student project or a school policy).
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking is the ability of the adolescent thinker
for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of the effects of several variables in a situation, testing one
variable at a time, and not randomly. An application of a situation which requires combinational analysis is the
school laboratory experiment where high school students test chemical elements singly and in combination,
resulting in an understanding of chemical changes.
A new capacity known as Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning emerges in the adolescent reasoning from
general facts/situations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum experiment is an example of deducing
from variables and generating and recognizing a truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a
conclusion from a hypothesis.
Outside formal operational thinking through mathematical and science studies, the adolescent enters into a
new capability which makes him a problem-solving thinker. This involves identifying problems and seeking new
and creative solutions for them. The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and reorganize ideas
and ask questions, even defining totally new problems not previously seen.
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought. Thus he/she is able to bring what is
logically “best” for everyday life, whether or not this may be the objectivity correct solution or response to a
situation or problem.
Siegler’s Information Processing Skills
As in information-processing theories, Robert Siegler views the influence of the environment on thinking. He
sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but more of a sequential acquisition of specific knowledge
and strategies for problem-solving. He observes the quality of information the adolescent processes that
influences him/her in facing tasks at hand through strategies or rules.
In his experiments, Siegler used role models in relation to balance, weight, distance, conflict-weight, conflict-
distance, and other conflict balance problems. He examined the correct and wrong answers to each of the
problems, drawing out rule models in thinking and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show:
(a) speed in information processing, coupled with greater awareness and control and acquired knowledge base-a
more efficient kind of thinking compared with that of the child
(b) complexity by way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and
(c) increased volume of information processing coupled with longer memory span.
Metacognition
Among the cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition which is the ability to identify one’s own thinking
processes and strategies inclusive of perception, memory, understanding, application, analysis, assessment and innovation.
The adolescent is able to state “I know that” among the memory data stored in his mind; also able to state “I know how”
referring to procedural processes that improves memory recall though the use of a mnemonic device. The adolescent may
also spend time reflecting about a material to be learned by answering mentally such questions as what, why, where and
how. All these are demonstrations of higher order thinking skills during adolescents.
Overachievement
During adolescence, he/she can achieve very high academic grades, in spite of not getting IQ grades that are at the top
3 or 5 percent of the bell curve. The case of overachievers is a reminder that the Intelligence Quotient test is not the only
determinant in school achievement. There are other factors such as motivation interest, work habits, and personality
development. Beyond statistical achievement in curricular subjects the overachieving adolescent may demonstrate
superior work habits, greater interest in school work, more consistency in doing assignments, and more
grade/performance consciousness. Overall, they show more responsibility, consciousness and planning compared with
“normal” achievers. Characteristics of overachievers are:
1. Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism);
2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and teachers);
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to feelings of others);
4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make right choices, initiates and leads activities);
5. Academic orientation (discipline work habits, high motivation to discover and learn, interest in study values and
varied fields of study);
6. Goal orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning, setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over
short-term rewards); and
7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed performance of organized tasks).
Underachievement
The adolescent may perform below the standards set. Possible potentials do not cope with the opportunity to learn
and score in the top quarter of measured academic ability. Grades are below measured aptitudes for academic
achievement. Underachievement may become more pronounced when high school class work becomes more demanding.
Withdrawn underachievers refer to those who have a more pronounced tendency to be passive resulting in being
submissive and docile. They follow the path of no resistance, not reacting to given assignments and school regulations.
Generally quiet, they do not participate in class activities. Aggressive underachievers are those who tend to be talkative,
disruptive and rebellious.
Behavior and adolescent cognitive growth
There are behavioral tendencies which may accompany cognitive growth during adolescence. These are:
1. Egocentrism. This is the adolescents’ tendency to think too much of themselves, while being too sensitive to
social acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings, ideas, etc. Egocentrist teens feel they are being watched
like an actor on stage; keep an imaginary audience who are strict critics of dress, behavior or performance. One
egocentric strain is exaggerated feeling of self-importance which may lead to murky early boy-girl relationships,
dangerous escapades and adventures.
2. Idealism. This refers to imagining the far-fetched and less ideal situations at home, in school and in society. The
teen may imagine a utopia or heaven on earth leading to discouragement when social realities become harsh (e.g.
unexpected low grades, family discord, etc.)
3. Increased argumentativeness. Teens enjoy learning through the use of group dynamics including role play,
discussion, debate, and drama. Strict imposition of the use of English in the campus has been the strategy by
premiere schools to develop argumentative students who later on transform into leaders in politics, business and
other top professional fields.
Implications to adolescent care, education and parenting
Parents and teachers must be able to recognize the cognitive development paths among adolescent adolescents and
create situations that will foster higher thinking skills through:
a. Activities at home e.g. asking teenage children for suggestions on family matters – house physical arrangements,
things to buy, places to go for family outing, etc.
b. Allowing more independence e.g. use of school allowances, choice on what to wear, etc.
c. Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips, joint internet research, etc. and
d. Develop reading skills through magazines articles, internet blogs.
Developing occupational skills
Senior High School Grades 11 and 12 were designed to provide attention to occupational skills that are absent even
among college graduates. The Department of Labor and Employment reports that there is mismatch between academic
preparation and job skills thus worsening the gap between employable school graduates and potential jobs or employment.
Theorist John Holland has identified basic personality factors that match with attitude and work preferences:
 Realistic- This personality type prefers practical tasks, including those requiring physical labor and motor
coordination and less of interpersonal skills (e.g. carpentry, driving, etc.)
 Investigative – This prefers tasks that are conceptual such as in the fields of science and technology as chemists,
scientists, technologists, etc.
 Conventional- This prefers structured tasks that cater to the needs of others, such as in office jobs and manual
labor.
 Enterprising – This prefers independence and innovation in business and other enterprises that reflect autonomy
and personal initiative.
 Artistic- This prefers unstructured tasks that show ability for self-expression such as from artists, musicians, and
performers.
Adolescents may also show capability for multitasking, later on becoming professionals such as doctors who are
at the same time business entrepreneurs. Early on adolescents may show abilities for gainful work, later on
becoming self-supporting in college, by entering the service sectors a fast-food employees, sales clerks, office
messengers, and utility personnel. These adolescents’ attitudes and abilities demonstrate:
 Self-reliance – working independently without stress;

 Money management – not spending money on luxuries, much less on alcohol and drugs;
 Social responsibility –cooperation and respect for others including superiors;
 Mature work orientation – pride in work and quality of work;
 Personal responsibility- assuming tasks independently and competitively;
 Positive attitude to work – Work is seen as a gainful and wholesome activity and not a burden.
Worksheet No. 25: Cognitive Development of High School Learners
Directions: choose the best answer.
1. One cognitive advancement in adolescence is metacognition. What does metacognition mean?

a. Ability to identify one’s own thinking processes and strategies.
b. Ability to recall and explain.
c. Ability to analyze and synthesize.
d. Ability to do problem solving.
2. One behavioral tendency which accompanies cognitive growth during adolescence is egocentrism. How does the
adolescent show egocentrism?
a. Imaging the far-fetched and less, ideal situations at home, school and in society.
b. Enjoyment of group dynamics like role play, discussion, debate.
c. Being unmindful of what others will say
d. Tendency to think of too much of themselves.
III. Directions: Share your thoughts on the following:

1. How does cognitive advancement among teens relate to how they think about
(i) Relationship with parents
(ii) School authority figures such as teachers and administrators
(iii) Social relationship with the opposite sex
CALAPE CAMPUS
Calape, Bohol


Learner)
Lesson 3: Socio-Emotional Development of High School Learners

Paz I. Lucido, PhD
Objectives:
 Describe the socio-emotional changes in adolescents.
 Describe how self-image develop among teens.
 Draw implications of these socio-emotional developmental concepts to high school teaching-learning
and parenting.
CONCEPT NOTES:
During adolescence the teen develops social cognition in the context of family structure, the school, the
community, and media. He also manifests emotions which need to be regulated for success in school as well as for his/her
own emotional well-being. In the classroom, the teacher has the mandate for creating a positive learning environment,
while facilitating the students’ sound moral judgment. This module will describe the adolescent age trend in social
behavior as the student interacts with the school, the community and the larger social environment.
Human emotions
Generally emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are manifested by varied conscious and
unconscious moods. A more accurate description is that it is a subjective reaction to internal or external stimulus that
involves physical change, action or appraisal. Thus the child reacts to inner hunger for food or comfort from surrounding
environment. The unique patterns of emotions are (i) event that is strong or important (ii) physiological changes in heart
pulse rate, brain activity, hormone levels and body temperature (iii) readiness for action often described as “fight or
flight” (iv) dependence of the emotion on how the stimulus is appraised or interpreted.
Biologists view that the part of the body which controls emotional reactions is the autonomic nervous system
connected to most the glands and muscles in the body. The system has two parts: the sympathetic part which excites or
arouses and the para sympathetic part which depresses body functions. These parts coordinate for arousal or slowing
down amid the changes of life.
Positive and negative emotions
Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the individual to face a situation in life or
withdraw and run away from it. Positive emotions like interest and joy motivate the individual to continue his/her
behavior. On the other hand, negative emotions may cause withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or dangerous.
For Charles Darwin there are six basic emotions, namely interest, joy/happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear. Other
scientists expanded the list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion, jealousy and anxiety.
Social emotions
These start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24 months) comprised by such feelings as envy,
embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Observable emotions during these years may not be accurate, but they can be a
problem if not controlled. Even among early learners, emotions affect learning, since learners pay more attention to things
with emotional significance. Emotions can also organize recall, such that learners tend to remember details of emotionally
strong experiences. In time, emotional competence can be developed by the child and this means he/she gains the ability
to regulate emotions and understand the emotions of other people.
Girls are skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely than boys to be anxious, and twice as likely to be
depressed. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to have both negative and positive interactions with family and
friends.
Adolescents especially feel stress, usually from relationships with parents, friend, sweethearts, also from pressure of
school work. Thus adolescents are stereotyped as moody and negative, poor emotion control. Some studies argue against
stereotyping adolescents pointing at other emotions among teens such as feeling bored, tired, sleepy, social discomfort
like awkwardness and loneliness. Generally, adolescents are seen to tend to emotions from social evaluation such as
feeling embarrassed when being looked at, also only fairly happy most of the time. Other observations are the most
adolescents are not moody, while some are frequently angry, anxious or sad. An important lesson for high school teachers
is: you should not simply dismiss emotional negativity as a normal phase, but should address the needs of teenagers
who are chronically unhappy or moody.
The adolescent and social media
On the present-day profusion of media, the adolescent has easy access to the culture of various media and social
media, inclusive of computers, cell phones, video games, music iPods, FM radio and cable television. Almost all
household have television sets and about three-quarters of adolescents’ homes have access to the internet. The total media
exposure of the whole populace has greatly increased, even as adolescents have the highest rates of use of video games,
texting, social networking thorough Facebook, and portable gadgets for music, mobile communication and virtually
reality games.
Findings indicate that electronic communication negatively affects adolescents’ social development. As face-to-face
communication is replaced, social skills are impaired sometimes leading to unsafe interaction with those who use social
media to exploit others financially or sexually. Girls are particularly vulnerable to online socializing, while boys
socializing in Internet cafes lower their academic work and achievement. Socially insecure teens become victims rather
than beneficiaries of the modern gadgets innovations of the digital age.
Implication to adolescent care education and parenting
The overall implication is that emotional skills influence the adolescent learner’s success in class work. Learners who
are able to regulate their emotions tend to be happier, better liked and better able to pay attention and learn. Interventions
by the teacher and the school can reduce learner’s emotional distress, while raising test scores and grades. The teacher
plays a most important role in promoting positive changes for the adolescent. As the teen is susceptible to peer pressure,
the negative influence of social media, drug use and addiction, early romantic sexual adventurism, the teacher and the
school can conduct interventions to assist the youths with focus on risky and inappropriate behavior while promoting
positive development among adolescents.
Worksheet No. 26: Socio-Emotional Development of High School Learners

1. Teacher Ann is helping teen Ganda to overcome her unnecessary anger and outburst over unexpected events.
Teacher Ann wants to develop Ganda’s __________.
a. Emotional belief c. Emotional ideas
b. Emotional values d. Emotional competence
2. Are girls more skilled in regulating emotions than boys?
a. Yes c. sometimes yes, sometimes no
b. No d. more hard data are needed
II. Directions: Illustrate specific problems and strategies by which these can be faced amid challenges in inner
and outer growth for a mature adolescent.
Theories on emotional development Specific problems at home, in school Helpful interventions

and community
1. Freud an influences of inner
consciousness, including
genetic emotionality to be shy,
fearful, aggressive etc.
2. Skinner and the importance of
the external
stimuli/environment
3. Watson and conditioning
behavior due to past
experiences, e.g. trauma
resulting in fear of outside
influence

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NAME: ________________________________________Course & Sec.

INTRODUCTION: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Lesson 1: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

Two approaches to human development

I. Directions: Answer the following.

_______1. Development is a pattern of change.

_______2. Development is either growth or decline.

_______3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.

_______5. Individuals develop uniformly.

_______6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.

_______7. Development is unidimensional

_______8. Development takes place in a vacuum.

INTRODUCTION: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Lesson 2:The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Concept of Developmental tasks

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

1. Learning to 1. Learning 1. Achieving 1. Selecting a 1. Helping 1. Adjusting to

______________3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.

______________4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.

______________5. Teenage is middle childhood.

______________6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.

______________7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.

INTRODUCTION: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Lesson 3: Issues on Human Development

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

INTRODUCTION: Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Lesson 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

The Scientific Method

1. Identify and define the problem

Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

This technique involves

Data-Gathering Technique Definition/Description

1. Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association http://www.aera.net

Please read and reflect on them.

Some key points are:

1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.

The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)

For more details, read RA 10173.

Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers

Worksheet No. 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

I. Directions: Write T if the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.

1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.

PROBLEM RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

How are the finding of this research useful to teachers?

Republic of the Philippines

NAME: ________________________________________Course & Sec.: ___________________Date: _______________

INTRODUCTION: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

Lesson 1: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s Personality Components

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud’s Conception of the Human Psyche

Worksheet No. 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Directions: Answer the following.

1. Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.

2. Write three implications of Freud’s Theory to education.

INTRODUCTION: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______

NAME: ______________________________Course & Sec.: _Date: _______