An Undertaking of Bhaktapur Municipality

Khwopa Engineering College

(Affiliated to Purbanchal University)

Post Graduate Department of Earthquake Engineering

A REPORT ON GEOTECHNICAL EFFECT

POST GORKHA EARTHQUAKE IN NEPAL
Submitted By: Submitted To:
Yalina Bamanu Assoc. Prof. Sujan Maka
ME07919 Department of Earthquake
Engineering

May 20,2024
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Landslides and slope failure .................................................................................................... 3
2. Soil failure ............................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Liquefaction and sand boiling .......................................................................................... 5
2.2 Lateral spreading and displacement ................................................................................. 6
3. Local site effect ....................................................................................................................... 7
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Bibilography ................................................................................................................................... 9

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Figures
Figure 1: Earthquake induced landslide in different place of Nepal[1] .......................................... 4
Figure 2: Langtang debris avalanche[5] ......................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: Landslide along Kali Gandaki river[5] ............................................................................ 5
Figure 4: Liquefaction observed at different location of Kathmandu valley[1] ............................. 6
Figure 5: Sand boiling observed on floodplain[6] .......................................................................... 6
Figure 6: Lateral settlement and spreading caused by 2015 earthquake[1] .................................... 7
Figure 7: Damage of buildings due to geotechnical effect which were well designed[1] ............. 8

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Introduction
In April 25, 2015, a devastating earthquake with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.8 struck central
Nepal around noon local time, near Baluwa, Gorkha, approximately 77 kilometers northwest of
Kathmandu. The earthquake's focal depth was roughly 13 kilometers. On May 12, a significant
aftershock measuring Mw 7.3 occurred northeast of Kathmandu in the Kodari region, causing
further damage to northern central Nepal. Over 800,000 homes were damaged or destroyed, with
31 of Nepal's 75 districts being identified as the most affected, including 14 severely impacted
districts. The earthquake, caused by ongoing subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Eurasian
plate, led to extensive destruction of civil infrastructure, including buildings, temples, bridges, and
highways. Liquefaction primarily affected the central regions of Nepal, encompassing districts
such as Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Sindupalchowk, Dolakha, and Gorkha. The destruction
was extensive, affecting residential and government buildings, cultural heritage sites, schools, and
healthcare facilities. The geotechnical effect caused by this strong earthquake are explained below:

1. Landslides and slope failure

Landslides are a significant hazard in Nepal due to its active seismicity, dramatic elevation
changes, heavy monsoon rains, and increased erosion from deforestation and rapid
construction. After a major earthquake and Mw 7.3 aftershock, about 3,600 landslides of
various sizes were recorded within 200 km of the epicenter, causing extensive economic and
socio-environmental damage. Most of these landslides were shallow, involving the top layers
of weathered bedrock, regolith, and soil, and many remained active during field inspections.
Numerous slope failures were noted between Abukhaireni and Baluwa, a village near the
earthquake's epicenter, with the scale and number of landslides increasing closer to the
epicenter. Notably, a micro-hydro project and a major rock fall near Baluwa village caused
significant disruptions, including blocking the Abukhaireni-Daraudi road and damaging a
nearby village. Road construction in hilly areas involves extensive cut and fill operations,
leading to frequent failures of steep cuts and adjacent slopes. Additionally, many road edges
failed or fissured due to insufficient compaction of fill material. The Mw 7.3 aftershock also
triggered numerous landslides along the Araniko highway, obstructing traffic for months and
causing hundreds of landslides in central northern Nepal.[1]
Thousands of landslides were observed and few tens of thousands triggered landslides were
estimated which was about 25,000 as per study of Malamud[2]. Moreover Keefer estimated
that the M7.8 Gorkha earthquake triggered 60,000 landslides[3]. Among these landslides most
devastating earthquake induced landslide was Langtang debris avalanche with estimated
volume of 2,000,000m3 [4]. Several important valley blocking landslide such as village of
Baisari on Kali Gandaki river and Gogane landslide were occurred after earthquake[5].

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Figure 1: Earthquake induced landslide in different place of Nepal[1]

Figure 2: Langtang debris avalanche[5]

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 Figure 3: Landslide along Kali Gandaki river[5]

2. Soil failure
Seismic soil-failure modes like liquefaction and cyclic failure occur due to strong shaking of
weak soils. In Nepal, these weak soils are mainly found in sedimentary basins such as
Kathmandu and Pokhara, as well as in the Indo-Gangetic plain, due to the country's
predominantly mountainous and steep terrain. The soil failure in Manamaiju was observed
involving ground cracks, sand boils and minor tilting of building less than 2 degree[5]. Typical
observation of soil failure involve sand boiling, ground fissures, liquefaction, tilting of
building.

2.1 Liquefaction and sand boiling

Sand boils were observed at various liquefaction sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including
Duwakot, Mulpani, Imadol, Hattiban, Bungamati, and Ramkot. These sites, mostly on
floodplains near rivers, showed significant soil ejection and fissures, with some boils reaching
2 meters high after the M7.8 earthquake[6]. Sand boils formed when sand was pushed out due
to high pressure beneath the surface. This sand often ended up in agricultural fields, creating
layers a few centimeters thick. In liquefaction-prone areas, the soil profile typically consists of

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a top layer of silty clay or silt, followed by a 0.5 to 1.5 meter thick layer of low-plasticity silty
clay, known as black cotton clay, with loose fine sand below that reaching depths of up to 3
meters. The shallow water table in these regions is between 1.3 and 4 meters below ground
level. The expelled soil was mainly fine sand mixed with 50% non-plastic silt[1]. Some of the
probable reason of liquefaction in Kathmandu valley are[5]:
 The main shock produced low amplitude high-frequency shaking.
 The water table was likely deeper due to groundwater withdrawal.
 The earthquake occurred near the end of the dry season, when water levels were
probably at their lowest.
 The fine grain-size distribution of lacustrine sediments made them less susceptible to
liquefaction.

Figure 4: Liquefaction observed at different location of Kathmandu valley[1]

Figure 5: Sand boiling observed on floodplain[6]

2.2 Lateral spreading and displacement

Lokanthali is a significant site of interest due to the notable ground failures following the
earthquake, attracting researchers worldwide. A section of the Araniko Highway from
Lokanthali to Bhaktapur experienced considerable damage, showing vertical and

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 horizontal displacements. This damage was concentrated on a newly constructed road
embankment. The vertical offset was about 1 meter over a 200-meter area, running
diagonally across the highway but not extending far beyond it. In contrast, the horizontal
offset spread over a larger area, about 500 meters. Large cracks, 2-3 meters deep and 0.5
meters wide, appeared on or near sloping grounds. Nearby buildings and highway
structures settled excessively due to the soil movement[6]. Lateral spreading was limited
and confined to the eastern perimeter of the Kathmandu Valley. Cracks running
longitudinally on a compacted road embankment were discovered in Sinamangal (near the
airport) in Kathmandu and in Kupondol, Lalitpur. These cracks potentially resulted from
lateral displacement of slopes and underlying deep-seated slides[1].
A section of the vertical offset ran close to the pedestrian bridge at Kaushaltar bus stop,
which was damaged and subsequently closed for repairs. The exact cause of these offsets
is unclear due to insufficient information about soil types and groundwater depth.
However, it is believed that the offsets were due to mass soil movement at shallow depths,
possibly from soil weakening or liquefaction. This might have been caused by cyclic shear
softening of silty clay deposits, allowing the soil to move and create the observed
displacements. Aftershocks, especially the Mw6.7 and Mw7.3 events, exacerbated the
cracks, indicating that aftershocks significantly impact ground deformation[6].

Figure 6: Lateral settlement and spreading caused by 2015 earthquake[1]

3. Local site effect

The severity of earthquake damage is influenced not only by magnitude and distance from the
epicenter but also by local soil conditions and topography. Case studies illustrate how these
factors affect geotechnical and structural damage. In Kathmandu Valley, the basin effect,
evidenced by long-period ground motion, led to severe damage to tall buildings, indicating
amplification of ground motion. Structural damage was concentrated in areas with loose fill
and young deposits, such as Gongabu and Balaju. Damage to buildings atop isolated hills, like
Swayambhu Nath, was attributed to ground motion amplification. Additionally, towns near the

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 basin edge, such as Duwakot, Manamaiju, Jorpati, Budanilkantha, Sankhu and Kapan, suffered
significant damage, with liquefaction occurring predominantly in these vulnerable areas due
to the basin edge effect. School buildings and temples on hilltops were also heavily affected,
highlighting the role of topography in amplifying damage. Overall, the distribution of damage
in the Kathmandu Valley reflects the interplay of seismic forces with local geological and
topographical features.[1]

Figure 7: Damage of buildings due to geotechnical effect which were well designed[1]

Conclusion
The 7.8 magnitude Gorkha Nepal earthquake and subsequent tremors caused extensive
geotechnical impacts, with lower-than-anticipated short-period ground shaking. Landslides were
the primary cause of damage, burying towns, obstructing waterways, and blocking transportation
routes. Soft-soil failures, including liquefaction of sandy soils and cyclic failure of clayey soils,
occurred around Kathmandu. No surface-fault rupture was observed, but triggered landslides
damaged roads and hydropower facilities. This seismic event offers valuable data for refining
liquefaction models if additional ground-motion records are accessible.

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Bibilography
[1] K. Sharma, M. Subedi, I. P. Acharya, and B. Pokharel, “Geotechnical and Structural Aspect
of 2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake and Lesson Learnt,” J. Inst. Engineering, vol. 13, no. 1, pp.
20–36, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.3126/jie.v13i1.20345.
[2] B. D. Malamud, D. L. Turcotte, F. Guzzetti, and P. Reichenbach, “Landslide inventories and
their statistical properties,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 687–
711, 2004, doi: 10.1002/esp.1064.
[3] D. K. Keefer, “Investigating Landslides Caused by Earthquakes – A Historical Review,”
Surveys in Geophysics, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 473–510, Nov. 2002, doi:
10.1023/A:1021274710840.
[4] B. D. Collins and R. W. Jibson, “Assessment of existing and potential landslide hazards
resulting from the April 25, 2015 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake sequence,” U.S. Geological
Survey, 2015–1142, 2015. doi: 10.3133/ofr20151142.
[5] R. E. S. Moss et al., “Geotechnical Effects of the 2015 Magnitude 7.8 Gorkha, Nepal,
Earthquake and Aftershocks,” Seismological Research Letters, vol. 86, no. 6, pp. 1514–1523,
Nov. 2015, doi: 10.1785/0220150158.
[6] M. Maharjan, “LIQUEFACTION IN KATHMANDU VALLEY DURING 2015 GORKHA
(NEPAL) EARTHQUAKE,” 2017.