The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology:

For the Radiologic Technologist

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Copy of Roentgen’s radiograph of his wife’s “hand with rings,” made soon after his discov-
ery of x rays in November 1895 in Wurzburg, Germany. (See Glasser O. Dr. W. C. Roentgen,
p. 39, 2nd ed., Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1958.)
 NINTH EDITION

THE FUNDAMENTALS
OF
IMAGING PHYSICS
AND
RADIOBIOLOGY

By

JOSEPH SELMAN, M.D., FACR, FACP

Medical Advisor
Radiation Therapy Center
East Texas Medical Center Cancer Institute
 Published and Distributed Throughout the World by

CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER

2600 South First Street
Springfield, Illinois 62794-9265

This book is protected by copyright. No part of

it may be reproduced in any manner without
written permission from the publisher.

©2000, 1994, 1985, 1977, 1972, 1965, 1961, 1957, and 1954
by CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER
First Edition, 1954
Second Edition, 1957
Third Edition, 1961
Fourth Edition, 1965
Fifth Edition, 1972
Sixth Edition, 1977
Seventh Edition, 1985
Eighth Edition, 1994
Ninth Edition, 2000

ISBN 0-398-06987-5

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-035813

With THOMAS BOOKS careful attention is given to all details of manufacturing

and design. It is the Publisher’s desire to present books that are satisfactory as to their
physical qualities and artistic possibilities and appropriate for their particular use.
THOMAS BOOKS will be true to those laws of quality that assure a good name
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Printed in the United States of America

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Selman, Joseph.
The fundamentals of imaging physics and radiobiology / Joseph Selman --
9th ed.
p. cm.
Prev. ed.: The fundamentals of x-ray and radium physics.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-398-06987-5
1. X-rays. 2. Radium. 3. Radiography. I. Selman, Joseph.
Fundamentals of x-ray and radium physics. II. Title.
QC481 .S456 2000
537.5’35--dc21 99-035813
RW
Dedicated to my wife
 PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION

A number of important changes have

been made in this edition, the first
being the obvious new title reflecting the
dependent, this fits well with the chapter on
health physics, which has been updated.
More questions and problems, with sam-
demise of radium in medicine and its ple solutions, have been added. Besides, the
replacement by artificial radioisotopes index continues to be user-friendly to facili-
(radionuclides). tate the search for answers in the text.
To improve readability, a double-column Many thanks are due Joe Burrage
format has been adopted, serving to bring (Diagnostic Imaging, Inc.) for help with
more illustrations closer to their explanation modern x-ray generator circuitry in the form
in the text. A helpful addition should be the of block diagrams, as well as explanations of
outline of the contents of each chapter below newer equipment and devices. I am also
its heading. grateful to Ted Kosnik, Ph.D., for his answers
Greater attention is paid to high-frequen- about matters physics, and for plotting the
cy generation of x rays. Because this attenuation curves of 100-kV x rays; and to
involves microprocessors (computers), my son Jay E. Selman, M.D., for his review
which also find wide application in the of the chapter on computer science and his
department generally, I have added a chap- very helpful comments.
ter on basic computer science. A typical I am also indebted to the following indi-
modern control panel for comparison with viduals and companies, thanking them for
the primitive type indicates how much providing brochures and technical informa-
progress has occurred in x-ray production tion on equipment and supplies: Larry
and control. Spittler, RT (Diagnostic Imaging, Inc.);
The rapid increase in the number of Nu-Tech (Tyler, Texas); and Paul Oster, RT,
approved mammography centers demands a CNMT, Chief Technologist of the Nuclear
corresponding need for specialized technolo- Medicine Laboratory, East Texas Medical
gists. I have therefore updated the require- Center Hospital, Tyler, Texas.
ments for mammographic equipment and New illustrations and modifications of
included a section outlining quality assur- previous ones have been meticulously exe-
ance, especially as it applies to the responsi- cuted by artist Gene Johnson (Tyler, Texas),
bilities of the designated mammographer. A and for this I am most grateful. At this point
separate chapter is now devoted to mam- I wish to thank again the retired artist,
mography. Howard Marlin, for his excellent illustrations
Digital imaging has been assigned a new in the first eight editions of this book, dating
chapter to include more information about back to 1954, and carried over to the ninth
subtraction angiography. edition.
A new chapter takes up the basic science Finally, and by no means least, I would
of radiobiology: the effects of radiation, like to express my sincere gratitude to
especially of x rays, on cells, tissues, and Michael Thomas, head of Charles C
organs. Since harmful effects are dose- Thomas, Publisher, and his most competent

vii
viii The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

staff, and to Claire Slagle, the superb editor of my book for its Ninth Edition.
assigned to me, for their cooperation and
diligent attention to details in the publication Joseph Selman, M.D.
 INTRODUCTION

A s a student entering an approved

School of Radiologic Technology, you
have probably heard about the hazards of
thickness.
In fluoroscopy you will see a lead-con-
taining rubber or plastic curtain hanging
overexposure to x rays, a special form of from the viewing assembly to protect the flu-
light. The key word here is “approved,” a oroscopist; leaded aprons and gloves are
designation assuring that the school has in also available for your personal protection.
place not only the required teaching pro- The radiographer must follow all rules
gram, but also all necessary protective mea- governing radiation protection according to
sures to keep your occupational exposure to the three basic principles: distance, shield-
x rays and related radiation within accept- ing, and time: radiation dose decreases
able limits. Necessary protective mainte- rapidly with increasing distance from the
nance has been established by regulations x-ray source; shielding of the hands and
(“regs”) mandated by the relevant State body by lead or other protective material;
Agency and the U.S.A. Nuclear Regulatory and reducing the time spent in the area dur-
Commission (NRC). I shall briefly summa- ing exposure all contribute greatly to dose
rize here-the basic protective features that reduction. Finally, special badges must be
you will find in a modern radiology depart- worn by all personnel in the x-ray area to
ment. detect any breach in safe operating proce-
The walls of the x-ray rooms have built-in dures.
lead or equivalent protection in accordance In my experience over many years, mon-
with State regulations, and have been tested itored exposures of radiographers have, with
by a certified Health Physicist or other qual- rare exceptions, been well within prescribed
ified person. A number of protective fea- limits. Moreover, the risk from occupation-
tures have been incorporated in the x-ray al exposure to radiation in the radiology
equipment as mandated by the Bureau of department is trivial compared to other
Radiological Health (BRH). You will note occupational, recreational, and highway
that the console, which controls x-ray tube travel risks. The same applies to the risk in
operation by the radiographer, is located a modern radiology department.
inside a control booth whose walls contain a The chapter on Health Physics, which
prescribed thickness of lead (metal) for the you will study later, provides additional
radiographer’s protection; even the booth’s details on the subject of radiation protection
window consists of protective glass of proper of personnel and patients.

ix
 CONTENTS

Page
Preface vii
Introduction ix
Chapter
1. SIMPLIFIED MATHEMATICS 3
Arithmetic 3
Fractions 3
Percent 5
Decimal Fractions 5
Significant Figures 5
Algebra 6
Ratio and Proportion 9
Plane Geometry 10
Similar Triangles 11
Graphs and Charts 12
Large and Small Numbers 13
Logarithms 14
Questions and Problems 15
2. PHYSICS AND THE UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 16
Standard Units 17
Fundamental Units 17
Derived Units 18
Manipulation of Units 19
Prefixes Applied to SI Units 21
Questions and Problems 21
3. THE PHYSICAL CONCEPT OF ENERGY 22
Force 22
Work and Energy 22
Law of Conservation of Energy 23
Questions and Problems 25
4. THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER 26

xi
xii The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

Subdivisions of Matter 26
Atomic Structure—the Electrical Nature of Matter 28
Atomic Number 30
Mass Number 30
Isotopes and Nuclides 30
The Periodic Table 31
Chemical Behavior 34
Ionization 36
Questions and Problems 38
5. ELECTROSTATICS 39
Definition 39
Electrification 39
Methods of Electrification 39
Laws of Electrostatics 41
Electroscope 43
Static Discharge 44
Questions and Problems 45
6. ELECTRODYNAMICS—ELECTRIC CURRENT 46
Definition 46
The Nature of an Electric Current 46
Sources of Electric Current 47
Factors in an Electric Circuit 47
Ohm’s Law 50
Cells and Batteries 50
Components of Elementary Electric Circuits 51
Series and Parallel Circuits 52
Electric Capacitor (Condenser) 56
The Work and Power of a Direct Current 57
Questions and Problems 58
7. MAGNETISM 59
Definition 59
Classification of Magnets 59
Laws of Magnetism 60
Nature of Magnetism 60
Magnetic Fields 61
Characteristics of Lines of Force 62
Magnetic Induction (Magnetization) 63
 Contents xiii

Magnetic Permeability and Retentivity 64

Magnetic Classification of Matter 64
Earth’s Magnetism 64
Questions and Problems 65
8. ELECTROMAGNETISM 66
Definition 66
Electromagnetic Phenomena 66
The Electromagnet 67
Electromagnetic Induction 68
Direction of Induced Electron Current 69
Self-induction 69
Mutual Induction 71
Questions and Problems 71
9. ELECTRIC GENERATORS AND MOTORS 72
Electric Generator 72
Definition 72
Essential Features 72
Simple Electric Generator 73
Properties of Alternating Currents 75
Direct Current Generator 76
Advantages of Alternating Current 77
Electric Motor 78
Definition 78
Principle 78
Simple Electric Motor 79
Types of Electric Motors 79
Current-measuring Devices 81
Questions and Problems 82
10. PRODUCTION AND CONTROL OF HIGH VOLTAGE—
REGULATION OF CURRENT IN THE X-RAY TUBE 83
Transformer 83
Principle 83
Construction of Transformers 85
Efficiency and Power Losses 86
Control of High Voltage 88
Autotransformer 88
Control of Filament Current and Tube Current 89
xiv The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

Choke Coil 89
Rheostat 90
High-Frequency Control of Current and Voltage 91
Questions and Problems 92
11. RECTIFICATION AND RECTIFIERS 94
Definition 94
Methods of Rectifying an Alternating Current 95
Rectifiers 100
Rectifier Failure 105
Questions and Problems 106
12. X RAYS: PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES 108
How X Rays Were Discovered 108
Nature of X Rays 109
Source of X Rays in Radiology 111
The X-Ray Tube 111
Details of X-Ray Production 112
Electron Interactions with Target Atoms—X-ray Production 113
Target Material 115
Efficiency of X-ray Production 115
Properties of X Rays 115
Specifications of the Physical Characteristics of an X-ray Beam 116
X-ray Exposure (Quantity) 116
X-ray Quality 117
“Hard” and “Soft” X Rays 123
The Interactions of Ionizing Radiation and Matter 124
Relative Importance of Various Types of Interaction 129
Detection of Ionizing Radiation 130
Summary of Radiation Units 131
Exposure—the Roentgen (R) 131
Absorbed Dose—the Gray (Gy) 131
Modification of Kilovoltage X-ray Beams by Filters 132
Questions and Problems 133
13. X-RAY TUBES 135
Thermionic Diode Tubes 135
Radiographic Tubes 136
Glass Envelope 136
Cathode 136
 Contents xv

Anode 138
Space Charge Compensation 141
Factors Governing Tube Life 143
Questions and Problems 148
14. X-RAY CIRCUITS 149
Source of Electric Power 149
Main Single-Phase X-Ray Circuits 150
Completed Wiring Diagram 158
Basic X-Ray Control Panel or Console 158
Three-Phase Generation of X-Rays 162
High-Frequency Generation of X Rays 165
Power Rating of X-Ray Generators and Circuits 166
Falling-Load Generator 167
Special Mobile X-Ray Equipment 168
Battery-Powered Mobile X-Ray Units 168
Capacitor (Condenser)-Discharge Mobile X-Ray Units 168
Questions and Problems 171
15. X-RAY FILM, FILM HOLDERS, AND
INTENSIFYING SCREENS 173
Composition of X-Ray Film 173
Types of Films 175
Practical Suggestions in Handling Unexposed Film 176
Film Exposure Holders 176
Intensifying Screens 177
Questions And Problems 186
16. THE DARKROOM 188
Introduction 188
Location of the Darkroom 188
Building Essentials 189
Entrance 189
Size 190
Ventilation 190
Lighting 190
Film Storage Bin 191
Questions And Problems 191
17. CHEMISTRY OF RADIOGRAPHY AND FILM
PROCESSING 192
xvi The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

Introduction 192
Radiographic Photography 192
Radiographic Chemistry 193
Manual Processing 195
Film Fog, Stains, and Artifacts 196
Automatic Processing 197
Summary of Processor Care 203
Silver Recovery from Fixing Solutions 203
Questions And Problems 203
18. RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY 205
Blur 206
Geometric or Focal Spot Blur 206
Focal Spot Evaluation 208
Motion Blur 210
Screen Blur 210
Object Blur 212
Radiographic Density 213
Contrast 217
Radiographic Contrast 217
Subject Contrast 218
Film Contrast 220
Distortion 222
Direct Magnification or Enlargement Radiography
(Macroradiography) 226
Modulation Transfer Function 228
Questions and Problems 230
19. DEVICES FOR IMPROVING RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY 232
Scattered Radiation 232
Removal of Scattered Radiation By a Grid 234
Principle of the Radiographic Grid 234
Efficiency of Grids 235
Types of Grids 238
Precautions in the Use of Focused Grids 240
Practical Application of Grids 242
Removal of Scattered Radiation by an Air Gap 246
Reduction of Scattered Radiation by Limitation of the
Primary Beam 247
 Contents xvii

Other Methods of Enhancing Radiographic Quality 252

Moving Slit Radiography 252
The Anode Heel Effect—Anode Cutoff 254
Compensating Filters 254
Summary of Radiographic Exposure 255
Questions and Problems 255
20. FLUOROSCOPY 258
The Human Eye 258
Fluoroscopic Image Intensification 259
Magnification in Image Intensifier 263
Multiple-Field Intensifiers 263
Viewing the Fluoroscopic Image 264
Optical Lens System 264
Television Viewing System 264
Video Cameras 264
Television Monitor 266
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) TV Camera 267
Quality of the TV Image 267
Recording the Fluoroscopic Image 268
Recording the Video Image 269
Laser Discs 270
Questions and Problems 271
21. VANISHING EQUIPMENT 273
Stereoscopic Radiography 273
Tomography 276
Xeroradiography (Xerography) 282
Questions and Problems 284
22. MAMMOGRAPHY 285
Quality Standards in Mammography 289
Qualifications of Radiologic Technologist (Mammographer) 291
Equipment 291
Quality Assurance 291
Quality Assurance Records 291
Radiologic Technologist Responsibilities 291
Quality Control Tests 292
Daily 292
Weekly 292
xviii The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

Monthly 292
Quarterly 293
Semiannually 293
Mobile Mammography Units 294
Questions and Problems 294
23. BASIC COMPUTER SCIENCE 295
Introduction 295
History 295
Data vs Information 297
Computer Operations 297
Computer Components 298
Computer Language 303
Binary Number System 303
Summary of Applications in Radiology 304
Questions and Problems 305
24. DIGITAL X-RAY IMAGING 306
Introduction 306
Digital Fluoroscopy 307
Questions and Problems 312
25. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 314
Conventional CT Scanning 314
Spiral (helical) CT Scanning 319
Questions and Problems 322
26. RADIOACTIVITY AND DIAGNOSTIC
NUCLEAR MEDICINE 323
Introduction 323
Natural Radioactivity 324
Unstable Atoms 324
Radioactive Series 324
Radium 325
Introduction 325
Properties 325
Types of Radiation 325
Radioactive Decay 326
Decay Constant 327
Half-Life 327
Average Life 327
 Contents xix

Radon 328
Radioactive Equilibrium 328
Artificial Radioactivity 329
Isotopes 329
Artificial Radionuclides 329
Nuclear Reactor 330
Nuclear Transformations 332
Properties of Artificial Radionuclides 332
Radioactive Decay 333
Applications of Radionuclides in Medicine 335
Radionuclide Instrumentation 336
Sources of Error in Counting 339
Efficiency and Sensitivity of Counters 341
Geometric Factors in Counting 342
Methods of Counting 343
Important Medical Radionuclides 344
Examples of Radionuclides in Medical Diagnosis 346
Imaging With Radionuclides: the Gamma Camera 348
Collimators 348
Crystal-Photomultiplier Complex 350
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 350
Available Radionuclide Imaging 351
Calibration of Radiopharmaceuticals and Gamma Camera 353
Questions and Problems 353
27. RADIOBIOLOGY 355
Definition 355
History 355
The Physical Basis of Radiobiology 356
Radiobiologic Effects 357
Structure and Function of Cells 358
Nucleus 358
Cytoplasm 359
Cell Reproduction 360
Mitosis 360
Meiosis 362
Structure of DNA 363
Functions of DNA 364
xx The Fundamentals of Imaging Physics and Radiobiology

The Radiobiologic Lesion 366

Modes of Action of Ionizing Radiation 366
Cellular Response To Radiation 368
Nuclear Damage 368
Cytoplasmic Damage 369
Cellular Radiosensitivity 369
Modifying Factors in Radiosensitivity 370
Acute Whole-Body Radiation Syndromes 372
Explanation of Acute Whole-Body Radiation Syndromes 374
Dose-Response Models 375
Sigmoid Dose-Response Curve 375
Linear Dose-Response Curve 376
Linear-Quadratic Dose-Response Curve 377
Injurious Effects of Radiation on Normal Tissues 377
Early Effects: Limited Areas of the Body 377
Late Effects 381
Late Somatic Effects in High-Dose Region 382
Late Somatic Effects in Low-Dose Region 383
Risk Estimates for Genetic Damage 386
Radiation Injury to Embryo and Fetus 387
Questions and Problems 390
28. PROTECTION IN RADIOLOGY—HEALTH PHYSICS 391
Introduction 391
Background Radiation 392
Dose Equivalent Limit 394
Derivation of Unit For Risk Assessment 394
Dose Equivalent 395
Numerical Dose Equivalent Limits 396
Occupational 396
Fertile or Pregnant Radiation Workers 398
Nonoccupational (General Public) Limit 398
ALARA Concept 399
Personnel Protection From Exposure To X Rays 400
Protective Measures 402
Protective Barriers in Radiography and Fluoroscopy 403
Working Conditions 404
Acceptance (Compliance) Testing 405
 Contents xxi

Protection Surveys 406

Protection of the Patient in Diagnostic Radiology 407
Dose Reduction in Radiography 410
Protection in Mammography 414
Computed Tomography Scanning 414
Patient Protection in Fluoroscopy 415
Protection From Electric Shock 416
Protection in Nuclear Medicine 416
Questions and Problems 420
29. NONRADIOLOGIC IMAGING 422
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 422
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 422
From NMR to MRI 429
Noise in MRI 435
External Field Magnets for MRI 436
Surface Coils 436
A Typical MRI Unit 437
Hazards of MRI 437
Ultrasound Imaging 438
Nature of Sound 438
Properties of Ultrasound 439
Production of Ultrasound 440
Ultrasound Beam Characteristics 441
Echo Reception of Ultrasound 443
Behavior of Ultrasound in Matter 443
Ultrasound Image Displays 446
Question of Biohazard 449
Questions and Problems 449
Appendix—ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 451
Bibliography 453
Index 457
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF IMAGING
PHYSICS AND RADIOBIOLOGY