WEEKS ADKINS

University Of Alberta

0 0001 29549 96

Second Course in ALGEBRA

etc
SECOND COURSE IN

By

ARTHUR W. WEEKS
and

JACKSON B. ADKINS

The Phillips Exeter Academy

EXETER, NEW HAMPSHIRE

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO * ATLANTA

DALLAS PALO ALTO TORONTO

 © COPYRIGHT, 1962, BY GINN AND COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Picture Sources

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Page 178: United States Weather Bureau (top photo by E. Fontsere)
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Page 248: John R. T. Molholm
Page 325: Stanford Research Institute
Page 363: Wide World Photos
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 Preface

There are a number of reasons for the inclusion of a second year of

algebra in the student’s high school program. The first is that every
educated person should be aware of mathematics as a way of thinking and
should recognize that the structure of mathematics represents one of the
greatest intellectual achievements of our civilization.
A second reason is the relevance of algebra to the needs of the individual
in the world of today. This is made evident by the growing part played in
every sphere of life by modem science and technology.
And, thirdly, it is generally recognized that an understanding of the
principles of algebra and competence in its techniques are necessary for
further progress in the study of mathematics.

The main objectives of this book, which reflect the above reasons, are as
follows:
1. To present the material of a second course in algebra in a manner that
gives it meaning and coherence as a reasonable part of the equipment of an
educated person. Since algebraic procedures are the basis of coordinate
geometry and analytic trigonometry, the inclusion of these topics helps to
emphasize the unity of elementary mathematics.
2. To exhibit the structure of algebra and to clarify general concepts
such as a number system, a variable, a function, using language which is
clear and correct. Since full understanding comes only with experience in
applying general ideas to specific situations, numerous exercises at different
levels of difficulty are an essential part of the book.
3. To provide the fundamentals of algebra, coordinate geometry, and
trigonometry to the point at which a student is well prepared for a begin¬
ning course in either analytic geometry and calculus, probability and sta¬
tistics, or modern college algebra.

Arrangement of Material

The organization of the book is such that the notion that algebra has a
logical structure can hardly fail to be impressed upon the student. In the
first chapter the field of rational numbers is considered and some of the
most widely used theorems are proved from the axioms. An extension to
iv

irrational numbers is made when a need for them is apparent, and complex
numbers are introduced later to permit some general discussion of the
solutions of equations.
The first seven chapters deal with material which is normally encountered
in a first course in algebra, and only rational numbers are used. It should
be noted, however, that the approach is more mature than in a first course,
that the structure of algebra receives much more attention, and that many
of the problems are of a more demanding nature.
With the introduction of irrational numbers in chapter 8 the complete
number line becomes available, and graphical ideas are used and empha¬
sized throughout the rest of the book. The concept of the function is
examined in chapter 9 and becomes the unifying element from that point
on in the course.
Trigonometric ideas are introduced at three different stages. The first
approach, in chapter 11, is quite elementary and is intended to give practice
in computational methods and the use of tables. Classes already familiar
with these points may find it possible to omit this chapter. In chapters 15
and 16 the general definitions of the trigonometric functions are given, and
after a short section dealing with the law of sines and the law of cosines,
a start is made on the analytic side of trigonometry. Finally, in chapter 19,
the mature idea of the trigonometric functions as sets of ordered pairs of
real numbers is introduced and the general relationships between the func¬
tions are fully developed.

Flexibility

The fact that the book covers such a wide range of material makes it
possible to use it for a variety of courses. Sets of exercises labeled [A] are
intended for all students. Exercises and topics labeled [B] are more chal¬
lenging and may be omitted without interfering with the development of
the course.
Most classes will be able to cover the material presented in the book with
the possible exception of chapter 19, if the [B] sections are omitted.
A class which needs to strengthen fundamentals by doing the first seven
chapters in considerable detail will find that a very satisfying course is
available in chapters 1-15. The analytic trigonometry and the study of
the remaining chapters then becomes proper material for the following year.
A capable and highly-motivated college preparatory class will find it
possible to cover the whole book. The interested and able student will
find in the text a "treasure house" of information and ideas, of interesting
problems and suggestions for further investigation. He will be able to pro-
 V

ceed on his own for the most part and will find material to challenge him
in his most curious and energetic moods.
A feature of the book is the great number and variety of its exercises.
Each chapter includes a chapter review set and a chapter test, and in
addition there are many general review exercises. In general, there are
enough exercises so that the teacher is spared the great labor of creating
others.
Finally, we invite special attention to the Sidelights. These are, in es¬
sence, brief essays that introduce the reader to topics of a more advanced
nature or provide somewhat deeper insights. The titles of the Sidelights
are suggestive of their purpose:
Rotations of a Square * Designating a Set • Using Determinants * Congru¬
ences * Operations with Sets * Proving General Results about Integers *
Proof that \/3 Is Not a Rational Number * Linear Programming * Inverse
Functions • The Formal Development of the Complex Numbers * Vectors in
Two Dimensions * Successive Differences in Polynomials

The materials of the book have been used by a variety of schools over a
period of several years, and many helpful suggestions have been incorpo¬
rated into this text.
A. W. W.
J. B. A.
 Contents
PAGE

Rational Numbers
Sets of Objects, 1 • Closure, 1 • Natural Numbers, 2 • Integers, 2 • Rational
Numbers, 3 • Axioms for Rational Numbers, 4 • Subtraction and Division,
5 • Nature of Equality, 6 • Some Theorems, 7 • Division by Zero, 9 • Chapter
Test, 11
Sidelight 1: Rotations of a Square 12

2 Equations and Inequalities 14

Variables, 14 • Equations, 14 • Statement and Converse, 18 • Inequalities,
20 • Absolute Value, 23 • Chapter Test, 24
Sidelight 2: Designating a Set 25

3 Systems of Linear Equations; Word Problems n

Equations in Two Variables, 27 • Method of Substitution, 28 • Method of
Addition or Subtraction, 28 • Equations Requiring Simplification, 30 • Equa¬
tions in Three Variables, 35 • Word Problems, 37 • Using Two Variables,
38 • Relationships Used in Problems, 38 • Chapter Test, 46
Sidelight 3: Using Determinants 47

4 Factored Forms 50
Change of Form, 50 • Factors, 51 • The Common or Distributed Factor,
52 • Special Product Forms, 55 • The General Quadratic Trinominal
ax2 + bx+ c, 60 • Using the Difference of Two Squares, 62 • Homogeneous
Forms, 62 • Summary of Factored Forms, 64 • Cubes of Binomials, 67 • The
Sum and the Difference of Two Cubes, 67 • Chapter Test, 71
Sidelight 4: Congruences 72

5 Fractions 76
Fractions, 76 • Alternative Forms of a Fraction, 77 • Order of Size of Frac¬
tions, 78 • Expressions Having the Same Absolute Value, 79 • Multiplication
and Division of Fractions, 83 • Reciprocal Numbers, 84 • Division of Frac¬
tions, 85 • Addition and Subtraction of Fractions, 87 • Complex Fractions,
90 • Chapter Test, 96
Sidelight 5: Operations with Sets 97
VI
 6 Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 100
Degree of a Polynomial, 100 • Solution of Quadratic Equations by Factor¬
ing, 100 • Solution of Cubic Equations by Factoring, 101 • Fractional
Equations, 104 • Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations, 107 • Chap¬
ter Test, 113

T Formulas; General Conclusions H4

Formulas, 114-Solving Formulas, 114-Ratio and Proportion, 119 • De¬
ductions from Formulas, 123 • Chapter Test, 130

Sidelight 6: Proving General Results about Integers 131

Cumulative Review Exercises 133

8 Irrational Numbers 137

Squares and Square Roots, 137 • Approximation, 139 • Significant Figures,
140 • Evaluating Square Roots, 140 • Rational and Irrational Numbers,
143 • Approximation to V3 in Rational Numbers, 143 • Real Numbers,
144 • Radicals, 145 • Multiplication and Division of Radicals, 146 • Simplest
Radical Form, 147 • Addition and Subtraction of Radicals, 150 • Numbers
of the Form Va+ y/b, 152 • Division by Va+ y/b, 152 • Irrational Roots
of Quadratic Equations, 157 • Completing the Square, 158 - The Roots of
the Equation ax2 + bx-\- c— 0, 162 • Summary of Procedures for Solving
Quadratic Equations, 165 • Irrational Expressions, 167 • Irrational Equa¬
tions, 169 • Chapter Test, 175
Sidelight 7: Proof that V3 Is Not a Rational Number 176

9 Functions • Graphs • Variation 179

Set of Ordered Pairs, 179 • Geometric Representation of Real Numbers,
181 • Coordinates of Points in a Plane, 182 • Technical Terms, 183 • Graphs,
185 • Patterns of Graphs, 187 • Relations and Functions, 188 • Some Tech¬
nical Terms, 189 • The Linear Function, 192 • Direct Variation, 193 • In¬
verse Variation, 196 • More Complicated Variations, 200 • Chapter Test, 206

Sidelight 8: Linear Programming 207

lO Exponents and Logarithms 211

Positive Integers as Exponents, 211 • Rational Numbers as Exponents,
214 • Graph of y— 2X, 217 • Laws of Exponents, 217 • Powers of 10,
222 • Standard Form, 223 • Logarithms, 225 • Use of Table of Logarithms,
227 • Logarithms of Numbers Greater than 10, 230 • The Logarithms of
Positive Numbers Less than 1, 233 • Logarithms to Bases Other than 10,
239 • Graph of y = log6*, 241 • The Laws of Logarithms, 241 • Exponential
Equations, 244 • Chapter Test, 247
vii
 PAGE

11 Measurement in Right Triangles 249

Trigonometric Functions, 249 • Ratios in Right Triangles, 250 • Use of
Tables, 252 • Angles of Elevation and Depression, 252 • Bearings, 256 •
Other Trigonometric Functions, 258 • Use of Logarithms, 260 • Chapter
Test, 263

12 Elements of Coordinate Geometry 264

Algebra and Geometry, 264 • Distance between Two Points, 264 • The Mid¬
point of a Line Segment, 265 • Formula for Distance between Two Points,
266 • Formula for the Midpoint, 266 • Slope, 268 • Formula for Slope,
269 • Negative Slope, 270 • Inclination, 270 • Parallel and Perpendicular
Lines, 273 • Proofs of Geometric Theorems, 277 • Geometric Aspects of the
Linear Equation, 279 • The Point-Slope Equation of a Line, 280 • Point of
Intersection of Two Lines, 284 • Related Changes, 288 • The Linear Func¬
tion, 289 • The Functional Notation, 292 • Chapter Test, 296
Sidelight 9: Inverse Functions 298

Cumulative Review Exercises 301

13 The Quadratic Function 315

Domain and Range, 315 • Zeros of a Function, 315 • Graph of a Quadratic
Function, 316 • The Parabola, 321 • The Quadratic Function and the Parab¬
ola, 321 • Graph of y = ax2 + bx + c; (1) a > 0, (2) a < 0, 327 • Range
of a Quadratic Function, 328 • Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations,
332 • Inequalities, 334 • Complex Numbers, 336 • Subsets of the Complex
Numbers, 337 • Equality of Complex Numbers, 338 • Addition and Sub¬
traction, 338 • Multiplication, 339 • Division, 340 • The Meaning of Va,
341 • Order of Complex Numbers, 342 • The Nature of the Roots of
ax2 + bx -f- c = 0, 345 • Sum and Product of the Roots of ax2 -f- bx + c = 0,
348 • Formation of Quadratic Functions and Equations, 353 • Chapter
Test, 362
Sidelight 10: The Formal Development of the Complex Numbers 364

14 Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 367

Equation of a Locus, 367 • The Circle, 367 • Equation of Circle with Cen¬
ter at the Origin, 368 • Systems of Equations, One First-Degree, One
Second-Degree, 370 • Equation of Circle, Center-Radius Form, 374 • Equa¬
tion of Circle, General Form, 375 • Line Tangent to a Curve, 378 •
Parameters, 379 • The Ellipse, A Geometric Definition, 382 • The Equation
x2 + 4y2 = 16, 383 • The Hyperbola, A Geometric Definition, 386 • The
Graph of x2 — 4y2= 16, 386 • Asymptotes, 388 • The Equation xy = k,
390 • Systems of Equations, Two Second-Degree Equations, 392 • Homo¬
geneous Equations of the Second Degree, 394 • The Conic Sections, 397 •
Chapter Test, 404
viii
 PAGE
15 The Sine and Cosine Functions; Oblique Triangles 405
Angles, 405 • Angles in the Standard Position, 406 • The Sine Function and
the Cosine Function, 408 • Angle of Reference, 409 • Special Angles, 412 -
Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions, 412 • Computation in Triangles,
416 • Area of Any Triangle, 416 • The Law of Sines, 418 • The Law of
Cosines, 420 • Chapter Test, 425
Sidelight 11: Vectors in Two Dimensions 426

16 Trigonometric Equations and Identities 429

Definitions of Trigonometric Functions, 429 • Values of the Trigonometric
Functions, 430 • Quadrantal Angles, 431 • Graphs of Trigonometric Func¬
tions, 432 • Identities, 435 • Trigonometric Equations, 440 • Solutions Re¬
quiring the Operation of Squaring, 443 • Chapter Test, 444

iy Polynomials 445
Factorable Polynomials, 445 • The Cubic Function, 448 • Symmetry about
a Point, 450 • Characteristics of the Cubic Function, 452 • The Division
Identity, 455 • The Remainder Theorem, 456 • Rational Roots of a Cubic
Equation, 457 • Locating a Rational Root of a Polynomial Equation,
459 • Synthetic Division, 460 • Approximate Solution of Cubic Equations,
465 • Nature of the Roots of a Cubic Equation, 469 • Roots and Coefficients
of a Cubic Equation, 471 • Formation of Cubic Polynomials, 476 * Chapter
Test, 483
Sidelight 12: Successive Differences in Polynomials 484

13 Sequences and Series 488

Sequences, 488 • Notation, 489 • Rule for a Sequence, 489 • Deducing a Rule
for a Sequence, 491 • Arithmetic Sequence, 492 • General Term of an Arith¬
metic Sequence, 492 • Series, 495 • Sum of an Arithmetic Series, 496 • The
Geometric Sequence, 502 • Sum of a Geometric Series, 504 • Limit of the
Sum of a Geometric Series, 508 • Formula for the Limit of a Sum, 510 • The
Arithmetic Mean, 515 • The Geometric Mean, 515 * Mathematical Induc¬
tion, 521 • The 2 Notation, 523 • The Binomial Series, 524 • The Series
(1 + x)n when n is a Rational Number, 527 • Chapter Test, 531

19 Trigonometric Addition Formulas 532

A Circular Number Scale, 532 • Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers,
534 • Circular Measure, 536 • Radians and Degrees, 537 • Addition For¬
mulas, 540 • Addition Formulas for Tangent, 544 • Double Angle Formulas,
546 • Sums to Products, 550 • The Inverse Trigonometric Functions, 553 •
Chapter Test, 561
Cumulative Review Exercises

Tables 582

Index 622
 One of the earliest mechanical aids in
computation was the "abacus,” an ar¬
rangement of beads strung on wire in a
wooden frame, still used extensively in
some oriental countries.
The modern abacus, shown in the photo¬
graph, is the heart of the magnetic
"memory” in data-processing systems. It
consists of thousands of tiny ferrite cores
whose magnetic states are altered by
electrical impulses. By means of it, words
and numbers may be strung on wire and
then picked off in millionths of a second.
 Rational Numbers

Sets of Objects

In everyday conversation the meaning of a statement often depends on

an understanding of the set of objects under discussion. If, for instance,
the members of a track team are the "objects” being discussed, the meaning
of the statement "John is the fastest one” is quite clear. If, on the other
hand, the objects under discussion are the members of John’s mathematics
class, the given statement may be interpreted in more than one way. It
may still mean that John is the fastest runner, but it may equally well
mean that John is the fastest computer or the best student. Notice that
the immediate effect of adding the word "runner,” "computer,” or "stu¬
dent” is to clarify the statement by indicating that we are thinking of the
class as a set of runners, computers, or students.
The objects studied in algebra are sets of numbers. In the first algebra
course we saw how certain types of numerical problems could be solved.
We also strengthened our understanding of arithmetic by emphasizing the
main principles which govern operations with numbers. Early in the first
course tjie number system used in arithmetic was expanded so that we
could learn to operate in a more general system including negative numbers.
Such expansions of the number system have made it apparent that we must
be aware of the particular set of numbers being discussed if the meaning of
a statement about numbers is to be clear.

Closure

Let us suppose that we are trying to do some arithmetic using only the
set of prime numbers, P — {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, • • •}. I he operations
which can be performed are extremely limited. It is possible to find the
sum of certain pairs, such as 2 -f 3, 2 -f 17. In general, however, the sum
of two prime numbers is not a prime number, and in the set P addition is
rarely possible. The definition of a prime number makes it clear that
multiplication is quite impossible in the set P.
i
2 Chapter 1

The prime numbers are not a satisfactory set of objects to be used in

studying the elementary operations of arithmetic. An operation has meam
ing in a set of numbers only if, when the operation is performed on two
members of the set, the result is also a member of the set. When this is the
case we say that the set is closed under the particular operation. The set
of primes is not closed under either addition or multiplication.

Natural Numbers

The first numbers to become objects of discussion in arithmetic are the

set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, • • •}. If a, b represent any two
members of this set, then a + b and ab are also natural numbers. Thus, the
set of natural numbers is closed under the operation of addition and is
closed under the operation of multiplication. A set of numbers closed under
addition and multiplication is called a number system.

Integers
The set N of natural numbers contains a replacement for x such that
5 + ^ = 8. The operation of finding the replacement is called subtracting
5 from 8, and is symbolized by 8 — 5. N does not, however, contain a
replacement for x such that 5 + x = 5 or one such that 5 + x = 2. Thus, the
results of the operations symbolized by 5 — 5 and 2 — 5 cannot be written
as natural numbers, and the set of natural numbers is not closed under
subtraction.
To provide meaning for the operation of subtraction in all cases we use a
wider system known as the set of integers, 1= {••• — 3, —2, — 1, 0, + 1,
+ 2, + 3, • • •}. This set is closed under the operations of addition, multi¬
plication, and subtraction.

Exercises [A]
1. Write (a) three even integers, and (b) three odd integers.
2. Write two even integers and find (a) their sum, (b) their product.
3. Write two odd integers and find (a) their sum, (b) their product.
4. Write two negative integers and find (a) their sum, (b) their product.
5. If n represents a member of the set of integers, write expressions in n
for (a) an even integer, (b) an odd integer.
6. Show that the sum of any two even integers is an even integer.
7. (a) Show that the sum of any two odd integers is an even integer.
(b) Is the product of two odd integers an even integer or an odd in¬
teger?
Rational Numbers 3

8. Is the set of even integers closed under (a) addition, (b) multiplica-
tion?

9. Is the set of odd integers closed under (a) addition, (b) multiplica¬
tion?

10. Is the set of negative integers closed under (a) addition, (b) multi¬
plication?

11. Is 0 an integer? Is it positive or negative? Is it odd or even?

12. What is the special property of zero (a) in addition, (b) in multi¬
plication?

13. (a) Is there a natural number x such that £+8 = 5?

(b) Is there an integer x such that £+8 = 5?
14. (a) Is there a natural number x such that 3 • x = 2?
(b) Is there an integer £ such that 3 x = 2?
(c) Is there a fraction x such that 3 x = 2?

Rational Numbers

The set of integers contains a replacement for x such that 4 x = 12. The
operation of finding the replacement is called dividing 12 by 4 and is sym¬
bolized by 12 -h 4 or by • The set of integers does not contain a replace¬
ment for £ such that 7 x = 3, and the numbers known as fractions are needed
to complete a set which is closed under the operation of division. The set
of fractions consists of numbers such as 2j, — f, 3.14. The integers and
fractions together constitute the rational numbers. A rational number is a
number which can be expressed as the ratio, or quotient, of two integers.
Thus 2\ is a rational number because it can be expressed as f; — 2 is a

rational number because it can be expressed as The set of rational

numbers is closed under the four fundamental operations of addition, sub¬

traction, multiplication, and division, excepting division by zero. It is
therefore adequate for many of the purposes of algebra, and until we specif¬
ically introduce the concept of irrational numbers we shall use the word
"number” to mean one of the rational numbers.
Our work with rational numbers (and later with irrational numbers) is
based on the following list of axioms or accepted properties of the set of
numbers. We shall use them to establish some of the other principles on
which much of the development of algebra depends. It is assumed that the
student has an understanding of the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division with rational numbers.
 Axioms for Rational Numbers

If a,b,c are rational numbers, then

Addition Multiplication

A 1. The sum of a,b is a unique rational M 1. The product of a, b is a unique

number a-)-b. (Closure) rational number ab. (Closure)

A 2. a + b = b + a (Commutative axiom) M2. ab = ba (Commutative axiom)

A3, a (b c) = (a -(- b) c M 3. a • (be) = (ab) • c

(Associative axiom) (Associative axiom)

A 4. a + O^a, for every value of a. M 4. a • 1 — a, for every value of a.

[0 is known as the additive [1 is known as the multiplicative
identity.] identity.]

A 5. For every value of a, there is a M 5. For every value of a except 0, there

unique rational number (— a) such
is a unique rational number
that
a + (- a) = 0 such that

[(— a) is known as the additive in¬

o.Ia = ,
verse or the negative of a.]
- is known as the multiplicative in-
a
verse or the reciprocal of a.]

M, A 6. a(b -f-c) = a- b-f-a*c (Distributive axiom)

The parts played by the special numbers 0 and 1 in the axioms numbered
4 and 5 should be given particular attention. Notice that 0 has no reciprocal,
or multiplicative inverse.

The commutative and associative axioms together permit the rearrange¬

ment of terms in addition and the rearrangement of factors in multiplication.
Thus,

a + b + c means (a -f b) + c, or a + (b -f c), or (c + a) + b, • • •

abc means (ab)c, or a(bc), or (ca)b, • • •

Rational Numbers 5

Subtraction and Division

If a, b are rational numbers, it can be shown from the axioms that there is a
unique rational number x such that a -f x = b. This number x is b -f (— a),
which is commonly written b — a. The number b — a is called the difference
of b and a, and the operation symbolized by the sign ” is called subtraction.
It is important to recognize that b — a and b + (— a) represent the same
number. Also that b — a = c, if and only if b = a + c.
It can also be shown that, provided a is not zero, there is a unique number

y such that ay = b. The number y is b • - > which is commonly written -

a a
or b -s- a. The number - is called the quotient of b and a, and the operation
a
symbolized by either of the signs-or is called division.

It is important to recognize that - and b • - represent the same number.

b a a
Also that - = c, if and only if b = a • c.
a.

Exercises lA1

1. (a) Find s if 5 = f + f. (b) Find p if p = (f)(f).

2. Find the sum and the product of 13/12 and — 3/4.

3. Find p + q and pq in the following cases:

(a) p = 1.25, q = — 4.8; (b) p = 15.4, q = 0.2; (c) p = - li,0 = -2£.

4. (a) Find n if n + 12.78 = 15.42. (b) Find k if 5.4 k = 13.5.

5. Evaluate (a) 3f — 4^, and (b) 3f 4^.

6. Find p — q and ^ in the following cases:

(a) p — 5.25, q — 7.50; (b) p = - l|,g = 3j; (c) p = - 2.1, g = - 3.5.

7. If + <7 = 7.6 and q = — 4.2, find p.

8. If pq = — 13.5 and g = 7.5, find p.

9. Which axiom allows us to write (a) yx in the place of x + y;
(b) (x — 2)(x + 3) in the place of (x + 3)(* — 2)?

10. State in words: (a) p + q = <7 + P\ fo) p • q = q • p.

11. (a) Does p — q = q — p? (b) Does p ■+■ q = q-*- p?

12. (a) If p - q = 2.4, find q-p. (b) If p q = 1.2, find q + p.

13. State in your own words the meaning of the associative axioms.

14. Find 5 if 5 = (7.79 -f 4.82) + 5.18.

6 Chapter 1

15. Evaluate (9.54 + 7.67) + (— 7.67).

16. Evaluate 2.5(4.0 X 7.3).
17. Evaluate 15.8 T- (— 20.4) + 14.2.
18. Evaluate 8(12.50 X 13.75).
19. Evaluate (a) 3 • 4 + 5; (b) 3(4 -f 5); (c) 3(4 — 5).
20. What is the difference between 3(n + 2) and 3 n -f- 2?
21. Write an alternative form of n(p — q).
22. Write an alternative form of 5 p — 5 n.
23. Write an alternative form of n(p + q) + x(p + q).
24. Show that {p -\- q){n + x) = pn -\- px + qn -f qx, justifying each stage
of the transformation by an axiom.

Nature of Equality

Much of our work in algebra is connected with the idea that two numbers
are equal or that one is greater than the other. In the early chapters of this
book we shall be concerned mainly with the relation of equality.
The statement "a = b” means that a and b are labels for the same number.
One reason for using different labels is that at the start of a problem or a
proof it may not be known that the numbers represented by a and b are
the same.

The following properties of equality are evident from the meaning of the
statement "a = b.”

^ Properties of equality

1. a = o.

This is the reflexive property. It states that a number is equal to itself.

2. If o = b, then b = a.
This is the symmetric property. It states that the order of the two terms
in an equality relation may be changed.

3. If o = b and b= c, then a = c.

I his is the transitive property. It shows how a third equality may be

deduced from two given equalities.

It is important to have a clear understanding of the symmetric property

of equality. lailure to make full use of it is the cause of many difficulties,
tor example, the Distributive Axiom should be recognized in the form
ab + ac = a(b + c) as well as in the form a(b -f c) = ab + ac.
Rational Numbers 7

The axiom known as the principle of substitution, which is widely used in

mathematics, also involves the idea of equality. For our work in algebra
we express the principle in the following form:

^ If a = b, and if a is substituted for b in a true statement of equality or in¬

equality, then the resulting statement is also true.

Some Theorems

The statements in Theorems 1-4 are some of the widely used "laws” of
algebra. They are often taken as assumptions, but they can be deduced
from the axioms of the rational numbers, the properties of equality, and
the principle of substitution.

^ Theorem 1. If a = b, then a -f- c = b -f c.

-Proof [B]-
We have a -j- c = a -j- c by the reflexive property of equality.
Since a = b, we may substitute b for a on the right side of the equality.
Hence a + c = b + c.

Theorem 2. If a T c = b -j- c, then a = b.

-Proof [B]-
We have a + c = b + c. Given.
Hence, by Theorem 1,
[a + c] -j- (— c) — [& + c] + (— c).
Using the associative axiom for addition,

o + Vc + (“ c)] = ^ + Lc + (“ c)]-
But c T (— c) — 0, so cl T 0 = b T 0.
Hence a = b.

^ Theorem 3. If a = b, then ac = be.

Proof is similar to that of Theorem 1.

Theorem 4. If ac = be, and c ^ 0, then a = b.

Proof is similar to that of Theorem 2.

Theorems 1-4 are the basis for the procedures used in solving equations.

Theorems 5 and 6 are concerned with positive and negative numbers. In

these theorems we shall accept without proof the theorem
^ a *0 = 0.
8 Chapter 1

Theorem 5. a • (— b) = — (ab).

-Proof [B]-
We have b + (— b) = 0
a[b + (- b)] = 0 Using a ■ 0 = 0.
ab + a(— b) = 0 Using the distributive axiom.
But ab has the unique additive inverse —(ab).
Hence ab + (— (ab)) = 0
i.e., ab + a(— b) = ab + (— (ab))
Using Theorem 2, we deduce that
a(— b) = — (ab).

^ Theorem 6 . (— a)(— b) = ab.

-Proof [B]-

Since b +(—&) = 0
(— a)[b + (— 6)] = 0 Using a • 0 = 0.
(— a) • b + (— a)(— b) = 0 Using the distributive axiom.
But by Theorem 5,
(— a)b = — (ab),
and we have
— (ab) + (— a)(— b) = 0
or (— a)(— b) + (— (ab)) = 0.
But ab + (— (ab)) = 0,
so (— a)(— b) + (— (ab)) = ab + (— (ab))
Using Theorem 2, we deduce that
(— a)(— b) = ab.

^ Theorem 7. If a • b = 0, then at least one of a,b must be zero.

-Proof [B]-

(1) Since a • 0 = 0, and we are given that a • b = 0, we have a ■ b = a • 0.

Suppose a ^ 0; then, by Theorem 4, we may divide both sides by a,
getting b = 0.
Thus, if a is not zero, then b must be zero.
(2) Similarly, it can be shown that if b ^ 0, then a must be zero.

Hence if a • b — 0, then at least one of a, b must be zero.

Rational Numbers 9

Division by Zero
The fact that 0 • a = 0 for every value of a means that the number 0
does not have a reciprocal. In other words, there is no number a such that
0 • a = 1. It follows that the operation of division by 0 cannot be defined.
For if a -s- 0 is equal to some number b, the definition of division requires
that 0 • b = a. But 0 • b = 0 for every value of b, so if a ^ 0 we cannot have
0 • b = a. If a = 0, then every value of b is such that 0 ■ b = a. In neither
case can a unique value be given for a -s- 0, and the operation of division by
zero is therefore excluded from our procedures.
To convince yourself of the importance of this restriction, find the fallacy
in the following "proof” that 2=1.

It is given that a and b are equal numbers.

Multiply each of these numbers by a. a2 = ab
Subtract b2 from each side. a2 — b2 = ab — b2
Factor each side. (a + b)(a — b) = b(a — b)
Divide both sides by a — b. a-\-b — b
Replace a by the equal number b. 2 b= b
Divide both sides by b. 2=1

Exercises[A]
1. Evaluate 6.5(n — 3.5) when n = 3.5.

2. Find n if 8.4(« + 2.8) = 0.

3. = 0, what is the value of n?

4. If — = 0, show that n= 0.
P
k
5. If k is not zero, show that there is no value of n such that - = n.

6. Evaluate-when n = 2.5. What is the value of n for which the

n—2
given expression does not have a value?
-2

7. Evaluate---when n = — 0.45. What is the value of n for which

1.20 + n
the given expression does not have a value?

8. If n = 2 t + 1 and t = — f, find n.

9. H x=2 k and k = 3n, find x in terms of n.

10. lin = 2 t-3 and / = 2 k + 1, find n in terms of k.
10 Chapter 1

11. If a = 2 b, b = 2 c, c = 2 d, express a in terms of d.

12. Which of the following statements are true for rational numbers?
(a) If a = b, then a + n = b + n.
(b) If a = b, then an = bn.
(c) If a = b, and p — q, then a — p — b — q.
(d) If a + n = b + n, then a=b.
(e) If an = bn, then a = b.
(£) If a — p = b — q, then a = b and p = q.

State the axiom, theorem, or property of equality on which each of the

following "if-then” statements is based.
13. (a) If 10 = 3 x - 8, then 3 x - 8 = 10.
(b) If 3 x — 8 = 10, then 3 x = 18.
(c) If 3 x = 18, then x = 6.
14. (a) If 6 -f x = 2, then x + 6 = 2.
(b) If x + 6 = 2, then x = — 4.
15. (a) If — 2 x + 3 = — 7, then 2 x — 3 = 7.
(b) If 2 x — 3 = 7, then 2 as = 10.
(c) If 2 x = 10, then x = 5.
16. (a) If 3 x + 4 y = 2 and y = — 2, then 3 x + 4(— 2) = 2.
(b) If 3 x + 4(— 2) = 2, then 3 x - 8 = 2.

17. (a) If 4(* + 3) = 7> then 4(* + 3) = 21.

(b) If 4(* + 3) = 21, then 4 a: + 12 = 21.

(c) If 4 x + 12 = 21, then 4 x = 9.
(d) If 4 x = 9, then x = 2\.
18. (a) If -?r(3 x — 4) = 5, then § x — 2 = 5.
(b) If § x — 2 = 5, then 3 x — 4 = 10.
(c) If 3 x — 4 = 10, then 3 x = 14.
(d) If 3 x = 14, then x = 4§.

Exercises [B]
Use the axioms listed on page 4, the properties of equality, and the prin¬
ciple of substitution to prove the following statements.
1. If a = b, then an — bn.
2. If an = bn and 0, then a= b.

3. If a — b and p — q, then a + p = b -f- q.

4. For all a, b, c, a(b — c) = ab — ac.
Rational Numbers 11

Chapter Test
1. Evaluate each of the following expressions, using a property of the
rational numbers to make the procedure as simple as possible.
(a) 2.8 X 15.6 + 15.6 X (- 1.8) (b) (7.52 X 25) X 4
(c) (24 X 345) X A (d) -1# X 135 + f X 135
2. Classify each of the following statements as true or false.
(a) The set of natural numbers is closed under division.
(b) The set of integers is closed under subtraction.
(c) The set of negative integers is closed under multiplication.
(d) If n is an integer, then n is a rational number.
(e) If n is a rational number, then n is an integer.
(f) For all values of x, 5(4 + x) = 5 • 4 -f- x.
(g) For all values of x, 5 x + 4 x = 9 x.
(h) There is a value of x such that 3(x -f 2) = 3(x + 1).
(i) There is a value of x such that 5 x 4 x = x.
(j) For all values of x, 4 • (J • x) = (4 • J) • x.
(k) For all values of x, y, z, x(y + z) = xy + %z.
(l) For all values of x, y, z, x • (y • z) = (x • y) • (x • z).
(m) If x — 2 = a — 2, then x = a.
(n) If 2(x — a) = 0, then x = a.
(o) If x is a rational number, then — x is a negative number.
(p) For all values of x, x -f- (— x) — 0.
(q) It is impossible for two negative numbers to have their sum equal
to their product.
3. If r = 3 s — 1 and s = — f, find r.
4. If x = 3 m and m = 2 n + 5, find x in terms of n.
5. Quote the axiom or theorem on which each of the following frif-then"
statements is based.

(a) If = 10, then = 2.

(b) If ^ = 10, then 5(* — 3) = 20.

2
(c) If 5(x — 3) = 20, then x — 3 = 4.
(d) If 5(x — 3) = 20, then 5 x — 15 = 20.
(e) If 5x— 15 = 20, then 5 x = 35.
(£) If 5x= 35, then x = 7.
 Rotations of a Square

The axioms for addition (A1-A5) and the axioms for multiplication (M1-M5)
are strikingly similar. Their similarity suggests that a mathematical operation
such as addition or multiplication becomes widely useful only if it satisfies
certain fundamental requirements. It has, in fact, been found that statements
such as those numbered 1-5 apply to a great variety of operations. The com¬
mutative property given in A2 and M2 is not essential to the usefulness of an
operation. Subtraction and division are examples of numerical operations to
which the
o
commutative property does not apply.
The five requirements, if we include the commutative property, are:
1. the closure property,
2. the commutative property,
3. the associative property,
4. the existence of an identity element,
5. the existence of an inverse of each element.
We now consider a non-numerical system in which these requirements are met.
The system consists of four elements, each of which is a certain rotation of a
square, and an operation “followed by” which is
symbolized by *.
Consider a square in the position shown in
figure (1). Let the square be rotated in its own
plane around an axis through its center O. It is
clear that if the square be rotated through an angle
of 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°, • • •, the appearance of its
outline will not be changed, though the vertex
marked A will occupy different positions.
We use the following symbols:
Ri means a rotation clockwise of 90°;
R2 means a rotation clockwise of 180°;
R3 means a rotation clockwise of 270°;
/ means no rotation (which is equivalent to a rotation of 360°).
If the square is originally in the position shown in figure (1), the effect of
each individual rotation is shown in the following figures:
 If by R2 * R3 is meant the rotation which achieves the same result as R2
followed by R3, then we have:
* I
R1*R1=R2, R2*R2 = I, ^3 *^2 = ^1, etc.
Ri r2 Rs
The table at the right shows the result of taking any / I Ri r2 Rs
rotation in the left-hand column and following it by Ri r2 Rs I
a rotation from the top row. Verify the results and R2 Rs I Ri
use the table to check the following points. *3 Rs I Ri r2
1. Any succession of operations is equivalent to just one of the four rotations
Ri, R2, R3, I. Hence, the system is closed.
2. The system is commutative. For example, Rx *R2 = R2 *RV
3. The system is associative. For example,
R2*(R3*R2)=R2*Rl = R3
and (R2*R3) * R2 = R1*R2 = R3
4. The identity element is /. Its effect in any combination is like adding 0 or
multiplying by 1.
5. Given any rotation it is possible to follow it by a rotation so that the
square is then in its original position. Thus, corresponding to each element
of the set Ru R2, R3, / there is an inverse element. For example,
R1 *7?3 =/, and R3 is the inverse of Rx.
Which of the four elements are their own inverses?

13
 Equations and Inequalities

Variables

In working with sets of numbers we frequently need to refer to an element

of the set without specifying which element. In representing a two-digit
number, for instance, we may use the expression 10/+ u where t,u are
place-holders for digits. The set of replacements for / is {1, 2, • • *, 8, 9}
and for u is {0, 1, 2, • • •, 8, 9}. When / is replaced by 3 and u is replaced
by 8 the expression 10 / + u has the value 38.
When a letter is used to stand for any member of a set of numbers, the
letter is called a variable. The particular set of numbers may be called the
replacement set of the variable. If n is a variable with the integers as its
replacement set, then the expression 2 n + 1 represents an odd integer.
When n is replaced by 6 the value of the expression 2 «+ 1 is 13. A symbol
for just one specific number is called a constant. For example ir, 3, —2.8
are constants.

Equations

Any combination of constants and variables connected by the usual signs

of operation may be referred to as an algebraic expression. Examples of

algebraic expressions are 2, 3 x, xy — 2, (2 x — 5)2, --- •

An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal. In

general, an equation contains one or more variables and the statement of
equality may be true or false depending on the replacements used for the
variables. For example, the statement "3 £ + 4=1” is true when x is
replaced by — 1 and is false if x is replaced by any other value. On the other
hand, the statement "(x — 2)2 = x2 — 4 x + 4” is true when x is replaced
by any number.
We shall consider that the replacement set of any variable is the set of
rational numbers unless a more restricted set is indicated. If the replace¬
ment set of a variable contains values which make an equation a true state-
Equations and Inequalities 15

ment, these values are called roots or solutions of the equation. Such values
are said to satisfy the equation.
An equation is called an identity if it is satisfied by every member of the
replacement set. Thus 4(jc + 3) = 4 x + 12 is an identity. An equation that
is not satisfied by some members of the replacement set is called a conditional
equation. Examples of conditional equations are "7 x — 3 = 4# + 17” and
"3 £+2 y— 18.” The word "equation” is commonly used to indicate a
conditional equation.
To determine whether a given value of x is a solution of an equation, we
replace x throughout the equation by the given value and see if the resulting
statement is true.

Example 1. Show that — 2 is a root of x(x T 5) = 7 x + 8.

Solution: When x is replaced by — 2,

x(x + 5) has the value — 2(3) = — 6,
7 # + 8 has the value — 14 + 8 = — 6.
Hence — 2 is a root of the equation.

Example 2. Determine whether or not 1^ is a root of the equation

4(# — 2) — 3(2 x — 4) = 2.
Solution: When x is replaced by 1+ we have
4(s - 2) - 3(2 x - 4) = 4(— J) - 3(— 1)
= -2 + 3
= 1.
The given statement is not true when x is replaced by 1^; hence 1^ is not a root
of the equation.

Exercises tA]
1. Is "3 x — 4 = 5 x — 8” a true statement (a) if x = 2, (b) if x = 4?
2. Is "3(x — 4) = 5(# — 4)” a true statement (a) if # = 2, (b) if £ = 4?
3. Is "3(# + 2) = 3 x + 6” a true statement (a) if * = - 2, (b) if * = - 4?
Is there a value of x for which the statement is false?
4. Determine whether or not (a) — 7, (b) — 6, is a root of
2(x + 7)2 = 2 x + 14.

5. Is — 1^ a root of 4(x + 2) — 2(x + 1) = 3?

6. Is b a root of 2(x + 3 b) — 4(2 x — b) = 2(3 b — #)?
7. Show that 3000 is a root of 0.05 x + 0.04(5000 — x) = 230.
8. Show that — 1 is a root of 2 x3 + 3 x + 5 = 0.
16 Chapter 2

6 | 10
9. Is 3 a root of
4— 2 x 5 —x
x -f- 5 3x— 2 n
10. Show that 2§ is a root of
2 ~3~ 6 '

Solving Equations
The process of finding those replacements for a variable which satisfy a
given equation is called solving the equation. The steps used in the process are
familiar to you from your first course in algebra. The aim of each step is
to deduce a relationship of simpler form which is logically equivalent to the
original equation. Two forms of an equation are said to be equivalent if
they have the same set of solutions.
An equation in the variable x is said to be of the first degree if it is equiv¬
alent to an equation of the form ax= h, ay^ 0. For a reason which we shall
consider later, an equation of this type is also called linear. A first-degree
or linear equation in one variable has exactly one root.
There are two main ways of obtaining equivalent forms of a given equa¬
tion. Both are based on the axioms of our number system.

^ 1. Using the axioms.

In using an axiom we replace one symbol for a number by a different sym¬

bol for the same number. Thus, the distributive axiom, a(b + c) = ab + ac,
is frequently used for purposes such as the following:
(a) To express 3{x-\-2) in the form 3 x + 6.
(b) To express 2 x + 5 x in the form (2 + 5)x, or 7 x.

2. Using Theorems 1-4.

We restate these theorems and illustrate their use in equations.

Theorem 1. If a = b, then a + c = b + c.

Example : If 3 x — 2 = 6, then 3 x — 2 + 2 = 6 +2, or 3 * = 8.

Theorem 2. If a T c = b -f- c, then a = b.

Example: If 3 x + 2 = 6, we have 3 x 2 = i + 2; then 3 x = 4:.

Theorem 3. If o = b, then o • c = b • c.

Example: If \ x = 2, then 4(J x) = 4 • 2, or x = 8.

Theorem 4. If a • c = b • c, and 0, then a = b.

Example : If 5 x = 15, we have 5 • x = 5 • 3, then x = 3.

Equations and Inequalities 17

^ Summary. The following operations may be performed on an equation to

obtain an equivalent equation:

1. Any operation may be performed which does not change the value of
either side of the equation. (Parentheses may be removed, like terms
combined, a quantity substituted for its equal.) (Axioms)

2. The same number may be added to both sides of the equation. (Theorem 1)

3. The same number may be subtracted from both sides of the equation.
(Theorem 2)

4. Both sides may be multiplied by the same number, provided the number
is not zero. (Theorem 3)

5. Both sides may be divided by the same number, provided the number is
not zero. (Theorem 4)

Note how the operations listed 1-5 are used in the illustrative examples.

Example 1. Solve the equation: .03 x + .08(1000 — x) = 40.

Solution:
Multiply both sides of the equation by 100. 3 *+8(1000-*) = 4000
Use the distributive axiom. 3 * + 8000 - 8 * = 4000
Subtract 8000 from both sides. 3 x - 8 x = 4000 - 8000

Combine like terms. — 5 * = — 4000

Divide both sides by — 5. * = 800

Note. In multiplying a product form such as .08(1000— x) by 100, one factor only
must be multiplied by 100.

Example 2. Solve the equation: §(* + — i(2 * + J) — §.

Solution:
_ 2
Use the distributive axiom. x+i — ix — T2 3

Multiply both sides by 12. 8 .r + 4 — 6 x — 1 = 8

Combine like terms. 2*+3 = 8
Subtract 3 from both sides. 2 * =5
_ 5.
Divide both sides by 2. * — 2

Check: When * = f,
§(* + i)-i(2*+J)
— f (f + 4) “ i(5 + J)
= * (3) - im
= 2-1
_ 2
3
18 Chapter 2

Statement and Converse

When we say that 2 is a root of the equation 5(x— 1) -f 2 x = 9 we mean

that if the value of x is 2, then the value of 5 (x — 1) + 2 x is 9. (A)
In the process of solving the equation, the steps are as follows:
1. If 5(x — 1) -f 2 x = 9, then 5a: —54-2o: = 9.
2. If 5a: —5 + 2o: = 9, then 7 x =14.
3. If 7 a: =14, then a: = 2.
Thus, the process of solving the equation may be summed up in the state¬
ment that if the value of 5(x — 1) + 2 x is 9, then the value of x is 2. (B)
It is important to recognize that the statements labeled (A) and (B) in
the preceding paragraphs do not say the same thing. Because the "if” and
"then” clauses have been interchanged, each statement is called the con¬
verse of the other. Examples can readily be given in which a statement is
true and its converse is false. Thus, the statement "If the only value of a
is — 2, then the only value of a2 is 4” is true. Its converse is "If the only
value of a2 is 4, then the only value of a is — 2.” The converse statement is
false, for if a2 = 4, the value of a may be 2.
We must, therefore, be on guard against accepting a statement as true
merely because its converse is true. Logically, we have not shown that the
statement "If x — 2, then 5(x — 1) + 2 x = 9” is true until we have done
the "check” by substitution. Thus, the steps of the solution lead us to
those members of the replacement set which may be roots, and the check
provides the logical justification for concluding that they are roots.
If steps 1, 2, 3 in the process of solving the equation are examined, it
will be seen that each "if-then” statement has a true converse. In this
case, the steps are reversible and we could argue:

1. If x=2, then 7 a: =14.

2. If 7 a: =14, then 5a: —5-f2a: = 9.
3. If 5 x — 5 + 2 x = 9, then 5(a: — 1) + 2 x = 9.

Thus, 2 can be logically accepted as a root of the equation without actually

performing the check. In such cases, the check serves to verify the correct¬
ness of the working.

Exercises [A 1]
1. lor what values of x do the following pairs of expressions have equal
values?
(a) 3 a:+7 and x +15 (c) 3(2 a: —4) and 2(3 a: —8)
(b) 3(2 x — 4) and 2(2o: — 6) (d) 3(2 x — 4) and 2(3 a: —6)
Equations and Inequalities 19

2. Complete each of the following statements without determining the

particular value of x involved.

(a) If, for a certain value of x, 2{x-\- 1.2) = 5.6,

then, for the same value of x, x + 1.2 = ?
(b) If, for a certain value of x, 03 x — .15 = 2,
then, for the same value of x, 3x- 15 = ?
(c) If, for a certain value of x, ^ x + \ x = 2,
then, for the same value of x, 4£+ 3 £= ?

(d) If, for a certain value of x, .2 x — 1.7 = 0,

then, for the same value of x, 2x- 17 = ?

Solve and check the following equations.

3. x — 5 = 5# + 13 11. .05 *+.03(30 -*) = 1
4. 5 — 7x = 8 — 5#
12. .6 a: — 3 = .25 z + .3 »
5.4y-10 = -(y+15)
6. .2 y — 3 = .6 y + 8 13. .25 *+.65(120 — *) = 56

7. 5(z- l) = 30 + 2) x+ 2 3c — 3
14. =x—2
8. 5(y — 2) — 3(y + 1) = 0 3 2

9. J(3 x — 4) — \(x — 3) = 1
15. 3(6- x)- J(4 + 3z) = 2
in 3y+2 y+ 1 _
= 0
3 4 16. J(2 ^ - i) - i(3 x + i) = i

17. §(5 - x) - *(7 x- 5) + i(* + 6) = 7

1S-1 - s(* -1) -1(!+f.

Exercises [A 21

Complete each of the following statements without determining the

particular value of y involved.

(a) If, for a certain value of y, 3(y + 2.3) = 9.6,

then, for the same value of y, y + 2.3 = ?

(b) If, for a certain value of y, .05 y — .35 = 3,

then, for the same value of y, 5 y — 35 = ?

(c) If, for a certain value of y, iy -15>

then, for the same value of y, 3 y— 2 y= ?

(d) If, for a certain value of y, .5 y — 2.6 = 0,

then, for the same value of y, 5 y - 26 = ?
20 Chapter 2

2. For what values of x do the following pairs of expressions have equal

values?

(a) 4 x + 5 and 2 x + 17 (c) 2(3 x - 9) and 3(2 x - 6)

(b) 2(3 x — 9) and 3(a; — 6) (d) 2(3 x — 9) and 3(2 x — 8)

Solve and check the following equations:

3. x — 4 = 4 £+ 10 2 x -f- 3_x -f~ 2_
2 3
4. 7 — 4f = 8 — 7<
11. .06 y + .04(22 — y) = 1
5. 2 y — 4 = — (y + 10)
6. .3 a; — 5 = .5 x — 8 12. .7 »+ 1.1 = .5 » + .5
13. .15 x + .75(160 — x) = 93
7. 2(m — 3) = 5(»+ 1)
8. 7(y 4- 1) — 4(y — 2) = 0 14. §(y + 4) - 4(3 y - 4) = 4
9. J(2 y — 5) — 4(;y — 2) = 1 15. § (x - 4) + 4 * = i(2 x - |)
16. 4(8 x + 1) - 4(4 - 3 x) + 4(5 x - 2) = - 12

Inequalities

If two numbers are not equal, then one of the numbers is greater than the
other. We say that the number a is greater than the number b if and only
if the number a — bis positive. Thus, 3 is greater than 1 because 3 — 1 = 2,
and — 1 is greater than — 3 because (— 1) — (—3) = — 1 + 3 = 2.
The number line gives us a pictorial representation of the relative sizes
of numbers. When two unequal numbers are marked on the line, the greater

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1-\ i-1-1-1-■■ I-1—H-1-

of the two numbers is to the right of the smaller. Note, for example, that
— 1 is to the right of — 3 on the line.
The symbols > (read "is greater than") and < (read "is less than") are
used to indicate the order of size of two numbers. Thus, "—1 is greater
than — 3" is written "— 1 > — 3," and "— 4 is less than 0" is written
"— 4 < 0." It is clear that if a > b, then b < a.
A sentence of the form x > y or x < y is called an inequality. For example,
"x is a positive integer and x < 4" is an inequality, and it has the set of
solutions {1,2,3}. In many cases the set of solutions of an inequality
contains an unlimited number of members. Thus, the inequality 2 x + 5 < 13
is satisfied by any number less than 4. The set of solutions is indicated by
x < 4.
Equations and Inequalities 21

The sentence "x= 2” is read "x is greater than or equal to 2.” It means
that x may be replaced by 2 or by any number greater than 2. The sentence

-3-2-1012345
—H-1-1-1-1-♦--1-1-1—
Jt^2

1 < x < 2” is read 1 is less than x, and x is less than 2.” It means
that x may be replaced by any number between — 1 and 2, the numbers
— 1 and 2 themselves being excluded.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
_l-1 0 —h— —<D - i-1-1—
— 1<*<2

Solving Inequalities

The process of finding the set of solutions of an inequality is called solving

the inequality. The operations used in solving inequalities are of the same
nature as those used in solving equations. These operations are based on
the general statements listed below as axioms.

Axiom 1. If a > b, then a -f- n > b + n for all values of n.

Illustration: Take a = 10, b = 6, n = — 12.

We have 10 > 6,

and if we add — 12 to each side we may deduce

10 — 12 > 6 — 12;
that is, — 2 > — 6.

This axiom states that if the same number is added to (or subtracted
from) each side of an inequality, the resulting numbers are unequal in the
same sense (or order) as the original ones.

^ Axiom 2(a). If a > b, then an > bn if n > 0.

Illustration : Take a = 10, b = 6, n = 3.

We have 10 > 6,

and if we multiply both sides by 3 we may deduce

3 • 10 > 3 • 6;
that is, 30 > 18.
This axiom states that if each side of an inequality is multiplied (or
divided) by the same positive number, the resulting numbers are unequal
in the same sense as the original ones.
22 Chapter 2

^ Axiom 2(b). If a > b, then an < bn if n < 0.

Illustration : Take a = 10, b = 6, n = —

We have 10 > 6,
and if we multiply both sides by — we have

10(— i) < 6(— i);

that is, — 5 < — 3.
This axiom states that if each side of an inequality is multiplied (or
divided) by the same negative number, the resulting numbers are unequal
in the opposite sense to the original ones.
Care must be taken to change the sense of an inequality when the two
sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number.

Example 1. What may be deduced about the value of x if 2 x — 3 > 27?

Solution: We are given 2 x — 3 > 27.
Add 3 to each side: 2 x > 30 by axiom 1.
Divide both sides by 2: x > 15 by axiom 2(a).
That is, if 2 x — 3 > 27, then x > 15.

Example 2. Obtain the set of solutions of the inequality 4 — 2 x > 0.

Solution: We are given 4— 2x > 0.
Subtract 4 from each side: —2x > — 4 by axiom 1.
Divide both sides by — 2: x < 2 by axiom 2(b).
Hence the set of solutions is given by x < 2, which means that any number less
than 2 is a solution of the inequality.

Exercises [A]
1. Write each of the following sentences, using an inequality symbol:
(a) 2 £ is greater than 12. (d) x is a positive number.
(b) x + 4 is less than or equal to 2. (e) x is a negative number.
(c) x 5 is less than 3 x + 7. (f) x is not a positive number.
2. Use the number line to illustrate the set of numbers represented by
each of the following:
(a) x < 2 (b) x ^ 0 (c) — 2 = x = 2 (d) 0 ^ x ^ — 4
3. Write the inequality obtained by dividing each side of each of the
following inequalities by 2:
(a) 10 >6 (b) — 4 < 2 (c)2*==10 (d)2z<-17.
4. Write the inequality obtained by dividing each side of each of the
following inequalities by — 2:
(a) 10 > 6 (b) - 4 < 2 (c) - 2 z §= 10 (d) - 2x< - 17.
Equations and Inequalities 23

5. Complete each of the following "if-then” statements:

(a) If 2 x > 6, then # (d) If # — 3^ — 5, then x
(b) If \x < 5, then x (e) If x+ 2 ^ 0, then x
(c) If - 3 * < 9, then x (f) If — J#> 1, then *
6. The transitive property of the relation "is greater than” is expressed
by the sentence "If a > b and b> c, then a > c.” Illustrate this prop¬
erty by marking a, b, c on the number line so that a > b and b > c.
Obtain the set of solutions of each of the following inequalities:
7.2# — 5 > 17 9. 1 — 2 x> 5 11.# — 3>4# — 17
8. 3 # -j- 7 < 15 10. 20 < 5 # + 2 12. # < 5(# — 2)

Absolute Values

Every positive number is greater than zero and every negative number is
less than zero. In most cases it is important to distinguish between positive
and negative numbers. Occasionally, however, we are concerned only with
the amount by which a number differs from zero and not with the sign of
the difference.
Each of the numbers + 2 and — 2 may then be regarded as differing from
0 by 2. The number 2 is called the absolute value of both + 2 and — 2. The
absolute value of a number # is written | # |. If | # | = 3, the values of #
are + 3, — 3. The symbol | # | is defined as follows:
^ | x | = x if x = 0, | x | = — xifx<0.

The complete set of solutions of a sentence such as | # — 4 | > 2 is ob¬

tained by combining the set of solutions of # — 4 > 2, when # = 4, with the
set of solutions of — (# — 4) > 2 (or # —4 < — 2), when # < 4. The
technical name for this combination is the union of the two sets.

Example 1. Write the set of solutions of | # + 1 | = 8.

Solution: If | # T 1 | = 8, possible values of # -f- 1 are T 8, — 8.
If # + 1 = + 8 If # T 1 = — 8
then #=+ 7 then #=—9
.*. the set of solutions is {7, — 9}.
Example 2. Write the set of solutions of | # — 2 | < 4.
Solution: The condition | # — 2 | <4 requires # to be a number which differs
from 2 by less than 4. It follows that # must be between 2 and 6.
A more formal procedure can be used to obtain the solutions.
When # — 2 ^ 0, we have When x — 2 < 0, we have
# = 2, and #—2 <4 x < 2, and #— 2> — 4
x <6 x >—2
The complete set of solutions is given by — 2 < # < 6.
24 Chapter 2

Exercises [A]
1. What other number has the same absolute value as
(a)-7; (b) + 4; (c) - 1|; (d) k?
2. Is there a value of x such that | x \ = — 2?
3. State a value of x for which (a) | x | = x; (b) | x | = — x.
4. Does multiplying a positive number by — 1 change
(a) the number; (b) the absolute value of the number?
5. If a number is doubled, is its absolute value doubled?
6. If a number is increased by 4, is its absolute value increased by 4?
7. State a negative value of x for which (a) | x | = 5; (b) | x | < 5.
8. Is there a value of x such that [ x | + 3 = 0?

Write the set of solutions in each of the following:

9. (a) \ x | = 2 (b) | x | > 2
10. (a) \ x + 1 | = 5 (b) | x 1 | < 5
11. (a) 2 x = 6 (b) | 2 x | < 6
12. (a) | x — 1 | = 5 (b) | x — 1 | > 1
13. (a) | 2 x — 1 | = 7 (b) | 2 x — 1 | < 7
14. (a) 3 x+ 2 | = 1 (b) | 3 x + 2 | > 1

Solve the following equations:

1. 2 x — 7 = 5# +11 6. .06 x+.045 (5000-x) = 270
2. 50 - 2)-20 +4) =0 7. § (3 x — 1) — f (x + 6) = 2 J
3. 5 — 5(2 7) = 15
8. J(3 x + 3) ~ 3(2 x + 3) = 2
3 x 5 —3x
4. — = 1
5 10 9. | x + 2 | = 7

5. 3(3 x — 1) + + 3) = £ 10. | 3. * - 5 I = 4
11. If x = — 3, evaluate 5(x + 2) — 2{x — 1).
12. If x = §, evaluate J(3 x — 4) — -J(2 x — 3).
13. If x = — 3, evaluate 3(3 — 4 x) -f J(1 + 3 x).

Solve the following inequalities:

14. 3*> 10 + * 16. 2(1 - 2 x) < 8
15. 4(x — 1) < — 6 17. | £+ 2 | < 5
Sidelight
Designating a Set

In mathematics, as in everyday usage, the word “set” indicates a collection

or class of objects having some common characteristic. The objects which
form a particular set are called its members or elements. A set is defined when
it is possible to decide whether or not any given object is a member of the set.
Thus, the numbers characterized by the phrase “positive, even integers” form a
set. The numbers 2, 10, 56 are members of the set, and the numbers 5, — 2, 3^ are
not members.
The number of elements in a given set is the number of distinct objects which
form the set. No object is counted more than once, and the order of the elements
is of no importance. The set of letters used in forming the word “radar,” for
example, has just three elements r, a, d. The vertices of a particular square form
a set of points consisting of four elements. The sets with which we deal in
algebra often have an unlimited number of elements.
A set is generally named and referred to by a capital letter, while a small letter
is used to indicate an element when the element itself is not specified. The
membership of a set may be designated in one of two ways.

1. The members of the set may be listed and enclosed in braces, as we have
already done in the preceding pages.

Example 1. Let D be the set of odd digits, then D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

The braces {• • •} are symbols for “the set whose members are . • •,”
and {x, y, z} is read “the set whose members are x, y, z.” It is clear that
a set can conveniently be specified by listing its members only when the
number of members is small.

2. A defining property may be written which enables us to decide which

objects belong to the set. The defining property is enclosed in braces.

Example 2. Let R be the set of integers which are solutions of the in¬
equality jc2s9. Then
R = {x, such that x is an integer and x2 ^ 9}
A vertical bar | is used as an abbreviation for “such that,”
and we write
R = {x | x is an integer and x2 ^ 9}.

In reading this, we say “7? is the set of all elements x such

that x is an integer and x2 ^ 9.”
Is —3 a member of the set? Is 2 a member of the set?
25
 When a set is designated by a defining property, it may happen that the
set has no members. If, for example, A = {x \ x2 = 2}, and if it is understood
that x is a rational number, then A has no members. A set that has no members
is called an empty or null set, and the Greek letter </> (read “fee”) is used as a
symbol for it.
If jc is an object and A is a set, then we write x C ^ as an abbreviation for
“jc is a member of A.” To indicate that jc is not a member of A we write jc g A.
Thus, in Example 2 above we might write —3 and 2

EXERCISES

1. If S is the set of all integers that are squares of integers and less than 45,
designate S by listing its members.
2. If A = (jc | x is an integer and | x | < 5), designate A by listing its members.
3. Designate the set (—2, 2} by a defining property in the form {jc | • • •}.
4. It is required to trace the given figure completely without lifting pencil
from paper or retracing any line segment. B
(a) Designate the set of possible start¬
ing points.
(b) Designate the set of possible start¬
ing points if it is also required that
the tracing be completed at the
starting point.
5. If A is the set in exercise 2, list the elements of each of the following sets:

(a) {x C A | x > 0} (b) {x C 4 3 x |=6} (c) {x C A | 3 x = 5}

.
6 Designate the set of possible remainders when a positive integer is divided
by 7.
7. Use the defining property notation to write the set of positive integers less
than 100.
8. If R = (x | 3(4 x +2) — 2(x -)- 3) =10 x}, give a verbal description of R.

26
 Systems of Linear Equations
Word Problems

Equations in Two Variables

The equation y —2x — 3 is a first-degree or linear equation in the variables

x and y. It expresses a relationship between two sets of numbers, members
of one set being represented by x and members of the other being represented
by y. A solution of the equation is a pair of values of x and y which make
the sentence "y = 2 x — 3” a true statement. One solution is x = 2, y = 1.
If the replacement sets for x and y are the rational numbers, then we may
assign any value to x and find a correspond¬
ing value of y by substitution in the equation
y = 2 x — 3. The pair of numbers obtained
in this way is a solution of the equation, and
it is clear that the equation has an unlimited
number of solutions. Some of these solu¬
tions are shown in the graph on the right.
The graphical aspects of such relationships
will be examined in later chapters. For the
present, we shall use the graph merely as an
illustration.
The conditions of a problem may in some cases be represented by two
equations in two variables. A solution of the problem is a pair of numbers
which satisfies both equations. If the equations are of the first degree, each
equation has an unlimited number of solutions, but the pair of equations
usually has just one common solution. In such a situation the equations are
referred to as a system, and the process of finding the common solution is
called "solving the system of equations."
27
 Chapter 3
28

It is possible for the equations of a system to be inconsistent, or contra¬

dictory, in which case they do not have a common solution. On the other
hand, the two equations may be dependent, or equivalent, so that any solu¬
tion of one is also a solution of the other. In this chapter we are mainly
concerned with systems of first-degree equations which are consistent and
independent. Methods of solving such systems are reviewed in the following
sections.

Method of Substitution

Example. Solve the system of equations

a)
(2)
Solution: We assume that there is a pair of values of x and y which make both
(1) and (2) true statements. With this understanding, we may replace y in (2) by
3 x — 4. We then have
8 x + 2(3 x — 4) + 1 = 0
14* = 7

Equation (1) gives

We have now shown that if (1) and (2) are true statements, then * = £,
y = — 2\. The converse is readily verified by substitution, and we illustrate in
equation (2):

When x = \ and y = — 2\, 8 x+ 2 y+ 1 0

— 8(J) + 2(— 2J) + 1
=4-5+1
= 0
The solution of the system of equations is x = y — — 2+ and to emphasize
the fact that the solution consists of a pair of numbers we shall write it in the form
(*, y) = (+ — 2%). The solution may be written simply as (+ — 2%), the first
number in the parenthesis being the value of x and the second being the value
of y. The solution is then referred to as an ordered pair of numbers.

Method of Addition or Subtraction

Example 1. Solve the system of equations a)

(2)
Solution: Equations equivalent to (1) and (2), and each with the same coeffi¬
cient of y, are formed. This is done by multiplying both sides of (1) by 3 and both
sides of (2) by 2. We then have:
15 x + 6 y = 39
8 x + 6 y = 18
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 29

For all values of x and y which sat¬

isfy the two equations, the difference
of the left-hand sides of the equations
must equal the difference of the
right-hand sides. Thus the terms
containing y may be eliminated by
subtraction, as follows:

15x + 6y = 39
8 x -f- 6 y = 18
lx =21
x= 3

Substituting this value of x in equa¬

tion (1), we have the corresponding
value of y given by
Graphical Illustration of Solution of
15 + 2y= 13 |5x + 2t/=13
2y=— 2 l4x + 3 y = 9

y=— 1
The fact that (x, y) = (3, — 1) satisfies the given equations can be verified
mentally.

Checking the Solution. The procedures used in solving a system of two

linear equations in x and y produce pairs of equivalent equations. When
correctly obtained, the resulting values for (x, y) necessarily satisfy the
original equations.
Checking the solution, by substituting in the given equations, is not a
requirement of the method of solving. It is a verification that no error has
been made.
3 2
-+-= 5 (1)
x y
Example 2. Solve the equations: 3
4
-= 18 (2)
x y
Solution: These equations may be written

s©+2© - 5
*0 -- 18
They are not linear equations in x and y, but they may be treated as linear equa¬

tions if we consider — and — as our variables until the elimination of one or the
x y
other has been accomplished. {Coni, on p. 30)
30 Chapter 3

Multiply both sides of equation (1) by 3. - + - = 15

x y
6
Multiply both sides of equation (2) by 2. --- = 36

17
Add, to eliminate y. = 51
a;

Multiply both sides by x. 17 = 51 ^

x= 5
3 2
Substitute J for a: in equation (1). 1i + 7y = 5
9+ =5
y
Multiply both sides by y. 9y+2 = 5 y
4y
y 2
The solution of the pair of equations, is (*, y) = (J, — i).
Check: When x = g- and y = —
4_ 3 3 2
18 -+-
x y x y
4 3
i i _ i
i (-*) 3 2
12 + 6 9-4
18 18 5

Equations Requiring Simplification

When the original equations are of more complicated structure, they must
be expressed in their simplest equivalent forms before the elimination process
is considered.
x — 1 _ 2(y — 2) 1
4 ” 3 6
a)
Example. Solve the equations:
2 x+y_ 1
(2)
x—2y 3
Solution:

First simplify equation (1).

s-l 2(y — 2) 1
4 3 “6
Multiply both sides by 12.
3(x — 1) — 8(y — 2) = 2
3 a: — 3 — 8y+16=2
3 a: — 8 y = — 11 (3)
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 31

Simplify equation (2). —■ 7=-

’ x—2y 3
Multiply both sides by 3 (x — 2 y).
3(2 x + y) = x — 2 y
6 a; -J- 3 y = x — 2y
5 x -f- 5 y = 0
x+ y=0 (4)
Equations (3) and (4), which are equivalent forms of equations (1) and (2), may
now be solved by either of the standard methods.

Exercises [A_1]
Solve the following systems of equations:
x+4y= 1 5 x+4y= 3
1. 5. 9.
.1 £ -f- 3 y = 2.6
x+ 7y=4 2 s -f 3 y = 4 £ — 1.6 y = 10.2

y=4x— 7 x + y = 14 3£ — 2 y -(- 4 == 0
2. 6. x _
16 x — 5 y = 25 3 10.
y 4 £+y
5 £ -f 3 y = 6
3. £*—4y=2 y = 3 -f- .8 £
7 x — y — 11 7. 11.
i * + \ y = Jjf 4 y — 2.2 £ = 2
5 £— 3 y= 7 .5 x — y = 1.7
4. 8.
15 x — 9 y = 3 .3 £ -f .4 y = 1.3

-+i=5 -=.35 i(£ — 2) - Ky 4- 3) = - 2

M t £ 16. 5(y 4~ 1) _ 2
12. 14. 3(£-2)
A
1- 1=1 = .25
£ 4-10
10 , . 9
-+- = 9
£ y
-(- 3 y = 2
£
4
3 £
+ 1 = 1
13. 2 y
15. 17.
12_2 8 0 y = 6
A
J_ _3_
-2 =4
# y £ 3 £ 4y

18. How many pairs of values of x and y satisfy the equation x 4- y = 8,

(a) If there is no restriction on the values of the variables?
(b) If both £ and y must be positive, odd integers?
(c) If the values of x and y must be equal?
19. If y = 7 u 4- 2, and u = 4 — 3 x, eliminate u by substitution and ex¬
press y in terms of x. Find the value of y for which x = 2.
20. In the equation f £ 4- i(y 4- 8) = 4, find the value of y if (a) the
value of £ is — f, (b) the values of x and y are in the ratio 2:1.
21. If the equation 3 x 4- ky = 2 is satisfied by the pair of values x = 2,
y = — 1, find the value of k.
32 Chapter 3

Exercises [A 2]
Solve the following systems of equations:
3x—y=5 (3 x + 4 y = 1 .5 x-\- 1.2 y = 1.4
1. 5. 8.
5x—y=7 5 #+ 3 y= 9 .6 x — 7.0 y = 5.9
.5 x + .2 y = 1.65
\y = 11 — 3 x 9.
2. £—y= 1
.7 x — .3 y = 2.6
15 x — 3 y = 2
6. 2 = 1
2x — 3y — 3 = 0
:3 x + 5 y = 7 x 2
3. 10. x + y _ 1
£ — 3y = 0
x—y 2
2 x+y=4 7. f¥
3 +9
£= 6
x = 2 — .25 y
4. 11.
14# + 2 y = 6 i*+\y=5 9 x + 1.25 y = 15

-+ y= ? - = .45 iO + 1) - i(3 y- 1) = 1
X
12. 14. 16. 3(2 x- 1) 2(y — 3)
2 h 2
i=i = .30
=

t x 50
3
+ - = 8 - +3y= 5 - — =2
a: y x 2 a: 3y
13. 15. 17.
3 5
-—- = 5
x y
-+2y=3
X 4x
+6y = — 2

18. How many pairs of values of x and y satisfy the equation x + y = 10,
(a) If there is no restriction on the values of the variables?
(b) If both x and y must be even integers, greater than zero?
(c) If the value of x must be 25% of the value of y?
19. If x = 4 t + 3, and t = 3 — 2 u, eliminate t by substitution and express
x in terms of u. Find the value of u for which x = 0.
20. In the equation J(x — 2) + i y = i, find the value of x if (a) the
value of y is — §, (b) the values of x and y are equal.
21. If the equation 4 x — 3 y = c is satisfied by the pair of values x =
y = — 1, find the value of c.
22. Show that the equations 5x — y = 21, x + 3 y = 1, 13x+7y = 45
have a common solution.

Exercises tB]
1. Show that the equation \ x + J(y — 3) = ^ x -f -|(y — 2) is equivalent
to the equation x = y.
2. State the number of solutions that may be found for each of the fol¬
lowing pairs of equations:
(a) 2 x + 5 y = 8 (b) 2 x -f 5 y = 8 (c) 2 x + 5 y = 8
4x+10y=12 4x+10y=16 2x-y= 2
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 33

3. In general, how many solutions may be found to a problem in two

variables,
(a) If only one equation in the two variables is to be satisfied?
(b) If two independent equations in the variables are to be satisfied?
(c) If three independent equations in the variables are to be satisfied?

4. If 7 x + 3 y = 18, find the smallest integral value of y for which the

corresponding value of x is less than 1.

7 4
5. Solve for x and y: x-\-y= 28, ---
x+y x—y
6. Show that no pair of values of x and y satisfies the three equations

3 x — 2 y = 8, 5 x — 4 y = — 3, - = 7*
y y 4

7. Find the value that a must have if the three equations 3 x — 2 y = 8,

2 x-\- 3 y= 1, ax-\- S y = — 1 are to have a common solution.

8. Solve for x and y: x — i y = 3 y — % x = 8%.

9. State the number of solutions that may be found for each of the
following pairs of equations:
(a) 4 x — 3 y = 6 (b) 4x — 3 y = 6 (c) 4 x — 3 y = 6
8x—6y=9 2x—§y=3 x + 3y = 4
10. How many pairs of numbers may be found to satisfy the following
conditions?
(a) The sum of the two numbers is 25.
(b) The sum of the two numbers is 25, and the difference of the
numbers is 12.
(c) The sum of the two numbers is 25, their difference is 12, and the
numbers are equal.
11. If 3 x+2y=7, find the smallest integral value of x for which the
corresponding value of y is negative.

t — u= 5
12. Solve for t and u: - 4 10
u 4~ t u—t
13. Show that no values of x and y satisfy the three equations x - y = 1,
2 x — 3 y — 2, y — \x.
14. Find the value that b must have if the three equations 2 x - y = 5,
4 x + 3 y = — 5, 3 x + by = 9 are to have a common solution.

15. Solve for x and y:

\x — ly — $ = ix — y = 9.
z

Two planes which are not parallel have a line in

common, and three planes usually have just one point
in common.
The point P in the above drawing is common to the
three planes ABC, EFGH, AOD. The equations of the
three planes would all be satisfied by the coordinates
of P, and these coordinates, therefore, give the solu¬
tion of the system of three equations.
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 35

Equations in Three Variables

If three linear equations in three variables are independent and consistent,

they are satisfied by just one set of values of the three variables. The pro¬
cedure for finding the common solution of the three equations is an extension
of the method used for solving a pair of equations in two variables. The
procedure is illustrated in the following Example.

Example. Solve the system of equations: 4:r + 5y + / = 0 (1)

8 x — y + / = 24 (2)
3:r+2y+2/ = 1 (3)

Solution: Eliminate t from equations (1) and (2) by subtraction.

Equation (2) 8 x — y + t = 24
Equation (1) 4 £ -f- 5 y + / = 0
Subtract. 4x— 6y =24
2 x — 3 y = 12

Equation (4) contains the variables x and y. It is necessary to form a second

equation in x and y in order to complete the solution. We therefore proceed to
eliminate t from equations (1) and (3).
Multiply equation (1) by 2. 8 x + 10 y + 2 t = 0
Equation (3) 3 a; + 2 y + 2 / = 1
Subtract. 5 a: + 8 y =—1 (5)
Equations (4) and (5) are now solved for the required values of x and y.
Multiply equation (4) by 5. 10 x — 15 y = 60
Multiply equation (5) by 2. 10 x + 16 y = — 2
Subtract. — 31 y = 62
y— 2
Substitute — 2 for y in equation (4). This gives
x— 3.
Substitute 3 for x and — 2 for y in equation (1), giving
12- 10 + /= 0
/ = — 2.
The solution of the system of equations is x = 3, y = — 2, / = — 2.
That is, (xy y, t) = (3, — 2,-2).

Exercises [A 1]
Solve and check the following systems of equations:
1. 3x — y + 2 z = 4 2.4/ 2u-\-3v— 2
2#+3y — z = 14 5/ — 6u + 2v = — 1
7# — 4y + 3z = — 4 3/ + 4w-5^=7
36 Chapter 3

3. x + y = 1 5. r = 3(s — t)
y+ z= 2 t = 4(5 — r)
z-\- x= 5 r+ /= 2 s— 5

4. #-F2y-b3z = 1 1
6. - + - + - = 4; -+- = 2; - 3
4&—4y=3 # y x y y z
4 3/ + 6 z = 1

Exercises [A 2]

Solve and check the following systems of equations.

x— 2 y+3 z= 2 4. £+2y + 2z=l

2 x—3y z= 1 3y+4z= 1
3x—y+2 z= 9 4: x — y = 3

2. 3 r — 2 s -\-1 = 1 5. s = 2(t — u)
2 r s— 3 t— 1 t — S(s — u)
r+2s+2t = 4: s t ~ 3 it — 1

3. x + y = 3
1; -+-=l
y + z = 12 x y
z+x= 7

Exercises lB

1. Show that the following system of equations does not have a unique
solution:
2 x+y= 8
x = 3y— 3
3x+z=2y+5
2. Find the values of a, b, c which satisfy the following equations:

a d- 6 3 6 + 4 c 6 c -f* a cl — b + 10
“d-= 12 13 7
3. Show that the following system of equations does not have a unique
solution:
y+2z=6
y+z=4—x
y + 3 z = 8-f#
4. Find the values of a, 6, c which satisfy the following equations:
b -\- c 2 a -\~ b 3c—r b 2 cl b c
3 4 5 6
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 37

Word Problems

The main value of word problems in elementary algebra is that they pro¬
vide practice in analyzing the relationships between quantities by means of
properly selected variables. It is characteristic of an algebraic problem
that it is not possible to obtain the required result directly by operations
on given numbers. At some stage in the problem the analysis of the situation
requires operations to be indicated on unspecified quantities. Letters are
used as variables to represent as many of the unspecified quantities as
may be necessary. Other required quantities are then represented as ex¬
pressions in terms of the selected variables, and these expressions are used
to form equations representing the conditions of the problem.
Consider the examples which are set up side by side below. The material
is practically the same in each, but the one on the left has all the needed
quantities specified while the other requires the use of a variable and an
equation for its solution.

1. A boy on a 6-hour trip walks for 2. A boy on a 6-hour trip walks for a
2 hours at 3 m.p.h. and cycles for certain time at 3 m.p.h. and
the remaining time at an average cycles for the remaining time at
speed of 10 m.p.h. How far does an average speed of 10 m.p.h. If
he travel? he covers 46 miles, how many
hours does he walk?

In example 1, the time and the rate of walking are specified and we at
once deduce from the formula d = rt that the boy walks 6 miles. Since
the trip takes 6 hours, and since 2 hours are used in walking, the boy has
4 hours on his bicycle, at 10 m.p.h., and so rides a distance of 40 miles. The
total distance traveled is therefore 46 miles. At every stage of the develop¬
ment there are specific numbers to work with.
In example 2, the fact that we do not know the number of hours for which
the boy walked prevents such a direct approach. We represent the number
of hours of walking time by x, a variable; we use x in precisely the same man¬
ner and for the same purposes that we used the given value 2 in example 1.
We deduce, as in example 1, that in x hours at 3 m.p.h. the distance
traveled is 3 a; miles. We deduce that if x hours out of 6 hours are used in
walking, then the remaining (6 — x) hours are used in riding at 10 m.p.h.
Thus the distance traveled by bicycle is 10(6 — x) miles, and so the total
distance traveled on the trip is represented by 3 x + 10(6 — x) miles. The
replacement set for x is restricted to values between 0 and 6 by the physical
conditions of the problem. The particular value of x for which the distance
traveled is 46 miles is found by solving the equation 3 x -j- 10(6 — x) = 46.
38 Chapter 3

Using Two Variables

Consider now the analysis of problem 2 above when two variables are used.

Example 2, page 37.

Analysis:
Let x represent the number of hours spent walking at 3 m.p.h.,
y represent the number of hours spent riding at 10 m.p.h.
Then the total number of hours spent walking and riding is x + y.
The number of miles walked in x hours at 3 m.p.h. is 3 x.
The number of miles cycled in y hours at 10 m.p.h. is 10 y.
Then the total number of miles traveled is 3 x + 10 y.

The conditions of the problem require that the following equations be satisfied
by positive values of x and y.
x-\- y= 6
3 x T 10 y = 46
This is a pair of independent linear equations, the solution of which provides the
answer to the problem.

The analysis of the following problem is of the same general pattern as

that shown above.

Example 3.
A man requires an income of $40 a year from an investment of $1000.
He plans to split the invested money between a safe stock paying 3% interest
and a risky one paying 8%. How much of the $1000 can he invest in the
3% stock?
Analysis: Suppose the man invests $x at 3%, and $y at 8%.
The income from the first investment is $.03 x, and from the second is $.08 y.
The total invested money is then (x + y) dollars.
The total income from the investments is (.03 x -f- .08 y) dollars.
It is clear that x and y may have values only between 0 and 1000. The condi¬
tions of the problem enable us to form the equations
x + y = 1000
.03 x+ .OS y = 40
and the problem is solved when values of x and y are found which satisfy both
equations.

Relationships Used in Problems

Problems in the next set of exercises are intended to give practice in
expressing quantities in terms of selected variables. The early problems are
presented in a form which illustrates the analysis of a certain situation. The
following relationships are used in the exercises.
Systems of Linear Equations ■ Word Problems 39

Area of a rectangle A = Iw
Annual interest on invested money 7 = Pr
Rate, time, and distance 7 = rt
Cost of a number of articles in terms
of the unit price _
nu
Amount of a substance in s units of a
solution of strength p%
a=
{m
Note that all the relationships are of the form a=b • c. Thus while the
problems deal with different situations, the underlying relationships and
the required procedures are generally the same.

Example. A chemist wishes to obtain 100 c.c. (cubic centimeters) of a

25% solution of a certain acid by mixing a 20% solution and a 50% solution
of the acid. How many c.c. of the 20% solution should he use?
Solution 1: Let x represent the number of c.c. of the 20% solution. Then since
there are to be 100 c.c. altogether, there must be (100 — x) c.c. of the 50% solution.
The amount of acid in x c.c. of the 20% solution is .20 x c.c.
The amount of acid in (100 — x) c.c. of the 50% solution is .50(100 — x) c.c.
Hence the total amount of acid in the mixture is .20 x + .50(100 — x) c.c.
Our particular problem requires the final mixture to be 25% acid, so the mixture
must contain .25(100), or 25 c.c., of acid. We must therefore solve the equation
.20 x + .50(100 — x) = 25.
The root of this equation is 83j, and we conclude that the chemist should use
83J c.c. of the 20% solution.
Check: (The check for a word problem should always be made by seeing that
the conditions, as stated, are fulfilled. It is not enough to check the equation, since
it may not correctly represent the conditions of the problem.)
The 83^ c.c. of the 20% solution contain (J)(-^jp), or 16§ c.c., of acid.
The amount of the 50% solution taken must be (100 — 83^-), or 16§ c.c.
These 16§ c.c. of the 50% solution contain (J)(16§), or 8j c.c., of acid.
Hence the total amount of acid is 16§ + 8j, or 25 c.c., as required.
Solution 2: The problem may be approached equally well by using two
variables.
Let x represent the number of c.c. of the 20% solution to be used.
Let y represent the number of c.c. of the 50% solution to be used.
The total number of c.c. in the mixture is then x -+- y.
The total number of c.c. of acid in the mixture is .20 x -f- .50 y.
The conditions of the problem therefore require the solution of the equations:

x -f- y — 100
40 Chapter 3

Exercises [A 1]
1. (a) A boy walks for x hours at m.p.h. and bicycles for (5 — x)
hours at m.p.h. If the total distance traveled is d miles, ex¬
press d in terms of x.
(b) Find the value of d when x = f.
(c) Find the value of x for which d = 38^.
2. (a) If d is in miles and r is in miles per hour, in what units is t expressed
when the formula t = d/r is used?
(b) A boy walks x miles at 3 m.p.h. and bicycles (40 — x) miles at
8 m.p.h. If the total number of hours is n, express n in terms of x.
(c) Find the value of n when x = 6.
(d) Find the value of x for which the total time is 6 hours 40 minutes.
3. (a) A man drives for 1 hour in a city, averaging 20 m.p.h., and for
3 hours on open roads, averaging 40 m.p.h. Find his average
speed for the 4 hours.
(b) A man drives for 1 hour at an average speed of x m.p.h. and for
3 more hours at an average speed of 2 x m.p.h. If his average
speed for the 4 hours is v m.p.h., express v in terms of x.
(c) Find to the nearest tenth the value of x for which v = 40.
4. A rectangle is x in. wide and (x + 3) in. long. Between it and an
outer rectangle is a border which is 2 in. wide on each side.
(a) Write the dimensions of the outer rectangle.
(b) Obtain the area of the border in terms of x in simplest form.
(c) Find the value of x for which the area of the border is 172 sq. in.
5. (a) If 10 lb. of candy costing 60 cents per pound are mixed with
40 lb. of candy costing 90 cents per pound, find the cost per pound
of the mixture.
(b) If x lb. of candy costing 60 cents per pound are mixed with
(50 — x) lb. of candy costing 90 cents per pound, express in terms
of x in simplest form the cost of one pound of the mixture.
(c) Find the value of x for which the cost of one pound of the mixture
is 69 cents.
6. (a) A man invests $x at 2\% and $(5000 — x) at 5J%. If $/ is the
total annual income from the investments, express I in terms of
x in simplest form.
(b) Find the total income when x = 1500.
(c) Find the value of x for which the total income is $194.
7. (a) If x lb. of a 30% acid solution are mixed with (100 — x) lb. of a
50% acid solution, and A represents the number of pounds of
acid in the mixture, express A in terms of x.
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 41

(b) Find the value of x for which the mixture forms a 42% solution
of the acid.

8. (a) Write an expression for the total value of x pounds of tea at 65

cents per pound and y pounds of tea at 80 cents per pound.
(b) If the tea in part (a) is mixed and sold at a profit of 25%, write
an expression for the total selling price.

9. A rectangular room is 6 ft. longer than it is wide. If each dimension

were increased by 2 ft., the area of the room would be increased by
64 sq. ft. Find the original dimensions of the room.

10. The length of a room exceeds its width by 4 ft. A rug covers the floor
except for a border 2 ft. wide all around it. If the area of the border
is 68 sq. ft., find the area of the rug.

11. A boy completes a 30-mile trip in 3 hours 45 minutes, cycling part

of the distance at an average speed of 10 m.p.h. and walking the rest
at an average rate of 2\ m.p.h. Find the number of miles walked.

12. A walks at a speed which is \ m.p.h. faster than B’s walking speed.
In 5 hours B walks 1 mile more than A walks in 4 hours. Find H’s
walking speed.

13. A boy skates across a pond, with the wind, at a speed of 12 m.p.h.,
and returns against the wind at a speed of 4 m.p.h. If he takes 45
minutes for the round trip, find the width of the pond. Find also the
boy’s average speed on the round trip.

14. A man has $5000 invested, part at 4^% and the rest at 6%. If the
total annual income from the investments is $270, how much is in¬
vested at 4j%?

15. A man invests § of his capital at 4%, ^ of his capital at 5%, and the
rest of his capital at 2^%. His total income from these investments
is $1180 a year. Find the amount of his capital.

16. A boy bought some oranges at the rate of 6 for 15 cents, and made a
profit of 66 cents by selling them at the rate of 5 for 18 cents. How
many oranges did he buy?

17. A baseball club bought 6 dozen balls, some being practice balls costing
$1.75 each and the others being game balls costing $2.75 each. If the
total bill was $150, find the number of practice balls bought.

18. How many pounds of tea worth 85 cents per pound must be mixed
with 5 lb. of tea worth 70 cents per pound to make a mixture which
is worth 80 cents per pound?
42 Chapter 3

19. A dealer buys coffee at 40 cents per pound and a better-grade coffee
at 60 cents per pound. He wishes to put it up in 100-pound bags and
make a 50% profit by selling at 66 cents per pound. How many pounds
of the 40-cent coffee should go into each 100-pound bag?
20. A chemist has a 50% solution of an acid and a 10% solution of the
same acid. He needs 12 ounces of a 15% solution of the acid. If he
forms this solution by mixing the two that he has, how many ounces
of the 50% solution should be included?
21. How many c.c. of a 10% solution of a chemical should be added to
100 c.c. of a 25% solution of the chemical to form a 20% solution?
22. How many c.c. of water must be added to 500 c.c. of a 10% solution
of weed-killer to make a 4% solution?

Exercises [A 2]
1. (a) A man sets out from a certain point walking at x m.p.h., and two
hours later a cyclist leaves the same point and rides along the same
road at (x + 8) m.p.h. Express in terms of x the distance of each
man from the starting point 45 minutes after the cyclist leaves,
(b) If the cyclist overtakes the walker at this time, what is the value
of x?
2. (a) A man walks for 1 hour at a certain speed and then for two more
hours at a speed 1 m.p.h. greater. Represent the first speed by a
variable, and obtain the total distance traveled in terms of that
variable.
(b) If the average speed for the 3 hours is 3.5 m.p.h., find the value
of the variable to the nearest tenth.
3. A rectangle is 3 x in. long and 2 x in. wide. Between it and an outer
rectangle is a border 1 in. wide on each side.
(a) Write the dimensions of the outer rectangle.
(b) Express the area of the border in terms of x in simplest form.
4. (a) Write an expression for the total value of x pounds of coffee at
50 cents per pound and (60 — x) pounds at 70 cents per pound,
(b) If the coffee in part (a) is mixed and sold at a profit.of 20%, write
an expression for the total selling price.
5. (a) A man invests $x at 3j% and $(8000 — x) at 5%. If $/ is the
total annual income from the investments, express I in terms of x
in simplest form.
(b) Find the total income when x = 5000.
(c) Find the value of x for which the total income is $310.
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 43

6. (a) If x pounds of a 20% acid solution are mixed with (200 - x) pounds
of a 50% acid solution, and A represents the number of pounds
of acid in the mixture, express A in terms of x.
(b) Find the value of x for which the mixture forms a 42% solution
of the acid.

7. (a) If to 5 quarts of an 80% acid solution are added 3 quarts of water,

find the percentage strength of the new solution.
(b) If to x quarts of an 80% acid solution are added y quarts of water,
how many quarts of acid are contained in the mixture?
(c) How many quarts of water must be added to 5 quarts of an 80%
acid solution so that the new solution shall be 25% acid?
8. (a) If to 5 quarts of an 80% acid solution are added 3 quarts of acid,
find the percentage strength of the new solution.
(b) If to x quarts of an 80% acid solution are added y quarts of acid,
how many quarts of acid are contained in the mixture?
(c) How many quarts of acid must be added to 5 quarts of an 80%
acid solution so that the new solution shall be 95% acid?
9. A rectangular table is 3 ft. longer than it is wide. If a strip 6 in. wide
is cut from each of the four sides, the area of the top of the table is
reduced by 14 sq. ft. Find the original dimensions of the table.
10. The width of a rectangle is § of its length. A border of width 2 in.
all around, and outside the rectangle, has area 216 sq. in. Find the
dimensions of the rectangle.
11. A man leaves home at 8 a.m. driving at an average speed of 40 m.p.h.
Ten minutes later his wife sets out to overtake him and drives at an
average speed of 50 m.p.h. At what time does she overtake him?
12. A man drives to a city one day and finds that he is able to average
only 30 m.p.h. on the particular road taken. The next day he returns
home by a road which is 20 miles longer, but he is able to average
36 m.p.h. and actually takes 40 minutes less on the return journey
than he took in going to the city. Find the length of the road taken
in going to the city.
13. A boy swims a certain distance upstream at \\ m.p.h., and returns
to his starting point at a downstream speed of 2\ m.p.h., taking 16
minutes for the swim. Find the total distance covered and the average
speed for the whole swim.
14. A man has $8000 invested, part at 4% and the rest at 2\%. The
annual income from the 4% investment is $34 more than that from
the 2\% investment. How much is invested at 4%?
 Chapter 3

15. A man invests a certain sum of money at 4% and a sum $2000 less
than the first at 5%. If the income from the 5% investment is f of
the income from the other, find the sum of money invested at 4%.
16. A boy buys a number of apples at 20 cents a dozen, and he buys 5
dozen less than this number at 25 cents a dozen. He sells them all at
26 cents a dozen and makes a 20% profit. How many apples are
bought at 25 cents a dozen?
17. A committee wishes to raise $75 by selling 120 tickets to a play, some
tickets at 50 cents and the rest at 80 cents each. How many tickets
should be sold at 50 cents each?
18. Candy worth 90 cents per pound and candy worth 60 cents per pound
are to be mixed, and the mixture is to be worth 72 cents per pound.
How many pounds of each should be taken to make 50 pounds of the
mixture?
19. A dealer has 100 lb. of tea which cost him 65 cents per pound. How
many pounds of tea costing him 50 cents per pound should he mix
with it so that he can make a profit of 40% by selling the mixture at
75 cents per pound?
20. How many c.c. of water must be evaporated from 200 c.c. of an 8%
salt solution to form a 12% salt solution?
21. How many c.c. of alcohol should be added to 150 c.c. of a mixture
which is 6% alcohol to form a mixture which is 10% alcohol?
22. A dairyman has 500 quarts of milk having a 4% butterfat content.
He wishes to separate from it a number of quarts of cream with a
butterfat content of 25%, but the remaining milk must contain at
least 3% butterfat. Find the largest whole number of quarts of cream
that may be separated.

Exercises [B]
1. By working through the following steps of procedure, show that if
the length and width of one rectangle exceed by 10% the length and
width of a second rectangle, then the area of the first rectangle exceeds
the area of the second rectangle by 21%.
(a) Let the dimensions of the second rectangle be a feet and b feet.
Write in simplest form in terms of a and b the dimensions of the
first rectangle.
(b) Write the area of each rectangle in terms of a and b.

(c) Find the amount by which the larger area exceeds the smaller.
(d) Express this amount as a percentage of the smaller area.
Systems of Linear Equations • Word Problems 45

2. Show that if a square and a rectangle have equal perimeters, the area
of the square is greater than the area of the rectangle. (Let the side
of the square be n inches, and let the length of the rectangle be (n + a)
inches, so that the width of the rectangle must be
3. The area of one rectangle is twice the area of another. The width of
the larger rectangle exceeds the width of the smaller by 25%. By
what percentage does the length of the larger exceed the length of
the smaller?
4. Show that if the length of a rectangle is increased 20% and the width
is decreased 20%, the area is decreased by 4%.
5. By increasing the usual average speed by 25% a car driver reduces
the time for a 100-mile trip by 30 minutes. Find the usual average
speed.
6. Show that on any journey, if the average speed is increased by 25%,
the time taken for the journey is reduced by 20%.
7. A man has $5000 invested at 3% and $3000 invested at 4j%. How
much should he invest at 8% to make his annual income 5% of his
total investment? (Give result to nearest dollar.)
8. A man invests $x at 3% and $y at 5%. Find the ratio of x to y if
the annual income is 3.8% of the total investment.
9. If x pounds of coffee at 90 cents per pound are mixed with y pounds
of coffee at 60 cents per pound, and the mixture is worth 69 cents per
pound, find the ratio of x to y.
10. If x c.c. of a 40% acid solution are mixed with y c.c. of a 10% solution
of the acid and the strength of the mixture is 20% acid, find the ratio
of x to y.

11. How many c.c. of water must be added to n c.c. of a p% acid solution
3 p
to reduce the strength to —f~% acid?
4

Chapter Review
6x— 1 3x—4
1. Solve and check: = 0.
3 2
x + y = 8000
2. Solve the system of equations:
.035 x + .05 y = 370
2 3 3 2
3. Solve the system of equations: - + -=12, '= 5.
x y x y

4. Find the values of x, y, 2 if x + y = 10, y + z = 15, z + x = 12.

46 Chapter 3

5. A train travels from A to B at an average speed of 40 m.p.h., and then

from B to C at an average speed of 30 m.p.h. The distance AB is
10 miles more than the distance BC, and the traveling time for the
whole journey is 3 hr. 10 min. Find the distance AB.
6. How many pounds of water should be added to 24 pounds of a 12%
salt solution to form a 10% solution?
7. A rectangular room is x feet wide and (x + 6) feet long. The floor is
covered by a rug except for a border 2 ft. wide along each of the four
sides. Find the value of x if the area of the border is 70 sq. ft.
8. A dealer bought a number of eggs at 40 cents per dozen, and two dozen
less than this number at 50 cents per dozen. If he made a profit of
35% by selling them all at 60 cents per dozen, find the number of eggs
bought at 40 cents per dozen.
9. In the relationship y = mx + 6, m is a constant. If y = 5 when x = 2,
find the value of m. Find the value of x when y = 0.

Chapter Test
1. Solve and check: J(3 x— 1) — J(2 x+ 1) = f

2. Solve the system of equations: 4^f 7^ 1)

4 li* + i(l-y) = 0.
3. If x = — f, evaluate J(2 x + 1) — J(3 x — 4).
4. Find the values of x, y, z if x — y = 11, x — z — 6, x + y + 2 = 10.
5. A man had a capital of $16,000. He invested part of it in an enter¬
prise which made a 15% profit, and the rest in an enterprise which
lost 6%. If his net profit was $1560, find the amount invested in the
first enterprise.
6. P and Q are railroad stations 200 miles apart. A train leaves P at
10 a.m. and travels toward Q at 35 m.p.h. A second train leaves Q at
noon and travels toward P at 45 m.p.h. At what time in the after¬
noon do the trains meet?
7. How many ounces of a 5% iodine solution should be added to 10
ounces of a 2\% iodine solution to form a 3\% solution?
8. If 2x=3y+l and y = 4/—1, eliminate y by substitution and
express x in terms of t. Find the value of t when x = 0.
9. It is known that there is a relationship between the variables x and t
of the form x = at + b, where a and b are constants. When t = 10
the value of x is 1.5, and when t — 15 the value of x is 1.6. Find the
values of the constants a and b.
 Consider the system of equations
alx+bly=c1 ®
d2x-\-b2y —c2 ©

If we multiply both sides of equation © by b2 and both sides of equation ©

by bi, we can eliminate the y terms and obtain
Cjb2 — c2b1
x= 7 —• (3)
alb2—a2bl w
In a similar manner we may obtain
d\C2 —” a2c 1 •
a 1^2—a2 b 1
If equations ® and @ are consistent and independent, the value of the expression
aib2—a2biis not zero, and results @ and @ may be used to write the solution
of the system of equations.
We now examine a notation which gives us some help in recalling the pat¬
terns of the expressions for x and y.
a1 b1
The symbol is defined to mean a^b2 — a2b1.
d2 b2
The symbol so defined is called a determinant. It is classified as a second-order
determinant because it has two rows and two columns. The value of a second-
order determinant is found by writing the product of the numbers on the diagonal
which has one end in the upper left corner and from this subtracting the product
of the numbers on the other diagonal.
4
Example 1. Find the value of
2

Solution: = (4)(—1) — (2)(—3) =2.

The solution of the system of equations

dix+b1y=c1
a2x -\-b2y —c2

ci bi d1 c1
c2 b2 d2 c2
can now be written x y -
d1 bx d1 b1
d2 b2 d2 b2
47
The expressions for x and y have a complicated appearance, but each of the
three determinants can be associated in a simple manner with the array of
numbers aj bl Cl
a2 ^2 ^2

1. The determinant forming the denominator for both x and y is obtained by

using only the coefficients of x and y in order.
2. The determinant forming the numerator for x is obtained from the pre¬
ceding determinant by replacing each coefficient of x by the constant term
in the same equation. {cx replaces ax, c2 replaces a2.)
3. The determinant forming the numerator for y is obtained in the same way
by replacing each coefficient of y by the constant term in the same equation.
12 x -j- 3 y = 1
Example 2. Solve the system of equations
[3 x —4j> = 10
Solution: The determinants are formed from the array of numbers
2 3 1
3 -4 10
1 3
10 -4 4-30 -34
2 3 “ -8 -9 ~ — 17
3 -4
2 1
3 10 20-3 17
-17 ~ -17 --17“
The solution is (2, — 1).

Determinants of the third order can be used in a similar manner for solving
systems of three linear equations in x, y, z. The evaluation of a third-order
determinant is, however, a somewhat complicated process and we shall not
investigate it.

EXERCISES
3 4 3 4 3 3
1 . Evaluate: (a) ; (b) ; (c)
4 -2 15 -2 4 15
3 x -f 4y =3
2 . Solve the system of equations
4 x — 2 y = 15
5 -3 5 -3 5 5
3 . Evaluate: (a) ; (b) ; (c)
3 -2 0 -2 0
5 x —3 y =5
4 . Solve the system of equations
.3 x —2y =0
6 x -|-5 y = 10
5 . Solve the system of equations
3 x —4y =31
9 x — 12 y = 11
6 . Solve the system of equations
7x +4y = 3
48
 7. Solve for (x,y): \ax 5

8. Solve for (x, y): {+ by ~ c

[3 ax — 2 by = 4 c
a kb b
9. Show that
c kd d
a b (a —b) b
10. Show that and use the result to simplify and
c d (c —d) d
783 782
evaluate
784 783

a a
11. Find the value of
c c
1 1
a b
12. Find the value of a b •
0 1
0 1
ka kb a b
13. Show that = k2 •
kc kd c d
a b (a- c) (b-d)
14. Show that and use the result to simplify and
c d ~ c d
356 283
evaluate
354 282

49
 1
: ■
4n
J B

Factored Forms

Change of Form

The commutative and associative axioms permit us to rearrange the order

of the terms in an algebraic expression. The distributive axiom allows us
to write a(b + c) as ab + ac. It is apparent, therefore, that the same alge¬
braic expression may appear in various forms. For example, 2 l + 2 w and
2 (l + w) are alternative ways of expressing the perimeter of a rectangle.
The axioms can be used to demonstrate that the product of x + 2 and x — 4
can be written as x2 — 2 x — 8 or as (x — l)2 — 9. Skill in the mechanics
of algebra depends to a great extent on the ability to write an expression
in the form best suited to a particular purpose.
The statement "2 / + 2 w = 2(1 -f w)” is true for any given values of l and
w. The statement KK{x + 2)(x — 4) = x2 — 2 x — 8” is true for any given
value of x. Each statement is an identity. In chapters 2 and 3 we considered
the solutions of conditional equations and their use in word problems. In
this chapter we shall examine some basic identities and see how they may
be used as aids in changing the forms of certain expressions.
Given a statement of equality between two expressions, we may not be
able to decide immediately whether it is an identity or a conditional equa¬
tion. If we wish to show that such a statement is an identity, we may
proceed to use the axioms and the rules deduced from the axioms to trans¬
form one of the given expressions into the other.

Example. Show that J(6 x -f f) — J(6 x + f) = x is an identity.

Solution: J(6 * + J) — J(6 x + f)

= 3x+f — 2 x~f (Distributive axiom)
= (3 * — 2 x) + (f — f) (Commutative axiom for addition)
=x+0 (Combining like terms)
= x
50
Factored Forms
51
^ An attempt to solve the equality in the Example (p. 50) as a conditional
equation would produce the final equivalent form 0 = 0. This result is not
to be interpreted as indicating that there is no value of x which satisfies the
equation, but rather that there is no condition restricting the equality of the
two sides. Thus the equation is satisfied by every value of x.
The great importance of identities is that since the equality is true for all
values of the variables involved, then one side may be used as a replacement
for the other whenever the change is desirable. We shall commonly refer
to the two sides of an identity as expressions having the same value.

Exercises [A]
Verify the identities in 1-5 by simplifying the left-hand side.
1. 4(2 x — 1) — 3(# — 3) = 5(# + 1).

2.1(3 y + 2) - t(3 y + 1) - ^ = —.
4 S 7 20 10
3. £(£ * + f) + 4(§ * - 4) = £ *•
4. \(x + 2) — J(4 — x) = § x.

5 y + 2.4 y+1.2 y _
’ 2.4 0.8 0.6

6. Show that J(3 x — 1) — £(2 x + 1) = %(x - 1) is an identity.

7. Show that \(x + J) — %(x — J) = -^{2 x + 3) is an identity.

Factors

The identity ”5(2 x — 3) = 10 x — 15” may be described in two ways.

We may say that 10 a; — 15 is the product of 5 and 2 x — 3, or we may
say that 5 and 2 x — 3 are the factors of 10 x — 15. It is possible to obtain
10 ^2 — 15 as a product of other expressions if fractions are permitted
as coefficients. We have, for example, 10 x — 15 = 4(2^ x — 3f) and
10 x — 15 = 3^(3 x — 4^-). The word "factors” is, however, applied only
when the expressions which are multiplied together have coefficients in the
set of integers.
An expression is said to be prime if it cannot be written as the product of
factors other than itself and one. Thus, 2 x — 3 and x2 + 4 are prime ex¬
pressions. An expression which is not prime is said to be factorable.
A monomial is either a numeral or the indicated product of a numeral
and one or more variables. The factors of a monomial are immediately
apparent. For example, since 5 a2b means the product of 5, a2, b, the prime
factors of the monomial 5 a2b are 5, a, a, b. Other examples of monomials
are 7, 3 x, — 2 abc.
52 Chapter 4

An expression which is the algebraic sum of a number of monomials is

called a polynomial. Polynomials which contain two terms are called
binomials, and those which contain three terms are called trinomials. A
polynomial is said to be factored when it is written as the indicated product
of two or more prime expressions. In solving certain types of equations and
in simplifying fractions, the most convenient form of a polynomial is that
which exhibits or shows its factors.
If A,B,C represent polynomials, the relationship A • B = C suggests
three types of questions:
(1) Given A and B, find C. This asks us to find the product of A and B.
(2) Given A and C, find B. This asks us to find the quotient of C -s- A.
For, if A • B = C, then B = C -s- A.
(3) Given C, find A and B. This asks us to find the factors of C.
Questions of types (2) and (3) are closely related. The factored form of an
expression exhibits all the exact divisors of the expression.

The Common or Distributed Factor

The Distributive Axiom, a(b + c) = ab + ac, is the source of the pro¬
cedures used in multiplying one polynomial by another. When written in
the form ab -f- ac = a(b + c) it is also the basis for obtaining the factors of
certain types of expressions.
The distributive principle may be stated more generally in the following
identity:

^ a(b + c T d + • • •) = ab + ac + ad + • • *,

where there is one term on the right-hand side corresponding to each term
in the parenthesis on the left. This general principle can be proved by
repeated use of the Distributive Axiom. It states that when any polynomial,
symbolized by b + c -f d -f- • • •, is multiplied by a, the product may be
obtained by multiplying each individual term of the polynomial by a. The
multiplier is said to be distributed over all the terms of the polynomial.
Conversely, we note that if ab + ac + ad -f • • • is divided by a, the quotient
is b + c + d + • • • and that the factored form of ab + ac -f- ad + • • • is
given by

ab T oc -f- ad T ’ * * = a(b -f- c -f- d T * * ’)•

In this situation, the distributed or common factor a appears in every term

of the polynomial ab -f- ac + ad -f • • •. The other factor is obtained by
dividing each term of the polynomial in turn by a.
It is important to note that an operation on a polynomial is not always
correctly represented by performing the operation on each term of the
Factored Forms 53

polynomial. For example, the square of a polynomial is not obtained by

squaring each of its terms. Is (a+b)2 = a2 + b2 an identity? Thus, the
distributive property for multiplication over addition should be regarded
as unusual, and not as being typical of operations on polynomials.

Example 1. Is 3 x a factor of (a) 12 x2 — 3 x, (b) 6 x2 + 1?

Solution: (a) 12 x2 3 x is a binomial expression, both terms of which have
the factor 3 x. Hence, 3 x is a factor of the expression. The other factor is
obtained by dividing each of the terms by 3 x, giving the quotient 4 x — 1. The
factored form of 12 x2 — 3 x is 3 x(4 x — 1).
(b) 6 x2 + 1 is a binomial expression, one term having 3 x as a factor but not
the other. Hence, 3 x is not a factor of the expression.

The validity of the identity a(Jb + c) = ab + ac is not affected when we

replace any or all of the symbols a, b, c throughout the statement by bi¬
nomials. We may replace a throughout the pattern by (x-fy), obtaining
the slightly more complicated form (x -f y)(b + c) = (x + y)b + (x + y)c, a
result which we are accustomed to use in the multiplication of binomial
quantities. Similarly, if we consider the pattern Ab + Ac = A (b + c), we
may replace the symbol A throughout by (x T y), obtaining the form
(x + y)b + (x + y)c = (x + y)(b + c).
Such modifications of the basic pattern enable us to obtain the factored
form of any group of terms of the general type ax -+- bx + ay + by. A group
of this nature may be expressed as the product of two binomials containing
different letters or different powers of a letter.

Example 2. Factor: ab-\-ac — 2b — 2 c

Solution: The first two terms have a common factor a, and the last two terms
have a common factor 2. The given expression may therefore be written in the form
a{b -f- c) — 2{b T c).
The new form is of the pattern aX — 2 X, where X represents (b -f c), and the
factored form of the simplified pattern is clearly X{a— 2). Hence the factored
form of the original expression is
(b T c) (a — 2).

Example 3. Factor: x3 — 2 x2 + x — 2
Solution: The first two terms have a common factor x2. The other two terms
form a prime group. The expression may be written in the form
x2(x — 2) + (x — 2).
This is a binomial expression of the pattern x2A + A, where A represents (x 2),
and the factored form of the pattern is A(x2 -ff 1)- Hence the factored form of the
original expression is (x — 2)(x2 + 1).
54 Chapter 4

The basic patterns are introduced into the above discussion to clarify the
situations. Such patterns must be recognized, but it is not necessary to
show them in the course of an exercise in factoring. In the second example,
for instance, if it is recognized that x2(x — 2) + (x — 2) is a binomial form
with x — 2 as a common factor, the other factor x2 + 1 may be seen at
once by dividing each term of the binomial by x — 2.

Exercises [A_1]
1. Simplify 2 x(x — 2) — x(2 x — 5).
2. By changing the form of the expression, but without using the division
process, show that x(y + 1) — x(y — 1) — 2 y is exactly divisible by
x — y.
3. Multiply (a) 3 x + 5 by 2 x; (b) ^ -f ^ by 6.
Z yj

4. (a) If a is added to the trinomial x + y + z, how many terms are

there in the result?
(b) If a multiplies the trinomial x + y + z, how many terms are there
in the result?
5. Which of the following is a factor of ax — ay + a:
x, x — y, x — y + 1?

Factor the following expressions, if possible:

6. aW — W 9. 3 ax + 3 bx — 6 cx
7. P + Prt 10. 8 x3 — 4 x2 — 2 x
8. 20 ax -+■ 15 bx 11 . b ax 3 a x | 3 ax

Evaluate each of the following numerical expressions by using the dis¬

tributive axiom:
12. 17 • 19+ 17 • 11 13. 57 -99 + 57
14. 3.75% of $1125 - 3.75% of $125.
15. Factor: (a) 2 xN — N; (b) 2 x(x2 + 1) — (x2 + 1).
16. Factor: 3 x(a — 2) + (a — 2).
17. Factor: 3 xy — 6 y2 + 2 x — 4 y.
18. Factor: 2 ac — be + 2 a — b.
19. Factor: a3 — a2b — b + a.
20. Factor: 12 — 4 x + 3 x2 — x3.
21. Divide ax + ay + bx + by — a — b by a + b.
22. Divide (a — b)2 + a — b by a — b.
 Factored Forms
55

Exercises [A_2]
1. Divide (a) 6 z2 + 9 * by 3 x; (b) 8 a2 - 4 a by 4 a.

2. (a) If x + y + 1 is multiplied by a, what is the last term in the product?

(b) If ax + ay + a is divided by a, what is the last term in the quotient?

3. Multiply (a) _ *±i^ by 12; (b) (±±x _ l±j^ ^

Factor the following expressions, if possible:

4. Mg + mg 6. 2 7tR2 -f 2 irRh 8.ax+bx-2x

5. 5 10 xy 7. ax -j- ay -f- 1 9. xy — x2

Evaluate each of the following numerical expressions by using the dis¬

tributive axiom:

10. 21 • 37 - 11 • 37 11. 3.142(64) + 3.142(36)

12. Factor: (a)xA+yA; (b) x(a - 1) + y(a - 1).
13. Divide a(b + 1) — (b + 1) by b + 1.
14. Factor: ax + ay — 2 x — 2 y.
15. Divide 3 a(2 x — 1) -f- 2(1 — 2 x) by 2 x — 1.
16. Factor: 2xy — 4x — y-j-2.
17. Factor: 6 x3 — 4 x2 + 9 x — 6.
18. Divide: 2 x3 — 3 x2 — 8 x12 by 2 x — 3.
19. (a) Divide a2 — 3 a by a.
(b) Divide (x + y)2 — 3(x -f y) by x + y.
(c) Factor: (x + y)2 — 3(x + y).
20. Show by factoring the left-hand side that
n(n + \){n -f 2) — n2(n -f 1) = 2 n(n + 1)
is an identity. (Note that n(n + 1) is a common factor.)
21. Simplify by factoring: x(x -J- y)2 — x2(x + y).

Special Product Forms

The distributive axiom shows us that the product (^+2)(x+3) is
identical with x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2), and that this in turn may be written
x2+2x-\-3x-\-b or x2 5x 6. We are familiar with the fact that the
product of two linear binomials is a second-degree expression in the variables
involved. The following three identities are special cases of such products.
The patterns they typify occur so frequently in the mechanics of our algebra
that they merit special attention. We group them here and then discuss
56 Chapter 4

them separately. They may be verified by multiplication, and it is probable

that the student is thoroughly familiar with them.
(* + y)(x + y) or (x + y)2 — x2 -\-2 xy-\- y2 (1)
(x — y)(x — y) or (x — y)2 = x2 — 2 xyy2 (2)
(jt -f- y) (x — y) = x2 — y2 (3)

^ Pattern (1). (x + y)2 = x2 + 2 xy + y2

This identity states that the square of the sum of two quantities is a tri¬
nomial consisting of the sum of the squares of
the quantities plus twice the product of the
quantities. The result is illustrated geometrically
by the diagram on the right.
The identity also indicates that when a tri¬
nomial consists of the sum of the squares of two
quantities plus twice the product of those quan¬
tities, the trinomial is the square of the sum of
the quantities.

^ Pattern (2). (x — y)2 = x2 — 2 xy T y2

This identity describes the square of the difference of two quantities. It

may be deduced from pattern (1) by replacing the symbol y by the symbol
— y throughout the pattern.

Example 1. (2 a + 3 b)2 = (2 a)2 -f 2(2 a)(3 b) + (3 b)2

= 4 a2 -f- 12 -f- 9 b2.

Example 2. 9 x2 — 6 x + 1 = (3 x)2 — 2(3 T)(l) + (l)2 = (3 x — l)2

Oral Exercises
Complete the following statements:
1. (a -f b)2 = a2 -f 2 ab + ( ? )
2. (r — s)2 = ( ? )2 — ( ? )(rs) + s2
3. (3 m — n)2 = (3 m)2 — 2( ? )( ? ) + ( ? )2
4. (2 x + 3 y)2 = (2 x)2 + 2(2 x)(3 y) + ( ? )2
5. (4 a - b)2 = ?
6. (5m + 2)2 = ?
7. a2 — 4 ab T 4 b2 = (a — ? )2
8. 9 £2 + 6 xy + y2 = ( ? + y)2
9. 16 x2 — ( ? ) + 9 y2 = (4 x — 3 y)2
Factored Forms 57
► Pattern (3). (x + y)(x — y) = x2 — y2

This identity states that when the sum of two quantities is multiplied by
the difference of those quantities, the product is the difference of the squares
of the quantities in the same order as the difference of the quantities. It
also shows that a binomial consisting of the difference of the squares of two
quantities is factorable, the factors being the sum and the difference of the
quantities in the same order.

Example 1. (3 x + 4) (3 x — 4) = (3 x)2 — 42 = 9 *2 — 16

Example 2. 25 a2 — 1 = (5 a)2 — l2 = (5 a + 1)(5 a — 1)

Oral Exercises
Complete the following statements:
1. (x — 2 y)(x + 2 y) = x2 — ( ? )2 = ?

2. (3<r+6)(3a-6) = ( ? )2 - b2 = ?
3. (m — 6)(m + 6) = ? 6. 25 a2 — 16 = (5 a -f- 4)( ? )
4. (2 x + 5 y)(2 x — 5 y) = ? 7. 36 £2 — y2 = ( ? )( ? )
5. a2 — 16 = (a + ? )(a — ? ) 8. a2 - 49 = ( ? )( ? )
The main distinction between the patterns listed above is that the right-
hand side of identity (3) is a binomial, whereas the result of the squaring
process in (1) and (2) is in each case a trinomial. Since the square of a
binomial form always produces a trinomial form, it is readily seen that an
algebraic binomial is never an exact square of an algebraic quantity. The stu¬
dent should think this statement through by considering the square of a
single term and the square of a binomial. Having done so, he should be
able to avoid the elementary error of taking x2 -f y2 to be the square of
x y, or x2 — y2 to be the square of x — y. At the same time he should
understand why the square of xy is x2y2.
Again, it is important to realize that the patterns (1), (2), and (3) are
identities and are therefore true statements for all values of the variables
x and y. This means, for instance, that the symbols x and y may be replaced
throughout any one of the patterns by binomial expressions. The following
examples illustrate this point.

Example 1. Factor: (a + b)2 — c2.

Solution: This pattern clearly exhibits the difference of two squares, being of
the form X2 — c2 where X represents (a + 6). The factors of the simplified
pattern are (X + c) and (X — c). Hence the factored form of the original ex¬
pression is
(a T b T c) (a T b c).
58 Chapter 4

Example 2. Factor: 4 a2 — b2 — 6 b — 9.
Solution: The key to the factoring procedure is the recognition that the
trinomial containing the terms b2, 6 b, 9 may be written as the square of a binomial.
We have 4a2 — b2 — 6b — 9
= 4a2-(b2 + 6b + 9)
= 4 a2 — (6 + 3)2.
Hence the expression is the difference of the squares of 2 a and (b + 3) and the
factored form is
[2 a -J- (b T 3)][2 a — (b -{- 3)] or (2 a -f- b 3) (2 cl — b — 3).

Example 3. Express (a + b + c)2 in the form of a polynomial.

Solution: We have (a + b + c)2
= [(a + b) + c]2
= (a + 6)2+2(a + %+c2
= a2 2 ab + b2 -f- 2 ac + 2 be + c2
— a2 + b2 -f- c2 + 2 ab -f- 2 be + 2 ac.

Exercises [A_1]
Write the polynomial form of each of the following products:
1. (a) 0+ l)(x- 1); (b) 0+ l)2; (c) (x - l)2
2. (a) (3 a + 2 b)2; (b) (a + | b){a — \ b); (c) (x — \ y)(x — \ y)
3. (a) (*+ .2){x— .2); (b) (.2 + a)(.2 — x)\ (c) {x— .2)2

Write the factored form, if there is one, for the following polynomials:
4. (a) 4 x2 — y2\ (b) 4 x2 — 4 xy + y2; (c) 4 £2 + y2
5. (a) 2 x2 — IS y2\ (b) 2 x2 — 18 x; (c) 2 x2 + 18
6. (a) 4 x2 + 4 x + 1; (b) 3 x2 - 30 x + 75; (c) 400 x2 - 40 x + 1
7. (a) Divide x2 — 25 by x — 5.
(b) Is x2 + 25 divisible by x + 5?
(c) What single term must be added to x2 + 10 x to form the square
of x -f 5?
8. Establish the identity (x + y)2 — (x - y)2 = 4 xy, (a) by writing the
square quantities in trinomial form; (b) by factoring the left-hand
side.
9. Express in simplest factored form: (3 x -f 2 y)2 — 4 y2
10. Express in polynomial form: (x + y+a)(x + y-a).
11. Factor: (a) (x+2)2-9y2; (b) x2 + 4x + 4; (c) x2 + 4 x + 4 - 9 y2
12. Express in polynomial form: (a + b — c){a — b + c).
Factored Forms 59

Write the factored form, if there is one, of each of the following poly¬
nomials :
13. x2 + 2 xy + y2 — 4 a2 16. x2 -f- y2 — 25 t2 — 2 xy
14. x2 + 2 xy — ax — 2 ay Y7. \ \ a2 — \2 ab — 9 b2
15. a2 — 4 ab — 2 ax + 8 bx 18. a2 -T 2 ab -f- b2 -|- c2
19. Show that the expression (x + y){x — y) — k(2 x — k) may be written
as the difference of two squares, and so factor the
expression.
20. In the given diagram, the side of the larger square
is a units and the side of the smaller square is b
units. The area of the shaded portion is clearly
(a2 — b2) units. Show how the shaded area might
be cut and rearranged to exhibit the fact that its
area is (a -\-b){a — b) square units.

Exercises [A 2]

Write the polynomial form of each of the following products:

1. (a) (3x-2y)(3x + 2y); (b)(3*-2y)2; (c) (2 y-3x)2
2. (a) (2*2+ 1)(2*2- 1); (b) (3-5 a2)2; (c) (*2 + l)(s2 + 1)
3. (a) (2x + J)2; (b) (3x + i)2; (c) (5 * + .3)(5 x — .3)

Write the factored form, if there is one, for the following polynomials:
4. (a) X2 + 4X + 4; (b)X2 + 4X; (c)X2-4
5. (a) 4 - 20 x + 25 x2; (b) 25 x2 + 20 x; (c) 25 x2 + 4
6. (a) 9 a2 — 6 ab + 4 b2; (b) 9 a2 + 12 ab + 4 b2; (c)9a2-6ab + b2
7. (a) Divide a2 — 9 by a + 3.
(b) Is a2 + 9 divisible by a or by 9?
(c) What single term must be added to a2 6 a to form the square
of a — 3?
8. Express in simplest form: (2 x + l)2 — 4(T + 1)(^ — !)•
9. Simplify: (n + 2)2 — 2 n(n + 2) + n~.
10. Express in polynomial form: (a — b — c)(a + b + c).
11. Factor: (a) x2 — (2 y + 3)2; (b) 4 y2 + 12 y + 9;
(c) x2 — 4 y2 — 12 y — 9.
12. Factor: (a) *2 - (a - 2)2; (b) a2-4a + 4; (c) *2 - a2 + 4 a - 4;
(d) a2 — 4 a + 4 — x2.
60 Chapter 4

Write the factored form, if there is one, of each of the following poly¬
nomials:
13. 4 x2 — y2 — 2 y — 1 16. 6 y — 9 + x2 — y2
14. a2-452 + 4k-c2 17. b2 + 10 a - 1 - 25 a2
15. a2- 4 ab- x4 + 4 b2 18. a2 + 2 ab + b2 - 1
19. Show that the difference of the squares of two consecutive integers is
equal to the sum of the two integers. Use the result to obtain the
square of 51.
20. Show that the difference of the squares of two consecutive odd integers
is divisible by 8.

The General Quadratic Trinomial ax2 + fcx+ c

We are familiar with the procedure for obtaining the product of two
binomials such as 5 x — 2 and 2 x -f 3. At this time it may be instructive
to see how the procedure is justified by the axioms.
(5 x — 2) (2 x + 3) = (5 x — 2) • 2 x + (5 x — 2) • 3 (Distributive axiom)
= 2 x(5 x — 2) 3(5 x — 2) (Commutative axiom)
= 10 x2 4 x -f- 15 x — 6 (Distributive axiom)
= 10x2+llx — 6
Any two binomials of the first degree in x have a product which can be
expressed in the form ax2 + bx -f c. It does not follow that every quadratic
trinomial is factorable. The trinomial x2 -f x + 2, for instance, cannot be
obtained as the product of two binomials with integers as coefficients.
Even if a trinomial is factorable, there is no standard pattern which gives
the required binomials. The procedure commonly used in factoring an
expression of the form ax2 + bx + c is to try factors of a and c as coefficients
in the binomials until a combination is found which gives the required value
of b.

Example. Factor: 2x2-f5x + 3.

Solution: The only factors of 2 are 2 and 1, and of 3 are 3 and 1.
The only combinations to be considered are
(2 x -f- l)(x -j- 3), which leads to 2x2+7x + 3,
and (2 x + 3) (x + 1), which leads to 2 x2 + 5 x + 3, as required.
Why, in this case, was it not necessary to consider negative numbers in the
possible factors?

The testing of all possible pairs of factors of a and c leads either to the
factored form of ax2 + bx + c or to the conclusion that the trinomial is not
factorable. The result is soon determined if a and c have only one or two
Factored Forms 61

pairs of factors. If they are numbers such as 24 or 60, however, the con¬
sideration of the various combinations may take a great deal of time.
Another approach to the problem of factoring a quadratic trinomial can
be found by examining the detailed multiplication of two binomials on the
preceding page. The factoring procedure would consist of the reversal of the
order of the steps in this multiplication.
Consider the following:
10 x2 11 x — 6 = 10 x2 + 15 x — 4 x — 6
= 5x(2x + 3)-2(2* + 3)
= (2 x + 3) (5 x — 2)
The key point in the reverse process comes in the first line, where the term
+ 11 x is written as + 15 x — 4 x. It may be noted that the product of
+ 15 x and — 4 x is equal to the product of 10 £2 and — 6. This condition
is always satisfied when the product of two binomials is written without
combining terms. We have
(ax + b) (cx + d) = acx2 + adx + box + bd,
and it is readily verified that the product of the terms in x is equal to the
product of the other two terms.
It appears, then, that we can factor a quadratic trinomial if we can write
the term in x as the sum of two terms whose product is equal to that of the
term in x2 and the constant term. There is no definite way of obtaining the
two required terms, but in many cases it is easier to find them than to work
through the process of trying various combinations.

Example 1. Factor 2 x2 + 9 x + 10.

Solution: In this case it would be simple to find the factors by trial, but we
shall illustrate the procedure described above.
The product of 2 x2 and -f-10 is -+- 20 x2.
Write + 9 x as + 4 x + 5 x; the product of these two terms is also -f 20 x2.
Then 2x2 + 9^+10=2x2 + 4x+5x+10
= 2 x(x + 2) + 5(x -f 2)
= (2* + 5)(*+2)

Example 2. Factor 6 x2 — 5 x — 4.
Solution: The product of 6 x2 and — 4 is — 24 x2.
Write — 5 x as — 8 x + 3 x; the product of these two terms is also — 24 x2.
Then 6 x2 — 5 x — 4 = 6 a:2 — 8^+3a: 4
= 2 :r(3 x — 4) + (3 x — 4)
= (2 x+ 1)(3 x — 4)
62 Chapter 4

Using the Difference of Two Squares

In the trinomial x2 — 4 x — 396 the terms in x2 and x are the first two
terms in the square of the binomial x— 2. In such cases, the factoring of
the trinomial can be done directly by using the difference of two squares.

Example. Factor x2 — 4 x — 396.

Solution: We have x2 — 4 x — 396 = x2 — 4 x -f- 4 — 400
= (x — 2)2 — (20)2
= (x + 18) (x — 22)

Homogeneous Forms
The monomials 5 x2, — 7 xy, 3 y2 are each said to be of the second degree.
The degree of x2 is "2” because the exponent of x is 2. The degree of xy is
"2” because the sum of the exponents of x and y is 2. The monomials
2 x3 and 4 x2y are of the third degree; 2 x and 3 y are of the first degree.
When 2 x — y is multiplied by x — 3 y the product is the trinomial
2 x2 — 7 xy + 3 y2. Each term of this trinomial is of the second degree.
When all the terms of a polynomial are of the same degree the polynomial
is said to be homogeneous. The factors of 2 x2 — 7 xy -f 3 y2 are the homo¬
geneous first-degree expressions 2 x — y and x — 3 y, and it can be shown
that every factor of a homogeneous polynomial is also homogeneous. Hence,
if a homogeneous second-degree trinomial is factorable, the binomial factors
are homogeneous first-degree expressions. The procedure for factoring such
trinomials is the same as for the quadratic in one variable ax2 + bx + c.
Example. Factor 6 x2 — 31 xy -\- 18 y2.
Solution: The product of 6 and + 18 is + 108. (Using coefficients only)
We must express — 31 as the sum of two terms which also have product -f- 108.
Since the product is positive, the two terms have the same sign, and their
sum is — 31.
The prime factors of 108 are 2 • 2 • 3 • 3 • 3, and we see that — 4 and — 27
satisfy the conditions.
We have 6 x2 — 31 xy -j- 18 y2 — 6 x2 — 4 xy — 27 xy -f- 18 y2
= 2 x(3 x — 2 y) — 9 y(3 x — 2 y)
= (3 x — 2 y) (2 x — 9 y)

Exercises tA]
1. Show that for all values of x: (x + l)(x -f 3) = (x + 2)2 — 1.
2. Show that there is no value of x for which
(2 x — 1) (x T 4) = (2 x — 5)(x —6) —|— 10.
3. Find the one value of x for which (x + l)(x + 3) = (x — 2)2 -f- 3.
Check the result.
Factored Forms
63
4. Show that for all values of x: (x — 3)(x + 5) = (x -f l)2 — 16.
5. Show that there is no value of x for which

(2 x - 5){x + 3) = 2{x + l)2 - 3(* + 2).

6. Find the one value of x for which (2 x — l)2 — 2{x + 3)(2 x — 5) = 4
Check the result.

Solve and check the following equations:

7. (x + 3)(x + 1) — x(x + 2) = 0
8. (x + l)2 = (x — l)2 + 8
9. (2 x— l)2 — 4(x — 1)(# + 1) = 12
10. (2 x+ l)(x — 2) - (x— 1)(2 x + 3) = 2
11. (3 x + l)2 — 3{x — 2)2 = 6 x(x + 1)
12. 6 — 2(3; + 2) (2 y — 3) = 5y — (4y — 5)(y — 6)

Obtain the factored form, if there is one, of the following expressions:

13. a2 -{- 8 cl d- 12 24. 4 t2 - 4 t - 3 35. 50 x2 + 20 x -j- 2
14. a2 — 7 a + 12 25. — 5 x2 + 25 x — 30 36. 8 x4 -f- 10 x2 — 3
15. a2 — 2 a — 12 26. a2 — 4 ab — 12 b2 37. 3 x2 + x — 5
16. a2 — a — 12 27. 3 x2 — 2 xy — 8 y2 38. 18 t2 3 ty — 3 y2
17. x2 — 2 x — 35 28. 2 - y - 3 y2 39. 21 a2 - 17 ab — 4: b2
18. 35 — 2 x — x2 29. 25 x2 + 10 a: -{- 5 40. - 12 x2- 40 x- 12
19. 3 x2 + 4 x -f- 1 30. 6 #2 — x — 12 41. x2 + 4 # — 480
20. 3 x2 — 4 x + 2 31. 10 — x — 3 x2 42.x2-Sx - 1280
21. 3 x2 — 6 x — 24. 32. 4 a2 - 19 ab - 5 62 43. #2 -f 10 x — 875
22. 12 -f x — x2 33. 6 /2 — 13 t — 8 44. 2*2 + 25* +72
23. 4 t2-t-3 34. :r4 + x2 — 2 45. 2 x2 35 x — 375

Exercises [B]
1. Show that 3 x2 — 14 x — 24, 3 x2 — 28 x — 96, and 3 x2 — 35 x — 150
are special cases of the homogeneous form 3 x2 — 7 ax — 6 a2, the
values of a being 2, 4, and 5 respectively. Use the factors of the
homogeneous form to obtain the factors of the three trinomials.
2. Show that x2 — 3 x — 270 is a special case of x2 — ax — 30 a2, the
value of a being 3. Use the factors of the homogeneous form to obtain
the factors of x2 — 3 x — 270.
3. Factor 3 x2 — 70 x — 600 by noting that it is a special case of a
homogeneous form. (70 has a factor 10, and 600 has a factor 102.)
64 Chapter 4

Factor:
4. 3 x2 — 4 x — 160 7. 8 x2 — 15 x — 27 10. a*b*-\0a1 2 *b2+9

5. 2 x2 — 3 x — 252 8. x2 + 33 x - 540 11. 18 x4 — 74 x2 -f 8

6. 10 x2 + 9 £ — 36 9. 4 x4 — x2 — 18 12. 2 x2 — 69 x + 405

13. 3 x2 + 155 x + 900 16. (x — a)2 — 3 b(x — a) — 4 b2

14. (x + y)2 — 5(x + y) 6 17. 4(x + a)2 + 12 b(x + a) + 9 b2

15. 0+ b)2-b{a+b) + 9 18. 2(x + y)2 - 7(x + y) - 30
19. 3(a+b)2+7(a+b)-20

Summary of Factored Forms

There are three basic patterns to be recognized in our study of factoring

to this point. They are:

Pattern 1. The Common Factor. This pattern is typified by

ax + ay = a(x + y)
and p(a + t>) — q(a + b) = (a + b)(p — q)

Pattern 2. The Difference of Two Squares. This pattern is typified by

x2 — y2 = (x + y)U — y),
and (a + b)2 — c2 = (a -f- b + c)(a + b — c).

Pattern 3. The Quadratic Trinomial, including the Trinomial Square.

For example,

2 x2 — 3 xy — 5 y2 = (2 x — 5 y)(x -J- y),

and 4 x2 + 1 2 x + 9 = (2 x + 3)2.

The student should be conscious of working with one of the above pat¬
terns at every step in a factoring exercise. The following are given as
reminders:

1. First examine the given expression for a common monomial factor.

2. Consider the remaining expression with the above patterns in mind.

a. If it is a binomial, it is factorable only if it is the difference of two squares.
b. If it is a trinomial and is factorable, it will be of pattern (3).
c. If it is a four-term expression and contains a trinomial square group,
it will probably be a difference of two squares. If it is a four-term
expression not containing a trinomial square group, it will be factorable
only by grouping the terms in pairs and finding a common binomial
factor.
Factored Forms 65

After the factored form of an expression has been obtained, the student
should check the following points:

^ 1. Is the result a factored form?

Example, (a + b + l)(x + y) is a factored form, but the expression

(a + b) (x + y) + (x + y) is not a factored form.
^ 2. Are all the factors prime?

Example. 2(3 x — l)(x + 4) is in prime factors, but (6 x — 2)(x + 4) is

not in prime factors.
^ 3 . Does the factored form have the same degree as the original?

Example, x2 — y2 — ax + ay is a polynomial of the second degree, whereas

(x — a)(y — a){x — y) is a factored form of the third degree, and therefore
could not possibly be the factored form of the given polynomial.

If the factored form is correct, it follows that:

(a) For any specified values of the variables, the factored form and the
original expression have the same value;
(b) The factored form may be returned, by multiplication, to the original
form.

Exercises [A 11
Obtain the factored form, if there is one, of the following expressions.

1. 9 x2 — 6 x + 1 16. a2 + 4 ab + 4 b2 — 9 x2
2. irR2 + irRe 17. a2 — 2 ab + a — 2 b
3. x(3 -f a) — 2(a + 3) 18. 20 x2 — 20 xy + 5 y2
4. 8 x2 — 50 y2 19. 12 x2 — 23 x + 10
5. a2 + 2 ab — b2 20. l-9/2+12^-4w2
6. 6 x2 + xy — 2 y2 21. 4 x2 — 2 xy + y2
7. ax — ab — cx + cb 22. 4 a2 - 6 b - 9 b2 - 1

8. a(x — y) + b(x + y) 23. 3 a{x — y) — x + y

9. 2x2+7x - 15 24. 3 x2 — 5 x — 2
10. a2x2 — 4 b2c2x2 25. 3 x2 — 5 x + 2

11. 2 a2 — 2 ax — 12 x2 26. x2 - 6 x - 1080

12. 15-4 x-3 x2 27. 5 x2 - 10 x - 2200

13. 4 c2 — (2 a + b)2 28. x2 + 33 x + 270
14. 3 ax — 6 bx — 4 a + 8 b 29. y(x +9 a) — 3(y2 + ax)
15. a2 T b2 + c2 30. (2 a -b 3 6) (2 a — 3 F) + 4 a + 1
66 Chapter 4

Exercises [A 2]
Obtain the factored form if there is one, of the following expressions:
1. 4 — 20 x -f 25 x2 16. 9 a2- (6 + 2 c)2
2. 4 ttR2 -f- 2 7tjR/z 17. x2 — 4 x + 4 — 25 a2
3. 2(x + y) — a(y + x) 18. x2 — 4 x — xy + 4 y
4. 3 - 48 *2 19. 3/2-/ - 10
5. a2 + ab — 2 b2 20. a2 + 2 #6 + b2 — c2
6. #2 xy + y2 21. x2 — 44 x + 480
7. a3 -\- a2 — a — 1 22. 2 x2- 133 x-490
8. 8 x2 + 2 kx — 15 k2 23. 12 — 26 x — 20 x2
9. /(2 / — 1) — 28 24. a3 + a2b — abc — a2c
10. + b) — g(a — 6) 25. 9 — 9 y2 — 6 xy — x2
11. 32 x4-2 26. a2 — b2 + 8 b — 16
12. 20—11 n-3n2 27. 2 x2- 10 x- 1500
13. xy — y2 + 2 x — 2 3; 28. 4 - 32 x2 + 64 x4
14. a(x + y) + b(x + y) + x + y 29. b(a2 -9 c) + 3(a2c - b2)
15. 2 pq-\-2 pr — q — r 30. (p + q)(p — q) — r(r + 2 q)

Exercises [B]
1. (a) Factorxy-4x. (b) Factor (a + b){a — b) — 4{a + b). (c) Divide
a2 — b2 — 4 a — 4 b by a + b.
2. (a) Factor x2 — x. (b) Factor (a + b)2 — (a + b). (c) Divide
a2 + 2 ab + b2 — a — b by a + b.
3. (a) Factor abc — 2 c. (b) Factor x(x + l)(x + 3) — 2(x + 3).
4. Factor p(p — 2) — q(q — 2).
5. Factor x(p + q) + (p + q)2-
6. Factor (a) n2 -f 2 n\ (b) (x + y)2 + 2(x + y).
(c) Divide x2 + 2 xy + y2 + 2 x + 2 y by x + y.
7. (a) Factor ab — 2 a. (b) Factor {p + q){p — q) — 2{p + q).
(c) Divide p2 — q2 — 2 p — 2 q by p + q.
8. (a) Factor x2 — 3 x. (b) Evaluate 12.32 — (2.3)(12.3).
(c) Factor (a — 2 b)2 — 3 a + 6 b.
9. Factor x2 — \y2 — 3 x + 6 y. 11. Factor 3 ax + a2 — 3 bx — b2.
10. Factor a + b -f- 3 a2 — 3 b2. 12. Factor ap + aq — 2 p2 + 2 q2.
Factored Forms 67

Cubes of Binomials
If a cube has each edge (x -f- 2) inches, its volume is expressed by the
quantity (x + 2)3 cubic inches. To help us in obtaining the polynomial form
of such quantities, we proceed to examine the general pattern of the cube
of a binomial.
We have seen that

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2 xy -j- y2,

so that we have
(x + y)3 = (x-\-y) (x2 + 2 xy + y2)
= x(x2 -j- 2 xy + y2) + y(x2 + 2 xy + y2)
= x3 + 2 x2y + xy2 -f- #2y T 2 #y2 + y3

Thus, (x + y)3 = x3 + 3 x2y + 3 xy2 + y3. ®

We note that, as we should expect, the polynomial form is homogeneous

of the third degree in the variables x and y. The coefficients form the sym¬
metrical pattern 1, 3, 3, 1. We may obtain the polynomial form of (x — y)3
in a similar manner. In fact, it may be obtained from the above result by
replacing y by — y throughout the pattern. This gives

► (x — y)3 = X3 — 3 x2y + 3 xy2 — y3. ©

These identities are used in obtaining the cube of any binomial by replacing
the symbols x and y by the corresponding terms of the binomial which is
to be cubed.

Example 1. (x + 2)3 = x3 + 3 x2(2) -f 3 x(22) + 23

= x3 + 6 x2 + 12 x + 8

Example 2. (a — 4 b)3 — a3 — 3 a2{4 b) + 3 a(4 b)2 — (4 b)3

= a3 — \2 a2b + 48 ab2 - 64 b3

The Sum and the Difference of Two Cubes

It is clear from identity ® that *3 + y3 is not identical with (x + y)3,
and again we note that applying an exponent to a polynomial is not equiv¬
alent to distributing that exponent over the terms of the polynomial. The
question arises as to whether x3 + y3 is a factorable form, and examination
of identity ® shows that it is. The identity may be rearranged as follows:
^3 -f- y3 = (x -f- y)3 — 3 x2y — 3 xy2 From ®.
= (x + y)3 — 3 xy(x + y)
In this form it is clear that (x + y) is a factor of the right-hand side, and so
it must be a factor of x3 + y3. The other factor is clearly (x + y)2 — 3 xy,
68 Chapter 4

which may be simplified to x2 — xy y2. Thus we may write the following

pattern:

x3 + y3 = (x -f y)(x2 — xy + y2).
► ®

In a similar manner, it may be shown that

x3 — y3 = (x — y)(x2 + xy -f- y2).

► ®

Identity © provides us with the factored form of the sum of two cubes,
and identity ® provides us with the factored form of the difference of two
cubes. Note that the sum of two cubes is divisible by the sum of the quan¬
tities that are cubed, and that the difference of two cubes is divisible by
the difference of the quantities that are cubed.

Example 1. Factor 8 a3 — 1.
Solution: The expression may be written (2 a)3 — l3, which is the difference of
two cubes. The factored form therefore is
(2 a- 1)(4 a2+2a+ 1).

Example 2. Divide x3 + 27 y3 by x -f- 3 y.

Solution: We have x3 + 27 y3 = x3 + (3 y)3, that is, the sum of two cubes.
The factored form therefore is
(x + 3 y) (x2 — 3 xy + 9 y2).
Hence, x3 -j- 27 y3 is divisible by x + 3 y and the quotient is
x2 — 3 xy -f- 9 y2.

Exercises [A]
Write the polynomial form of each of the following:
1. (a + b)3 4. (x + l)3 7. (x + .l)3
2. (2 a — b)3 5. (x — 3)3 8. (2 x— 5)3
3. (2 a -f- 3 b)3 6. (2 x + l)3 9. (3 x — 2 y)3

Write the factored form of each of the following:

10. a3 + 8 b3 13. 2 x3 — 16 y3 16. 8 /3 + 27 u3
11. x3- 1 14. 27 — a3b3 17. xy — x4y
12. 1+ x3 15. 8 + x3 18. x3y3 — 8 y3

19. Use the polynomial form of (x -f y)3 to show that the value of the
cube of 5.01 is 125.75 to the nearest hundredth. (Note that 5.01 may
be written in the form 5 + .01)
Factored Forms
69

20. Use the polynomial form of (x — y)3 to show that the value of the
cube of 1.99 is 7.88 to the nearest hundredth. (1.99 = 2 — .01)
21. Show that 3.013 = 27.27 to the nearest hundredth.
22. Show that 2.983 = 26.46 to the nearest hundredth.
23. Simplify: (x + h)3 - (x - h)3. 24. Simplify: (x + h)3 + (x - h)3.
25. Two cubes have edges of lengths {n-\- 1) inches and n inches respec¬
tively. Express in simplest polynomial form the difference of the
volumes of the cubes.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B]

Factor:
1. m2 + m n2 — n 6. ax -j- 2 ay — 3 x2 + 12 y2
2. 2 pq + 2 pr -f r2 — q2 7. 2 x+3y + 5(2 x+3y)2
3. n{n + \){n -f 2) — 3 n(n + 1) 8. x3 - 3 x2 - 6 x -f- 8
4. x3 -f y3 — xy(x -f- y) 9. x3 — 3 x2 T 3 x — 1
5. (a — b)3 T 4 ab(a — b) 10. a2 - 2 ab + b2 - 3 a + 3 b
11. Show that x(x + y)3 - x2(x + y)2 = xy(x + y)2, for all x and y.
12. If a = w2, ^ = 2 w», c = m2 n2, show that, for all values of
m and n, c2 — b2 — a2.

13. Show that the factored form of {a2 — 3 a + l)2 — 1 is

a(a — 1 )(a — 2) (a — 3).
14. Factor: 4 b2c2 — (b2 + c2 — a2)2.
15. Factor: n(n — 1 ){n + 1) — 2(n + 1).
16. Show that (a + b)2 + (b + c)2 -f (c -f a)2 = (a -f b -f c)2 -j- a2 + b2 + c2.
Use the result to express 42 + 92 + 72 as the sum of the squares of
four integers.
17. Verify that 122 — 2(11)2 -f 102 = 2, and that 212 — 2(20)2 + 192 = 2.
If n is the smallest of three consecutive integers, express in terms of n
the relationship of which the above are specific instances. Show that
the relationship is true for all values of n.
18. If a and b represent any unequal numbers in our present field of opera¬
tion (positive and negative integers and fractions), is it possible for
(a — b)2 to have zero or negative value?
What may be deduced about the relative values of a2 + b2 and 2 ab?
Use the result to show that if a, b, c are unequal then the value of
a2 -f- b2 + c2 exceeds the value of ab + be -f- ac.
70 Chapter 4

19. (a) Show that if x6 — 1 is factored as the difference of two cubes, the
factored form is (x + l)(x — l)(x4 + oc2 + 1).
(b) Show that if x6 — 1 is factored as the difference of two squares,
the factored form is (x + l)(x — l)(x2 + x + l)(x2 — x + 1).
(c) Factor x4 + x2 + 1 by writing it in the form x4 + 2 x2 + 1 — x2,
and so demonstrate that the factored forms in (a) and (b) are
equivalent.
20. Factor 4 x4 + 1, by writing it as 4 x4 + 4 x2 + 1 — 4 x2, and noting
that this is the difference of two squares.
21. Factor a4 + 4 b4 by expressing it as the difference of two squares.
22. Factor: x4 + x2y2 + y4. 24. Factor: 4 t4 + 11 t2u2 + 9 u4.
23. Factor: x4 — 12 x2y2 + 16 y4. 25. Factor: 4 a4 + 625 b4.
26. Show that the value of (x4 + x2 + 1) (a;3 + 1) when x = 1.5 is 1.9.

Chapter Review
Factor the following expressions:
1. 3*2-27* 14. x2 — 3 x — xy + 3y
2. 3 x3 + 12 x2 + 12 x 15. x2 — y2 — 4 y — 4
3. 4 a2 - 9 b2 16. 2 ax — a2 — x2
4. 4 a2 — 9 ab — 9 b2 17. 3 x3 + 2 x2 — 9 x — 6
5. x3 — 1 18. xy + 9 + 3(x + y)
6. x3 — x 19. 6 a — x2 — 2 x + 3 ax
l.\t2- 100 20. (2 x + 2.5)2 — (*+1.5)
8. 3a(*+2)-2(2 + 0 21. u2 + 2 a — 1023
9. 4 — 20 n + 25 n2 22. (a — &)2 + a — b
10. 4 - 15 n - 25 n2 23. 6 x4 — 15 x2 — 9
11. 81 + 108 y+36 y2 2*1.2 R2 + 2 Rh — R —h
12. (p — q)2 — 4 r2 25. y2(y — 4) + 4(4 — y)
13. a2 — 2 ab + b2 — 4 c2
Solve the following equations:
26. (x + 3)(x — 2) — (x — 3)(x + 2) = 4
27. (2 x — 3)(x + 4) = 2 x(x + 1) — 5
28. (2 x - 5)2 - 3(x - 2)2 = (x + 3)2

29. Write the polynomial form of (5 x — 2 y)3.

30. Show that for all values of x, 2 x2 — 3 x + 4 = 2(x — f)2 +
Factored Forms

Cticp^r Test
Factor the following expressions:
1. 3 x3 — 27 x 14. x2 — y2 — 4 y — 4 x
2. 2 n2 — n — 3 15. x3 — 8 y3
3. 3 x2 — 5 *—12 16. 10/2-15/-25
4. 3 x2 — 9 # — 12 17. a2 + 2 ab + b2 - c2
5. x4 — 1 18. a2 + 2fc-62-c2
6. x4 + x 19. a:4 + x3 — # — 1
7. #4 — 6 x2 + 9 20. (3 3; — 2.5)2 — (y+ 1.5)
8. 2 x4 — x3 — 6 x2 21. 12 — 7 w/ — 12 w2/2
9. 12 w — 3 w3 22.2x3 + 8x2-2x-8
10. 18- 12* — 6 x2 2(x — y)2 — 3(x — 3)
11. 3 a{t- 2) -2(2-/) 2 15 xy — 10 y2 — 5 x2
12. 9 t2 — {x — 2 y)2 2). »(« + 1)(» + 3) — 3 »
13. 3 #(» — 1) -f 1 — »

Solve the following equations:

26. 3(x — 2)2 — 2(x -f- 1)(# — 1) = x(x — 9)
27. (2 * - 3) (2 * + 3) - (2 * - l)2 = 0
28. (3 x + l)(x — 3) — (2 x + !)(# — 2) = x2

29. Write the polynomial form of (4 x — y)3.

30. Show that for all values of x, 4 x2 — 6 x + 1 = 4(x — f)2 — %.
 Congruences

We have seen that when coefficients are restricted to the set of integers the
expression 4 x2 —9 y2 has factors 2 x +3 y and 2x —3 y, while the expression
xz-\-3y2 is not factorable. A factor of an algebraic expression is an exact
divisor of the expression, and the ideas of factoring and divisibility go naturally
together. In the set of positive integers we say that the integer a is divisible by
the integer b if there is an integer n such that a — bn. For example, 35 is divisible
by 7 because 35 = 7- 5.
You are probably acquainted with the fact that an integer is divisible by 3 if
and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Thus 4425 is divisible by 3 be¬
cause the sum of its digits (4 -f 4 -)- 2 -f 5) is divisible by 3. If you are not clear
as to why this is true in every case, the ideas developed in this Sidelight may be
helpful to you. The numbers under consideration in the discussion are the set
of non-negative integers, S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, • . •}.
When a member of S is divided by 3 the remainder is 0, 1, or 2. The members
may, in fact, be classified by means of the remainders, and we have
0, 3, 6, 9, 12, - • - are in the class with remainder 0,
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, • • • are in the class with remainder 1,
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ••• are in the class with remainder 2.
We now introduce some technical terms. If integers a and b are such that | a — b |
is divisible by an integer m, then a and b are said to be congruent with respect to
the modulus m. The sentence is congruent to b with respect to the modulus m”
is symbolized as “o =b, mod m.”
In the classification of the members of S with respect to the remainder after
division by 3, it can be seen that any two numbers in the same class are con¬
gruent, mod 3. Thus,
6=0, mod 3, 10 = 1, mod 3, 14=2, mod 3.
In the general case, we may say that if the remainder when a is divided by m is
equal to the remainder when b is divided by m, then a =b, mod m. This result
follows from the fact that if the remainder in each case is r, we may write
a — pm -f r and b =qm +r where p and q are integers. Then | a — b | is clearly
divisible by m.
The relationship of congruence between two numbers has many of the proper¬
ties of equality. It is not hard to see, for instance, that the reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive properties hold for congruences. These properties are stated as
follows:
1. a = a, mod m
2. If a =b, mod m, then b = a, mod m.
3. If a = b, mod m, and b =c, mod m, then a = c, mod m.
72
 We also have the following theorems:

Theorem 1. If a — b, mod m, and c = d, mod m, then a -f- c == b -J- d, mod m.

-Proof-
We wish to show that [(a -f c) — (b +</)] is divisible by m.
We have (« + c) —i (b -f- d) = (a — b) -f- (c —d), and it is given that a — b is
divisible by m and that c — d is divisible by m.
It follows that (a -f c) — (b +d) is divisible by w.

Theorem 2. If a = b, mod m, and c ~ d, mod m, then ac = bd, mod m.

-Proof-
We wish to show that ac — bd is divisible by m.
We have ac — bd = ac — be -f be — bd
= c(a — b) -(- b(c — d)
It is given that a — b and c — d are both divisible by m.
It follows that ac — bd is divisible by m.
We now show that any positive integer is congruent to the sum of its digits,
mod 3. The result depends upon the fact that 10n = 1, mod 3, for any positive
integer n, and this is established as follows:
10 = 1, mod 3
By Theorem 2, 10n = ln = 1, mod 3.
Consider now the number 4425, which may be written
4 • 103-f4 • 102 -f 2 • 10 +5.
Since each power of 10 is congruent to 1, mod 3, Theorems 1 and 2 enable us to
write 4425 = 4-f4+2+5, mod 3.
The result illustrated above for 4425 can be demonstrated in the same way
for any positive integer. A positive integer is, therefore, divisible by 3 if and
only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Example. Show that 1,000,000 = 1, mod 7.
Solution: We have 10 = 3, mod 7.
Hence, 102 = 9 = 2, mod 7. (Theorem 2)
106 = 2 • 2 • 2 = 8 = 1, mod 7.
Exercise. Use the result of the above Example to state what day of the week
it will be 1,000,000 days from the day on which you are reading this sentence.
 EXERCISES

1. If x = 2, mod 5 and 0 < x < 30, write the set of values of x.

2. Evaluate 157 • 8 • 19, mod 3.
3. Find the smallest positive integer x such that 3 x = 2, mod 5.
4. What modulus is used in dealing with numbers associated with hours
on a standard clock? If it is now 3 o’clock, what will be the time 100 hours
from now?
5. What modulus is used in dealing with numbers associated with the days
of the week? Show that 365 = 1, mod 7. If January 1 falls on Wednesday
in a year which is not a leap year, on which day of the week will January 1
of the following year fall?
6. Find the two smallest positive integers x such that 4x=3, mod 7.
7. Is there an integer x such that 2 x = 1, mod 6?
8. Show that if a =b, mod 3, and b =c, mod 3, then a = c, mod 3.
9. Show that if n is a positive integer, 10n = l, mod 9. Use the result to
show that 234,567 =0, mod 9.
10. Show that if n is a positive integer, then
102n = 1, mod 11,
102n_1 = 10, mod 11.
Use the result to show that any number of the form da,ebb,cad where
a, b, c, d are digits, is divisible by 11.

74
 In a mass-production procedure it is virtually impossible to check the quality of
every item coming off the production line. The problem of quality control through
periodic inspection is one which requires mathematicians trained in the fields of
probability and statistics. It is the job of these mathematicians to determine how
inspections should be made and how they can best reveal any source of trouble
in the manufacturing process.
The operator in the photograph is not actually engaged in a quality control
operation. The many instruments and recording devices shown are, however,
designed to assist in the production of articles of uniform quality.
 Fractions

Fractions
a
The basic fraction in arithmetic is a symbol of the form - where a and b
b
are integers. The symbol may represent the result of a division of one integer
by another, as in the case "3-^4 = §or it may indicate that a certain
part of a particular unit is being considered, as in the case "9 inches is f of a
foot.”
The word fraction is derived from a Latin verb meaning "to break”
(compare fracture). Its original meaning was that of a part of a quantity
(broken), but it has a much wider use as representing the result of dividing
one number by another. This is its general significance in algebra.
An algebraic fraction is the indicated quotient of two algebraic expres-
X "4" v
sions, such as X2
——Such
_|_ y2 fraction forms are often complicated in appear-

ance, but in working with them the same principles are used as with the
simpler fractions of arithmetic.

In the form - > the number denoted by b and written below the fraction
b
line is called the denominator of the fraction. Its use in arithmetic is to
name (give the denomination of) the type of fraction under consideration,
such as thirds, tenths, hundredths. In the algebraic fraction, the denomina¬
tor is the divisor, and since the operation of division by zero is meaningless,
an algebraic fraction cannot be defined for any values of the variables in the
expression which make the denominator zero.
The number denoted by a and written above the fraction line is called the
numerator of the fraction. In arithmetic fractions it states .the number of
basic parts contained in the specific fraction. Thus f has the same meaning
as 3(J).
Whenever the numerator is zero the fraction has zero value.
76
Fractions 77
Alternative Forms of a Fraction
Comparing a length of 6 inches with a length of 1 foot makes it apparent
that Y2 and \ are alternative forms representing the same part of the one-
foot unit. Also, the equations 12 x = 6 and 2 x = 1, which have roots & and
\ respectively, are equivalent, so that from the point of view of the division
of integers the fractions and \ have the same value. We note then that
6 _ 6(1) _ 1
12 6(2) 2
ft f

Equal fractions are defined by the statement that - = - if and only if

b d
71Q/ O
ad = be. It follows that — = r for all non-zero values of n and b. The een-
nb b---°
eral statement above is widely used in fraction work. It may be expressed
in words, as follows:

The value of a fraction is not changed when the numerator and the de¬
nominator are both multiplied or both divided by the same non-zero number.

This principle enables us to simplify the form of a fraction without

changing its value by dividing numerator and denominator by any factor
common to the two quantities. When there is no factor common to numera¬
tor and denominator, the fraction is said to be in lowest terms. Thus,
4(x2 +2) 4 4 x2 + 2
—7——-7 may be reduced to -> but -— -is in lowest terms. In reducing
5(jt2 + 2) 5 5 x2 + 2
an algebraic fraction to lowest terms, care must be taken to divide only by
factors common to the complete numerator and the complete denominator.
4(q — 1) — 2
Example. Reduce to lowest terms:
9 (a — 1) — 3 a
Solution: The fraction can be reduced only if the numerator and denominator
have a common factor. (Note that the quantity a — 1, which is common to
numerator and denominator, is not a factor of either.)
4(a — 1) — 2 _ 4 a — 4 — 2
We have
9 (a — 1) — 3 a 9a— 9— 3a
_4a—6
6a—9
2(2 a - 3)
“3(2 0-3)
_2
— 3

If a were assigned the value 1%, the common factor (2 a 3) would have the
value zero. In this case the division operation would not be valid. However,
when a has the value 1^, the original fraction takes the indeterminate form 0/0, so
the reduction is valid in all cases where the original fraction has meaning.
78 Chapter 5

Exercises [A]
In exercises 1-12, reduce each fraction to lowest terms.
12 n x2 — 4 a2 x2 — 2 x — 8
1. 5. 9.
18 n x2 — ax — 2 a2 x2 — 4 x

~ x2y 4 n2 — 4 n -f- 1 6 x2 — 7 x — 3
^• o 6. 10.
y2x 4w-2 2 x2 — 9 x -f 9

4 x — 8 x2 7 2 x—5 y x+y
3. 11.
8x ’ 4 x2 — 25 y2 ax + ay — x — y
ab -f- ac 2 a2 T 4 ab 12 2 x(x — 3) — 8
4. 8.
ah a2 + 4 -f 4 fr2 * 2 x(x — 3) -f 8 x

In exercises 13-18, find the missing numerator and state any value of x
which is excluded from the identity in each case.
? 16 3x _ ?
20 x * 2 x—3 4 x2 — 9
x— 1 ? 12 3 x + 5 __?_
—~2 3x— 6 x—1 (x — 1)(2 x — 3)
x— 1 ? lg 1 + X + X2 _ ?
15.
x— 2 (x — 2)2 1 + x 1 — X2

Order of Size of Fractions

The order of size of the fractions y and yy is readily determined by ex¬
pressing them with the same denominator. The most convenient denomina¬
tor for the purpose is 7 • 11, and when this is used the fractions become yy
and fy respectively. Thus, yy is the larger of the given fractions.

The fractions 7> - may be expressed in the form If the denomi-

b a bd bd
nator bd is positive, the order of size of the fractions is the order of
size of their numerators, so that 7 is greater than - if ad is greater than be.
b d
Thus, using the symbol for "is greater than,” we have:

7 > - if ad > be and bd > 0.

b d
x T 2^
Example. If x > 0, which is the larger number, x + 1 or
x x + 1'
Solution: We see that (x+ l)(x+ 1) > x(x+ 2),
since x2 -f- 2 x T 1 > x2 + 2 x.
x-!-
T 1 > x-!-
T2
Hence, we deduce that
X X -f- 1
Fractions 79

Expressions Having the Same Absolute Value

The commutative axiom for addition shows us that for any given value
of x the expressions x + 2 and 2 + x represent the same number. Thus, we
may use x + 2 in the place of 2 -f- x whenever it is convenient to do so.
Except when x = 2, the expressions x — 2 and 2 — x do not represent the
same number. When x = 5, for example, the value of x — 2 is 3 and the
value of 2 — x is —3. The distributive axiom shows us that for all values
of X
2 — x = — \{x — 2).

Thus, for any given value of x the expressions 2 — x and x — 2 have the
same absolute value but each is the negative (or additive inverse) of the
other. It follows that

2 —x — l(x — 2) . ... _
2= *_2 =~1’ Provlded x*2-

In reducing fractions to lowest terms it is helpful to be able to recognize

expressions which have the same absolute value even though one may be the
negative of the other. The following illustrations of the effect of multiplying
a binomial or a trinomial by —1 should be carefully examined.

1. Multiply a-\-b by — 1: — 1 (a -f 6) = — a — b
2. Multiply a — b by — 1: — l(a — b) = — a + b, or b — a
3. Multiply x2 + x — 6 by — 1:
— 1 (x2 -f x — 6) = — x2 — x + 6, or 6 — x — x2

Thus, — a — b is the negative of a + b

b — a is the negative of a — b
6 — x — x2 is the negative of x2 + x — 6

Consider also the effect of multiplying by —1 an expression which is in

factored form. We have:

(- 1) • [(# — 3) (x— 2)]

= [(— l)(x — 3)] • (x— 2) (Using the associative axiom)
= (3 — x) (x — 2)

The important point to be aware of in this situation is that an expression

is multiplied by —1 if just one of its factors is multiplied by —1.
If each of two factors of an expression is multiplied by 1, then the ex¬
pression is multiplied twice by —1. In this case, the resulting expression
has the same value as the original. Thus,
(3 — x)(2 — x) has the same value as (x — 3) (x —2),
while (3 — x)(x — 2) is the negative of {x — 3) {x —2).
80 Chapter 5

► Summary

1. Changing the order of the terms in a polynomial does not change the
value of the expression in any way.

Thus, 2 x-f y and y+ 2 x have the same value,

— 6 — x -f- x2 and x2 — x — 6 have the same value.

2. Multiplying each term of a polynomial by — 1 has the effect of multiplying

the polynomial by —1. The new polynomial has the same absolute value
as the original but is the negative of the original.

Thus, 15 — x — 2 x2 = — (2 x2 -j- x — 15)

3. If an expression is in factored form, multiplying one or more factors by

— 1 does not alter the absolute value of the expression.
When the number of factors multiplied by — 1 is even, the value of the
expression is not changed in any respect.

Thus, (y — x)(y — 2 x) = (x — y)(2 x — y).

When the number of factors multiplied by — 1 is odd, the new expression

is the negative of the original.

Thus, (2 — x)(3 + *) = — (x — 2)(x + 3).

2 —x
Example 1. Reduce to lowest terms:
x2 — 4
2—x — \{x — 2)
Solution:
x2 — 4 (x — 2){x-\-2)
1 /Dividing numerator and^
x 2 \denominator by x — 2 y

2 ^_2 y
Example 2. Reduce to lowest terms: —---
y2 — 2 xy + x2

Solution: 5= 2 2 %—2Jy 2
y* — 2 xy + xz xz — 2 xy + y
_ 2Q — y)
(x — y)2
2 (Dividing numerator'
x—y and denominator by
x—y

[A-1]
Exercises
• oc 5
1. Write the set of values of x for which - <
4 2
8 4
2. Write the set of values of x for which - > -•
x 5
Fractions
81

3. If n > 0, which is the larger number, — or

10 10
n n+3’

4. If n > 5, which is the larger number, — or

n n — S'

In exercises 5-11 select the correct result from (a), (b), (c).
/i \ x 2 x / \ x 2 x
5. (a)5>^; (b) - = —; (c) - < —
y 2y y 2y y 2y
r / x iO 10 10 , x 10 ^ 10
6. (a) — > (b)^ = (c) o <
X‘ 1 + X2 v J X2 1 + X2 ’ X2 " 1 -f X2

7. ^ % may be reduced to: (a) 1; (b) (c) — •

(3 ^)3 p w 3 p

8. t—may be reduced to: (a) ^ (b) (c)

2—2x 2x it: — 1 ’ 1 +x
-3/ 1 t t
9. may be reduced to: (a) — -; (b) (c)
5 t 3 3 1 — t /+ 1
10. (x — 2) (it: + 4) is identical with:

(a) - (2 — *)(4 + s); (b) (2 + a)(4 — a); (c) (2 — jc)(4 + «).

11. (a — x)2 is identical with: (a) (a + a:)2; (b) (x — a)2; (c) — (it: -a)'

Express each of the following fractions in lowest terms.

xy -f x x+y
12. (a) ^±-2 (b) (c)
y+x xy it:
2 a—4 x—y it:2 — y2
13. (a) (b) to
2a y— x y + it:
x2 — 4 4- it:2
14. (a) f x (b) (c)
J 8y—4x it:2 — 4 it: + 4 (*“ 2)2
x2 - 7 x + 12 it: — y
15. (a) (b)
12 — it: — x2 ait: — ay — x + y

(x + y)2 — 4 a2 8 x3 -f y3
16. (a) (b)
2{x + y) — 4 a 4 it:2 — y2

Rewrite the following so that all fractions in a group have the same
denominator, selecting the least possible quantity for this denominator.
1 3
17 2. _7_ _4_ 1_4
A/- 5) 10) 15) 21 19.
(1 -x)2 (2x-3)(x- 1)

a b c 5 4 3 it: + 3
82 Chapter 5

[A-2]
Exercises
oc 5
1. Write the set of values of x for which — > -•

4 5
2. Write the set of values of x for which - < -•
x 3

3. If n > 0, which is the larger number, ^ or

2 n 3w'
180 180,
4. If n > 0, which is the larger number, , n or
n+ 8 n

In exercises 5-11 select the correct result from (a), (b), (c).

oH oH
o o
100/) £. (b)100i = ^;

V
100 q q V 7 100 q q
5 + n2 ^ 5 . /l\ 3 + n2 5.
6. (a) (c) 5 + n*
2 + n2 2’ (b) 2 + ^ = 2’ W 2 + n2

7• f rzfb may be reduced t0: (a) %; (h) - f; (c) fiTTi •

8. X' x-~ may be reduced to: (a) x2; (b) 1 + x2; (c) 1 + - •
xy y
9. (1 — x)(2 — x) is identical with:
(a) (x— l)(x — 2); (b) (x + 1)0 + 2); (c) — (x — 1)0 — 2).
10. (y — n)3 is identical with: (a) (n — y)3; (b) (n + y)3; (c) — (n — y)3.
11. 2 — x — x2 is identical with:
(a) 2 -f x + x2; (b) x2 + x — 2; (c) — {x2 + # — 2).
Express each of the following fractions in lowest terms.
x— 1 x 1 — w2 (A Q~ 1)0+1)
12. (a) (b)
# — x2 (1 — n)2 1 > (1-/,)(!+/,)
3 + 22 — 2' x2 — 8 x -f- 12
13. (a) (b)
2 2 — 6 4 — 4 x + x2
t3- 1 6 x3 — 2 x2 — 3x+l
14. (a) (b)
(1 — /)3 v 1 — x — 6 x2
Rewrite the following so that all fractions in a group have the same
denominator, selecting the least possible quantity for this denominator.
it 2 4 3 t 12 ab
17.
5' i 12 t t3 2 a—2b 3a + 3b 2 b2 - 2 a2
is a b a — b 4 a 3 a2
lO. 7 -
f — f - 18.
b a a+b 2a —2 (1 — a)2 (a— l)3
Fractions 83

Multiplication and Division of Fractions

If a rectangle has length 7 inches and width 5 inches, the area obtained
by the formula A = Iwis 35 square inches. Since there are 144 square inches
in a square foot, the area of the rectangle may also be expressed as square
feet. But the area obtained from the formula by writing the dimensions in
feet is (iij'Xi^') square feet. Hence if we wish to use the formula with such
fraction forms we must have (tVXA) = Tik-
Let us consider also the product of the fractions § and f, regarding the
fractions in this case as the quotients of integers. Suppose x is a symbol for
the fraction § and y is a symbol for the fraction f; then we have x = %
and y = f, so that
3 x = 2, and 8 y = 5.
Therefore (3 ^)(8 y) = (2) (5)
That is, (3)(8)(xy) = (2) (5) (Using the associative
and commutative axioms)
_ (2) (5) _ product of numerators
(3) (8) product of denominators
The fact that we wish to use fraction forms to represent parts of a unit
and to express the quotient of two integers leads us to define the product of
two fractions in a manner consistent with the above results. We therefore
have the following definition:

. a c a • c
► b'd~b~^d’

or

The product of two (or more) fractions is a fraction with numerator equal to
the product of the individual numerators and with denominator equal to the
product of the individual denominators.

a c ac ^ x2 6 y _ 6 x2y _ 2_x
Examples.
’iTfi2’ ’ 3 y2 x 3 xy2 y

x 4 a _ 4x
3. 4 •
x— 4 1 x—4 x—4

Example 3 illustrates the fact that when a fraction is multiplied by an

integer the product is obtained by multiplying the numerator of the fraction
by the integer, leaving the denominator unchanged.
By the above definition, the product of a number of fractions may be
written as soon as the fractions are given. lo obtain the product in lowest
terms, the numerators and denominators of the individual fractions should
be factored. Factors of the individual numerators are necessarily factors of
84 Chapter 5

the numerator of the product, and factors of the individual denominators

are necessarily factors of the denominator of the product. Numerator and
denominator may therefore be divided by a factor appearing in one of the
numerators and also in one of the denominators. When all such divisions
have been performed, the remaining quantity is the product in lowest terms.

Example 4. Multiply § by
5 6 5-6
Solution: We have
3'35 “ 3 • 35
5-3-2
3*5*7
_ 2
— 7

Note. Whether the 5 is divided into the 35 and the 3 into the 6 before the product
form is written or after it is written is immaterial. The main point to guard against is
the actual multiplying of numerator and denominator to the form y3^ before considering
possible reductions. After such multiplication it is more difficult to obtain the result in
lowest terms, and the possibility of error is increased.

Example 5. Multiply — J) by 6.

Solution: The quantity ^(x — %) is the product of two factors, and in multiply¬
ing it by 6 we must be careful to multiply only one of the factors by 6.
Thus We could write:
6 • ■£(* — i) = (6 • i)(x -i) 6 • i(x— i) = (3 • i) • [2(x -«]
= 2(x—i) = 1 • (2 s- 1)
= 2x— 1 = 2x— 1

Example 6. Multiply ^ x—— by —-- •

x- + x — 6 3x
Solution: Expressing numerators and denominators in factored form, we have
the product
3(s — 2) (x -h 3) (a — 3)
(s + 3)(x — 2) 3 •x
Numerator and denominator may be divided by the common factors 3, x — 2,
and x -f- 3.
x—3
The product in lowest terms is 1-

Reciprocal Numbers
When the product of two numbers is 1, each number is said to be the
multiplicative inverse or the reciprocal of the other. In any such pair of
reciprocal numbers, except the pair 1,1, one of the numbers must be a proper
fraction. Specific reciprocal pairs are §, §; f, f; J, 2. In general, a pair of
Fractions 85

reciprocal numbers is of the form 7* where a and b are non-zero integers.

b a

If b = 1, the pair takes the form a, -• One of our axioms states that every
a
number of our system except zero has a multiplicative inverse, and the pro¬
cedure for dividing by a fraction is based on this property of our numbers.

Division of Fractions
To divide § by § means to find that fraction which when multiplied by f
makes the product equal to f. Let the required fraction be denoted by x;
then we must have
r . 4 _ 3
x 3—5

Let both sides of the equation be multiplied by the reciprocal of f, that is,
by §. Then we have
r . 4 . 3 _ 3 . 3
*£ 3 4 — 5 4

Then since the product of § and its reciprocal j is 1, we have

y — 3 . 3
x ~ 5 4

Hence the fraction x, the result of dividing f by §, may be found by mul¬

tiplying f by the reciprocal of §.
The procedure used in the above numerical case is always valid, so we
have the following rule for dividing by a fraction.

To divide a number by a fraction multiply the number by the reciprocal

^ b
/b\
(— ) of the fraction.
\a/

Example 1. Divide f by f.
Solution: The quotient is given by
3 5
4 * 6
3-5
4-3-2
_ 5
"8
^ x+ 2
Example 2. Divide —- by
3 x ' 2 x
Solution: The quotient is given by
(*+2)(*-2) 2x
3x x+ 2
2(* — 2)
3
86 Chapter 5

[A—1]
Exercises
1. (a) Multiply f by 15. (b) Divide f by 15. (c) Multiply J by fy.
2. (a) Multiply t by 2. (b) Multiply f by (c) Divide § by J.
3. (a) Multiply 4 by f. (b) Divide 4 by f. (c) Divide 3 by f.
x
4. (a) Multiply - by y. (b) Divide - by x. (c) Divide - by y.
y y y
x—2 3x+6
5. (a) Multiply by 6. (b) Divide by 3.
3 5
6. (a) Multiply J(x — 3) by 8. (b) Divide — 2) by
7. (a) Multiply id x + i) by 8. (b) Multiply y(x + 4) by 12.
8. (a) Multiply §(x + 1.2) by 15. (b) Multiply .05(12 — x) by 100.

Simplify each of the following expressions:

a2b c m ab2 c — d _ d2 — c2
9. 15.
c2d b cd2 c2 + d2 d2-\- cd
a2 6 u -f- 9 3 a + 9 6 x2 — 5 x — 6 15 — 6 x
10.
—

16.
a2 — 9 a — 3 6 x2 — \\x— 10 9 — 12x + 4x2
6x 4 a: 6 a2 — 5 ab + b2 _ 9 a2 — b2
11. 17.
5 a; — 25 x2 — 25 4 a2 — 4 + 62 2 ab — b2
9
Z- 'V'2 _ 4i vV
/i* /v* 1| /y*2
wv 2 x3 —- 2 a2x a—x
12. 18.
x+ 1 x2 — 4x+4 x2 — 2 ax + a2 a2x + ax2
2 x2 — 6 x + 4 1 —{— x a3 — fc3 1
13. 19.
x2 — 1 2 — x a4 — b4 b+a
8 + cl3 2 a2 — 6 a
14. ^+ d2 ~ a2) 20.
a ~r b 9 a —3 a2 (a— l)2 + 3

Exercises [A 2]

1. (a) Multiply ^ by 2. (b) Divide y by 2. (c) Divide 2 by -•

2 2 n

2. (a) Multiply \ by b. (b) Divide \ by a. (c) Divide a by ;•

b b b
3. (a) Multiply § by 4. (b) Divide § by 4. (c) Divide 4 by f.

4. (a) Multiply -—by 6. (b) Divide - ^ ^ by 10.

o z

5. (a) Divide 6 by —- • (b) Multiply ^ ^ by 6.

O Ld O
Fractions 87
Simplify each of the following expressions:

11 x ~ 2 y _x2 — 4 y2
be a2 \ 3 c) 6x— 3 y 2 y2 — 3 xy — 2 x2
- 6 x 4 4 a; 3 /+6 < 4 -t2
* x—3 a:2 — 9 4 4 + 4 t + *2
8 a~~ b b— c 13 2 x2 ~ 10 * ~ 28 , 49 x2
-

(a — c)(c — b) (b — a) (a — c) x2 — x — 6 3 — 4 x + £2
q x— 3 x2 — 2 a; — 15 14 — 12 4 — 2 a -f a2
* 5 —x 9 — x2 8 + x3 ’ 4-2*
3 a-\- 3 b 3 a— 3 b 15 + n2 + w + 1 n{n + 1)
a2 — b2 (b — a)2 n3 — 1 »(» + 1) + 1
Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
If lengths of 3 inches and 4 inches are added, the sum of the lengths is
7 inches. When the lengths are stated as parts of a foot, the same result is
expressed by the statement
3 | 4_7_
12 r 12 ~ 12-

In this statement the part played by the 12 is equivalent to that played by

the word "inches” in the original addition. It specifies the type of quantity
being added. If we recall that T2 = 3 ■ Y2 and jz — 4 • \z,
then + yz ~~ 3 • yz + 4 •
= (3 + 4) • Y2 (Using the distributive
— 7 • y~2 axiom)
_ _7_
12

Let us consider the sum of the fractions yz and tz when each fraction is
regarded as the quotient of two integers. Suppose x is a symbol for the frac¬
tion yz and y is a symbol for the fraction
Then we have x = yz and y = yz,
giving 12 x = 4 and 12 y— 3.
Hence, 12 a; + 12 y = 4 + 3,
4+3 sum of numerators
giving x+y=
12 common denominator
We therefore have the following definition:
o.b o+h
- + - = >
n n n
or
If two (or more) fractions have the same denominator, their algebraic sum
is obtained by writing the algebraic sum of their numerators over the de¬
nominator that is common to the fractions.
88 Chapter 5

a b c a-\-b — c
Examples. 1. y + y=y.
2'd + d~d~ d
2x 4 _ 2* + 4 _ 2
*(^ + 2)(o;—1) {x-\-2){x — 1) (x + 2)(x — 1) (£ — 1)

Fractions having different denominators must be changed into equivalent

forms having the same denominator before they may be combined by
addition or subtraction.

Examples. 4. f + J = ^ + M=:M
a c _ ad be ad — be
b d bd bd bd
It is particularly important with algebraic fractions having different de¬
nominators to select the best form of common denominator. If a denomina¬
tor is used which is larger than is necessary, all the steps of procedure be¬
come more complicated, and it may be difficult to reduce the final fraction
to its lowest terms.

^ Steps in finding the best common denominator for fractions

1. Factor the denominators of the individual fractions.
2. Select the smallest group of these factors which contains within it the
individual denominators. Express the common denominator as the product
of these factors.

Note. In practice, step 2 may be carried out by multiplying the factored form of
the denominator of the first fraction by any factors of the other denominators not appear¬
ing in it. Notice that each factor in the common denominator must be written to the
highest power that it occurs in any of the factored denominators.

y _j_ 2 x
Example 6. Simplify:
x2 -f- xy x2 — y2

Solution: —% 2
xz + xy xz — yz
_ y _2 x
(Denominators factored)
x{x-\-y) {x + y)(x — y)
_y(x — y) 2 x2 (Fractions rewritten with
x(x-\- y){x — y) x(x + y)(x — y) common denominator)
xy — y2 -f- 2 x2
(Addition rule used)
x{x-\-y){x— y)
2 x2 -\- xy — y2
(Numerator rearranged)
x(x + y)(x — y)
_ (2 x — y)(x~\~y)
(Numerator factored)
x(x + y)(x — y)
2x—y (Fraction reduced to
x{x — y) lowest terms)
Fractions
89

a
Example 7. Simplify:
a2 - 2 ab + b2
+ a
a2
Solution:
a2 — 2 ab -f- b2
+ b —a a
a2_a_
(a — b)2 a—b
a2 _ a(a — b)
(a — b)2 (a — b)2
a2 — a2 -f ab
(a-b)2
ab
(a- b)2

Exercises [A 1]

Perform the indicated operations in each of the following, and express the
result in lowest terms-:

idx x+ 1
1 1
p— 1 1 — p p-q ?+/>
2 _x_5_x x
2 y 6y 3 y
6. + ± 10. V
x— 3 3 —x
2
P+1 1+p
a-\-b 1 3 w 3
3. 1.1 - 11.
a2 a i + /> n— 1 1 — n
1 1 12_t_4o_+ 66
4.
p-1 £+1 p-q 3 b— 2 a 2 a —3 b

w 2w
13. 17. , 9+
n— 1 n2 — 1 a+2 2 a + a2
1 1 1 m
14. 18.
4a —2ft 4a-{-2 2> 4 a2 — 2)2 m—n in — m)2
a d- 2 a— 2
15. —-—j_ 19.
x2 — 4 2 —x a2 -f 3 a a2 — 3 a
1
16 1 | 20. +p—2
(a — b) (a — c) (2) — c)(b — a) />2 — 5 /> + 6 p—3

1
21. ^±4 + 1
2)2 - 1 1 + b 1-2)
2 (3a d- 2>) a— b
22.
S a2 -\- 6 ab -\- b2 5 a2 — 4 a2) — 2)2
90 Chapter 5

2~i a b a b -j a 1_i_ 1_^

a2-4b2^ (d + 2b)2 *x-3 x+3 x

25.-1-1--!-f----
' (d — b){d — c) (b — c)(b — a) (c — d)(c— b)
2^- 2 1 _d + b_
' d-\- 3 b 2 d-\-b d2 + 4 db + 3 b2
2 3
27.-----
x2 -\-2 x — 3 2 x2 -\- 2 x — 4

Exercises [A 2]
Combine the following fractions, and express the result in lowest terms.

3 d 6b
1.
d — 2b
+ 2b — d 4c x — 4 2 x2 — 2
b , d 1
2. + 1 6. —r^—- + 1
a-fb^b d x2 — y2 2 y— 2 x 2y-\-2x
2 d 3 b _2_3
3. X2 <v2
d— b b2 — d2 _ O
Amt
T
»V
. «y _
tV
~)
M

b d
4.
d2 — db db — b2
8.
(1 - t)2
* r.+ 1 -1 /2
x— 1 2 x
9.
2 x+ 1 4 x2 — 1
g+ 2 b 2 d -f- b d—3 b
10.
d2 — ab d2 — 3 ab + 2 b2 a? — 2 ab
x -J- 3 x—2 5 ,, y+1 , 2 — 2 jy 1
11.
5 x— 10 5x+15 x2-\-x — 6 * (y — l)2 (y — l)3 y—1
a+3 b g a2 + &2 15 g+ 2 2+g 2 — g
12.
2 b+ 2 d 6— g a2 — b2 g2 + 5g+6 4 —g2 g2 + g —6
x—3 *+3 5 a:2+ 27 i /T _#_|_b_
13.
2x+6 3x—9 6 x2 — 54 (g — b) (a — c) (b — c)(b — g)

Complex Fractions

When some of the terms occurring in a fraction are themselves fractions,

as for instance,
S+i
1-(*)(*)'
we have what is called a complex fraction. Such fractions may be changed
to their simplest forms by either of the following procedures.
Fractions 91

Method 1. hind a multiplier which will change every fractional term of

the complex fraction into an integral term.
Multiply every term of the numerator and denominator of the complex
fraction by this quantity.

Example 1 . Simplify: -+Jl_

a i

i-( §)(*)’
Solution: Here the required multiplier is 6. Note that when (§)(J) is multiplied
by 6, the result is 2.
When we multiply every term in the numerator and denominator of the complex
fraction by 6, the value of the complex fraction is not changed. Hence, the value
of the fraction is
4+3 7
7-7’ or ~•

The above procedure is neat and efficient. It should be used for all arith¬
metic complex fractions, and for algebraic complex fractions where the in¬
ternal fractions are of a simple nature. If the required multiplier is compli¬
cated, it is probably better to use the following procedure.

Method 2. Rewrite the complex fraction as (numerator) (denominator).

Combine the terms of the numerator into a single fraction, and combine
the terms of the denominator into a single fraction.
Divide the numerator by the denominator in the usual manner.

5 _2_
c. vf 3 5+1
Example 2.
Slmpllfy: 3(6 — 1) ‘
+ 6(6+1)
Solution: We rewrite the complex fraction in the form:

6 2 \ . / 3(6-1)
3 b+ 1/ ' W 6(4+1)

Then combine each group into a single fraction form:

/5(5+l) — 6\ /2 5(5 + 1) + 3(5 — 1)\

\ 3(5+1) ) ' \ 5(5+1) /
b2 + b- 6 2 52 + 5 5 — 3
“ 3(5+1) : 5(5+1)
_ (,b + 3) (5 — 2) 5(5 + 1)
3(5+1) (2 5 — 1)(5 + 3)
b(b — 2) [Dividing numerator and denominator
“3(2 5—1)* by (5+ 1)(5 + 3)]
92 Chapter 5

When one group of fractions is to be multiplied by another group, each

group should be combined to form a single fraction before the multiplication
procedure is considered. It would be possible to carry out the multiplication
by first using the distributive axiom on the individual fractions of the
groups. This procedure generally leads to a more complicated situation, and
it is more efficient to reduce each group to a single fraction.

1 'x _
1
Example 3. Simplify:
& — 1 5 — xt A 4 x,
3 3
Solution: Since
5 —x x— 5

the first parenthesis may be rewritten in more convenient form as

1
\X — 1
+X —
3
5;

'x 1
We then have:
\x —
1
1
+ x —3 5/ \4 4 x)
x— 5 + 3x — 3 x2 — 1
(x — 1) (x — 5) 4x
4x—8 (x 4~ l)(jg — 1)
(x— l)(x— 5) 4x
4(# — 2) (a;-f l)(s — 1)
(x— 1)(4 — 5) 4x
(x — 2)(x + 1). [Dividing numerator and
x(x — 5) denominator by 4(x — 1)]

Exercises [A 1]
Simplify:
i i i
m 4 y2 c d
1. 3 14
6. x—
i-i i + (i)2 9.
x
12.
c 4~ d c—d
3 2 x-j~ 2 y
2. 3 c—d c 4” d
4 ab
a 2 a a 4-
7. a—b a x
0.7 4-0.2 2 10.
3. ab x— a x 4- a
1-0.25 a a— 13.
a 4~ b x 4- a 2 a
3|.I
2 m 5 x 2x x x A a
4. 3
1 - (f)(1) + 1 14-
a:2 4~ 1
8. 11.
2(4) 3 x 1 2(:r 4~ 2)
5. 1-
i - (f)2 3 x x2 4- 1
Fractions 93

1 1 8
14. f 1 + + 1 1 +
1 -pj \p — 2 y-5,
! X i x
16.
2 x— 2 x \2 x— 2

5 -)- x
17.
Kx — 3
+ x2 — 4 x-\- 3 1 + 1 — 3 Xj
1 1 1 1
18.
va(a+l) a(l — a)/ \a2 — 1 1 + a2

Exercises [A_2]
Simplify:
2 1 1
3 — 2 x x—y
2.1 c 2 x+ 1 y x+y
3T2 7.
y x—y
!>•

d
ro
o
1

2. 1 2
1 + 0.25 2 x+ 1 x x+y
1 1
3.
2$)
s 2 x— 2 x
i 1 1 + 3y
1 - (§)2 o. —--- 8. . . *y+
1 +3 y 1 — 3 y
1+ x x— 1
a
4.

9.
1 1 1 1'

13. 1 - 1 - (a + 1):
Kx-\~y x — y/\x y, 1 — a. 4a

10.
x
-2 r,2 —X n+ 2 —
\X — y ) \x — 2 y n— 2
14.
1
'3 x — 1 4 x — 3N 1 -
(w — 2)2
li.
x— 2
1+- 2 + 1 — X2
x
15.
1 2 -

4+ X + 1
x+ 1
12. x 1
1 16. + (1-
16- 2 + xj
(x+ l)2 v4 —x2 x —2

1 2(2 x- l)v
17. x+
vx2 - 3 x + 2 x2 — x— 5

18. I -_l*-) + (a-4&=-i£)'

,3 3 a— 3 x \ x— a
94 Chapter 5

[B]
Exercises
1. If a and b are both positive, and a > b, which is the larger of the two

fractions ?
b b + 2‘
1
2. Simplify:
1
1
1
1 -
1 —x
1 -j-a
3. If n = 7--> and t = > show that a + n — 0.
1+t 1 —a

4. lu=i+y > show that when a? = -1 and y =-—

2 a 1
the value of t is
1 — ry a a+ 2
independent of the value of a. What are the values of a for which the
relationships have no meaning?

5. If y = -and x = —- > express y in terms of t in the simplest

x-i it
possible form. For what value of t does y have the value zero? For
what value of t is there no corresponding value of y?

6. Quantities of water of weights W\ and W2 units, at temperatures T\°

and T2° respectively, are mixed. The temperature T° of the mixture
is given by
T1W1 + T2W2
T=
IF1 + TF2
If W\ = f W2, and T\ = f T2, express T in terms of T\.

1. Show that h - ^ = 2 (a — b) is an identity.

Kx y/\ x + y x—y
2 t \ — t2
8. If x = f and y = 1 -■ - > show that the value of x2 + y2 is inde-
1 + t2 y 1 + t2
pendent of the value of t.

9. Show that if u and v are variables related in such a manner that the
sum of their reciprocals is a constant denoted by k, then the quantity
1
u
liv~i
is also a constant, equal to k2.
11 1
10. Show that \i p = - > <7=1-1 r = 1 H-> then p = s.
q r 5—1
Fractions 95

11. A mass of M units traveling at V feet per second collides with a sta¬
tionary mass of m units, and the two masses travel along together at
oc
a speed x feet per second, where — = — i . The energy lost in the
V M+m
collision is expressed by the quantity

i M V2 — \(M -f m)x2.
MmV2
Show, by eliminating x, that this quantity is equivalent to
2 (M + m)
1
12. Simplify:
1+-)(l+"4'1
n \ n+ 1
1 + «+2/\ 1 + w +1 3,
If the product were continued in the same pattern, what would be the
nth factor? What would be the product of the n factors?

Chapter Review
x— 2
1. One of two numbers is represented by-Represent the other if
x
(a) the sum of the two numbers is 1; (b) the product of the two
numbers is 1; (c) the sum of the two numbers is 0; (d) the product
of the two numbers is 0.
2 i 1_^2
2. If x =-- and y =-- > find the values of x and y when t = — 4.
1 + t2 y 1 + t2

3. If — = — + — * find the value of R when r\ — f and r^ — \ r\.

R r\ r2 5 2

4. If x is a fraction of the form - > where a and b are both positive and
b

b > a, is the quantity x2 — x positive or negative?

5. Simplify: a
a— 2
+
' 2
2—a
x 4x
6. Simplify:
x -2 ’ s2 + 2x-8

7. Simplily!

, 60 — 3 x — 3 x2
8. Reduce to lowest terms: —-— -77;-
3 x2 — 48

9. Simplify: X a-h -— 0 •
^ y 3x-6a 4: a — 2 x

10. Simplify: (n + 2 + +
- 1
96 Chapter 5

Chapter Test

h\ ^
1. Write a fraction with denominator 4 y which has value (a) equal to

OC
(b) equal to one-half of - ,* (c) equal to
y
2. If n is a positive number, for what values of n is - > nt
n
P P+ 1
3. If p > 1, which is the larger fraction, —L— or L-?
P~ 1 P
. % 2 —

4. The following questions relate to the fraction-:

OC
(a) For what value of x is the value of the fraction zero?
(b) For what value of x is the value of the fraction 0.999?
(c) What is the value of the fraction when x = 0.001?
(d) What happens to the value of the fraction as x gets larger and
larger?
a a*
5. Simplify:
x—a x2 — a2

6. Simplify:
1 -
1 +y

7. Evaluate ^ x + ^ when x = — -
3(5 x -2) 2
O o* i• r 3 X2 . 3 X
o. Simplify: --7 +
2 x—4 2 —x

9. Simplify: *,+ 3 ?---f + x2.

2 (x + y) x—y y2 — x2
1 + m2 2 -f- m

1 — m2 1 — m
10. Simplify:
1 — m
2-
1 +m
Sidelight

Operations with Sets

Sets and Subsets

Consider the set of digits D = {0, 1, 2, ..8, 9} and the set of even digits
E = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. We see that there is no member of E that is not also a mem¬
ber of D. When this is the case we say that E is a subset of D, and we symbolize
this relationship by E c D. The symbol “ c” may be translated “is contained
in,” and may be thought of as the counterpart of the symbol “^” for numbers.
If A, B are sets such that A c B and B C A, then B must contain exactly the
same elements as A. In this case we say that the sets are equal and write A =B.
The complete set of objects under discussion in a particular situation is
referred to as the universal set. We shall represent the universal set by I. In
most sections of our recent work in algebra the universal set has been the set
of rational numbers. We shall use A, B, C to represent subsets of /, so that if
/ is the set of rational numbers, A might represent the set of integers, B might
represent the set of positive numbers, and so on.
It is convenient to include in the subsets of / the “empty” set, containing no
members, and / itself. The empty set is represented by (/>. The inclusion of </>
and / as subsets of / makes it possible to associate a subset of I with any given
requirement. If the requirement is satisfied by all members of /, then the subset
is / itself, and if the requirement is satisfied by no members of /, then the subset
is (j).

Example. Write all the subsets of / = {2, 4, 6}.

Solution. There are eight subsets. They are:

EXERCISES

1. Write all the subsets of (a) {1, 2}, (b) {a, b, c}.
2. Classify each of the following statements as true or false:
(a) IfdcSand^cC, then A C C.
(b) If A C5, then B C A.
(c) For any set A, cf)CZA.
3. If /is the set of rational numbers, list or describe the subset of/whose mem¬
bers are
(a) roots of x2 + 1 =0,
(b) roots of x2 + 1 = (x + 2)2 — (4x -f 3),
(c) roots of x2 -f 1 = 2x,
(d) roots of x2 -f-1 =2x -j-9.
97
Union of Sets

If A and B are subsets of some universal set /, the union of A and B is the set
of elements which are in either A or B, including those elements which may be
members of both subsets.
The union of {a, b, c} and {b, c, x, yj is {a, b, c, x, y).
The union of the set of odd integers and the set of even integers is the set of
all the integers.
The union of the set of solutions of x -j-2y =0 and the set of solutions of
x — 2 y = 0 is the set of solutions of (x -f 2y){x — 2 y) =0.
The union of A and B is symbolized by A \J B. In the following diagrams
the circular regions marked A and B represent subsets of / and the shaded region
represents A U B. In Figure 1, A and B have no common elements and are
referred to as disjoint sets. Figure 3 represents the situation in which B c A,
and in this case B \J A = A.

Intersection

The intersection of A and B is the set of elements which are in both A and B.
The intersection of {a, b, c} and [b, c, x, y} is {b, c}.
The intersection of the set of odd integers and the set of even integers is the
empty set, represented by 0.
The intersection of the set of solutions of x -\-y = 8 and the set of solutions of
x — 2y =2 is the set with just one member {(6, 2)}.
The intersection of A and B is symbolized by A n B. In the following dia¬
grams, the shaded region represents A r\ B.

In Figure 4, A and B are disjoint sets and A f~\ B = 0.

In Figure 6, B QA and A C\B = B.
98
Complement

If A is a subset of /, then the set of all elements of / which are not in A is

called the complement of A and is represented by A'.
If / is the set of digits {0, 1, 2, . . 8, 9} and A is
the set (2, 4, 6}, then ^4'is the set {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}.
The following properties of complementary sets
will be readily recognized:
AUA' = I, Ar\A' = cf), (A')' = A

Algebra of Sets

The algebra of operations with sets is based on axioms closely resembling

those listed for the rational numbers in Chapter 1. We shall not develop this
algebra nor give a complete list of axioms, but it may be of interest to compare
the following axioms dealing with union of sets with those for addition of numbers.
If A and B are subsets of 7, then
1. A \J B is a subset of I (Closure)
2. AUB=B\JA (Commutativity)
3. (A UB) UC=A U(BUC) (Associativity)
4. AU<j> = A (Identity element)
5. A \JI = I
6. A U A =A
EXERCISES
1. Illustrate each of the above statements by a diagram.
2. Write the corresponding axioms on intersection by changing \J to C\ in
each statement and interchanging 0and / in statements 4 and 5.
3. If A = {1, 2, 5, 8} and B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, list the sets A B, A KJ B.
4. Complete the statements: A UA = A f^A = AUA' =
A r\A’=
5. If / represents the set of people in the United States, A represents the set
of people in New York State, B represents the set of people in New York
City, C represents the set of people who are citizens of the United States,
describe in words the following sets:
(a) A', (b) C', (c) B'HA, (d) A UC, (e) B r\C.
6. Which of the following statements are true?
(a) If A C B, then A C\B= A. (e) (A U B)' = A' U B'
(b) The converse of the statement in (a). (f) (A D B)' = A' VJ B'
(c) If A c B, then B' c A'. (g) A W (A r\ B) —A
(d) The converse of the statement in (c).
7. Translate the following statement into words and illustrate by a diagram:
a rMBvjc)=(A r\B)vj(A n c).
8. Express in as simple a form as possible:
(A) A r\(A \J B) (b) A r\ (A' W B) (C){A'\JB')'\J(A\JB’)
99
 Quadratic Equations with

Rational Roots

Degree of a Polynomial

Expressions such as 3 x2 — 4 and 5 x3-\-2 x2 — x — 2 are called poly¬

nomials in the variable x. The degree of a polynomial in x is the exponent
of the highest power of x appearing in the polynomial. Thus, the degree of
3 a:2 — 4 is 2, the degree of 5 x3 -f 2 x2 — x — 2 is 3. A polynomial in x of de¬
gree 2 is commonly referred to as a quadratic expression, and a polynomial of
degree 3 is commonly referred to as a cubic expression. The general quad¬
ratic expression is of the form ax2 + bx -f c, and the general cubic expression
is of the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d are constants and a ^ 0.

Solution of Quadratic Equations by Factoring

In connection with a quadratic trinomial such as 2 x2 — 5 x — 3, two main

types of questions may arise.
1. What is the value of the trinomial when a specific value is assigned to x?
This question can always be answered by carrying out the operations indi¬
cated in the trinomial. For example, if x = 2, the value of the trinomial is
8 — 10 — 3, or — 5.
2. For what values of x does the trinomial have a specified value? This
question requires us to solve an equation. For example, if the trinomial is
to have the value 4, we need the solution of the equation 2 x2 — 5a: — 3 = 4.
An equation such as 2 x2 — 5 x — 3 = 4, which can be written as an
equivalent equation in the form ax2 -j- bx + c = 0, is called a quadratic equa¬
tion. In this chapter we shall consider only those quadratic equations having
roots which are rational numbers. We shall see that, in general, the set of
solutions of such an equation contains two numbers which can be found by
a factoring method. The procedure for obtaining the rational roots of a
quadratic equation is illustrated in the following example.
TOO
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots
101
Example. Solve the equation 2 x2 — 7 x + 3 = 18.
Solution: 2 x2 — 7x+3 = 18
2x2 — 7 x — 15 = 0
(2 x -f- 3) (x — 5) = 0
The product of two factors is equal to zero if, and only if, one of the factors is
zero. The product (2x+3)(x-5), therefore, has the value zero when 2 x-\-3
is zero and when x - 5 is zero. Hence, the roots of the quadratic equation are
given by
2 x -f- 3 = 0 and x— 5=0
2x = — 3 x=5
x=—§
The set of solutions is {— §, 5}.
Check: When* = — §, 2 x2 — 7 x + 3 18
2(1) - 7(— f) + 3
I+¥+ 3
18
When x = 5, the value of 2 r*:2 — 7 x -f- 3 is again 18.

^ Summary

The method illustrated above is summarized as follows:

1. Write the given equation as an equivalent equation in the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2. Factor ax2-f-bx + c, if possible. When the trinomial is not factorable the
equation does not have rational roots.
3. When the trinomial is factored, equate each linear factor in turn to zero
to obtain the roots of the quadratic equation.

Steps 1 and 3 are based on a property of the number zero proved in

Theorem 7 (p. 8). The product p • q has the value zero when p = 0 and
when q = 0, and in no other case. It is important to recognize that zero is the
only number having this property. For instance, if pq — 12, it is not neces¬
sary that either p or q have the value 12. The relationship is satisfied by pairs
of numbers such as 6 and 2; 4 and 3; 8 and 1.5.

Solution of Cubic Equations by Factoring

The factoring method of solving an equation may be extended to any equa¬

tion which can be expressed in the form
The product of a number of linear factors = 0.
Consider the cubic equation 2 x3 = 3 x2 5 x.
It is equivalent to 2 x3 — 3 x2 — 5 x = 0,
which may be written x(2 x — 5)(x + 1) = 0.
102 Chapter 6

In the equation x(2 x — 5)(x + 1) = 0 the product of the three factors is re¬
quired to be zero. This is the case if, and only if, one of the factors is zero.
Thus, there are three roots of the equation, given by
£ = 0, 2x — 5 = 0, x-(-l=0.
The set of solutions is {0, 2 J, — 1}.
It can be verified, by substitution, that each of the three values satisfies
the original equation.
A product cannot have the value zero unless one of the factors is zero. The
factored form of the above equation shows that it can have no root other
than those already determined. If a fourth value is assigned to £, none of
the three factors is zero and the product cannot be zero.
The factoring method of solving equations is clearly not a general one.
Many quadratic and cubic expressions are not factorable, and a different
approach is necessary when an unfactorable expression is equated to zero.
For the present we consider only those equations which can be solved by
factoring and whose roots, therefore, are rational numbers. In spite of its
limitations the factoring method is important, and the argument whereby
the required values of the variable are deduced from the form "product of
factors = 0" should be carefully examined.

Exercises [A 1]
1. If k(x — 3) = 0 and k is not zero, what can be deduced?
2. If xy = 6, is it necessary that either x = 6 or y = 6?
3. What values of x make the value of the expression (x — 3)(x + 2),
(a) 0, (b) 6?
4. Solve: (a) x{2 x - 5) = 0; (b) 2 x{2 x - 5) = 0; (c) 2(2 £ - 5) = 0.
5. Find the values of t for which the expression t2 — 2 t has the value
(a) 0; (b) 3; (c) - 1.

6. What can be deduced about the values of x and y if (a) £y = 0;

(b) xy — 1; (c) x2 + y2 = 0?

Solve and check the following equations:

7. 2£2 — 3 x — 5 = 0 13. 4 - 9 £2 = 0
8. £ = 3 £2 14. 822 + 8/+2 = 0
9. 2 £2 — £ = 6 15. (2 £ 4- 1)(£ — 2) = 18
10. £(2 £ + 5) = 12 16. (x — 1)(2 £ — 3)(£ — 4) = 0
11.3 £(£ — 3) -h 2(£ — 3) = 0 17. 4 £2(£ — 2) -f 3 £(£ — 2) = 0
12. 4 £2 = 3 £ 18. £3 + 3 £2 — 4 £ = 12
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 103

19. The sum of a number and its square is 90. Find the number.
20. Find a positive number such that the sum of the number and twice its
square is 15.

21. Find the values of x and y which satisfy *7 = 31.5, y = x — 5.5.

22. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a starting speed of 40 feet per
second. Its height (h feet) above the starting point t seconds later is
given by h — 40 t — 16 t2. Find the values of t for which (a) h = 0,
(b) h = 24, (c) h = 25. Can you find a value of t for which h = 28?

Exercises [A 2]
1. If (x + 3)(y + 2) = 0 and y > 0, what can be deduced?
2. Solve (a) (3 x + 4)(2 x — 3) = 0; (b) 5(3 x + 4)(2 x — 3) = 0.
3. Find the values of x for which the expression 2 x2 — 7 x -f- 6 has the
value (a) 0; (b) 6; (c) 10.
4. Find the values of x for which (a) the value of 2 x2 is equal to the value
of 5 x; (b) the value of 2 x2 exceeds the value of 5 x by 3.
5. What can be deduced about the values of x and y if (a) 2 xy = 0;
(b) xy = 2 x; (c) x2 — y2 = 0?

Solve and check the following equations:

6. 3 x2 + 2 x = 0 13. 4 + 9x2 = 12*

7. x(x — 1) = 12 14. (2y + 5)(3y+7)= 1

8. 2 x(3 x — 1) = 5(3 x — 1) 15. x3 = 3 x2 + 4 x

9. 4 t2 = 1 16. *2(2 x-3) = 9(2 x-3)

10. (2 x + 5) (x — 3) = 6 17. 8x3- 12x2-2x + 3 = 0

11. 10 y = 3 y2 18. (2x+l)2 + 2(x-2)(2x+l) = 0

12. 2 x(2 x + 3) = 2x-f3 19. 2(x-2)2 = 2- (x-3)2

20. The square of the longest side of a right triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides, (a) Find x if the sides of a right
triangle are represented by x inches, (x 4~ 4) inches, (x + 8) inches,
(b) Show that x is not a rational number if the sides of a right triangle
are represented by x inches, (x+ 1) inches, (x + 3) inches.
21. Find the values of x and y for which x + y — | and xy — 21.
22. When a ball is thrown vertically upward with a starting speed of 80 feet
per second its height t seconds later is given by h = 80 t— 16 t2. Find
the values of t for which (a) h = 0; (b) h = 84; (c) h = 100. Does
the ball rise higher than 100 feet above its starting point?
104 Chapter 6

Fractional Equations
An equation which contains one or more fractions having the variable in
x -f 1 1 3
the denominator is called a fractional equation. Thus, —— = - H-- is
6 X j 00 Z

a fractional equation. It should be noted, even before the process of solving

is begun, that neither 0 nor 2 can be a root of this equation. If x = 2, the
3
fraction has denominator zero, and no value can be determined for the
x—2
xT 1
fraction. If x = 0, the fraction has denominator zero, and no value
3 x
x -f 1 1 3
can be determined for the fraction. The statement —— = - H--
6x 3 x— 2
is therefore meaningless when x = 2 and when x = 0.
It is important to realize that when the two sides of an equation are multi¬
plied by an expression containing the variable, the resulting equation may
not be equivalent to the original. For example, the only root of 2 x = 6 is 3;
but if both sides are multiplied by x — 2, the result is the quadratic equation
2 x(x — 2) = 6{x — 2) with roots 3 and 2.
In solving a fractional equation we multiply both sides by a quantity de¬
signed to eliminate the fraction forms. This quantity has at least one factor
containing the variable, and it follows that the resulting equation may have a
root not belonging to the original equation. The possibility of introducing
additional roots is kept to a minimum by excluding unnecessary factors from
the quantity used as the multiplier. Hence, denominators should be factored
and fractions reduced to lowest terms before the multiplier is selected.
When the multiplier is carefully chosen and all operations are correctly
carried out, the final equation is in most cases equivalent to the original.
The student should keep in mind, however, that the use of x{x — k) as a
multiplier may introduce 0 and k as roots of the final equation. There is
particular need, therefore, to check the solution of a fractional equation and
to guard against the acceptance of a value which makes the denominator of
one of the fractions zero.

Example 1. Solve: x~~— = - -|--—

3x 3 x— 2
Solution: The denominators of the fractions make it necessary to exclude 0
and 2 from the set of replacements for x. For any other value of x we may use
the multiplier 3 x(x — 2) to eliminate the fractions. We then have
(x — 2) (x + 1) = x{x — 2) + 9 x
x* 2 3 — x— 2 = x2 — 2 x-\-9 x
— 2=8x
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 105
Check: When x = — 5,
x -f- 1
3x - H——
3 x— 2
-i+i i + _L
3
4 O7 ' _ 1
4 _
-1 + 4 1_12
-3 3 9
-1 - 1
Therefore x = — 5 is the correct solution.

Example 2. Solve: ^ = - -j--—.

x— 1 3 x— 1
Solution: Multiply each fraction by 3(x — 1).

We then have 3(x + 1) = x(x — 1) + 6

3x-\-3 = x2 — x-\-6
0 = x2 — 4 x -f 3
(x — 3)(x — 1) = 0
Possible solutions are x = 3, x = 1.
The value x = 3 satisfies the equation, but x = 1 is rejected because it makes
two of the original fractions meaningless.
The only solution of the equation is x = 3.

[A—1 ]
Exercises
Solve the following equations:

1- (a)-- = 2;
x— 2
(b)
x— 2
2; (c) *—* = 1;
x— 2
(d)^4=3
x

2. 42 x— 2-—?—-
x— 1
=0 9. f (6 — x) — 1 =
3—x

3 5
3. 10. = 1
2 x +1 4x + 2 x -j- 1 1 —x
3 2
4. = 0 11. -A-+ ^-4 = 0
2 y+ 1 4y+ 2 x— 1 x

5 *+3 1 + 4 1
- — 2 12. —— — - — 1 = 0
* x— 1 3 —x X + 1 X

5 3 2 l^x^+J x+ 4
6.
x— 5 5 -b £ x x -j- 1 2 x -J- 1

y _ 4 2 x— 3 x— 2 x— 3
7. xil
3 y— 1
+y— 1 3
14.
4 2 2 x -J- 2

x -f 2 _ x — 3 _ 5 4 x + 5 _ 8 x + 3 _ x — 2\
8. 15.
x— 3 x+ 2 6 8 16 x— 6
106 Chapter 6

3x- 1 6 x + 2 _ 2 x -f- 3 18 I? , 17 17
16.
3 6 3x-^ x x+4 x — 3.2

x— 2 2x—3 1 y 2 +
17. = 0 19. 3+
4—x y— 1 y+ 1 1 — y2

^ x 3x—2 x+3 5(2x— 1)

ZU* 2 + 4 12 x — 20 8

[A-2]
Exercises
Solve the following equations:

1. (a) 2^ = 3; (b)^+ = 3; (c) ^—f = 1; (d) =2

y- 2 y-2 y-2 y-2

i 3 x+5 2 x + 5_^
2.^-- = 0
3 x 3 x— 1 x —j— 1 x -f- 3

4 7 200 _ 200 5
3. 14.
3 x+ 1 6x+ 2 x -f 8 x 6

4 8 3 x-2 6x— 5 x— 1
4. 15.
x— 3 2 x— 6 8 4x+ 5

3 x— 1 1 + 2 x 1 8
5. = 1 16. -
x— 1 1 + X y y— 2 4 ;y — 3

5 3 17.J44 180+1
6. --= 2
1 + X 1 —X x—3 x
2 2 x
7. -7 + -7=3 18. 3| ±T\=-?-+ 6
vX — 1/ x—4 x—1

ip x+2 x— 2 _ 8(x — 1) _
8. - — = 1 = 0
x x 1 * x— 2 x+2 4 — x2
3 1 2 x2 x x
x+2
+ 1—x x+1
20. ~-3 =
x2 — 1 x+1 x— 1

2 x+2 4
10. §(5 — x) — 1 — 21. = 3-
4—x X" x—6 x— 3
x— 2 x— 1 3 x— 1 2 x— 3
11. 22.
x— 1 x— 2 2 2 x+ 1 x+ 3 2 x2 + 7 x + 3

12 x2 1 — x 5 2^ 2 x _j_^_5x2+10x + 9
x+2 3 x+ 2 x— 1 X2 + X + 1

x—3 5 x- 1 98
24.
3x
+ x+ 2 3 x2 + 4 x — 4
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 107

Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations

One of the most commonly occurring forms of relationship is that in which

the value of one quantity is expressed by the product of two others. The re¬
lationship is typified by the statement a — be. Several examples of the rela¬
tionship were listed in Chapter 3. Among the more familiar are the formula
for the area of a rectangle, A = Iw, and the expression for the distance in
terms of average speed and time, d = rt.
If both the length and the width of a rectangle are represented by linear
expressions in a variable x, the area of the rectangle is a quadratic expression
in x. Similarly, if both the rate and the time for a journey are linear expres¬
sions in x, the distance traveled is a quadratic expression in the variable.
Hence, problems involving such quantities often lead to quadratic equations.
A quadratic equation is generally satisfied by two values of the variable.
It does not follow that these values are solutions of the problem which gave
rise to the quadratic equation. The physical conditions may restrict the re¬
placement set of the variables which are used. No reasonable interpretation
can be given to a negative value for the length of a rectangle, or to a fractional
value for the number of automobiles sold by a dealer. The roots of the
quadratic equation are numbers which satisfy the algebraic conditions of
the situation. They are solutions of the problem if they also satisfy the
physical requirements.
The solution of a word problem should be checked in the stated conditions
of the problem. Substituting in the equation checks only the accuracy of
its solution, and leaves out of consideration the question whether the
equation correctly represents the requirements of the problem.

Example 1. A farmer has 90 yards of fencing with

A_B
which he wishes to enclose a rectangular plot containing
x yd.
1000 square yards, using a wall as one side of the en¬
closure. Show that there are two ways in which he
may do this.
Solution: Let the rectangle A BCD represent the en¬ y yd.
closure, with AD representing the wall. Let the length of
AB be x yards, and the length of BC be y yards. Ihe length
of CD is also x yards.
Then the total length of fencing is (2 x + y) yards, and the Jt yd.

area of the enclosure is xy square yards. D C

Since there are 90 yards of fencing available, we have
2 x T y = 90, which tells us that y — 90 — 2 x, and therefore the area of the en¬
closure may be written as x(90 — 2 x) square yards. In order that the enclosure
should contain 1000 square yards we must have, as shown on the next page.
108 Chapter 6

*(90 — 2 x) = 1000
90 * — 2 x2 = 1000
2 x2 — 90 x + 1000 = 0
x2 — 45 x + 500 = 0
(x — 20) (x — 25) = 0

* = 20, * = 25.

When * = 20, y = 50; and when * = 25, y = 40.

Hence the farmer may make the enclosure 20 yards wide and 50 yards long, or
25 yards wide and 40 yards long, using the wall as one of the longer sides.

Example 2. A train makes a journey of 200 miles. A second train does

the same journey at an average speed 8 m.p.h. greater than that of the first
train, and takes 50 minutes less on the journey. Find the average speed
for the first train.
Solution: Let * m.p.h. be the average speed of the first train, and y hours be
the time taken by the first train.
200
Then xy = 200, or y = ——

The average speed of the second train is (x + 8) m.p.h. and the time taken by
the second train is (y — f) hours.

Therefore (x + S)(y — f) = 200, or y—^ ®

o x -f- o
Equation 0 tells us that the symbol y may be replaced in this problem by

-• Making this substitution in equation 0, we have:

200 5 200
* 6 *+8
40 1 40
Divide both sides by 5:
* 6 x+ 8
Multiply both sides by 6 x(x + 8):
240(x + 8) - x(x + 8) = 240 *
240 * + 1920 - x2 - 8 * = 240 *
x2 + 8 x — 1920 = 0
(x — 40) (x + 48) = 0
x = 40, x = — 48
No reasonable interpretation can be given to the negative root; hence there is
only one solution of the problem and the average speed of the first train is 40 m.p.h.
Check: At an average rate of 40 m.p.h. the time for a journey of 200 miles is
hours, i.e., 5 hours. The average speed of the other train is 48 m.p.h., and its
time for the 200 miles is hours, i.e., ^ hours.
The difference in the times is therefore (5 — hours, or 50 minutes.
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 109

Exercises [A 1]

1. The sum of two numbers is 20. The sum of their squares is 218. Find
the numbers.

2. The square of a number added to twice the number gives a total of

399. Find the number.

3. The sum of the squares of three consecutive integers added to twice

the product of the middle and largest integers gives a total of 425.
Find the integers.

4. The numerator of a fraction is three less than the denominator. If

the numerator and denominator are both increased by four, the new
fraction is equal to the sum of the original fraction and one-eighth.
If the numerator and denominator of the fraction are positive numbers,
find the original fraction.

5. The length of a rectangle exceeds its width by 3^ ft. The area of the
rectangle is 65 sq. ft. Find its length.

6. Show that there is only one group of consecutive positive integers

which satisfy the Pythagorean relationship (c2 = a2 -f b2) for the
sides of a right triangle.

7. A rectangular picture 12 in. by 9 in. is mounted so that there is a

border of uniform width all around and outside the picture. Find the
width of this border if its area is § the area of the picture.

8. A rectangular garden 50 ft. by 30 ft. has two paths

crossing it, one parallel to the longer side and one
parallel to the shorter side. If the paths are each
x feet in width, express in terms of x the total area
covered by the paths. Find the value of x for which this area is
304 sq. ft.

9. A packing case is 4 feet long, and it has square ends of side x feet.
Express its total surface area in square feet in terms of x. If the total
surface area is 52.5 sq. ft., find the volume of the case.

10. A boy walks 4^ miles to the house of a friend and returns home on a
bicycle. He averages 6 m.p.h. more when cycling than when walking,
and the total time for both journeys is 2 hours. Find his walking speed.

11. It takes 50 minutes less to do a journey of 120 miles by car at night

than by day, because traffic conditions allow the average speed at
night to be 12 m.p.h. more than in the daytime, bind the average
speed for the journey in the daytime.
no Chapter 6

12. It takes 56 minutes more to bicycle 14 miles than to go by car when

the car averages 20 m.p.h. more than the cyclist. Find the time taken
by the cyclist to ride the 14 miles.
13. (a) A motorist averages 24 m.p.h. on the first 60 miles of a 120-mile
trip, and 36 m.p.h. on the rest. Find his average speed for the trip,
(b) To average 30 m.p.h. for a trip a motorist has to make the average
speed for the second half 12-J m.p.h. more than that for the first
half of the distance. Find the average speed for the first half.
14. (a) A boat has a speed of 8 m.p.h. in still water. It makes a trip of
10 miles up a stream which flows at 2 m.p.h. and back to its starting
point. Does it take more or less time than it would take for a
trip of equal length (20 miles) in still water? What is the difference
in the two times?
(b) A boat has a speed of 10 m.p.h. in still water. A trip of 24 miles
up a stream and back to the starting point takes 12 minutes more
than a trip of 48 miles in still water. Find the rate of the current
in the stream.
15. A library spends $60 each month on books. The average price of the
books bought in January was 10 cents higher than for those bought in
#
December, and consequently the library obtained one less book in
January. How many books were bought in December?
16. A boy bought a number of candy bars for $1.80. He sold all but five
of them at 4 cents more per bar than he paid for them, making a cash
profit of 70 cents. How many bars did he buy?
17. An investor bought a number of shares of stock for $1200. The price
dropped $10 per share, and he sold all but two of the shares for $880.
How many shares did he buy?
18. A dealer bought a number of articles for $30. Two were broken in
the store, but by selling each of the others at 50 cents above the cost
price he made a total profit of 20%. How many did he buy?

Exercises [A_2]
1. Two numbers differ by 5. The sum of their squares is 325. Find the
smaller number.
2. The sum of the squares of two consecutive odd integers is 290. Find
the integers.
3. (a) The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 2.9. Find the number,
(b) Show that there is no rational number such that the sum of the
number and its reciprocal is 2.8.
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 111

4. The numerator of a fraction is 3. If its denominator were decreased

by 4, the new fraction would equal the sum of the original fraction
and one-sixteenth. Find the denominator of the original fraction.
5. The perimeter of a rectangle is 18 in., and the area is 18 sq. in. Find
the dimensions of the rectangle.
6. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 17 in., and the other two sides
differ in length by 7 in. Find the length of the shortest side of the
triangle.
7. The width of a rectangular garden plot is | of its length. Lying out¬
side the plot and bordering it on every side is a paved walk 2\ ft.
wide. If the area of the border is half the area of the plot, find the
dimensions of the plot. ^ E H D
8. In the diagram, all the angles are ■»

right angles. AB = 6 in., BC = 20 in., I G

AE = EF = GH = HD = x inches. B
Express the area of the figure in square inches in terms of x. Find
the value of x for which the area is 82.5 sq. in.
9. A room is 6 ft. longer than it is wide. There are two identical rugs
on the floor having width 2 ft. less than their length. The length of
the rugs is 6 ft. less than the width of the room. If the width of the
room is x feet, express the area of the uncovered part of the floor in
square feet in terms of x. Show that there are two possible values of x
for which this area is 192 sq. ft.
10. The difference in the average rates of two trains is 13 m.p.h. The
slower train takes 2 hours more to travel 168 miles than the faster
takes to travel 164 miles. Find the rate of the slower train.
11. A boy figures that if he increases his normal cycling speed by 3 m.p.h.
he will take one minute less to cycle one mile. Find the boy’s normal
cycling speed.
12. Fifteen minutes after a car leaves a certain point a motorcyclist sets
out to overtake it. The cyclist averages 5 m.p.h. more than the car
and overtakes it after traveling 70 miles. Find the average speed of
the car.
13. A train is scheduled to average 40 m.p.h. for a certain journey. It is
delayed in the early part of the journey, and in order to arrive on
time its average speed for the last § of the journey has to be 12 m.p.h.
greater than for the first f- of the journey. Find its average speed on
the first f of the journey.
112 Chapter 6

14. The cruising speed of a plane in still air is 270 m.p.h. It takes 90 min.
of flying time to make a flight of 200 miles due north and back to its
starting point when there is a wind blowing from the north. Find the
speed of the wind, assuming that it remains of the same average
strength for the round trip.
15. A dealer bought a number of articles for $100. Four got broken, but
by selling each of the others at 50 cents above the cost price he made
a total profit of 15%. How many articles did he buy?
16. A workman earned $78 in a certain number of days. If his daily
wage had been 50 cents less, he would have taken one more day to
earn the $78. Find the number of days it actually took him.
17. A cook bought a certain number of pounds of meat for $15. When he
repeated the order he found that the only meat available cost 15 cents
more per pound than the last order, so he bought 5 pounds less. How
many pounds did he buy originally?
18. If the price of oranges were lowered 2 cents per dozen, the number
obtained for $2.80 would be increased by 4. Find the price per dozen.

Exercises [B]
1. The profit on a certain article is x% of the cost price, and it is also
(x — 5)% of the selling price. Find x.
2. When flying without wind an airplane averages 300 m.p.h. If on a
certain east-west round trip with a west wind blowing, the effect of
the wind is to reduce the average speed for the trip by 1%, find the
speed of the wind.
3. The price of a certain article is raised x% in October. In the January
sale the new price is reduced by 2 x%, and the final price is 12% below
the original price. Find x.
4. The difference between the compound interest and the simple interest
on $1000 at a certain rate per cent for two years is $2.50. Find the
rate per cent.
A B
5. (a) Show that the area of a square is one-half the
square of its diagonal.
(b) The square A BCD has side 20 in. The lines
forming the diagonal cross meet the sides of
the square at a distance x inches from the near¬
est vertex. Express the area of the cross in
terms of x.
(c) Find the value of x for which the area of the cross is 111 sq. in.
Quadratic Equations with Rational Roots 113

6. A man’s taxable income is $10,000. Federal income tax takes a certain

percentage of it, and of what is left the state income tax takes a
percentage which is 10 less than that taken by the Federal income tax.
If the income after both taxes have been paid is $5600, find the per¬
centage taken by the Federal income tax.
7. A plane has a speed of V\ m.p.h. in still air. Show that its average
speed on a round trip, flying with and against a wind of v m.p.h., is

('Vi ~ v) m-p-h-
8. The speed of a train is such that it travels its own length in two
seconds. There are two posts J mile apart. From the time the front
of the engine is level with the first post until the end of the train is
level with the second post the number of seconds is half as many as
there are yards in the length of the train. Find the speed of the train
in miles per hour.

Chapter Test

Solve the following equations:

I. 3*(2*+l) = 5(2*+l) 5.m+10 = i200
x—2 x
2 36 _ 30 _ 2
, 180 - 250
' y+i y o.-0 =
c+4

3 x — 10 +x 7 x -f 2 x 3
* 24 — x x ■*-l_3 x-1

4. 2 x2(x + 2) — 5 x(x + 2) = 0 8 . (2x-l)2- 0+2)2 = 2(>-3)2

9. The product of two consecutive numbers exceeds their sum by 155.
Find the numbers.
10. The area of a rectangle is 216 sq. in. When the length is increased
by 8 in., the width must be decreased by 2\ in. in order to keep the
area at 216 sq. in. Find the original dimensions of the rectangle.
II. A service club had $270 to spend on dolls to be given away at Christ¬
mas. The merchant cut his price by 25 cents per doll, thus enabling
the club to purchase 15 more dolls. How many dolls did the club buy?
12. The cruising speed of a plane in still air is 500 m.p.h. It takes 84

hours of flying time to make a round trip of 4200 miles when there is
a constant wind blowing. If the effect of the wind is to increase the
speed of the plane by x m.p.h. one way and to reduce it by x m.p.h.
the other way, find the value of x.
 Formulas * General Conclusions

Formulas

One of the important uses of variables is in making general statements

about a set of objects. With a proper understanding of the meaning of the
symbols, the statement "F= Iwh” expresses in concise fashion the rule by
which the volume of any rectangular solid is obtained from its three dimen¬
sions. In geometry it is shown that the statement "5 = 180(w — 2)” gives
the number of degrees in the sum (5) of the angles of any polygon having
n sides.
A general statement which shows precisely how the value of one quantity
is obtained from the value of one or more other quantities is called a formula.
In algebraic formulas the values of the quantities are represented by vari¬
ables, and the replacement set of a variable may be restricted by the
physical situation described in the formula. Thus in V = Iwh the physical
situation indicates that replacements for /, w, h must be positive. In the
formula S = 180(» — 2), since n represents the number of sides of a polygon,
any replacement for n must be an integer greater than 2.
Formulas are the chief means of expressing rules and relationships in all
branches of science, in engineering and in business, as well as in mathe¬
matics. The fact that a formula can be treated as an equation makes it
possible, in most cases, to express any one of its variables in terms of the
others. Solving a formula for a particular variable may make it possible
to deduce new information about a set of objects.

Solving Formulas

In solving a formula for one of the variables we use the procedures which
were listed in Chapter 2 for solving any equation. However, when the co¬
efficients in an equation are letters instead of numerals the procedures may
appear more complicated because the results of the fundamental operations
can only be indicated. Thus, the result of subtracting bx from ax is written
ax — bx. When results are indicated in this manner, we are forced to take
114
Formulas • General Conclusions 115

each step thoughtfully and to represent the result clearly. In the first set
of exercises, therefore, we shall have the opportunity to solve a number of
equations in which letters other than variables appear. The techniques of
factoring are often needed for collecting terms and for simplifying an
indicated division.

Example 1. Solve for n: 5= 1800-2).

Solution: 5= 1800-2)
5 = 180 n - 360
180 n = S + 360
S -f- 360

ax -f b _ x -j- b
Example 2. Solve for x:
ax — b x — 2b
Solution: Multiply both sides by {ax — b)(x — 2 b), obtaining
(ax -j- b) (x — 2 b) = (x -f- b) {ax — b)
ax2 — 2 abx -f- bx —2 b2 = ax2 -f- abx — bx — b2
The term ax2 may be subtracted from each side, leaving a linear equation. We
therefore collect the terms containing x on one side and the remaining terms on
the other side.
2 bx — 3 abx = b2
bx{2 — 3 a) = b2
b
'Y - -•

2-3 a
Note that if a = §, there is no solution of the equation.

Example 3. Solve for x: ax{x — a) = x2 — a2.

The right-hand side may be written {x — a)(x-\- a), and the two sides of
the equation have the common factor {x — a). It is tempting to simplify
the equation by dividing both sides by this common factor, and we should
consider carefully the reason for not doing this.
The value of x — a is zero when x = a. Since x — a is a factor of both sides
of the equation, each side has the value zero when x — a. Hence, x — a is a
solution of the equation. But this solution is lost if, in the course of solving
the equation, both sides are divided by x — a.
In general, the operation of dividing both sides of an equation by a
factor containing the variable does not produce an equivalent equation.
The effect of the operation is to reduce the degree of the equation and elim¬
inate one or more of the roots.
Thus, the operation of dividing both sides of an equation by a factor con¬
taining the variable should never be performed.
116 Chapter 7

Solution of Example 3: Returning to the given equation, we note that it is

quadratic. We therefore write the equation as a quadratic expression equal to
zero. We then have
ax(x — a) — (xa) (x — a) = 0
(x — a) (ax — x — a) = 0
This is equivalent to
x — a — 0, and ax — x — a = 0
x=a x(a — 1) = a
a

The set of solutions is j a, —-- j•

Exercises [A_1]
1. In solving the equation 2 ax = ab for x, does the operation of dividing
both sides by a produce an equivalent equation?
2. In solving the equation ax2 = 4 bx for x, does the operation of dividing
both sides by x produce an equivalent equation?
3. In solving the equation ax(a — b) = (a -T b)(a — b) for x, does the
operation of dividing both sides by a — b produce an equivalent
equation?
4. In solving the equation ax(x — b) = (a + b)(x — b) for x, does the
operation of dividing both sides by x — b produce an equivalent
equation?

Solve the following equations for x, y, or t:

5. a(x — b) — b(x + a) = 0 y, x — 2 a x-\-b
x+a x— b
6. a(y-\-b)-\-c(2 y—a)=a(a-\-b—c)
7. 2 x2 = 3 ax 13. 1 + 1 =2
t—a t—b t
^

j/j 3 c 2 (y 2 c) y
od

o
+

II
1

' y—c c
9. 2 x2 — 3 ax = 14 a2 15. (x - 2 a)2 - b2 = 0
10. 3 x(x + 2 b) = 2 b(x +2 b) 16. 2 ax2 — 3 a2x =2 bx — 3 ab
17. x2 — 6 ax + 9 a2 — 4 b2 = 0
11. ax = bx 7
a b 18. #(6 x-f 3a - 2 b) = ab

l9 ua^x + b^x = c + x> shQw that 1 = 1 1 1.

a b c x a b c
Formulas • General Conclusions 117

20. The equation x(x — 3) = c(c — 3) is clearly satisfied by x = c. Find

the other root.
21. Solve for x: [x + a)(x — a) = 2(x — a).
22. Solve for y: y2 — 4 ay = c2 — 4 ac.
23. Solve for x and y: x + y = d, cx -f dy = c2.
24. Solve for x and y: ax + by — 3 ab, bx + ay = 2 a2 -f b2.

25. Solve for x and y: - = a, - — - = 0.

x y x y

Exercises [A 2]
1. In solving the equation 2 bx = b2 for x, does the operation of dividing
both sides by b produce an equivalent equation?
2. In solving the equation x2 = 2 bx for x, does the operation of dividing
both sides by x produce an equivalent equation?
3. In solving the equation cx(x — a) = (x+a)(x — a) for x, does the
operation of dividing both sides by x — a produce an equivalent
equation?
4. In solving the equation px(p — q) = (x + p)(p — q) for x, does the
operation of dividing both sides by p — q produce an equivalent equa¬
tion?

Solve the following equations for x, y, or /:

5. p(2 x — q) + q(2 x — p) = 0 tT a _ bT t
12.
2 t— a bT 2 t
6. a(t—c) — b(3c— 2t) = c(a-\-b)
2_ 1 1

7. 3 ax = 4 bx2
x x+ a x-\~ b

8. -— = 0 14 m~~ 2 y | w + 4 y = 2
b—x a— x m+y 2 m—y
9. b2x2 — abx =6 a2 15. (2 x — b)2 — 9 a2 = 0

10. 2 ^(3 x — 2 a) = a{3 x — 2 a) 16. 2 x2 — ax -f 2 bx — ab = 0

17. y2 + 10 ay + 25 a2 - 16 b2 = 0

11. py — qy
p q 18. 2 /(2 /— 3 a + 6) = 3

19. If —!-1— = 1, show that - = — t •

a b x a b
20. The equation /(/ — K) = did — K) is clearly satisfied by t=d. Find
the other root.
118 Chapter 7

21. Solve for y: (y + 2 b)(y — 2 b) = 3(y — 2 6).

22. Solve for x: x2 — 3 bx = c2 — 3 be.
23. Solve for ac and y: x — y = a, bx — ay = b2.
24. Solve for a: and y: ax — by = a2 — ab + b2, bx — ay = 2 ab — a2.

25. Solve for # and y: - + - = a, - + - = 0.

x y x y

[B]
Exercises
1 1
1. If - — —^--t find x in terms of a and b.
a a -f £ b—x b
2. If vi = Vo + gt, and Vi2 = v02 + 2 gs, show that s = Vo + fli)/.
3. Solve for x and y: ax + by = a2 + b2, (b — a)x -f (b + a)y = 4 ab.
* / \ p. i r bx c cx h
4. (a) Solve for x: ——— =-:-
bz c2
(b) Show that if b and c are unequal positive numbers, the root of the
equation is greater than 3.
5. Show that an2 + bn-\- c — (cn2 + bn-\- a) has a factor n2 — 1. What
can be deduced about the difference between a three-digit number
and the number formed by reversing the order of the digits?
1 <r
6 . Show that = 1 + a + a2 + is an identity.
1 — a ' 1 —a
Use it to write the value of 1/.98 to four decimal places.
1
Obtain a corresponding identity for
1 -f- a
7. A and C are points 10 in. apart. AB and CD are B
N
line segments perpendicular to ^4C, and of length
8 in. and 3 in. respectively. It is required to find
the position of a point P on dU such that D
BP — 2(PD). Show that there is only one posi¬
tion of P between A and C, and interpret the
C
second root of the quadratic equation.
(Let P be x inches from C toward A. Represent by an equation:
(BP)2 = A(PD)2.)
8. Solve the equation x2(a2 — b2) = b(2 ax — b) for x.
2 ab
If the roots are x\ and X2, show that x\ -f X2 = and
a2 — b2
b2
.X\'X2 =
a2 — b2
Formulas • General Conclusions 119

Ratio and Proportion

Before we study the method of deducing new information from formulas
we recall here the concepts of ratio and proportion.

Ratio. The ratio of 8 to 12 may be expressed either as f or as 2 : 3. The

two forms have the same basic meaning, but they emphasize the two slightly
different aspects of ratio which we should recognize. One of these is that
8 is § of 12; the other is that if we express the numbers 8 and 12 in terms
of their largest common unit, which is 4, they contain 2 units and 3 units
respectively. In operating with the ratio, it is convenient to treat it as a
single number, identifying it with the fraction f. The ratio of one number a

to a second number b is defined as the quotient 7 obtained by dividing the

-0-
first number by the second. A ratio, therefore, is a number, usually a frac¬
tion form reduced to its lowest terms. The ratio of 30 to 75 is ff, which
reduces to f.
Quantities of the same kind may be compared in size by means of the
numbers which measure them in terms of a common unit. Thus the ratio
of 8 inches to 1 foot is y* 2 * * * * 7 82, or f. There is no basis of comparison for different
kinds of quantities such as 5 feet and 10 seconds, though it is clearly possible
to compare the number of units in two such quantities.
For any non-zero value of x, the ratio of the numbers 2 x and 3 x is 2 : 3,
2 'JQ
for -— may be reduced to § when x is not equal to zero. In general, two

numbers in the ratio m : n may be represented by mx and nx. In comparing

the sizes of three or more numbers or quantities, it is convenient to use an
extended form of ratio. The statement that three numbers are in the ratio
3:4:5 implies that in terms of the largest unit common to the three
numbers the first contains three units, the second contains four units, and
the third contains five units. The ratio of the first to the second is 3 : 4,
and the ratio of the second to the third is 4 : 5. Three such numbers may
be represented by 3 x, 4 x, 5 x.

Proportion. If the ratio 7 is equal to the ratio -> the four numbers, or
b
quantities represented by the letters a, b, c, d, are said to be in proportion.
An equation which expresses the equality of two ratios is called a proportion.

Thus | ^ is a proportion. It is readily seen that from the proportion

7 = - the product form ad = be may be deduced. Conversely, if ad = be, the

b d
proportion relationship may be established./
120 Chapter 7

2
Example 1 . Find the ratio of x to y if —-—
x+y 5

Solution: We have —;— = 7

x y 5

5x= 2x 2y
3x= 2y
Divide both sides by 3 y:

Example 2. A line segment AB is 12 in. long. P is a point on AB such

AP 3
that (a) Find the length of AP. (b) State the ratio of PB to AB.
PB 5
Solution:
(a) Let AP = 3x inches, and PB = 5x inches. This representation ensures
that for all non-zero values of x the ratio AP/PB shall be 3/5.
Then we have 3 x -f- 5 x = 12, since AP PB = AB.
8 x = 12

*= 1J
Hence, the length of AP is 3(1^), or \\ in.
(b) To obtain the ratio of PB to AB we note that since AP = 3 x inches and
PB = 5 x inches, the length of A B is 8 x inches.
PB 5x5
Hence,
AB 8 x 8

Exercises [A 1]
1. Two angles which total 90 degrees are in the ratio §. Find the number
of degrees in each.

2. Two angles which total 180 degrees are in the ratio §. Find the number
of degrees in each.

3. Three angles which total 180 degrees are in the ratio 2:3:4. Find
the number of degrees in the largest angle.
4. A line segment AB is 20 in. long. P is a point on AP such that
AP 2
—— = -• Find the length of AP. State the ratio of AP to AP.

5. A side of a triangle is 15 in. long. It is divided into two segments with

lengths in the ratio J. Find the length of the shorter segment. State
the ratio of the longer segment to the whole side.
 The scale model has become an important factor in the construction of modern in¬
dustrial plants such as this caprolactum plant at Beaumont, Texas. Because an ac¬
curate model enables engineers to visualize and anticipate problems of design in
complicated structures, the use of one reduces the time and the expense of construc¬
tion. The cost of the model is usually under of the total investment in the project,
and may save up to 5% of the total.
122 Chapter 7

6. P is a point on a line segment AB such that AP/PB = m/n. State

the ratio of AP to AB.
7. If a\ exceeds a2 by 25%, express a\ : #2 as simply as possible.
8. If a is 50% of b, express in simplest form the ratio of a to a + b.
X
9. If 12 x2 + 7 xy — 10 y2 = 0, find the possible values for the ratio - •
y
10. A line segment 33 cm. long is divided into three parts with lengths in
the ratio 3 : 4 : 5. Find the length of the longest part, and state
what fraction of the whole length is contained in the smallest segment.
11. If P : (P + Q) = 5 : 8, find the ratio (a) of P to Q; (b) of 2 P to 2 Q;
(c) of P2 to Q2.
12. If 2 (4 x — y) = 3 ac + 2 y, find the ratio of x to y.

Exercises [A_2]
1. Two angles which total 90 degrees are in the ratio y. Find the number
of degrees in each.
2. Three angles which total 180 degrees are in the ratio 3:4:7. Show
that the largest angle is a right angle.
3. X is a point on a line segment AB such that AX/XB = 2/5. What
is the ratio of AX to AB? If AX = 7 in., find the length of AB.
4. A line segment 30 in. long is divided into segments in the ratio 4 : 5.
Find the length of the shorter segment.
5. If a is 75% of b, express in simplest form the ratio of b to a + b.
6. If the profit in selling an article is 20%, express in simplest form the
ratio of the selling price to the cost.
7. A line segment of length a inches is divided into two parts with
lengths in the ratio p/q. Find the length of each part, and write the
ratio of the length of each part to the complete length.
8. If 15 £2 + xy — 6 y2 = 0, find the two possible values for the ratio -•
y
9. If the ratio of a2 — b2 to a2 — 2 ab + b2 is y, show that the ratio of
a to b is y.
10. If 2{P + Q) = 5(P - ©, find the ratio of P to Q.
11. A rectangle has length and width in the ratio J. A second rectangle
has length 5 in. less than twice the length of the first, and width 8 in.
more than the width of the first. The ratio of the lengths of the rec¬
tangles equals the ratio of the widths. Find the value of this ratio.
Formulas ■ General Conclusions 123

Deductions from Formulas

Formulas are used in many ways. Perhaps the most common and the
simplest use is that of finding the value of one of the variables from given
values of the others.

Example 1 . A square pyramid in which

the side of the base is x inches and the alti¬
tude is h inches has volume V cubic inches
given by the formula V = J x2h.
Find the altitude of a square pyramid
with volume 128 cu. in. if the side of the
base is 8 in.

Solution: Since V= h
3 x2h,
then 3 V x2h.
3 V
Hence h— for all possible values of V and x.
x4
If V 128 and x = 8,
3 • 128
then h= = 6.
8-8
The required height of the pyramid is 6 in.

When a formula is a statement about a set of objects, information about

the objects can be deduced in two ways:

1. The formula may be solved for a second variable and a new aspect of
the relationship between the variables may be shown.

Example 2. If two circles have radii r units and (rx) units, and d
represents the difference of their circumferences, then

d= 2 7 r(r + x) — 2 irr.

Solve this formula for x, and interpret the result.

Solution: d— 2 ir(r x) — 2 7rr

d = 2 Trr 2 tx — 2 irr
d
x=—
2 IT

The result shows us that, regardless of the size of the circles, if the circumfer¬

ences differ in length by d units, then the difference of the radii is units.

2. The use of subscripts may enable us to draw general conclusions con¬

cerning related members of the set of objects.
124 Chapter 7

Example 3. Two triangles are such that the ratio of the base of the first
to the base of the second is §, and the ratio of the altitude of the first to the
altitude of the second is §. Find the ratio of the areas of the triangles.
Solution: Let the base and altitude of the first triangle be of lengths b\ inches
and hi inches. If the area is A\ square inches, then
A i = \ b\h\
Using the subscript 2 for the second triangle, we have
A 2 — \ ^2^2
A i_b\h\_bi h\
Hence
A2 62^2 &2 h2
bi _ hi _ 3
But it is given that
62 h2 2
A\ _ 3 3 _ 9
and we deduce that
A2 2' 2 4

The formula representing the fact that four numbers a, b, c, d are in pro¬

portion is 7 = -• It can be proved that numbers which are related by this

b d
basic formula also satisfy various other forms of relationship. The following
Example illustrates the way in which one such relationship is deduced from
d c
the formula - = - • It is arranged as a formal proof with each step justified
b d
by an axiom or a theorem.

Example 4. If 7 = 7 > prove that f—- = 7

F b d F b+d b

Solution:

a c
Given: a, b, c, d are four numbers such that 7
0 ~d

a -f c _ a
To Prove:
b+d b

Proof-
GL C
1. Let - = k, then - = k, since 1. Transitive property of equality.
b d
a_c
b~ d

2. If y = k, then a = bk. 2. Definition of division.

b
c = dk. (similarly)
Formulas General Conclusions
•
125

^ a -j- c bk -{- dk
since a = bk, 3. When two numbers are equal,
6' b + d = b + d ’
one may be substituted for the other.
and c — dk.

a a c_d~ d)
4. The distributive axiom enables
b + d~ b+d
us to write bk + dk in the form
k{b -f d).
CL + C_ k{b + d)
5. 5. The value of a fraction
b+~d~ b + d

is not changed when numerator and

denominator are divided by the
same number (b + d).
d+ c d . d
6. - > since - = 6 . Transitive property of equality.
b + d b b

Exercises [A 1]

1. A boy rides a bicycle at an average speed of 10 m.p.h. for n hours.

The distance traveled, d miles, is given by the formula d = 10 n.
(a) Find the number of miles traveled in 2 hr. 50 min.
(b) If values of n are selected one of which is 3 times as large as the
other, state the ratio of the corresponding values of d.

2. In buying at $c and selling at $s, the profit %p is expressed by the

formula p = s — c.
(a) If ^ = 125.00 and c = 87.50, find p and express it as a percentage
of c.
(b) If the cost price and the selling price of an article are both halved,
what is the effect on the profit? What is the effect on the per¬
centage profit?

3. In a rectangle of length / feet and width w feet the perimeter P feet

is given by the formula P = 2 / + 2 w.
(a) Find the value of P when l = 4f, and w = 3j.
(b) Compare the perimeters of two rectangles if the values of l and
w in one are twice the values of l and w in the other.
(c) Solve the formula for l.
4. A boy throws a ball vertically and it leaves his hand with an upward
speed of 64 ft. per second. At time t seconds after the ball leaves the
boy’s hand, the upward speed of the ball, denoted by V ft. per second,
is given by the formula V — 64 — 32 t.
Find the values of V when t = 1, / = 2, t — 3, and describe the motion
of the ball at each of these instants.
126 Chapter 7

5. Each edge of a cube is x inches long. If 5 inches is the sum of the

lengths of all the edges, A square inches is the sum of the areas of all
the faces, and V cubic inches is the volume of the cube, express S,
A, and V in terms of x. If the value of x for one cube is J of the value
of x for a second cube, compare (a) the values of S, (b) the values of
A, (c) the values of V, for the two cubes.

6 . When an article costing $C is sold at a profit of p%, the selling price

$5 is given by the formula S = C + CJL Solve this formula for C, and

100
use the result to find the cost price of an article on which the profit
is 25% when it is sold for $175.

7. A temperature recorded as F° on the Fahrenheit scale is recorded as

C° on the Centigrade scale, where F and C are related by the formula

C = i(F — 32).

(a) Solve the formula for F.

(b) Find F when C = 0 and when C = 100.
(c) If two values of C differ by 10, what is the difference between the
corresponding values of F?
(d) What is the temperature for which the readings on the two scales
are equal? Can there be more than one such temperature?

8 . A hollow metal supporting column II inches high has a square cross

section of side D inches measured externally. If the thickness of the
metal is n inches, the volume V cubic inches of metal in the column
is given by the formula V = H[D2 — (D — 2 n)2~\.
(a) Solve the formula for D.
(b) Find the value of D when V = 216, H = 60, n = .2.
(c) If // = 10 D, and n = 5% of D, express V in terms of D only.

b—c b
9. Prove that if -)
c c

a1
10. Prove that if 7^ 02
then
02

0i b2 0 i + b1 02 + ^2
x 3
11. (a) If - = -r state the ratio of 4 x to 4 y, and of x2 to y2.
y 4
(b) Two squares have sides in the ratio f. State the ratio of their
perimeters, and the ratio of their areas.

02
12. Prove that if —01 then 7! =
0i + 0i 02 + bo 01
Formulas ■ General Conclusions 12 7

13. A solution of acid in water is 37y% acid by volume. Express in

simplest form the ratio of the volume of acid to the volume of the
solution. State also the ratio of the volume of acid to the volume
of water in the solution.

14. The dimensions of a rectangle are in the ratio 3:2. A second rec¬
tangle is 6 in. longer and 6 in. wider than the first. Show that the
ratio of the lengths cannot equal the ratio of the widths.

15. The ratio of copper to zinc by weight in a certain alloy is 2 : 3, and

the ratio of copper to zinc by weight in another alloy is 1 : 4. How
many pounds of the first alloy should be combined with 50 pounds
of the second to form an alloy in which the ratio of copper to zinc by
weight is 1 : 3?

16. The ratio of zinc to copper by weight in one alloy is 2 : 5, and the
ratio of zinc to copper by weight in a second alloy is 4 : 3. How many
pounds of the first alloy should be mixed with 20 pounds of the second
to form a new alloy which is 50% zinc by weight?

Exercises LA_2]

1. In a rectangle of length l feet and width w feet the area A square feet
is given by the formula A = Iw.
(a) Find the area when the dimensions are 4.5 ft. and 3.5 ft.
(b) Compare the areas of two rectangles if the length and width of
one are 10 times as large as the length and width of the other.

2. If the sum of $P is invested for t years at r%, the simple interest $/

is given by the formula I — yyo Prt.
(a) Find the interest on $520 invested at 3% for 4 yr.
(b) Compare the values of / in two cases if the values of P, r, t in
one case are double the values of P, r, t in the other case.

3. In a square of side x inches the area A square inches is given by A = x~.

(a) Find the ratio of the areas of squares with sides 3.75 in. and 7.5 in.
(b) Draw a diagram to illustrate the fact that if the sides of two squares
are in the ratio y, the areas are in the ratio
4. A stone dropped over the edge of a cliff falls in t seconds a distance
s feet given by the formula s = 16 t2.
(a) Find the distance dropped in 2y sec.
(b) Compare the heights of two cliffs if the number of seconds re¬
quired by a falling stone to reach the bottom of one is ly times
the number required to reach the bottom of the other.
128 Chapter 7

5. A water tank stands on a square base of side x feet and has volume
V cubic feet. If y feet is the height of the tank, write a formula for
y in terms of V and x.
The owner of such a tank wishes to have a new one with equal
volume but side of the base only § that of the old one. Compare the
height of the new tank with that of the old.

6 . If a sum of $P is invested at r% simple interest for n years, the

prn
amount $ A is given by the formula A = P + yyy • Solve this formula

for P, and use the result to find the sum of money that should be
invested at 4% for 5 years to amount to $144.
7. In converting raw scores (R) on a certain test to percentage scores
(P), the following formula was used: P = §(R + 30).
(a) Solve the formula for R.
(b) If the top paper scored 100%, and the bottom paper scored 35%,
find their raw scores.
(c) If the percentage grades on two papers differed by 10, find the
difference in their raw scores.
(d) For what raw score does the percentage score equal the raw score?
8 . A regular polygon has all its sides equal and all its angles equal. If a
regular polygon has n sides, the number of degrees (D) in each of its

angles is given by the formula D = .

(a) Solve the formula for n.

(b) If the value of D is increased from 150 to 156, find the percentage
increase produced in the value of n.

9. Prove that if — = , then — = — •

%2 y2 yi y2
10. A rectangle has width x inches and length (2 x — 4) inches. A second
rectangle has width (x + 6) inches and length (3 x — 2) inches. Find
the values of x for which the ratio of the lengths is equal to the ratio
of the widths. Find the ratio of the lengths and the ratio of the areas
of the rectangles for each value of x.

11. If 3 P = 2 Q, state (a) the ratio (b) the ratio ——

w Q v ' P+Q
ci j_ _
12. If — = -y = — = k, prove that
A.i #i ~b b\ + C\ = k. If ai, bi, Ci are the
d2 bz C2 r dz T bz T Cz
sides of one triangle, and d2, 62, C2 are the sides of a second triangle,
state in words the theorem which is established by the algebraic proof.
Formulas • General Conclusions 129

13. Two square enclosures have a total area of 900 sq. ft. If the perimeters
of the squares are in the ratio 3 : 4, find the area of the smaller.
14. The ratio by weight of metal A to metal B in an alloy is f. What
fraction of the alloy by weight is metal A ?
15. Solution A contains acid and water in the ratio 1 : 3 by volume. Solu¬
tion B contains acid and water in the ratio 4 : 3 by volume. The two
are mixed to form a solution containing acid and water in the ratio
3 : 4 by volume. How many cubic centimeters of solution A are in
100 c.c. of the mixture?

16. The ratio of acid to water by volume in a certain solution is 3 : 2.

The ratio of acid to water by volume in a second solution is 3 : 7.
How many quarts of the first solution must be added to 10 quarts of
the second to form a solution which is 50% acid by volume?

Exercises [B]
1 Tra\ ^1 £l 0\ + T C1 0\ + b\ Ci
*1,
1. If — = — = — t prove that-——-— =-—-
4. —

(12 02 C2 • 02 T 02 T ^2 02 ~T 02 — ^2
2. (a) What change occurs in the ratio of a2 to b2 when the values of a
and b are doubled?
(b) What change occurs in the ratio of a -fi b to ab when the values
of a and b are doubled?

3. Prove that if 7 = v then = f! •

b d b2 bd + a2
4. Write the converse of the statement which was to be proved in exer¬
cise 3. Show that this converse is not necessarily true.
5. If x : y : 2 = 5 : 6 : 2, and 3 *2 — 4 y2 -f 8 yz = 3, find the values of
y, *•
r-r. iL +c 0 — a a b
6. Prove that if —-— = -> then - = - •
b b — a be
7. Write and prove the converse of the statement which was to be proved
in exercise 6.
8. If a : b = b : c, show that the ratio of a : c is the square of the ratio

of a : b.

9. Prove that if 7-^—r— =---= 7 ~rJ

b\C2 — b2C\ Ci02 — C20\ O\02 — O2O1
then a\X + b\ y + C\z — 0, and 02X + ^2 y + 02Z = 0.
(Note that if we assign the value 1 to z, the above result is a formula
for the solution of any system of two linear equations in x and y.)
10. If x - 2 y + 3 2 = 0, and 2 x + 3 y - z = 0, find the ratio of x : y : z.
130 Chapter 7

11. In one alloy the ratio of metal A to metal B by weight is 3 : 5, and in

a second alloy the ratio of A to B by weight is 4 : 3. It is required to
form a new alloy in which there are equal weights of A and B. Find
the ratio of the weight of the first alloy to the weight of the second
alloy needed to obtain this result.

12. From the formula T = —’ find the ratio of L\ to L2.

d\Li — CL2B2

13. From the formula V — mui -, find the ratio of mi to m2.

mi + m2
14. If Vi — V2 = k, and aV 1 — bV2 = ck, express the ratio of V\ to V2
in terms of a, b, c.

Chapter Test
AP 3
1. A B is a line segment 15 in. long. P is a point on A B such that = -•

Find the length of AP.

2. The lengths of the sides of a triangle are in the ratio 4:5:7. If the
perimeter of the triangle is 72 in., find the length of the longest side.
3. Find the ratio of x to y if 3(2 x — y) = 2{x + y).

4. If - = ^ > find the value of X ' •

y 2 2 y
5. The length and width of a certain rectangle are in the ratio §. If each
dimension is increased by 4 inches, the new length and width are in
the ratio J. Find the original dimensions.

6. (a) Solve for n: C = n •

n+2
(b) Using the formula given in (a), find n if C = 3.98.
7. A rectangle is 2 x feet long and x feet wide. In the interior of the
rectangle there is a border lj feet wide all around the figure. If the
area of the border is A square feet, find A in terms of x.
x
8. If - = \ and = -t find the ratio of x to 2.
y 6 y+2 3
9. The pairs (x\, yi), (X2, y2) satisfy the rule y = J x3. Find y'2 in terms
of yi if X2 = § X\.

10. (a) If the ratio of weed killer to water by weight in a certain solution
is 3 : 5, how many pounds of weed killer are there in n pounds of
the solution?
(b) The ratio of weed killer to water in one solution is 3 : 5 and in
another solution is 1 : 3. If equal amounts of the solutions are
mixed, find the ratio of weed killer to water in the mixture.
 The integers, positive, negative, and zero, may be considered the basic ele¬
ments of our number system. The set of integers is closed under the operations of
addition, multiplication, and subtraction. That is, if m, n represent integers, then
IYI
m -\-n, mn, m —n also represent integers. In general, — does not represent an
n
fYl
integer. But if m =kn where k also represents an integer, then — = k, and m is

said to be divisible by n.
Some of the properties of the set of integers can be established with very
little difficulty. Many of them depend upon the fact that if n represents an
integer, then 2 n is a formula for an even integer and 2 n -f 1 is a formula for an
odd integer. Also, if m represents an integer, the integer preceding it is repre¬
sented by m — 1, and the integer which follows it is represented by m -f- 1.

Example: Show that when the square of an odd integer is divided by 4, the
remainder is always 1.

Solution: Let n represent an integer; then 2 n -f 1 is a formula for any odd

integer.
We have (2 n-\-l)2 = 4 n2-\-4 n
= 4{n 2 -b n) -f-1
(2n-\-1)2
Hence = n2 -\-n, with remainder 1.
4

Note. If n is an integer, n2 + n is an integer because the set of integers is closed

under addition and multiplication.

EXERCISES

1. (a) If n is an integer, represent the next two higher integers.

(b) Find three successive integers which have sum 81.
(c) Show that the sum of any three successive integers is divisible by 3.
2. (a) Represent 4 successive integers of which the smallest is n.
(b) Show that there is no group of 4 successive integers with sum 100.
(c) Show that the sum of any 4 successive integers is divisible by 2 but
not by 4.
3. (a) If n is an integer, represent two successive even integers.
(b) Show that the sum of two successive even integers is in no case divisible
by 4.
131
 4. (a) If n is an integer, represent two successive odd integers.
(b) Show that the sum of two successive odd integers is in every case di¬
visible by 4.
5. Show that the sum of any two odd integers is an even integer. (Let m
and n be integers. Represent the odd integers in terms of m and n.)
6. Show that the product of any two odd integers is an odd integer.
7. Show that the product of two consecutive odd integers is always 1 less
than the square of the even integer which lies between them.
8. Show that for any 4 consecutive integers the product of the first and
fourth is 2 less than the product of the second and third.
9. Write the value represented by each individual digit in the number 328.
Write the number having digits h, t, u in order.
10. Show that if the sum of the digits is subtracted from a two-digit number,
the difference is divisible by 9.
11. Show that if the sum of the digits is subtracted from a three-digit number,
the difference is divisible by 9.
12. Extend the result of exercise 11 to four-digit numbers. State a rule for
determining whether a four-digit number is divisible by 9.
13. Show that if a two-digit number is equal to seven times the sum of its
digits, then the tens digit must be twice the units digit. Write the two-
digit numbers having this property.
14. Show that there is only one two-digit number which is equal to five times
the sum of its digits. Write the number.
15. Show that the difference between a four-digit number and the number
formed by reversing the order of the digits is divisible by 9.

132
 Cumulative Review Exercises [Chapters 1-7]
GROUP 1

1. Factor: (a) x(x — c) + 2 d(c — x)

(b) 3 x3 — 2 x2 + 12 x — 8
(c) y2 - (a - 2 b)2

2. Solve for * and y: l£±A2_l*±£2 = ±,*±2+2x:zl ?

6 10 15 2 3 2

3. Simplify:
x2 — 3 x -1- 2
+ #2 -f- # — 2
4. AB is a line segment 12 in. long. is a point on such that
AK ?
= -• Find the length AK.
KB 3
h
5. Solve for h the formula A = -(a + b),

6. Solve: - + =
4 lit x-2

x
7. Simplify: 1 - i-?i.
^x — y) y,
o T ?• a • 4. f 1 ax+w . w + a: A
o. Find m terms of a and m if-1-1-= 0.
ax — m 2 m—x

9. Find the value of# if 2#-f-6y + 3/ =l,4# — t = 3, 2 x -j~ 3 y = 2.

10. How many quarts of water must be added to 20 quarts of a 40% acid
solution to reduce the strength to 25% acid?

11. An increase of 10 cents per dozen in the price of oranges causes a

decrease of 2 dozen in the number obtained for $6. Find the cost of a
dozen before the price is increased.

12. A man travels 20 miles at x m.p.h., and another 20 miles at (x + 4)

m.p.h. If the average speed for the 40 miles is denoted by v m.p.h.,
express v in terms of x in as simple a form as possible. Show that v is
less than the arithmetic average of x and x + 4.

GROUP 2

1. Factor: (a) 15 #2 — 18 x — 24
(b) (x + a) (x — a) — 4(# — a)
(c) #2 + 2 xy + y2 — 4 a2

2. Simplify: -
1 \-x-
x y
133
134 Chapters 1-7

_3_2_ _ 4
2 x 3 y
3. Solve for x and
A+i = 2
3x y 6

'a -|- xN
4. Simplify:
.a x,

5. (a) Find the ratio - if .025 x + .05 y — .04 (x + y).

y
AC
(b) C is a point on the line segment AB such that - • What is the
CB O

. AC n
ratio ——r
AB

5
6. Solve:
x2 — 4 x2 — 3 x + 2

7. Solve for h the formula V = ^ ttr2h.

Find the value of h if V = 154 cu. in., tt = ~y~, r = 3J in.

8. A rectangle is n feet long and c feet wide. Find in terms of n and c

the increase in length required to keep the area unchanged when the
width is decreased by 2 ft.

9. Solve the equations: (a) (x + 2)(3 x — 1) = 6, (b) | 3 x — 2 \ = 10,

(c) (2 x — a)(x — b) = ab.

10. If n gallons of an x% acid solution are mixed with 2 n gallons of a

3 x 4x
—~% solution, show that the strength of the mixture is —p-% acid.
Zi O

11. Two trains travel at average speeds which differ by 8 m.p.h. The
faster train takes 90 minutes less than the slower to complete a
240-mile run. Find the average speed of the slower for the run.

12. A dealer buys x dozen oranges for $d. Two dozen are bad, but the
dealer sells the remainder at a price which will give him a 50% profit
on the transaction. Express in terms of x and d, in simplest form, the
difference between the cost price and the selling price of a dozen
oranges.
GROUP 3

i , 3x j 1 x 3 2
1. Solve and check: ——--— = ---•
15 5 5 x— 1
2. Factor: (a) 48 — 4 x — 2 x2 (c) x3 + x2 — x — 1
(b) 27 a3 + 8 b3 (d) y(y — 2)2 — 3(y — 2)
Review Exercises 135

Ux+y) = h(x - y)
3. Solve for x and y: 2 x -f- 3 y x -f- 2 y _ 1
7 2 ~ 5
4. Solve: (a) (2 x — 3)(x + 2) = 22; (b) 2^+7 >15.

5. If a(x + y) = b(x — y), express the ratio - in terms of a and b.

y
6. Two numbers are in the ratio 5:3. If each number is increased by
3, the new numbers are in the ratio 3:2. Find the original numbers.
1 1 2 1 1
7. Simplify:
1 + X 1 — X X x— 1 X + 1

8. Solve for t: 2 at(t — 2 a) = (/+ a)(t — 2 a).

9. The area of a rectangle is 100 sq. ft. If the length were increased by
3 ft. and the width diminished by 2 ft., the area would be decreased
by 5 sq. ft. Find the original dimensions of the rectangle.

10. If a = 1 — -1 and b = 1-> express c in terms of a.

b c
11. A boy bicycles from P to Q at an average speed of m.p.h. He
returns from Q to P by a road 5 mi. longer, but by averaging 10 m.p.h.
he takes 12 min. less than he required in going from P to Q. Find the
length of the shorter road.
12. If n pounds of coffee costing c cents per pound are mixed with 2 n
pounds of coffee costing 1.25 c cents per pound, express in terms of c
the selling price per pound of the mixture which will produce a profit
of 20%.

GROUP 4

1. Factor: (a) 3 x3 — 3 x2y — 6 xy2 (c) a4 — (5 a + 6)2

(b) 3 xy -f 5 y — 6 x — 10 (d) x3 — 3 x2 — 6 x -f 8
(5 + x) (5 + y) - (5 - s)(5 - y)
2. Show that has the same value for all
x-\-y
values of x and y, provided that x-\- y ^ 0.
2 3 13
3. Find the value of x if - + — = — > and the value of y exceeds the
x 2 y o
value of x by 20%.
m oc_
x m
4. Simplify:
(m — x)2 | l
MX
136

5. If 7 = - = \ > find the value of 7——

b d 5 b + 2d

6. A man obtains an income of $1500 a year by investing § of his capital

at 4j% and the rest at 6%. Find the amount of his capital.
7. A rectangular box has width 2 ft. more than its depth and length 5 ft.
more than its depth. Let its depth be x feet, and let 5 square feet
represent the total surface area of the outside of the box.
(a) Write the formula expressing S in terms of x in simplest form.
(b) Find the value of x for which S = 100.

8. Solve for t: ----- ° + ^ = a v~ • Check the result.

b a b
9. A river steamer has a speed of 15 m.p.h. in still water. How long does
it take to travel 120 mi. upstream against a current of average speed
x m.p.h.? How long does it take for the return journey with the cur¬
rent? If the difference of the times is 3 hr. 20 min., find the average
speed of the current.

10. Solve and check: --- — 1.

3^+1 x—4
11. The variables x and y are related by the formula y = nix + c, where
m and c are constants. It is known that y = 2 when x = 2, and that
y = 0 when x = — 3. Find the values of m and c, and show that
y — 4 when x = 7.
12. If a, b, and c are numbers such that a — b = b — c = 3, find the value
of a2 — 2 b2 + c2.
 Irrational Numbers

Squares and Square Roots

If a number is multiplied by itself, the product is called the square of the

original number. Thus, since 13 • 13 = 169, we say that 169 is the square
of 13. We use a2 as a symbol for a • a, so we may write 132 = 169, and also
(_ 13)2= m
The formula y = x2 is a statement that a value of y is obtained by squaring
the corresponding value of x. Some pairs of values which satisfy the rela¬
tionship are given in the following table:
1 1
-3 - 2 - 1 2 0 2 1 2 3
1 1
9 4 1 4 0 4 1 4 9

The square of every non-zero number is a positive number; hence, in situa¬

tions involving the rule y = x2, we shall be concerned only with values of y
in the set represented by y ^ 0.
For any pair of numbers satisfying the formula y = x2, the value of x is
called a square root of the value of y. The table shows us that both 3 and — 3
are square roots of 9, and that both \ and — \ are square roots of We
shall assume that every positive number k has two square roots, equal in
absolute value but opposite in sign. The square roots of k are represented
by y/k and — y/k. The symbol Vk represents a positive number, known as
the principal square root of k, or more briefly as radical k. The symbol y/
is called the radical sign._ _ _
The definition of y/k makes clear that "s/lO • "s/lO = 10, so that
(Vl0)2= 10. More generally, for any positive number k, (y/k)2 = k,
and y/k2 = k.
It is important that the student have a clear understanding of the fact
that, when k > 0, y/k is a symbol for just one positive number. W hile
there are two square roots of 25, represented by + 5, — 5, the symbol y/25
means only + 5. To express both square roots using the radical sign, we
write V25 and — V25.
137
138 Chapter 8

The following axiom provides a means of comparing the sizes of numbers

written in the radical form.

Axiom. (1) If a, b represent positive numbers, and if a > b, then Va > Vb,
and conversely,

(2) If a, b represent positive numbers, and if >/a > Vb, then a > b.

Example. Show that\/6 > 2.4.

Solution: We have (2.4)2 = 5.76
6 >(2.4)2
Hence V6 > V(2.4)2 (Using the above axiom
with a = 6, b= (2.4)2.)
That is, v/6 > 2.4

Exercises [A]

1. Show that '\/l0 > 3.1.

2. Show that y/21 < 4.6.
3. Translate into words the identity (w + 1 )2 = n2 n -{■ (» + 1), where
n represents a positive integer. Use the result to complete the following
table.

n 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

n2 100 . ■

4. Write the squares of 21; 2.1; .21.

5. Write the squares of 150; 1.5; .015.
(2.4)2. (370)2
6. Simplify:
(24)2 (3.7)2‘
7. (a) Write the squares of yXq; §; 0.9; 1; 1.1; 1.7.
(b) Which of the six numbers in (a) are larger than their squares?
(c) If x is positive, and x > x2, what is the set of possible values
of x?
8. Write the positive square root of 64; .64; .0064.
9. Write the positive square root of 324; 3.24; .0324.
10. Show that (a) VU5 >0.7; (b) 1.5 > V2 > 1.4.
11. (a) Write the positive square root of f; 0.16; 1; 1^-; 2.89.
(b) For which of the numbers in (a) is the square root larger than the
original number?
(c) For what set of positive values of x is Vx > x?
Irrational Numbers 139

12. Show that vO.1 is larger than 0.3 and smaller than 0.4.
13. Which is the larger number: (a) 17 or V290; (b) or Vll?
14. Is the statement "V:r2 = x” true (a) if x = 4; (b) if x = — 4?
15. How many digits are there before the decimal point in the square root
of 537; 5730; 16374; 1637.4? In each case state the first digit in
the square root.

16. Write the first non-zero digit, correctly placed with respect to the
decimal point, in the square root of each of the following numbers:
0.2678; 0.02678; 0.0004632; 0.00009324.

Approximation

The number 3§ can be expressed as a decimal in the form 3.625. In the

symbol 3.625 we refer to the 6 as the digit in the first decimal place, to the
2 as the digit in the second decimal place, and to the 5 as the digit in the
third decimal place. When the representation of a number ends at a partic¬
ular decimal place, the decimal is called a terminating decimal. Thus, 3.625
is a terminating decimal.
When we attempt to express the number 3j2 as a decimal, we find that
the decimal does not terminate. We have 3^- — 3.1466 . . ., the dots indicat¬
ing that the digit 6 is repeated indefinitely. A decimal in which a digit or
a sequence of digits is repeated indefinitely is called a repeating decimal.
In operating with decimals it is often desirable to "round off” a decimal
to a certain number of places. In doing this, we give the best approximation
possible with the decimal terminating at the specified place. The following
procedures are generally used:

^ 1. When the first digit to be dropped is less than 5, make no change in the
digits retained.

Example. 3.4166 rounded off to one decimal place gives 3.4.

2. When the first digit to be dropped is greater than 5, or if it is 5 and the

decimal does not terminate at this place, increase the last digit retained
by one.

Example. 3.4166 rounded off to two decimal places gives 3.42.

3. When the only digit dropped is 5, then

if the last digit retained is even, leave it unchanged,
if the last digit retained is odd, increase it by one.

Examples. When 3.125 is rounded off to two decimal places, we give 3.12.
When 3.135 is rounded off to two decimal places, we give 3.14.
140 Chapter 8

Significant Figures

The number 25.7 may be expressed as "257 tenths.” The number 10.02
may be expressed as "1002 hundredths.” The number 0.006 may be ex¬
pressed as "6 thousandths.” When a number which has been rounded off
is expressed in terms of the unit represented by the last retained digit, each
digit used in the representation is called a significant figure. Thus,

25.7 (257 tenths) contains 3 significant figures,

10.02 (1002 hundredths) contains 4 significant figures,
0.006 (6 thousandths) contains 1 significant figure.

In the same way, if the number 2486 is rounded off to the nearest hundred,
the resulting number

2500 (25 hundreds) contains 2 significant figures.

When a number is rounded off, the actual change in value is not more
than one-half of the unit indicated by the last retained digit. In most cases,
however, the actual change is of less importance than the ratio of the actual
change to the number itself. This ratio, known as the relative error, is
closely associated with the significant figures in the number after it has
been rounded off. Thus, if 1.286 is rounded off to 1.29, the change or error
is .004 and the relative error is which is about -^o. If 1.26 is
rounded off to 1.3, the relative error is t;%, which is about -^q. Regardless
of the position of the decimal point, when a number is rounded off to

2 significant figures, the relative error is less than

3 significant figures, the relative error is less than 20m and so on.

It should be observed that zeros used at the start of a decimal to indicate

the position of the decimal point are not significant figures. Thus, to round
off 0.004032 to 2 significant figures, we write 0.0040.

Evaluating Square Roots

Relationships involving the squares of quantities are common in mathe¬

matics and science. In numerical problems it is frequently necessary to
determine the square or the square root of a number of several digits. Ap¬
proximate values for the squares and square roots of such numbers are
usually found from tables arranged for that purpose. In this book the tables
of squares and square roots are on pages 584-589. Instructions for using
them are given on page 582.

Example. The legs of a right triangle are 15.6 in. and 23.5 in. long. Find
the length of the hypotenuse to three significant figures.
Irrational Numbers 141

Solution: By the Pythagorean Theorem we have

B
c2 = a2+b2

= (15.6)2 + (23.5)2
= 243.4 + 552.3 (using the table of
= 795.7 squares)
c = 28.2 (using the table of
square roots)
The length of the hypotenuse is 28.2 inches.

Exercises [A_1]
In exercises 1-8 give the square or square root to the same number of
significant figures as are in the original number.
1. Obtain the square of 2.38; 23.8; 0.238; 238.
2. Obtain the square of 7.62; 0.0762; 762; 0.000762.
3. Obtain the square of 3.462; 34.62; 0.3462; 3462.
4. Obtain the square of 1.825; 182.5; 0.1825; 0.001825.
5. Evaluate: a/3.42; \/342; \/34.2; \/0.342.
6. Evaluate: "s/6.45; a/o.0645; \/64.5; V6450.
7. Evaluate: V8.425.; V8425; V0.0008425; V842.5.
8. Evaluate: \/l6.62; 'x/166.2; a/o.01662; \/l662.

Find the value of each of the following to 4 significant figures.

9. 15.282; 230.42; 0.22222; 3.1882.
10. V27.43; Vo.9405; V582.4; Vl5270.
11. 27.562; 34.822; 564.82; 0.0012342.
12. V783.5; V674600; V0.0007504; Vo.004657.
13. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle in which the
lengths of the legs are 12.4 in. and 17.6 in.
14. Evaluate a/28.42 + 35.22. (Note that Va2 + b2 ^ a + b.)
15. Find the length of the third side of a right triangle in which the
hypotenuse is 46.38 in. and another side is 21.23 in.
16. The length and width of a rectangle are in the ratio 2:1, and the
area of the figure is 1000 sq. ft. Find to three significant figures the
length of the rectangle.
17. A square has side 32.50 in. Find the length of its diagonal.
18. Find the amount by which the square of (V5 + a/3) exceeds 5 + 3,
giving the result to 3 significant figures.
142 Chapter 8

19. If = 64 s, find (a) the value of

v2 s when v = 148.8, (b) the value of v
when s = 124.5.
20. A square pyramid has base edges 20.0 in.
long, and slanting edges each 22.5 in. long.
Find the height of the pyramid, assuming
that the altitude is perpendicular to the
diagonals of the base at the point where
they meet.

Exercises [A_2]

In exercises 1-6, give the square or square root to the same number of
significant figures as are in the original number.
1. Obtain the square of 1.24; 124; 0.124; 12.4.
2. Obtain the square of 8.35; 0.0835; 835; 0.835.
3. Obtain the square of 4.638; 463.8; 0.4638; 46.38.
4. Evaluate: V=749; V549; V54~9; Vo.549.
5. Evaluate: VTI3; VF52; Vo.00152; Vl52.
6. Evaluate: V76.34; V7.634; V7634; Vo.07634.

Find the value of each of the following to 4 significant figures.

7. 22.762; 334.52; 0.021082; llll2.
8. V268.5; V0.001492; VI776; V56840.
9. V2.006; V56.08; Vl954; V0.0005005.
10. Evaluate: V5.452 — 4.362. (Note that Va2 — b2 7^ a — b.)
11. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 356.5 yd., and one of the legs is
183.2 yd. long. Find the length of the other leg.
12. The legs of a right triangle are 28.54 in. and 42.15 in. long. Find the
length of the hypotenuse.
13. An equilateral triangle has side 28.46 in. Find the altitude of the
triangle to the nearest hundredth.
14. A cube has edges 4.25 in. long. Find (a) the
length of a diagonal of a face of the cube (e.g.,
AB in the diagram), (b) the length of a diag- ^
onal of the cube (e.g., AC in the diagram).
15. The total surface (A sq. in.) of a cube with
edges n inches long is given by A — 6 n2.
Find the value of n for which A = 128.7. ^
Irrational Numbers 143

16. When looking over the ocean, the distance (D miles) to the horizon
is related to the height [h feet) of the observer above sea level by the
approximate formula D = Vl.5 h. If the observer’s eyes are at a
height of 124.6 ft. above sea level, find the distance to the horizon to
the nearest tenth of a mile.

17. If $ = 16 t2, find to 4 significant figures the value of / when 5 = 746.4.

18. Evaluate ^1 — > when u = 0.2358 c.

Rational and Irrational Numbers

We should be reminded at this point, that in preceding chapters we have

used the word "number” to mean a rational number, that is, a number
which is expressible as the ratio or quotient of two integers. The set of
rational numbers includes all integers, fractions, terminating decimals, and
repeating decimals. It might be supposed that within such a collection
there would be a number adequate for every purpose. That there is not
will be apparent immediately.
Let us return to the relationship y = x2. If we assign to x the value j2>
the corresponding value of y is a rational number. If we assign to x
the value 0.25, the corresponding value of y is 0.0625, a rational number. The
closure axiom of multiplication shows us that if the value of x is a rational
number, and if y = x2, then the value of y is also a rational number. Since
this is true for every rational value of x, we might be tempted to assume the
validity of the converse statement, and to suppose that for any assigned
rational value of y there is a corresponding rational value of x. It can be
shown, however, that there is no rational number x such that x2 = 3.
This means that it is not possible to express the number >/3 exactly as a
terminating or repeating decimal. The same is true of y/2, \/5, v 6, and
in general oly/n where n is an integer which is not the square of an integer.
It is apparent, therefore, that in working with the square roots of integers,
we shall generally be dealing with numbers which are not rational.

Approximations to y/3 in Rational Numbers

Consider the following arrangement of numbers.

G L
2 > V3 > 1
1.8 > V3 > 1.7
1.74 > V3 > 1.73
1.733 > V3 > 1.732
1.7321 > V3 > 1.7320
144 Chapter 8

Under G and L are sequences of rational numbers. Each one under G

exceeds the corresponding one under L by 1 unit in the last significant figure.
Those placed under G all have squares greater than 3; those placed under
L have squares less than 3. The sequences may be extended indefinitely
by considering more and more places of decimals. The numbers under G
get smaller as the number of decimal places increases, but there is no smallest
possible one. The numbers under L get larger as the number of decimal
places increases, but there is no largest possible one. The difference be¬
tween corresponding pairs in the sequences gets_less and less as the number
of decimal places increases, and the number V3 is bracketed by each pair.
The number "\/3 cannot be identified with a number in either of the se¬
quences, and we have to think of it as a sort of boundary number between
the two groups of rational numbers. It is clearly possible, however, to select
from one or the other of the sequences a rational number which approx¬
imates the value >/3 to any required degree of accuracy. Thus 1.732, 1.7321,
1.732051, are rational-number approximations which are correct to 4, 5, 7
significant figures respectively. A number like a/3, which does not termi¬
nate or repeat in a periodic fashion when expressed as a decimal, but which
may be approximated as a decimal to any required degree of accuracy, is
called an irrational number.

Real Numbers

Consider a line A B, unlimited in extent, having a fixed point 0 marked

on it. Suppose that a unit of length is selected, and points on the line are
assigned the numbers 1, 2, 2.5, etc. if their distances to the right of 0 are
1, 2, 2.5 units respectively. Negative numbers are assigned to points on
the left of 0 in the same way. Every rational number may be assigned to a
point on the line, but in spite of the fact that there is no end to the set of
rational numbers and that there is no portion of the line, however small, in
which rational numbers do not occur, there are many points on the line which
cannot be assigned to a rational number. The construction indicated in the
above diagram illustrates the existence of a point P on AB whose distance to
the right of 0 is >J_1 units. This point therefore must be assigned the irra¬
tional number 's/2. Points on the line may in a similar manner be assigned
Irrational Numbers 145

the numbers \/3, V5, V^, and so

on. The diagram shows a simple
method of constructing lengths as¬
sociated with these numbers.
We now make the assumption that

^ Every point on the line AB has a

number associated with it.

The number may be rational or it

may be one of the nonterminating decimals which we call irrational. We
assume also that every such irrational number, as well as every rational
number, may be assigned to a point on the line.
The set of numbers which is related with the points of a line by this
"one-to-one” correspondence is known as the set of real numbers. In the
same way that rational numbers include both integers and fractions, real
numbers include both rational and irrational numbers. Every decimal num¬
ber, whether it terminates or does not terminate, is a real number. From
this point in our algebra, until the need to extend the concept of number
arises once more, we shall use the word "number” to mean one of the real
numbers.
In the above discussion we have considered only those irrational numbers
which occur as square roots. This is the group with which we are mainly
concerned at this time. It must not be thought, however, that an irrational
number is necessarily of the form Vw. Not only are radicals of higher index
likely to represent irrational numbers, as for example v2, \/5, but there
are other groups of irrational numbers which are not associated with any
form of radical. Probably the only example of these numbers familiar to
the student is the one symbolized by 7r, a nonterminating decimal beginning
3.14159265.... In later chapters we shall use decimal values for logarithms
and for trigonometric functions, and in almost every case the values used
are approximations to irrational numbers.

Radicals
The irrational numbers that we shall be concerned with mostly are those
which occur as the principal square roots, and to a lesser extent the principal
cube roots, of rational numbers. Decimal approximations to such irrational
numbers may be obtained from tables, and for some purposes we shall make
use of the approximate rational forms. However, if we wish to establish
mathematically exact results involving these irrational numbers, we must
use the symbols which represent them exactly. We therefore examine the
basic operations of multiplication and addition, with their inverses, division
146 Chapter 8

and subtraction, for numbers expressed in radical form. It may be pointed

out that it is frequently simpler to perform such operations on the number
in its exact radical form than on a decimal approximation to it. It is im¬
portant to keep clearly in mind the significance of the two symbols y/a
and y/a.

yfa symbolizes the^ principal square root of the number a._

If a is positive, y/a is a positive real number such that y/a • y/a = a.
If a is negative, the symbol Va has no meaning to us at present.

y/a symbolizes the principal cube joot of the number a.

It is a quantity such that y/a • y/a • y/a = a.
If a is positive, y/a is a positive real number.
If a is negative, y/a is a negative real number.

Multiplication and Division of Radicals

The definition of the product of two principal square roots or of two

principal cube roots is as follows:

^ If a and b are positive real numbers, then

y/a • y/b = y/ab; y/a • y/b = y/ab.

These definitions lead to the corresponding ones for division:

The above definitions are based on considerations of the following nature:

Let us suppose that the product V3 • y/2 is the number k.

Then k • k = (V3 • V2) (V3 • y/l).
The associative and commutative axioms of multiplication are accepted
for both rational and irrational numbers. The order and the grouping of the
factors in the product (y/3 • y/2)(y/3 • y/2) may, therefore, be changed, and
we may write
k2 = (V3 • V3)(V2 • y/2) = 3 • 2 = 6.
Hence, ^ = \/6, so we have \/3 • \/2 = >/6.

Examples. 1. Vf • Vf = V§ • § = VJ = J
2. Vl5 V3 = y/±f= y/5
3. S^40 -4- ^5 = y/^/r = ^8 = 2
Irrational Numbers 147

Simplest Radical Form

In Example 3 on^page 146, we note that V40 -s-V5 = 2, which may be

rewritten V40 = 2 v 5. The definitions of multiplication and division for
radicals enable us to write in a similar manner

V32 Vl6 • y/2 W2

V5_V5
I
V9 3

3 II ^3=^3
2 &

The symbols 4\/2, fV5, ^V3 are considered to be simplified forms of the
original radicals, though they are not necessarily the most convenient forms
for all purposes. If, for instance, a decimal approximation were required
for v 32, and tables of_square roots were available, there would be no point
in using the form 4\/2. For many purposes, however, the simplified form
of the radical (where the number under the radical sign is the smallest
possible integer) is desirable. It is of particular importance, as we shall see,
in the operation of combining radical quantities by addition and subtraction.
It is generally expected that the result of a number of operations on radical
quantities is to be expressed in its simplest radical form.

Example 1. Express in simplest radical form: (a) V90 a2b; (b) Vf.
Solution: (a) V90 a2b = V9 a2 • VlO b = 3 aV 10 b, assuming a > 0.
(b) To simplify Vf, it is necessary to express the fraction in an equivalent form
having a square number for denominator. The smallest square number having 8
as a factor is 16, so the fraction § is rewritten as 3%. Thus,

6_ _ V6 _ V6
= iVa
16~Vl6_"

Example 2. Multiply 2\/l4 by 3\/28.

Solution: We have 2^14 • 3^/28 = 3*2* VTl •

= 6 • Vl4 • 28
= 6-Vl4-14-2
= 6 • 14 • V2
= 84\/2

Example 3. Divide Vf by V1^.

Solution: We have Vf VlJ = Vf -*-"§ = Vf • §
= Vf = VS=|VTo
148 Chapter 8

Exercises [A 1]

Express each of the following in simplest radical form or as a rational

number. Assume that each letter represents a positive number.

1. V25 12. Vl25 23. V27

33. \hr~.
\ 2 a2
2.V50 13. Vf 24. V81
3.V36 14. V| 25. Vf
4. V72 15. VJ 26. Vf 1—
5. Vl8 16. Vf
27. V| *• <i!
6.V12 17. V2I
28. V| 36. V^
7. V9 x2 18. Vf
29. V8 a3 37. V3(a + b)2
8.V9 X3 19. Vil
9. V27 *2 20. VJ 30. V24 a 38. V4 a2 + 4 62

10. V121 21. Vfl 31. VII 39. Vr4 + 4 #2

11. Vl28 22. Vl6 32. Vf a2 40. V2 a2 + 4a + 2

In the following exercises find the product or the quotient in simplest

radical form or as a rational number:

41. V3 • V3 55. 6 4- VI 68. 1 ^ 4V2

42. Vl5 • Vl5 56. 15 4- VI 69. VlJ-^ V|
43. V3 • V6 57. 10 4-VIo 70. V2i-^ V|
44. V5 • VIo 58. 5 4- VlO 7I.VVV2

45. VI • V35 59. 6 4- 2V3 72. 2 v- V2

46. 2 -VI 60. 3 4- Vl2 73. V9 • V<5
47. 3 • Vf 61. Vf • Vf 74. V9 v- V6
48. 2 • VI 62. Vf-VlO
75. vii • Vf V
49. 2 • V3 • V3 63. Vf • VI V2
50. (2V5)2 64. VI • V4f 76. Vf 4- Vf
51. 3 -i- V3 77. VlO • V35 • Vf
65.
52. 5 4- V5 \ a • Va 78. Vf-V2f-Vf
53. V6 4- VI 66. V5 4-VlO 79. 6VI 4- 3V2
54. Vl5 4- VI 67. Vf + Vf 80. Vlf 4- 5Vf
Irrational Numbers 149

Exercises [A 2]

Express each result in simplest radical form or as a rational number.

Simplify, assuming that each letter represents a positive number.

1. V45 7. V| 13. Vlf 18. Va

2.V48 8. Vlf 14. Vf 19-x/4”
\ 45
3. V32 9. Vi a 15. V?
4. V64 10. VH 2°.
\9 x-
16. \ 9 >
5. Vl8a2 11. Vio \ 4 x2

6. Vf 12. V| 17. V25 a3

Perform the indicated operations in the following exercises:

21. V3 a • V3 a 33. n^r y/n 45. Vl8 • Vli

22. Via • VI 34. 6 w-r V3 n 46. Vf • 2V9
23. V28 • V28 35.4 ^ 2V2 47. V|-v Vi
24. V5 • Vl5 36. V20 h- VI 48. 2 - Vf
25. Vl3 • V26 37. 3 h- fVI 49. (—V— 2)3
26. (3V2)2 38. 6VI 2V3 50. 3 h- Vf
27. 2V5 • 3V2 39. 3V2 h- 4V6 51. Vii* V2i
28. 2V3 • 5V6 40. 8 -j- Vi 52. Via • Vl2 a >a
29. Vi • Vi 41. VI 4- |VTo 53.12-h 2V3
30. (2V3)3 42. Vf-Vf
54. fVl2 • fVI
31. 7 h- VI 43. Vf - Vlf r~
32. 5h-VI 44. V(5 • V2§ 55 ■y/abc-'Jvc

59. Vl2 • V§* Vf

60. Vlf • Vf - Vif
61. Vlf-VIf-Vif. Vif

58. V| V3i
150 Chapter 8

Addition and Subtraction of Radicals

It is readily verified, by obtaining approximate values from the square
root tables, that
y/2y/3 ^ y/5, and that x/l5 — x/5 x/lO.

These special cases illustrate the fact that whatever values, greater than
zero, are selected for a and b,
y/a+ y/b ?±y/ ab, and y/a — y/b ^ y/a — b.

WhenVa andx/fr are irrational, not only isx/a + y/b not equal tox4z + b,
but generally it is not possible to find any rational number c such that
y/~a -f y/b = y/c. Combinations of radicals such as V7+V5, V13-V3,
cannot be reduced to a single radical of a rational number, and must be
operated on as binomials. There is, however, one condition under which
x/u + x/fr or y/a — y/b may be expressed as a single radical. If x/a and
y/b are multiples of the same basic radical, Jthey may be_combined as like
terms. Thus x/2 + lyfl = 3x/2, that is, x/2 + x/8 = x/l8. To determine,
therefore, whether or not a number of radicals may be combined by addition
or subtraction into a single term, it is necessary to express the radicals in
their simplified form. Those having a common radical may then be com¬
bined as like terms by adding or subtracting the coefficients of the common
radical.

Example 1. Is it possible to write x/80 + x/75 as a single radical term?

Solution: We have x/80 + x/75 = x/l6 • 5 -T x/25 • 3 = 4x/5 + 5 x/3
The basic radicals are different, and the terms cannot be combined.

Example 2. Express as a single radical term: y/\2 -\-yJ— yj21.

Solution: We have
x/12 + xA?- x/27 = x/4^3 + x/^- • 3 - x/9^3
= 2 x/3 + |x/3 - 3x/3 = f x/3

The points brought out for radicals representing principal square roots
in the above discussion apply equally well to cube roots. Two cube roots
may be combined into a single radical form only when they are multiples
or fractional parts of the same cube root. Otherwise, their sum or difference
must be treated as a binomial.

Example 3. Express X/^54 — S/j as a single term.

Solution: We have x/54 — yf\ = x/27 • 2 — x/jj • 2
^^21^2-<T\^2
= 3X^2 — \yJ2= fS/2
Irrational Numbers 151

Exercises [A 1]
Express the following in simplest radical form, combining terms where
possible:

1. (a) V50 - Vl8 + V8 (b) V20 + V45-V25

2. (a) V3-Vf-V§ (b)V| + V2i + V4|
3. (a) V27*-V75* + Vl2s (b) V24 0 + Vl50 a — y/%
4. (a) 2VS0 - 3V8 + 4V| (b) 8Vf - iVl2 + 2V 1|
5. (a) y/si - 6\/i -f \/s (b) ^1 + ^24-V^f
6. (a) 3VS + 2V2| (b) Vf + 'Vf + 2x/Jj
7. (a) 3V24 + 4Vf - iV40 (b) V3f + 2 Vf - 5 VS
8. Show that \/24 -f\/7-g- is greater than ^81.
9. Show that \/8-J — 5 J = 3(V8j -V5i).
10. Divide \/40^ — 24J by (V40J -V24|).

Exercises [A-2]
Simplify the following, combining terms where possible:

1. (a) V27-V75+V48 (b) V24 + V18-V54

2. (a) V8 + 3Vf - Vl2| (b) y/i + ViJ + V2§

3‘ (a)V2 + yf2+^9 (b)^“VS+Vs

4. (a)^-^ (b) V24+VI

5. (a) 3xh-Vl2a + N±-

N/3 v3 a
(b)V^ + ^-^
c r~\ 10 6 /I
3 V5 V20 5 <b,0l3+WVVi8
7. Evaluate Vr-)'2 when x = 21, y = 15.

8. Evaluate wx2 -j- y2 when x = 12, y = 6.

9. Evaluate (\/24-| — \/l2-|)2.

10. Evaluate \/u2 — &2 when a = 13.5, & = 10.5.
11. Evaluate (V3 — V^-)3.
12. Evaluate (VTb| -f\/8^)2.
152 Chapter 8

Numbers of the Form Va ± Vb

In most cases, as we have noted, numbers of the form \^7 — 'n/S cannot be
reduced to a single term. When we multiply or divide by such numbers,
we must treat them as binomials. The distributive axiom, which enables us
to write a(b + c) = ab + ac, and (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + be -f bd, is
accepted for all numbers. The procedures for multiplying a polynomial by
a monomial, or a binomial by a binomial, are therefore the same, whether
the numbers are irrational or rational.

Examples. 1. V3(V3 — Vj2) = V3 • V3 — y/s • y/2! = 3 — y/6

2. (2V5 - 3V2) (V5 + V2) = 10 + 2Vl0 — 3Vl0 — 6
= 4-VlO
3. (3 -2y/2)i 2 3_=9-_ 12V2_+8= 17- 12V2_
4. (2V3 - V7)(2V3 + V7) = (2V3)2 - (V7)2
= 12-7 = 5

Two binomials of the forms ~Va + vb and y/a — y/b are called conjugate
radicals. Their product is a — b; thus, if a and b are integers, the product
of the conjugate radicals is also an integer. This fact_enables us to simplify
the operation of division by a number of the form y/a ±y/b.

Division by Va ± \/b

The operation of division by a number of the form Va + y/b or y/a-y/b

can be reduced to division by an integer. The procedure is as follows:
1. Write the indicated division in the form of a fraction.
2. Multiply numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate
of the original divisor.
3. Simplify the resulting fraction.

Example 1. ide V2 by 2 —y/2.

V2 _ V2 2 + V2 V2(2 + V2)
Solution:
— V2 2-V2 2 T
+ V2 ~ 4-2
2V2+2 ^,

i•r 3 ~y/ 5
Example 2. Simplify: -7= •
3T 5 V
3 — V5 3 — V5 3 — V5 9 - 6V5 + 5
Solution:
3 -f- yf$ 3T 3 — y/s ^ 3
14 - 6V5 7 - 3V5
4
Irrational Numbers 153

Note. We have seen that division by a number a is equivalent to multiplication by

the reciprocal (or multiplicative inverse) of a. That is, b-^-a is equivalent to b • -•

a
It is worthwhile noticing that the above procedure for dividing by a number of the form
Va± Vi is based on this equivalence. Using Example 1 as an illustration, we have:

V2 -H (2 - V2) = V2 •

1 2 + V2 2 + V2
But,
2 — V2 _ 4-2 “ 2

Hence, V2 -f- (2 - V2) = V2 ■ 2+~—•

jLt

Exercises [A 11

Perform the indicated operations in the following exercises, simplifying

the results as far as possible.

1. (a) V3(V5-V3) (b) (VlS - 3) + V3

2. (a) 2V2(V2+ 1) (b) (4 4- 2V2) -4- 2V2
3. (a) 3V5(VlO + 2V5) (b) 2V3(3V2 - 2V3)
4. (a) (V6 - VI) + VI (b) (2 VI — 3V2) 4- V6
5. (a) (VI - VI) h- VI (b) (2VlO + 5V2) + 2V5
6. (a) (V3 +V2)(V3 - V2) (b) Write the reciprocal of
\/3 +n/2 in simplest form.

7. (a) (3 + 2\/2)(3-2V2) (b) Write _the reciprocal of

3 — 2V^2 in simplest form.
8. fVk + 1 — V"n) (Un + 1 +>/»)
9. (a) (8-3V7)(8 + 3V7) (b) Division by (8 — 3\/7) is an
operation equivalent to mul¬
tiplication by what number?

10. (a) (V5-V3)(V5 + V3) (b) (2V3+V5)(2V3-V5)

11. (a) (V3+V2)(V3 + V2) (b) (2 + V3)2
12. (a) (2V3 - l)2 (b) (V3 - 2V2)2
13. (a) (3V5 - 2V3)(3V5 + 2V3) (b) (3 V5 - 2V3)2
14. (a) (VS-2)(2VS-1) (b) (3V2 4-1)(2 + 5V2)
15. (a) (2+V3)(3-V3) (b) (2V3 4-V7)(3V3-V7)
16. (a) 3 •+• (V5 — V2) (b) 1 + (V3 4-V2)_
17. (a) (V3 + 1) -s- (V3 - 1) (b) (V5 - 3) + (VS - 1)
18. (a) (2 V2 - V3) h- (2 V3 - V2) (b) (2V3 V2) — (3V3 h- — 4V2)
154 Chapter 8

19. Show that (2 + V3)(4 — 3V3) + (1 + V3)2 is a rational number.

20. Show that -(9--—7= ) may be simplified to V5.

4\ 9 + 4V5/

21. If x = 2 + V3, show that x + oc\ has a rational value.

22. Show that the value of x2 — 2 x is 1, both when x — 1 + y/l and when
x = 1 — V2. Deduce the roots of the equation x2 — 2 x — 1 = 0.
23. Evaluate 2 x2 — 3 x if the value of x is J(1 — v3). Find a rational
approximation to the result, correct to the nearest hundredth.
24. Show, by substitution, that 3+^5 and 3 —v5 are roots of the
equation x2 — 6 x + 4 = 0. Obtain rational approximations to the
roots, correct to the nearest hundredth.
3 —V7
25. Evaluate 3 x2 — 6 x when the value of x is —--

26. Write the factors_of a4 — b4. Use the result to obtain the simplified
form of ("\/5 + \/2)4 — (V5 — y/l)4.
y/x , y/x
27. Show that if £ is a rational number, then H—7=- is a
y/x + 1 V.x 1
rational number, 1)

28. If / = V2 — 1, show that “ ^ has a rational value.

1 -t2
29. (a) Find the value of x to the nearest hundredth if x(2 + V2) = 10.
(b) Show that if an isosceles right triangle has one leg x inches long,
its perimeter is (2 x + oa/2) inches.
(c) If the perimeter of an isosceles right triangle is to be 20 in., show
that the length of a leg is an irrational number, and obtain a
rational approximation which is correct to three significant figures.
30. Show that if the shorter leg of a 30°-60°-90° triangle is n inches, the
perimeter of the triangle is (3^ + «\/3) inches. Find in simplest
radical form the length of the shorter leg if the perimeter is 6 in.

Exercises [A 2]
Perform the indicated operations in the following exercises, simplifying
the results as far as possible:

1. (a) V5(V5—V2) (b) (6 - V30) ■+• V6

2. (a) 3V3(V3 + 1) (b) (6 +2V3) h- 2V3
3. (a) 5 V2(V6 + 2V2) (b) 2 V5(3Vio - Vis)
4. (a) (V<5 — V2) •+■ V6 (b) (5V2 - 2V5) h- VlO
Irrational Numbers
155
5. (a) (Vl5 + 2 V3) -h V5 (b) (4V7 - 2\/l4) + 4Vl4
6. (a) (V7+V3)(V7-V3) (b) (3 — 2 VS) (3 + 2 VS)
7. (a) (2V6 + 5V2)(2V6-5V2) (b) (2 V a + VS”S) (2 Va - VS~6)
8. (a) (3 +V5)2 (b) (2V2- l)2
9. (a) (2 V(5 - 3 V3)2 (b) (a - 3 Vft)2
10. (a) (2V3- 1)(3V2+ 1) (b) (2V2 + V5)(V2-V5)
11. (a) 5V2 (2V3 - V2)
h-
(b) 3V3 + (V<5 - 2 VS)
12. (a) (4 - V3) + (2 - VS) (b) 5 V6 -4- (VS - 2V2)
13. Obtain a^ rational approximation to the value of the fraction
—“—j= > correct to three significant figures.

14. Evaluate \/(12 — 2Vll)(12 -f 2Vll).

15. If t = 2 — y/3, show that the value of - ^ ^ is

1 - t2 3
16. Simplify: Vl3i+2Vf —•
v6
V3 V3
17. Simplify:
V3- 1 V3 + 1
3 V2 + V3
18. Simplify:
2 V2 + V3
19. Evaluate 2 x2 — 3 x when x = i(\/5 — 1), (a) as an irrational number,
(b) as a rational approximation, correct to three significant figures.

20. Evaluate _|_ £—1 when x = Vf •

x— 1 x+1

21. If x = 2 + y/5, show that x-has a rational value.

x
22. Simplify: —2^^
1-4V2
23. Show, by substitution, that 4(1 — V7) and 4(1 + V7) are roots of
the equation 2 x2 — 2 x = 3. Obtain rational approximations to the
roots, correct to 3 significant figures.
24. The legs of a right triangle are in the ratio 2:1. If the length of the
shorter leg is x inches, express the length of the hypotenuse in terms
of x. If the perimeter of the triangle is 40 inches, show that the length
of the shorter leg is 10(3 — \/5) inches. Obtain a rational approxima¬
tion to this length, correct to 3 significant figures.
156 Chapter 8

25. Show that if the edge of a cube is e inches, then_a diagonal of a face
is eV2 inches, and a diagonal of the cube is ev3 inches in length. If
the diagonal of a face is to be 6 inches long, find in simplest radical
form the length of an edge and the length of a diagonal of the cube.

26. Show that if x = 2 + a/3, y = \^3, then —— has a rational value.

1 — xy

27. Simplify: ~

28. In the isosceles right triangle ABC, D is a

point on the leg BC, such that BD : DC =
BA : AC. Show that AB + BD = AC. (Let
AB = n units; then AC = ri\ll units.)

Exercises [B]
1. (a) Is the statement ~\/x2 = x correct for all values of x?
(b) For what set of values of x is it correct to say that
x ^ — 1? Write the corresponding statement for
other values of x.

2. Simplify:
Va + V& - V/)3 a
=-b=~ 7+\h
Va-V& Va26 + V&2 a at

3. If x = 3 +\/5, show that the value of the expression x2 + ^ is 28

x2
What other value of x gives the expression the
A B
value 28?
'

4. A regular octagon is formed by cutting off the i

corners of a square, as shown in the diagram. I
If the side of the square is n inches, express the 3
length AB in simplest radical form in terms of
1
n. When n— 8, give a rational approximation
to this length, correct to three significant i
figures. •i
3 t — t3
5. If /= 2 - V3, show that the fraction has a rational value.
1-3 t2
6. If V<z + V& = Vc, where a, b, c are rational numbers, show that
ab must be the square of a rational number. Show also that
ab + be + ca = \{a2 + b2 + c2).
7. Show that (2 + \/3)3 + (2 — ~\/3)3 = 52. Show further, that if a and I
b are rational numbers, then (a + VV)3 + (a — ^/b)3 is also a rational
number.
Irrational Numbers 157

8. (a) Show that Vl\ • VlJ * VlJ • VlJ = V3.

(b) If the product is continued in the same form, so that the wth factor
1
is 1 +n+ 1 what is the smallest number of factors which

have a rational product?

(c) What is the product of the first 48 factors?
-6 +Vi2-4 ac — b — ^Jb2 — 4 ac
9. If xi = %2 show that
2 a 2 a

X\ %2 C

10. If S = xy-\- \/(l — x2)(l — y2), andC = xVl — y2 y's/1 — x2, show
that S2 + C2 = 1.

Irrational Roots of Quadratic Equations

In chapter^ we saw how quadratic equations having rational roots might
be solved by a factoring procedure. Engineers, and others who use mathe¬
matics, frequently have to solve quadratic equations, but the equations
rarely have rational roots. We shall now investigate a method which enables
us to solve all quadratics which have roots in the set of real numbers,
whether the roots are rational or irrational numbers. The prime purpose
of the method is to enable us to solve quadratic equations having irrational
roots, but it may be used to advantage when the factoring of the trinomial
presents difficulties, even though the roots are rational.
In order to clarify some preliminary points, we return briefly to the con¬
sideration of the relationship y = x2. The assigning of a real number value
other than zero to x determines a unique, positive value of y. On the other
hand, if a positive value (k) is assigned to_y, two distinct values of x are
determined. They are represented by y/k and —'Jk. The fact that a
quadratic equation has, in general, two distinct roots is a direct consequence
of the existence of two distinct square roots of any positive real number.
It is a property of the real numbers that no member of the set has a square
that is a negative number. Hence, if any equation requires that the square
of a number be negative, it cannot be satisfied by a real number. Here are
some simple examples of quadratic equations which may be solved by con¬
sidering the two square roots of a positive number.

Examples
1. If *2 = 25, then the set of solutions is {5, — 5}. The roots are rational
numbers.
2. If x2 = 3, then the set of solutions is {V3, -V3}. The roots are
irrational numbers.
158 Chapter 8

3. If x2 = — 2, no real number satisfies the equation.

4. If (x — l)2 = 25, then (x — 1) is a number of which the square is 25.
The equation is therefore equivalent to the two equations
^— 1 = 5 and x— 1= — 5.
The set of solutions is {6, — 4}. The roots are rational numbers and
the original equation is equivalent to x2 — 2 x — 24 = 0, in which the
trinomial is factorable.
5. If (x — 1)2 = 3, then (x — 1) is a number of which the square is 3.
The equation is therefore equivalent to the two equations
x — \ — V3 and x— 1 = — V3.

The set of solutions is {1 + V3, 1 — V3}.

In this case the roots are conjugate irrational numbers. The original
equation is equivalent to x2 — 2 x — 2 = 0, in which the trinomial is
not factorable.

We shall show that any quadratic equation with rational coefficients may
be transformed to the equivalent pattern (x + k)2 = n, where k and n are
rational numbers. In those cases where n is positive, the two equations
x + k = y/n and x + k = — \n, which are equivalent to the original quad- ’
ratic, provide us with the two real roots. If n is negative, we shall merely
say that there is no solution in the set of real numbers.

Completing the Square

Consider, as an example of the transformation, the solution of the equation
x2 — 6 x — 3 = 0. [|
We are familiar with the identity (x — 3)2 = x2 — 6 x + 9, which is the
key to the procedure.
We have x2 — 6 x = 3
x2 — 6 x T 9 — 12 (Adding 9 to both sides) 1
(x- 3)2=12 !
This is equivalent to the two equations

x —3 = Vl2 and x — 3 = — a/12 _

That is, x = 3 + 2 V3 x = 3 — 2V^3.
Check: When x = 3 + 2V3, 1

x2 — 6 x — 3 0
= (3 + 2V3)2 - 6(3 + 2V3) — 3
J
= 9+ 12\/3 +12 - 18 - 12V3 - 3
= 0 0
Irrational Numbers 159

The student should satisfy himself that the value 3 — 2V3 checks in a
similar manner.
It is important to realize that the irrational numbers 3 -f 2\/3 and
3 — 2 V3 are the only values which will check exactly in the given equation.
If rational approximations to the roots are used, we should not expect
greater accuracy in the check than the approximate roots themselves have.
In the solution of the above equation, note particularly the sequence of
expressions x2 — 6 x, x2 — 6 x + 9, (x — 3)2. The addition of the number 9
completes the trinomial square x2 — 6 x + 9, and this operation gives the
name "completing the square” to the above method of solving quadratic
equations. Familiarity with the trinomial square form is required in order
to determine the correct number to be added in any particular case. We
shall consider this point briefly.
The expression (x — 4)2 is the only square quantity leading to a trinomial
of which the first two terms are x2 — 8 x. Hence, to "complete the square”
when we have x2 — 8 x, we must add 42, or 16.
In the same way, x2 12 x must be associated with (x-f 6)2, and the
number required to complete the square is 62, or 36.
In the general case, we note that (x + i n)2 is the only square quantity
leading to a trinomial of which x2 -f- nx are the first two terms. The third
n
term of the trinomial is (-^ n)2, or — • Thus, to complete the square when

we have x2 + nx, we add (J n)2, obtaining {x-\- \n)2. The number n may
be positive or negative, so that all cases are included in this statement. We
have considered the process of completing the square only when the x2 term
has coefficient 1. If the coefficient of x2 in a quadratic equation is a number
other than 1, the first step of the solution is to divide each term of the equa¬
tion by that number.

Example 1. What number must be added to x2 — 5 x to complete the

square?

Solution: We associate x2 — 5 x with (# — §)2, of which the trinomial form is

x2 — 5 x + .

Hence, the number to be added to complete the square is \5-.

Example 2. What number must be added to x2 + 1.6 x to complete the

square?

Solution: We associate x2 -f- 1.6 x with (# ffi 0.8)2, of which the trinomial form
is x2+ 1.6 x+ 0.64.
Hence, the number to be added to complete the square is 0.64.
160 Chapter 8

Example 3. (a) Solve 2 x2 — 10 x — 1=0, giving roots in simplest radical

form, (b) Find rational approximations to the roots, cor¬
rect to the nearest hundredth.
Solution: (a) 2 x2 — 10 x — 1 = 0
x2-5x-^ = 0
zy.2 C i
*v vy wv ^

We now add (f)2, or to both sides of the equation, thus completing the
square on the left-hand side.
* 2 — 5 x + (|)2 = \ + ¥
0-f)2 = ¥
This is equivalent to the two equations:
x — § = Vf- and x— §=—
Hence, the roots, in simplest radical form, are given by:
5 , 3V3 5 3V3
x= -+ ^ x-= - ——2~
_ .. 5 + 3V3 5 - 3V3
That is, x =--- x =---

(b) Rational approximations to the roots are best obtained from the forms:
5 + V27 5 — V27
x= and x=
2
5 + 5.196 5-5.196
X= x=
2 2
10.196 -0.196
X : x
2 2
X 5.098 X - 0.098
X 5.10 X - 0.10

The method of completing the square may be more effective than the
factoring procedure for solving quadratic equations in certain cases, even
though the equations may be expected to have rational roots. Consider,
for example, the equation x2 — 6 x — 616 = 0. The terms x2 — 6 x at once
suggest the trinomial square x2 — 6 x + 9, whereas the term 616 might give
rise to uncertainty in the factoring procedure. The solution, by completing
the square, is direct and simple:
x2 — 6 x = 616
x2 — 6 x + 9 = 625
(x — 3)2 = 625
This equation is equivalent to
x — 3 = 25 and x — 3 — — 25.
The set of solutions is {28, — 22} .
Irrational Numbers 161

Exercises [A 1]
Solve the equations:
1. (a) x2 = 289^* x'-l \1 (') (b) (x - 5)2 = 289
2. (a) x2 = 3 -> x -t*(J (a) (b) (* -2)2 = 3 } _7 r’ i/^ j >i Jj

3. (a) *2 = 20 (b) (x + 3)2= 20

4. (a) 4 x2 = 5 (b) (* - i)2 = f
5. (a) 9x2=2 (b) (* + §)2 = f
6. (a) 3 x2 = 1 (b) (s + l)2 = i *4 I * 1 .

Write the trinomial forms of the following squares:

7. (a) 0 - 7)2 (b) 0 + 10)2 (c) (x — 3 k)2
8. (a) (* + i)2 (b) (/ - I)2 (c) (x 4- 0.2)2
9. (a) (y — 0.7)2 (b) (x + ^a)2 (c) (x - \ k)2
10. (a)(/+f)2 (b)(y-f)2 (c) (X + f)2
Add the term required to "complete the square" in each of the following
cases, and write the result as the square of a binomial.
11. (a) x2 — 10 x (b) y2 + 14 yjn<\ (c) t2 — 12 at
12. (a) x2 + 3 x (b) x2 + f x (c) y2 - \ y
13. (a) t2 — J t f % (b) t2 +0At4.cn (c) x2 + 1.2 x

14. (a) x2 — 2 nx (b) y2 + - y (c) y2 + -y

a
Solve by completing the square.
15. x2 — 2 x — 5 — 0 19. y2 + 6y = 1015
16. y2 4 y i — o 20.2/2 = 3(2/4-1)
17. x2 — 6 x + 1 = 0 21. 3s2 +8s -2 = 0
18. t2 - 4 t - 396 = 0 22. 5 /2 = / 4- 2
Solve by completing the square, finding rational approximations to the
roots correct to the nearest hundredth.
23. x2-j-2x—7 = 0 26. 2 t1 4-3/ — 4 = 0
24. 5 x2 _ 20 x + 8 - 0 27. 3 x2 — 9 x — 5 = 0
25. 3 y2 — 3.6 y = 1.5 28. 2 y1 4- 3.6 y = 4.7

Solve for s, by completing the square.

29. x2 — 2 ax = b2 — a2 31. x2 4~ kx 4~ n = 0
30. £2 _j_ 2 for — Z)2 = o 32. 2 x2 bx-\- c = 0
162 Chapter 8

Exercises [A 2]
1. Write the trinomial form of (a) (/ — §)2; (b) (y + \ n)2.

2. Write the trinomial form of (a) (x — 0.8)2; (b) ^x +

3. Solve (a) (2 x + 3)2 = 5; (b) (x — J)2 = §.

5 r b\2 b2 - c2
4. Solve (a) (a--) =-7-; (b)(s + -) =

Solve by completing the square.

5. /2 + 2 /= 11 9. x2 -\- 2 x — 675 = 0
6. x2 — 4 x — 16 = 0 10. t2-\0t= 999
7. 4 x2 — \2 x — 9 = 0 11. 2y2 + 5y = 1
8. 3 y2 + 6 y = 5 12. 3 z2 + 4 x — 1 = 0

Find approximations, correct to the nearest hundredth, to the roots

of the following equations:
13. x2 — 6 x = 3 16. 5 y2 — 4 y — 1.2 = 0
14. t2 + 3 / + 1 = 0 17. t2 + 2.4 t = 0.6
15. 2 z2- 5 *= 17 18. 3x2 + 4.2*+ 1.08 = 0

19. Solve for x: x2 + 4bx + b2 = 0

20. Solve for x: x2 + px + q = 0
21. Solve for x: ax2 -\-bx-\- c = 0

The Roots of the Equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

It should now be apparent that solving a quadratic equation by com¬
pleting the square is a routine process. It consists of an unvarying sequence
of operations, and one solution is distinguished from another only by the
fact that different numbers are used. Once the pattern of procedure has *
been made clear, it is an essential part of algebraic investigation to find a
means of by-passing such repetitious operations. The solution of the general
quadratic equation is a good illustration of the way in which this may be
d6ne. Any quadratic equation is equivalent to ax2 + bx + c = 0, when ap¬
propriate values are assigned to a, b, c, and we may stipulate that a shall
be a positive number without loss of generality. The roots of this equation
may be found as expressions in a, b, and c, by the method of completing
the square. Once determined in this general situation, they constitute a
formula from which the roots of a particular quadratic equation may be
obtained merely by substituting for a, b, c their specified values.
Irrational Numbers 163

Given ax2 + bx -f- c = 0

Divide each term by a. x2 -f ~x + - = 0
a a
9 i b c
Subtract - from each side. X2+ ~X =-
a a a

Complete the square of the left-hand side by adding to each side.

.2 a,
2 , b , / M2 b2 c
a \2 a) 4 a2 a
b \2 b2 — 4 ac
That is, x+
2 at 4 a2
This is equivalent to the two equations:

<_ = /ft2 -4
— 4 ac , b =_
. A — 4oc
2— and *+-
*+r=
a \ 4 a 2 a \ 4 a2
That is,
-b + y/b2- 4 ac -ft-Vi2-4 ac
x= #=
2 a 2 a
It may be verified by substitution that each of these expressions, when
used as a replacement for x, satisfies the original equation. The following
statement, therefore, constitutes a formula for the solution of any equation
of the form ax2 + bx -f c = 0.

The set of solutions of ax2 + bx -f c = 0 is

— b-\-^/b2 — 4 ac —b—y/b2 — 4 ac
2 a 2 a
—b b2 — 4c ac
The solutions are often written in the compact form
2 a

^ The following points should be noted:

1. If the number (b2 — 4 ac) is negative, the equation ax2 T bx + c = 0 has no

roots in the set of real numbers.

2. If the number (b2 — 4 ac) is positive, the equation has two distinct roots
which are real numbers. These roots are, in general, conjugate irrational
numbers. If, however, the number (b2— 4 ac) happens to be the square
of a rational number, the roots are rational and the trinomial ax~ bx T c
is factorable.
3. If the number (b2 — 4ac) is zero, the expression for each root reduces to
b
2a
164 Chapter 8

Example. Use the formula to obtain the set of solutions of

5 x2 = 4 x + 2.
Solution: We rewrite the equation as 5 x2 — 4 x — 2 = 0, and note that it is
the specific case of ax2 + bx -f c = 0 in which a = 5, b = — 4, c = — 2. The roots
are obtained by substituting these values in the formula
-b± 'Jb2 - 4 ac
x=
2 a

When a = 5, b = — 4, c = — 2, we have

4±Vl6-(4)(5)(- 2)
x=
10
4±V56
“ 10
4d=2Vl4
10
2 + Vl4 2-Vl~4
The set of solutions is

[A—1 ]
Exercises
Solve the following equations by using the formula. Obtain the roots in
simplest radical form, and then find rational approximations which are
correct to the nearest hundredth.
1. x2 — 6 x T 2 — 0 70 7. 2 x(x + 1) = 7 7C
? O 7 0
2. 2x2 — 4x — 7 = 0 8. 11 = 5 x(3 — x)
3. 5 x2 = 3 — 4 x '7° 9. 9^2-36/=-31 70
4. 8 x2 + 4 x = 3 10. 4y2+7y-l = 0 70
5. U2=5t+7 7C 11. 5 x2 - 10 x-7.5=0 7 0

6. 2 y(2 y — 5) = 5 ?c 12. 4 x(xT 1) = 2.75 70

Exercises [A 2]
Follow the directions given for exercises (A-l) above.
1. x2 — 4x — 2 = 0 70
7. 2 x(3 x + 5) = - 3 7t
2. 3 x2 — 6 x — 7 = 0 70 8. 1 = 2 x(3 — 2 x) 70
3. 3 x2 = 5 — 4 x '7 0 9. 6/2-30l = -35 70
4. 4x2 + 4x = 11 70 10. 5y2+7y+l = 0 7(7
5. 2 t2 = 8 t - 3 7C 11. 5x2-8x-2.6 = 0 7 0
6. 4 y(2 y + 3) = 5 yo 12. 10 x2- 15 x +3.75 = 0
13. 3x2+6x+2.5 = 0 To
Irrational Numbers 165

Summary of Procedures for Solving Quadratic Equations

Every quadratic equation having roots in the set of real numbers may be
solved by means of the formula or by the method of completing the square.
If the roots are rational numbers, the equation may alternatively be solved
by the factoring procedure examined in chapter 6. Assuming that the equa¬
tion to be solved is expressed in the form ax2 bx -f c = 0, the necessary
condition for the trinomial to be factorable is that (b2 — 4 ac) should be the
square of a rational number. Except in those cases where the trinomial is
readily factorable, the usual method of solving a quadratic equation is by
the formula. It should not be overlooked, however, that there are forms
(such as the illustration on page 160) which lend themselves to the method
of completing the square. All three methods should be available to the
student, so that he may use the one which appears the most suitable in
solving a particular equation.

Exercises [A 1]
Solve the following equations:
1. x2 +4 x+2.72 = 0 x2 + 1 x2 — 2
7. = 2 x
x— 1 x—2
2. (3/-2)2= 20
8 112
4- ^ — 4
3 3 _x—4_ j ':r+l x-\- 2 x-\- 4
* x— 1 x— 3
o 200 _ 200 5
4 _y._L_ = ii * x+ 8 x 8
’ y— 2 y+ 2 6
in °°2 ~~ ^ x \ ^ 2
^ 2 t— 1 2 J -f- 1_ > #2 — 9 x—3 #+ 3
2 7+ 1 + 2 t — \
2^+5 1 x
^ 3 x -f 2 3 _ 4x
' x— 2 x-\- 2 x— 2 12. (x — a)2 = 25(2 x — a)2

13. Is the following statement valid: rIf x=a, then x2 = a- ? Write

the converse statement. Is it valid? Find the values of y, if
any, for which (a) (y — 2)2 = (y + 2)2; (b) (y — 2)- = (2 — y)2;
(c) (y — 2)2 = — (y+ 2)2.
14. Show that 4 x4 - 33 x2 + 50 = 0 has four real roots, of which two
are rational and two are irrational.
(Let y replace x2 temporarily throughout the equation, which then
becomes 4 y2 — 33 y + 50 = 0.)
15. Show that 4 x4 — 3 x2 — 27 = 0 has only two real roots. Are they
rational or irrational numbers?
166 Chapter 8

Exercises tA 2]
Solve the following equations:
1. x2 — 6 x -j- 5.16 = 0 c x 4- 3 x -f- 2 ~
o• o
a: -f- 2 x 4- 3
2. (2 y 4- 5)2 = 18
x . 2 x ,
3. -- H-7 = 6 9 312 1 _ 312
x— 2 x— 1
x 2 x+4
4 * —2 2(x4-4)_Q
’3x4-1 a; — 4 IQ x2-6a: _2_ 2 a;
1 1
a:2 — 4 a; 2 +#
5.
x—2 x -j- 2 5
H 2—^ ^ 11 — 2a;
3(x +1) 2 4x
6. * 3 4- # 5
x—3 x-\~ 3 x—3
6 x— 1 4 5 12 1 ~ x2 a—q
7.
12 6 x—3 4 ax 4- 6

13. Is the equation x = 2 b equivalent to the equation x2 = 4 b2? Solve

for x: (a) (x — a)2 = 4 b2\ (b) (x — a)2 = 4(x 4- a)2.
14. Show that there is no rational value of x for which the expression
x4 — 7 x2 has the value 8. State the real values of x, if any, for which
the expression has the value 8.
15. Solve the equation 2 x4 — 35 x2 4- 48 = 0. What is the product of its
irrational roots?

Exercises [B]
v
1. Show that if the perimeter of a rectangle is 20 in., and the area of the
figure is 20 sq. in., the length and width are expressed by conjugate
irrational numbers.
2. A line segment AB is 10 in. long. C is a point between A and B such
A T)
that —— = —— • Find the lengths AC and CB. Show that the ratio
jdC AB c

i4(V5-l).
3. A cylinder of radius r inches and height h inches has a total surface
area A square inches where S =2 irr(r 4- h). If A = 28.6 ir, when
h = 3.6, find the value of r to the nearest tenth.
4. Show that 1 is a root of the equation (a 4~ b)x2 — (a — b)x = 2 b.
Find the other root.
Irrational Numbers 167

5. A box stands on a square base of side x inches, and its height is (x + 10)
inches. A second box stands on a square base of side (x — 2) inches,
and its height is (x + 20) inches. Find the value or values of x to the
nearest tenth for which the volumes of the boxes are equal.
6. The sum of the perimeters of two squares is 80 in., and the area of
one is three times the area of the other. Find in simplest radical form
the side of each square.

7. Show that the number J(V5 — 1) is such that its reciprocal exceeds
it by 1. Show that it is the only positive number which has this
property.

8. The height s feet of a ball, t seconds after it is thrown upward with

speed v feet per second, is given by the formula s = vt — 16 t2. If
v = 57.6, find the values of / for which s = 28.0.

9. Show that 2 b is a root of the equation a -\-— = 2. Find the

b x—b
other root.

10. The formula V = 7rl[r2 — (r — /)2] gives the volume, V cubic inches,
of a section of cylindrical pipe / inches long, if the outer radius of the
pipe is r inches and the metal is t inches thick. If V = 240 7r when
/ = 60 and r = 8.0, find the value of t to two significant figures.

Irrational Expressions

We now consider some irrational expressions, and the solution of

equations involving such expressions. An indicated radical of an expression
containing x is classified as an irrational expression in x. Thus, v2^ and
y/x — 4 are examples of irrational expressions. The expression x\fl is not
classified as irrational although the coefficient of x is an irrational number.
The symbol y/x — 4 represents a real number only if x — 4 ^ 0. Thus,
y/x — 4 represents a real number only if x = 4, and the meaning of y/x — 4
has not yet been defined for x < 4. In the expression y/x — 4, therefore,
we accept as replacements for x only members of the set x = 4. When x is
replaced by any member of this set, the value of y/x — 4 is a real, non¬
negative number.

Example 1. If y = y/x + 5, state (a) the set of replacements for x,

(b) the set of corresponding values of y.
Solution: (a) y/x-{- 5 represents a real number only if x + 5 = 0. Hence, the
set of replacements for x is x = — 5.
(b) The value of 5 is 0 when x = — 5, and there is no upper limit to the
value of the expression. Hence, the corresponding values of y are given by y = 0.
168 Chapter 8

Example 2. If y = V9 — x2, state (a) the set of replacements for x,

(b) the set of corresponding values of y.
Solution: (a) V9 — x2 represents a real number only if 9 — x2 = 0. Hence,
we must have x2 = 9 or | x | =i 3. The set of replacements for x is — 3 = x = 3.
(b) The value of V9 — x2 is 0 when | x | = 3, and the largest value of the ex¬
pression is 3 when x = 0. Hence, the set of values of y is given by 0 = y — 3.

Exercises [A]

1. (a) If Vx = 4, find the value of x.

(b) If x = 4, find the value of Vx.
(c) If x2 = 4, find x.
2. (a) If 4 x2 — 1, find the value of x.
(b) If Vx = J, find the value of x._
(c) If 4 x = 1, find the value of Vx.
.1
3. (a) If 2Vx = 3, find the value of x. _
..

(b) Is there a value of x for which Vx + 2 = 0?

;
(c) Is there a value of x for which Vx + 2 = 0?
4. (a) If Vx + 3 = 4, find the value of x. ij
(b) If 2 Vx + 5 = 4, find the value of x. !
(c) Is there a value of x for which Vx — 3 + 1 = 0? i
5. If y = Vx + 4, are there any negative values that (a) may be taken d
by x? (b) may be taken by y? (5

6. If y = Vx2 + 4, are there any negative values that (a) may be taken
by x? (b) may be taken by y? Are there any positive values that I
y may not take?
.8
7. The unqualified statement is often made that Vx2 = x. Is the state¬
ment true when x = — 3? How should the statement be qualified?
8. Is the equality Vx2 — 4x + 4 = x — 2 valid when x = 1? For what H
values of x is it valid?
j
l!
For each of the following expressions state the set of replacements for x.

9. Vx 14.V3x + 5 17. Vx2 + 4

10. Vx2 18. V*2 - 4
15
11. Vx — 5 '\t: 19. V4 — x2
12. Vx + 3 20. V- x2 - 4
13. V2 x — ■V x+ 2

1
21. Square (a) Vx — 2; (b) Vx — 2; (c) 1 — Vx — 2.
Irrational Numbers 169

22. Square (a) 3Vx; (b) 3 — Vx; (c) 2 + 3Vx.

23. Is x — 4 the square of Vx — 2? Simplify —^ .

Vx — 2

24. Is x — 4 the square of Vx — 4? Simplify •

Vo;-4

25. (a) Square the quantity Vx + 2 — Vx.

(b) Express as a fraction with rational denominator — ^--= •

Vx + 2 — Vx

Irrational Equations

An equation such as Vx = 3 — Vx — 4, containing one or more irrational

expressions, is called an irrational equation or a radical equation. In an
expression such as Vx + 4, it is not possible to separate the x from the 4 as
long as the radical is in operation. Hence, in solving an irrational equation,
it is necessary to eliminate the radicals by the process of squaring. Thus, if
Vx + 4 = 3, we have x + 4 = 9, and so x — 5. It is readily seen that x — 5
checks in the original equation, and in this case the procedure of squaring
both sides of the equation produced an equivalent equation. It is important
to note, however, that the squaring of the two sides of an equation frequently
does not produce an equivalent equation. If, for instance, we take the state¬
ment x = — 3, squaring both sides produces the statement x2 = 9, from
which we may deduce that x = 3 as well as x — — 3. Again, we may take
an incorrect statement such as 5 = — 5, and by squaring both sides produce
the true statement 25 = 25. It is clear, therefore, that a result which is
correctly deduced from a relationship after both sides have been squared
is not necessarily a correct deduction from the original relationship.
It has been briefly noted that the operations of dividing or multiplying
both sides of an equation by an expression containing the variable frequently
produce equations not equivalent to the original. For instance, the equation
x(x — 2) = 5(x — 2) is a quadratic, having roots 2 and 5. If we divide both
sides by (x — 2), the resulting equation is linear, the only root being 5, and
is not equivalent to the original. On the other hand, we may start with the
equation x — 2 = 3, which has the one solution x= 5. Multiplying each
side by (x + 2) produces the equation x2 — 4 = 3x-f6orx2 — 3x — 10 = 0.
This quadratic equation has two roots, 5 and — 2, and is not equivalent to
the equation with which we started. The value x = — 2 has clearly been
inserted into the situation by the process used, and has no connection with
the original equation. A value of this sort which satisfies the final form of
an equation but does not satisfy the equation originally under considera-
170 Chapter 8

tion is often called an extraneous root. Since it is not a root of the original
equation, we shall refer to it as an extraneous value.
The operation of squaring both sides of an equation may, in a similar
manner, introduce extraneous values of the variable which satisfy the final
equation but not the original one. A simple example was given above,
where we began with x = — 3, and after squaring both sides were able to
deduce that x = 3 as well as x = — 3. The 3 is clearly an extraneous value.
In solving an equation, therefore, if the two sides have been squared at any
stage, it is essential to check all the roots of the final equation to determine
which are roots of the original equation and which are extraneous values.
Irrational equations invariably require the squaring process; hence the
check of the final values must be made in every case. Note that the check
in this situation is an essential part of the solution of the equation, and is
not a mere verification of correct working. The final equation allows us to
determine a value or values of the variable, and the roots of the original
equation will be among these values. But until the checking process is
complete, we cannot decide which, if any, of the values are actual roots of
that original equation.

Example 1. Solve x = 3^/x — 4 + 2.

Solution: We separate the radical expression from the other terms, so that a
single squaring operation may eliminate the radical form from the equation. Thus:
x — 2 = 3Vx — 4
x2 — 4 x + 4 = 9(x — 4) (Squaring both sides)
x2 — 4# + 4 = 9x — 36
x2 - 13 x + 40 = 0
(x — 5) (x — 8) = 0
Thus, the set of possible roots of the original equation is {5, 8}.

Check:
When x = 5, X 3 Vx -4+2
5 3VT+2
3+2
5

Hence, 5 is a root.

When x = 8, X 3\4 -4+2

8 3V4+2
6+2
8

Hence, 8 is a root.
Irrational Numbers 171

Example 2. Solve 2\/2 x — 3 + V3 x — 2 = 0.

Solution: If we separate the radical expressions, we may eliminate both
radicals by a single squaring operation. Thus:
2V 2 x — 3 = — \/3 x — 2
4(2 x — 3) = 3x—2
8 x — 12 = 3 x — 2
5 x = 10
x = 2, a possible root.
Check:
When x = 2, 2V 2 x — 3 + V3 £ — 2 0
2V1 + Vi
2+ 2
4 0

Hence, 2 is not a root of the original equation. We might have foreseen that no
value of x would satisfy the equation. Each of the quantities on the left-hand side
is non-negative by definition, and their sum cannot be zero.

Example 3. Solve ^2 x + 5 = 2\/2 x + 1.

Solution: The equation contains three terms, of which two are radical ex¬
pressions. In such a situation it is not possible to eliminate both radicals by a
single squaring operation. When the binomial on the right-hand side is squared,
the radical is preserved in the product term.
(V2^ + 5)2= (2V2~r+ l)2
2£+5=8x+ %\f2x + 1
— 4>/2~r = 6 x — 4
— 2\/2 x— 3 x — 2
8x = 9jc2 - 12^ + 4 (Squaring both sides)
0 = 9*2 — 20* + 4
(9s-2)(s-2) = 0.
Hence, the set of possible roots is {2, §}.

Check:

When x = 2, \/ 2 x + 5 2~\l2x + 1
V9 2V4+ 1
3 5
Hence, 2 is not a root.

When x — §, V2 x + 5 2l\i~2~x + 1
Vf + 5 2V|+1
a/49
v 9 1+1
7 7
2 3

Hence, f is a root.
172 Chapter 8

We should distinguish between an extraneous value and an incorrect value

in solving a radical equation. An extraneous value is not the result of a
technical error, as is the incorrect value, but is the expected result of a pro¬
cedure such as squaring. It should be noted that an extraneous value for
one radical equation is an actual root of an equation containing the same
terms but having a different sign in front of one or more of them. Thus, in
the above example, the extraneous value x = 2 is a root of the equation
y/2 x + 5 = 2~\/2x — 1. Even with an extraneous value, therefore, an ex¬
amination of the numbers occurring in the check enables us to decide whether
we have worked correctly or not.

Exercises [A 1]
Solve:
1. 'V/3 x — 14 = 6 — x 10. V* + 3 - 1 = V2* + 4
2. 3 x = 2 + V2 x — 1 11. V2 x+ 1 = 1 + 2Vx
3. x + 1 + 3y/x — 1 = 0 12. 1 - V4 x — \ = 2\ZY~x
4. 3~\/ x — 1 = x + 1 13. V2x —4+Vx + 5= 1
5. V5 — 2x + Vx + 2 = 0 14. V^2 x — 4 — +5=1
6. 2Vx — 1 =V2x - 1 15. "\/3 + x = "n/4 — 3 x — 1
7. 3 — y/x = ~\/x + 21 16. 3-V3-2x = V2(l + :x:)
8. Vx + 4 + y/x = 3 17. V4 x + 1 + Vx~+~3 = 2
9. \/x + 3+ l= V2:r + 4 18. 2V3 x + 1 = 2 -V4* + 2
19. One leg of a right triangle is 8 inches long and the other leg is x inches
long. In terms of the variable x write the expression which represents
the amount by which the sum of the lengths of the legs exceeds the
length of the hypotenuse of the triangle. Find the value of x for
which the value of the expression is 6.
20. In the triangle ABC, AB = BC and AC = 20 in. BD is the altitude
on AC. If the length of BD is x inches, express the perimeter of the
triangle in terms of x. Find the value of x for which the perimeter is
equal to 3 BD.

Solve the following equations, giving roots in simplest radical form. Note
that the equations are not irrational equations and that it is not necessary
to square both sides.
21. =x+4 24. 2 x = 6 — x~\f2
22. £\/3 = x + 10 25. 4 x = 18 —
23. 3 x — 6 = £\/3 26. 20 + jc's/5 = 3 x
Irrational Numbers 173

Exercises [A 2]
Solve:
1. "\/ 2 x + 5 = x + 1 10. Vx + 2 - 1 = V3(x+ 1)
2. 2 x = 4: \/ x + 1 11. 3Vx= 1 — V3 x + 1
3. x + 3Vx — 2 = 0 12. V3 — x — 1 = V4 + 3 x
4. x = 3Vx — 2 13. 2V2 x + 3 — 4x+2= 2
5. V2 x — 1 + Vx + 4 = 0 14. V3 x — 2 - V2 x + 5 = 1
6. 3Vx — 1 = V3(x+2) 15. 2V3x-V4x+ 1 = 1
7.2+ Vx = Vx + 16 16. 2Vx + 7 + 3V2 x + 7 = 7
8. "Vx + 10 + "Vx = 5 17. V5(l + x) — V2 + x = 1
9. Vx+ 2 + 1 = V3(x+ 1) 18. V3x + 2+ V5 — 6x = 3
19. In the triangle PQR, A Q is a right angle, PQ is 10 inches long and
QR is x inches long. Express in terms of x the amount by which the
hypotenuse PR exceeds the leg OR. Find the value of x for which
PR-QR = i PQ.
C
20. In the diagram, AN = 9 in., NC = 8 in.,
NB = x in., and NC is perpendicular to
AB. Express the lengths AB and CB in
terms of x, and show that there are two
values of x for which CB = § AB.

Exercises [B]

1. Show that if Vx + 2 + Vx = 2, then Vx + 2 — Vx = 1.

2. Solve: Vl + 3x = Vl— x + V2 — x.

3. Show that if Vx + a — Vx = b, then Vx + a + Vx — •

lx A- 1 3V2
4. Solve: + x+ 1
5. Show that there is no solution of the equation
Vx + 1 + Vx + 4 = Vx + 2 + Vx + 3.
6. Solve for x: x2 — px + q = 0. Show that the sum oi its roots is p,
and that the product of its roots is q.

7. Show that x = V3 a2 + r2 - 2 r is a solution of the equation

3(a2 — r'2) 2 1
2 rx2 x 2 r
174 Chapter 8

4
8. Verify the identity x+- = (y/x-\=j + 2 for positive values of x?
x \ y/x!
Use the result to show that the sum of a positive number and its
reciprocal is never less than 2.
9. Show that there is a rational solution of the equation x-\- - = a, only
x
under the conditions that a is rational and that a2 — 4 is the square
of a rational number.
10. Solve for t: V = L[R2 -(R- t)2].

11. Prove that if y/a2 — p2 -\-y/b2 — p2 = Va2 + b2, then —- = \ + 7--

p2 a2 b2
_ 2 2
12. Show that \{y/(x — 4)2 + y2 + y/(x + 4)2 -f y2 = 10, then y- + q- = 1.

Chapter Review
Simplify:
AO
1. Vi ^25 _ -\/2
o V Q 5 a a
8. +
2. V52 - 42 4 V5~a
*\ 9. (5V2 - 2V5) h- VTo
3. V3 • V21 _^21 /
V3
10. V*y -t-
2 , 2V2
7=
V6 V3 11. (2 V2 + V5) (2 V2 - VI)
5_y^o+ 5 12. (3 + 2V3)(2-V3)
V45 13. (2V3 - V6)2
Vl2 V5
6. Vl3i- 14.
V3 V5 + 2
V6-V2
15.
2V2 -V6

16. Evaluate x-when x = 2 V2.

X

17. Evaluate (x — 4)(2 x — 1) when x = 2 — V3.

18. Show by substitution that J(— 1 + y/s) is a root of 2 *2 + 2 a — 1 = 0.
What is the other root of the equation?

19. Solve 2 x2 — 4 x — 3 = 0. Find the sum and the product of the roots.
20. Solve: 2y/x — y/x + 5 = 1.
Irrational Numbers 175

Chapter Test
Simplify:

1. 3Vi+2Vf— Vl2 9. (2\/3 + V6) V6

2. yjf ■ Vab 10. Vf-i-V6

11. (V3+V2)2
3. V8I-V24
12. (2Vs + 5)(2V5 — 5)
4. §V3 ■+■ V§
5. 2V3 (2V3 — V§) 13. 3 (3 -V3)
3+V5
tViJ-VJ-i 14.
3-V5
7.^|-3V|-V2| 3 - 2V2
15.
(1 + V2)2
8. V3f • Vl§H-V2J

16. Evaluate 4 x2 — 4 x when x = J(1 + V2).

17. “Show by substitution that l + V7) is a root of 3 x2 + 2 x = 2,
What is the other root of the equation?
18. Solve x2 — 2 x = — Find the sum and the product of the roots.
19. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the roots of 3 x2 + 4 x = 5.
20. Find x in simplest radical form if 3 x = £\/7 -f- 4.

21. Simplify (a) (\A;+ 2 + \/^)(\/^ + 2 — Vx); (b) (V# + 2 — Vx)2.

22. Solve: 2"\/2 ^+34-\/2x = 3.

Sidelight

Proof that y/3 Is Not a Rational Number

In the relationship y = x2, let the rational value 3 be assigned to y, so that

x2 = 3. The positive value of x which satisfies this relationship is denoted by
V3. This number has the property that V3 • V3 = 3, and by the two theorems
that follow, it is shown that there is no rational number having the same
property.

Theorem 1. If the square of an integer is divisible by 3, then it is divisible by j

9, and the integer itself is divisible by 3.

Proof: It is assumed that every integer may be expressed in one of the three
forms
(a) 3 n, (b)3n+T (c)3n+2,

where n is an integer.
(This assumption is of the same nature as the assumption that every integer is
either odd or even, that is, may be expressed by 2 n or by 2 n -f- 1.)
Hence, the square of any integer may be expressed in one of the three forms:

(a) 9 n2
(b) 9 n 2 -f 6 n -f-1, or 3(3 n 2 -(- 2 n) -f 1
(c) 9 n 2 -f 12 n -(-4, or 3(3 n 2 -|-4 n -f- 1) -(-1

Clearly the squared forms (b) and (c) are not divisible by 3, for there would
be a remainder of 1 in each case. Form (a) is divisible by 3.
Therefore, if the square of an integer is divisible by 3, the square must be of
the form 9 n2, and so it is divisible by 9. The original integer is then of the form
3 n, and so it is divisible by 3.
The indirect method of proof, used in theorem 2, is a logical form of argument
which many fail to appreciate because they allow the details to obscure the main
pattern. In its barest outline, an indirect proof is of the following nature:

1-It is assumed that one of the two statements “A is B” and “A is not B”

must be valid.
2. It is demonstrated that the assumption of the validity of the statement
“A is B" produces a contradiction. The validity of the statement is thereby
denied.
3. It is concluded that “A is not B” is the valid statement.

The main part of the proof is the demonstration of the contradiction in (2).
It is here that the details are likely to distract the attention from the basic pattern
of the argument.
176
^ Theorem 2. v/3 is not a rational number.
Proof:
1. Either V3 is a rational number or V3 is not a rational number.
2. Assuming that V3 is a rational number, let us examine the consequences.
If V3 is a rational number, it may be written in its lowest terms and represented

by the fraction y where a and b are integers which do not have a common

factor. (This is a key point in the argument.)

Now if V3 = j-j it follows that f \ =3, and a2 = 3 b2.

b b b
Thus, a2 is divisible by 3. Applying theorem 1, it follows that a2 is divisible
by 9 and that a is divisible by 3.
The fact that a2 is divisible by 9 allows us to write a2 = 9 k, where k is an
integer. If we substitute 9 k for a2, we have
9 k =3 b2 or b2 — 3k.
From this we see that b2 is divisible by 3, and it follows from theorem 1 that
b is divisible by 3.
It appears then that a and b have the common factor 3, which is a direct con¬
tradiction of the original condition stipulating that they have no common factor.
This contradiction is a consequence of assuming the validity of the statement
“V3 is a rational number,” and the validity of the statement is therefore denied.
3. It follows that V3 is not a rational number.

177
 The use of computers and modern mathematical programming procedures has
enabled scientists to obtain considerable information about the earth’s atmosphere.
The photograph below shows a meteorologist using the Plotting Unit of a Computer-
Plotter to draw contours of atmospheric pressure at a certain altitude.
Computer programs have been developed for analyzing weather effects on a
world-wide scale, and they may eventually lead to reliable long-range forecasts
of weather trends.
 Functions * Graphs. Variation

Sets of Ordered Pairs

Up to this point in our course we have been largely concerned with

methods of finding specific numbers which satisfy certain given conditions.
The basis of these methods is the use of a letter to represent an unspecified
member of a set of numbers. We have referred to a letter used in this way
as a variable.
We now turn our attention to the study of relationships between two
sets of real numbers. This is a basic concept in algebra and we shall be
concerned with it, directly or indirectly, throughout the remainder of the
course.
Many sentences in algebra are stated in terms of two variables. For
example, the sentence "One number is the square of a second number" may
be written in the form of the equation "y = x2.” This equation is a true
statement for some values of x and y, and is a false statement for other
values. A pair of values for which the equation is a true statement is called
a solution of the equation. Some solutions of the equation are given in the
following table:

X -4 -2 0 1 1 V2 5
2

16 4 0 1 1 2 25
y 4

The set of all solutions oi y = x2 contains an unlimited number of such

pairs. We may note that while any real number may be used as a replace¬
ment for x, no negative number may be a value of y in this set.
A convenient way to write pairs of values of x and y is to place each pair
in a parenthesis with the value of x preceding the value of y. Thus, the
pair £ = — 4, y = 16 would be written (— 4, 16). The order in which the
numbers are arranged in the parenthesis indicates which is the value of x
and which is the value of y. We therefore refer to a symbol such as (—4, 16)
as an ordered pair of numbers.
If the set of replacements for x is specified and we are given a rule for
finding the value of y corresponding to each value of x, we can determine
179
180 Chapter 9

a set of ordered pairs which satisfy the rule. We may say that the ordered
pairs are generated by the rule. It shall be understood, when no statement
is made to the contrary, that the replacement set for x is the set of all those
real numbers such that corresponding values of y are also real numbers.

Example 1 . If x is a positive integer less than 10, and y = 3 x — 8, write

the set of ordered pairs thus determined.
Solution: For convenience, we list the ordered pairs in the form of a table:

X l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

y -5 - 2 1 4 7 10 13 16 19

[Question: How are successive values of y related?]

Example 2. Write a simple rule which would generate the following

ordered pairs: (- 4, - 3), (— 1, 0), (0, 1), (2j, 3j), (7, 8).
Solution: We notice that in each pair the second member exceeds the first
by 1. Hence y = x + 1 is a rule which would generate the given ordered pairs.

Exercises [A]
1. If the replacement set for x is {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, write the set of ordered
pairs generated by the rule y = 3 x — 10.
2. If the replacement set for x is the positive integers and if y= 2 x,
describe the replacement set for y.
3. Using the rule y = 4 x — 8, complete the ordered pairs of which the
first members are — 4, — 2, 0, 2, 4.
4. Using the rule y = 4 x — 8, state the set of values of x for which
(a) y > 0, (b) y > 10.
5. Using the rule y = 2 x2, write the ordered pairs of which the first
members are — 3, — 2, — 1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
6. Using the rule y= 2 x2, state the set of values of x for which (a) y > 8,
(b) the value of y decreases as the value of x increases.
7. (a) Write 5 ordered pairs which satisfy y = 2 x — 3.
(b) For what values of x is y > 0?
8. (a) Write 5 ordered pairs which satisfy y = \2/x.
(b) Which number is excluded from the replacement set for x?
(c) As the value of x increases indefinitely, what happens to the value
of y?
9. (a) Write 5 ordered pairs which satisfy y— 12 — 5 x.
(b) For what values of x is y > 0?
Functions ■ Graphs • Variation 181

10. (a) If y = 4 x — x2, complete the ordered pairs for ^ = — 1, 0, 1, 2, 3

4,5.
(b) For what values of x is y > 0?
(c) Is there a value of x for which y > 4?
11. (a) Using the rule y = 6x2-x3, write the ordered pairs of which the
first members are 0, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
(b) If the replacement set for x is 0 ^ x ^ 6, what is the largest
value of y?

12. For each of the following sets of ordered pairs state a simple rule
which would generate the ordered pairs:
(a) (- 4, - 8), (- 1, - 2), (3, 6), (5, 10), (8, 16).
(b) (-4,-5), (-1,-2), (1,0), (5,4), (8, 7).
(c) (1,1), (4,2), (9, 3), (16,4), (100, 10).
(d) (1,36), (2, 18), (3,12), (4,9), (6, 6).
13. The number of degrees (3;) in each angle of a regular polygon of x
sides is given by the rule y = ——^.

(a) Describe the set of numbers which may be used as replacements

for x in this situation.
(b) Write the ordered pairs for which x — 3, 4, 5, 6, 10.
(c) As the value of x increases, what happens to the value of y?
14. The number of diagonals (y) which can be drawn in a polygon of x
x(x — 3)
sides is given by the rule y = ———-• Write the ordered pairs for

x — 3, 4, 5, 6, 10.

Geometric Representation of Real Numbers

In the study of sets of ordered pairs of numbers we shall make extensive
use of the correspondence between the real numbers and the points on a
line. This correspondence was mentioned when irrational numbers were
introduced, but we now need to consider it in greater detail.
On the line l select an origin or starting point (S) and assign the number
zero (0) to it. Points A, B, C, • • • are then located to the right of 5 with

S A B C
H-1-1-h w
-3 0 +1 +2 +3

SA = AB = BC = • • ♦, and these points are labeled + 1, + 2, -f 3, • • •, in

order. The negative integers are associated with the corresponding points
to the left of A. Points corresponding to rational numbers such as 1.5,
~~ 2.8, • • •, may be located by using fractional parts of the unit length AA.
182 Chapter 9

The location of points corresponding to irrational numbers is less obvious,

though a geometric procedure can be used for simple radicals such as \^2,
v 3, • • •,. Our basic assumption, however, is that there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the real numbers and the points of the line. By
this we mean that every point on the line corresponds to one and only one
real number and that every real number corresponds to one and only one
point on the line. The number corresponding to a particular point is called
the coordinate of that point.
Associating numbers with points on a line provides a way of describing
the order of size of the real numbers. Given two numbers a, b, we say that
a is greater than b (a > b) when a is to the right of b on the line, and that a
is less than b (a < b) when a is to the left of b.

Q
H-1-h 4 4-
0 b 1 4 5

The length of the line segment with end points having coordinates a, b is
expressed by | a — b |. For example, the length of the segment PQ is given
by either | 5 — (— 1) | or | — 1 — (5) | , and is 6 units.

Coordinates of Points in a Plane

Consider now a plane in which two perpendicular lines are drawn. Let
0 be the point of intersection of these
lines, and let each line be put into
correspondence with the real numbers,
using 0 as the origin. The diagram
shows the usual arrangement. The hori¬
zontal line OX, with positive numbers to
the right of 0, is called the x-axis. The
numbers associated with points on this
line are called x-coordinates. The vertical
line OF, with positive numbers above 0,
is called the y-axis. The numbers asso¬
ciated with points on this line are called
y-coordinates.
Suppose P is a point in the plane and PM, PN are perpendiculars drawn
to the x-axis and y-axis respectively. Let the coordinate of M on the x-axis
be 3 and the coordinate of N on the y-axis be 2. Then P is the one point in
the plane which is associated with both an x-coordinate 3 and a y-coordinate
2. We write the coordinates as an ordered pair in the form (x-coordinate,
y-coordinate), or (3, 2). Interchanging the order of the numbers in the
parenthesis gives (2, 3) and these are the coordinates of the point Q.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 183

It will be seen that every point in the plane has a specific ordered pair
of numbers as coordinates, and that every ordered pair of numbers can be
used as the coordinates of just one point in the plane. Thus, we have a
one-to-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the set of all
ordered pairs of real numbers. It is accepted practice to use "the point (a b)”
as a convenient abbreviation for "the point which has coordinates (a, b).”

Technical Terms
It is convenient to have some technical terms to take the place of descrip¬
tive phrases. For example, the point M where the perpendicular from P
to OX meets that line is called the projection of P on the x-axis. In the same
way, N is called the projection of P on the y-axis.
The terms abscissa, ordinate are sometimes used for x-coordinate,
y-coordinate.
The two-dimensional coordinate system described above is often referred
to as the Cartesian coordinate system. It was devised by a famous French
mathematician named Descartes. The Latin form of his name, commonly
used at that time, was Cartesius.
The lines OX, OY are called the coordinate axes. Y
They divide the coordinate plane into four regions,
known as quadrants. The quadrants are num¬ II I
bered I-IV in the order shown in the diagram.
The coordinates of points in a given quadrant
X
have a fixed arrangement of signs. The arrange¬
ments are III IV
In quadrant I: (+, +) In quadrant III: (—, —)
In quadrant II: (—, +) In quadrant IV: (+, —).

Exercises [A]
1. Construct the framework of a Cartesian coordinate system and plot
the points: (1,3); (3,1); (—1,3); (3,-1); (-1,-3); (-3,-1);
(0,4); (-4,0).
2. Write the coordinates of the points marked
r
A, B, C, D, E, F, 0, in the diagram. c
3. State the coordinates of the points deter¬ tr
1A
* A

mined by the statements: j?

(a) On the x-axis, 6 units to the right of O. o »f.>
9 L
X
(b) On the x-axis, 2 units to the left of 0. Ln)4
(c) On the y-axis, 1.5 units above O.
(d) On the y-axis, 1 unit below 0.
184 Chapter 9

4. P is (2, 2), and Q is (8, 2). Find (a) the length PQ, (b) the coordinates
of the midpoint of PQ, (c) the coordinates of the projection of Q on
the x-axis.
5. P is (2, 2), and Q is (— 8, 2). Find (a) the length PQ, (b) the co¬
ordinates of the midpoint of PQ, (c) the coordinates of the projection
of Q on the y-axis.
6. P is (5,4), and Q is (5, 3). Find (a) the length PQ, (b) the coordinates
of the midpoint of PQ, (c) the coordinates of the projection of P on
the x-axis.
7. P is (5, 4), and Q is (5,-3). Find (a) the length PQ, (b) the coordi¬
nates of the midpoint of PQ, (c) the coordinates of the projection of
Q on the y-axis.
8. A circle of radius 3 units is tangent to the x-axis at (4, 0). Give the
coordinates of the center of the circle. (Two answers)
9. A circle of radius 5 units is tangent to the y-axis at (0, — 3). Give the
coordinates of the center of the circle.
10. A circle of radius 2 units is tangent to both axes. Give the coordinates
of its center. (Consider all possible cases.)
11. When a circle is tangent to both axes, what is known about the co¬
ordinates of the center of the circle?
12. If a point is on the x-axis, then its ordinate is zero. Give the converse
of this statement. Is the converse true?
13. If a point has abscissa zero, then the point is on the y-axis. Is this a
true statement? Give the converse of the statement.
14. A, B,C are the points (3, 4), (3, — 2), (— 5, — 2) respectively.
(a) State the quadrant in which each point lies, (b) State which of
the line segments joining the points is horizontal and give its length,
(c) State which of the line segments is vertical and give its length.
15. A, B, C are the points (— 2, 3), (4, — 3), (— 2, — 3) respectively.
(a) State the quadrant in which each point lies.
(b) State which of the line segments joining the points is horizontal
and give its length.
(c) State which of the line segments joining the points is vertical and
give its length.
16. A rectangle has vertices at (8, 0), (0, 0), (0, 6). Give the coordinates
of the fourth vertex.
17. A square has one vertex at (4, 0) and its diagonals intersect at the
origin. Find the coordinates of the other vertices.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 185

18. Set up a Cartesian coordinate system. Shade the portion of the plane
which contains all points whose x-coordinates are positive but not
greater than 4 and whose y-coordinates are positive but not greater
than 2.

19. Set up a Cartesian coordinate system. Shade the portion of the plane
which contains all points whose coordinates have absolute value less
than or equal to 1.
Note. Subscript Notation. The symbol (x, y) is used to indicate the coordinates of
any point in the coordinate plane. When we wish to make a statement about any tjvo
points we use subscripts, (xi, yi), (xz, yd, to indicate that we are talking about two
distinct points. We do not specify which points. We merely indicate by this notation
that we have selected any point to begin with and then selected any other point.

20. P\ is (xi} 0), and P2 is (#2, 0).

(a) What is the length of P1P2?
(b) If M is the midpoint of P1P2, what are the coordinates of M?
(c) Verify the result in (b) by a diagram when Xi = — 6, x2 = — 2.
21. P\ is (0, yi), and P2 is (0, y2).
(a) What is the length P1P2?
(b) If M is the midpoint of P1P2, what are the coordinates of M?
(c) Verify the result in (b) by a diagram when yi = 3, y2 = — 5.
22. Pi is (3, — 2), and P2 is (8, 4).
(a) What is the length of the projection of P1P2 on the x-axis?
(b) What is the length of the projection of P1P2 on the y-axis?
(c) A horizontal line through Pi meets a vertical line through P2 at N.
What are the coordinates of N?
23. Pi is (xi, yi), and P2 is (x2, y2), where x2 > xi and y2 > yi.
(a) What is the length of the projection of P1P2 on the x-axis?
(b) What is the length of the projection of P1P2 on the y-axis?
(c) A horizontal line through Pi meets a vertical line through P2 at N.
What are the coordinates of N?

Graphs
The Cartesian coordinate system provides us with an effective means of
illustrating and investigating sets of ordered pairs of numbers.
An ordered pair of numbers corresponds to a specific point in the co¬
ordinate plane. If pairs of numbers are taken at random, the corresponding
points will be scattered in haphazard fashion, those pairs which are gen¬
erated by an algebraic relationship between two variables form a regular
pattern of one sort or another. We shall now see how these patterns are
formed, and we shall gradually learn to associate certain geometric patterns,
called graphs, with the algebraic sentences which produce them.
186 Chapter 9

The graph of a sentence relating two variables is the set of points corre¬
sponding to the ordered pairs of numbers which make the sentence a true
statement.
In algebra a sentence relating two variables usually takes the form of an
equation or an inequality. We shall be mainly concerned with the graphs
of sentences such as x + y = 10, y = x2 — 2 x, y > 2 x + 3, x2 + y2 ^ 4.
A point is on the graph of a given sentence if and only if the coordinates of
the point make the sentence a true statement. Thus the point (2, 10) is on
the graph of y > 2 x + 3 because 'TO > 7” is a true statement.
Since in many cases the set of replacements for x will be the set of real
numbers, it will not usually be possible to show the complete graph of an
equation or inequality. We shall only be interested in showing the main
characteristics of the pattern, and this can be done with a limited set of values.

Example 1. Draw the graph of y = 2 x — 1, for x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Solution: Using the given rule with each value Y ~T~
L0
E 1
of x, we have the following set of ordered pairs:
o
(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7), (5, 9). o
D '
The five points corresponding to these pairs c
0
are shown in the diagram at the right. The re¬ C
i
quired graph is the set of five points A, B, C, A
4
B
D, E. 0-
Does the graph suggest any geometric pattern?
-
A i
>,
If the set of values of x were extended, could you
0 2 ( 8 X
place the point corresponding to x = 6 without
computing the value of y?

Example 2. Draw the graph of y = 2 x — 1.

Solution: Since no statement is made
0 Y 7n
restricting the values of x, we understand E
that all the real numbers may be used. Q
o
7
1) (
We can therefore draw only a portion
a
D
of the graph. c ft
O
The points A, B, C, D, E of Example 1 •4- B
are part of the graph. Other ordered
pairs such as (— 2, — 5), (0, — 1), (^, 0) •2- A
also give us points on the graph. i
-4 —
2 0 2 i. 6 \ X.
All these points lie on the straight line
/, a portion of which is shown in the dia¬ ■— ol

gram. This line is the required graph. •— 4A

Question: The equation y 2x— 1
—

contains the constants 2 and — 1. Can

you see how these numbers appear in the graph? Check the following statements:
Functions Graphs • Variation
•
187
(a) For any two points on the line the ratio
difference in y values ^
difference in x values
(b) The line crosses the y-axis at the point with y-coordinate —1.

Example 3. Draw the graph of y ^ x2.

Solution: Consider first the equation y = x2. Some ordered pairs which satisfy
the sentence are given in the following
table:

X -3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3

y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

Points corresponding to these pairs are

shown as A, B, C, 0, Dy E, F. Any real
value of x may be used, and if other pairs
which satisfy the equation are formed,
the points corresponding to them lie on
the curve shown in the diagram. Only a
portion of the curve can be drawn.
All points in the shaded region have coordinates (.x, y) such that y > x2. We
refer to this region as being "above” the curve.
The graph of y ^ x2 consists of the curve and all points above the curve.

Patterns of Graphs
It will be found that equations in two variables such as y = x2 — 4 x,
y = x3 have graphs which are regular, "smooth” curves. A more detailed
examination of these curves will be undertaken later. At this time we shall
be content to obtain enough points on a graph to establish the required
pattern and to enable us to sketch the smooth curve through these points.
In particular, we shall assume that an equation of the first degree in two
variables has a graph which is a straight line. Thus, two points on the graph
(with a third used as a check) are sufficient to enable us to draw the line.

Exercises [A]
1. Draw the graph of y = f x, for #=2,4, 6, 8, 10.
difference of y-values
2. Draw the graph of y = \x-\- 2. Evaluate
difference of ^-values
for two points on the graph.
3. Draw the graph of (a) y = 3 x, (b) y ^ 3 x.
4. Draw the graph of (a) y = 3 x -f 2, (b) y = 3 # + 2
188 Chapter 9

difference of y-values
5. Draw the graph of y = — x. Evaluate for two
difference of ^-values
points on the graph.
6. Draw the graph of y = 8 — x.
difference of y-values
7. Draw the graph of y = 8 — 2 x. Evaluate
difference of ^-values
for two points on the graph.
8. Draw the graphs of y = x, y = 2 x, y = 4 x on the same axes.
9. Draw the graphs of y = x, y=x + 2, y = x + 4on the same axes.
10. (a) Obtain 6 ordered pairs which satisfy the equation 2 x-\- 3 y = 12.
(b) Plot the 6 points which correspond to the ordered pairs.
(c) Draw the graph of the equation.
11. Draw the graph of x + 2 y = 10 and 2 x — y = 5 on the same axes.
What are the coordinates of the point which is common to the two
graphs?
12. Draw the graph of y = 4 x — x2. (0. ^ x ^ 4)
13. Draw the graph of y = x2 — 4. (— 3 ^ x ^ 3)
14. Draw the graph of y = (x — 2)2. (0 ^ x = 4)
15. Draw the graph of y = {x + 2)(x — 1). (— 3 ^ x ^ 2)
16. Draw the graph of y = 6 x2 — x3. (0 ^ x ^ 6)

Relations and Functions

A set of ordered pairs is called a relation. Thus, {(1,2), (1,3), (1, 4)} is a
relation. The word "relation” is used because most of the sets of ordered
pairs which we meet in algebra are associated with relationships between
pairs of numbers. These relationships are expressed by sentences such as
y > x or 2 x — y = 10, and the solutions of the sentences form sets of ordered
pairs.
A relation is usually developed from a set of values of x and a rule which ,
associates one or more values of y with each value of x. The relation is <
said to be defined by the rule.

Example. Write the relation defined by the rule y2 = x, for x = 0, 1, 4.

i
Solution: When x = 0, the rule gives y = 0.
When x = 1, the rule gives y = 1 or — 1.
When x = 4, the rule gives y = 2 or — 2.
The relation is {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, — 1), (4, 2), (4, — 2)}.
i
It is possible to list the ordered pairs of a relation only when the number
of pairs is limited, as in the above Example. In most of the relations that
Functions • Graphs • Variation 189

we shall be considering the number of ordered pairs is unlimited. In such

cases a relation is referred to by the rule which defines it. Thus, the set of
all ordered pairs which satisfy the rule y2 = x, x ^ 0, is called the relation
defined by y2 = x.
We shall be particularly concerned with a special type of relation known
as a function. A function is a set of ordered pairs such that corresponding
to each first number there is one and only one second number. For example,
the ordered pairs determined by the rule y = x3 constitute a function. Given
a value of x there is just one value of y which is obtained by cubing the value
of x. Thus, if x = 2, y = 23, or 8. Contrast this with the rule y2 = x, where
for any positive value of x there are two possible values of y. A rule in
which y is equated to an expression in x generally defines a function. An
inequality generally defines a relation which is not a function.
The graph of a function is such that a line parallel to the y-axis cannot
meet the graph in more than one point. A line parallel to the y-axis may
meet the graph of a relation in more than one point. The graphs of y = x3
and of y2 = x illustrate this distinction.

Graph of a function Graph of a relation which is not a function

Rule: y = x3 Rule: y2 — x

Some Technical Terms

A function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that there is just one value
of y corresponding to each value of x. Values of y are paired with values
of x by means of a rule. In our work the rule will generally be an algebraic
equation or inequality, though occasionally the pairing may be exhibited
by a table or a graph.
The set of values of x, the first element in each pair, is called the domain
of the function. Except when otherwise stated, the domain of a function
shall be understood to be the set of all those real numbers such that the
corresponding values of y are real numbers.
190 Chapter 9

The set of values of y, the second element in each pair, is called the range
of the function. Determining the range of a function is often a difficult
problem. We shall deal only with the simpler cases. A value of y which is
paired with a particular value of x is referred to as the value of the function
corresponding to the given value of x.
In our work with functions the domain will generally not be stated but
will depend upon the nature of the rule. Thus if y — \^x, the domain is
the set defined by x = 0. If y = V4 — x2, the domain is the set defined by
| x | ^ 2. If y = x3 — 4 x, the domain is the set of real numbers. In any
given case, therefore, our main concern will be with the rule.
The variable x, representing an unspecified number from the domain, is
sometimes called the independent variable. The variable y, representing the
corresponding number found by using the rule, is called the dependent vari¬
able. Other letters may, of course, be used in the place of x, y.

Example 1. Determine which of the following rules define functions:

(a) y > 2 x, (b) y = 2 x, (c) y2 = x2.
Solution: (a) The rule y > 2 x associates an unlimited number of values of y
with each value of x. For example, the pairs (3, 7), (3, 8), (3, 8.4) satisfy the rule.
Hence, the rule y > 2 x does not define a function.
(b) The rule y= 2 x associates just one value of y with each value of x.
Hence, the rule y = 2 x does define a function.
(c) The rule y2 = x2 associates two values of y with each value of x. For ex¬
ample, the pairs (3, 3), (3, — 3) satisfy the rule.
Hence, the rule y2 = x2 does not define a function.

Example 2. Show that y = . defines a function, and state the

V2 — x
domain of the function.
Solution: Since V2 — x means the positive square root of the number repre¬

sented by 2 — x, the expression has just one value for each value of x in the
V2 — x
1 1 1
set defined by x < 2. For example, if x = — 7,
x V9 3
Hence, there is just one value of y corresponding to a given value of x, and

y = ~r- defines a function. The domain of the function is x < 2.

V2 — 2

[Question: Why does the domain not include x — 2?]

Example 3. The dimensions of a rectangular box are represented by

x feet, (6 — x) feet, (8 — x) feet. If the number of cubic feet in its volume
is represented by V, write the rule which expresses V in terms of x. State
the domain of the function defined by this rule.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 191

Solution: Since the volume of a rectangular solid is given by V — Iwh, we

have in this case
V = x(6 — x)(8 — x).
For any given value of x, this rule determines just one value of V. The domain is
restricted by the physical requirement that each dimension of the box be a positive
number. Hence we must have 0 < rr < 6.

Exercises tA]
1. Explain why the relation defined by y — Vx is a function and the
relation defined by y2 = x is not a function, the domain in each case
being x ^ 0.

2. Explain why the relation defined byy = 3x+lisa function and

the relation defined by y > 3x + 1 is not a function. Use values
of y corresponding to x — 4 to illustrate your answer.
3. The diagram shows a
record of the tempera¬
ture at any time from
8 a.m. to 5 p.m. on a cer¬
tain day at a weather sta¬
tion. If the independent
variable represents time
and the dependent vari¬
able represents tempera¬
ture, does the graph de¬
fine a function? Explain.
4. Draw the graph of the function defined by y = 4 x — 8.
5. Sketch the graph of the relation defined by y2 = 4 x. (Obtain the
pattern by using x = 0, 1,4, 9.)
6. What is the domain of the function defined by y = wx — 4?
7. What value of x is excluded from the domain of

/ \ 12 /i\ 12 0
(a)y = 7; (b)y = ^z?
8. Is the "table of squares” on pages 584-585 a function? What is its
domain? What is its range?
9. Values of x, y, and t are related by the rules 2 x = 3 y + 1 and
y = 4 t — 1.
(a) Write the rule which expresses x in terms of t.
(b) State whether or not the rule in (a) defines a function.
(c) Find the value of t for which x = 0.
192 Chapter 9

10. A rectangle has width x feet, length 2 x feet, and area A square feet.
(a) Write the rule which expresses A in terms of x.
(b) State the domain of the function defined by this rule.
(c) If A = 200, find the value of x.
11. Which of the following are graphs of functions?

12. The edge of one cube is n inches and the edge of a second cube is
n -f 1 inches. The difference of the volumes of the cubes is repre¬
sented by d cubic inches, (a) Write the rule which expresses d as a
polynomial in n. (b) State whether or not the rule defines a function.

The Linear Function

The expressions 3 x -f 2, 4 — \x, 6 x are

classified as of the first degree in £. They are
all of the pattern mx -f k with m and k re¬
placed by numerals. Any equation of the
form y = mx + k is of the first degree in x
and y. We have accepted the assumption
that the graph of any such equation is a
straight line.
The function defined by a rule of the form
y = mx + k is called a linear function because
the graph of the function is a straight line.
Its usual domain is the set of real numbers.
The graph of the linear function defined by y = 3 x — 6 is shown in the
diagram. It intersects the y-axis at (0,-6) and the :r-axis at (2,0). Wei
say that the y-intercept of the graph is — 6, and that the x-intercept of the
graph is 2.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 193

The ^-intercept is the value of x which makes the value of the function
zero. This value of x is called the zero of the function. Thus, 2 is the zero
of the linear function defined by y = 3 x — 6.
The graph of y = 3 x — 6 shows that the value
of the function is positive for any value of x in the
set x > 2.
The graph of the equation y — 4 — x has an
^-intercept of 4 and a y-intercept of 4. The zero
of the function defined by the equation is 4, and
the graph shows that the value of the function is
positive for any value of x in the set x < 4.

[A]
Exercises
Each of the following equations defines a linear function.
(a) Draw the graph of the function.
(b) State the zero of the function.
(c) State the set of values of x for which values of the function are
positive.

1- y=x—4 5. y = 6 — 2 x 9. y = 1
2.y = 4 -f- x 6. y = 3 — x 10. y= 3 — \x
11.
UJ

2 x— 5 7. y = — 3 x y= § *+ 6
II
•

3 x -f- 6 8. y = \ x — 2 12. y = — 2 x — 10
II
•

Direct Variation
When k = 0, the linear equation y = mx -f- k becomes y = mx. The sec¬
ond equation has a special importance because the relationship between
two physical quantities is often expressed by a rule of this simple form.
For example, d — 50 t is the rule relating distance and time for a train
traveling at 50 miles per hour.
If x and y are variables and y = mx, where m is a non-zero constant, the
relationship between x and y is described by saying either that y varies
directly as x or that y is proportional to x. The constant m, which is usually
positive in physical situations, is called the constant of variation or the
constant of proportionality.
The relationship expressed by the rule y — 4 x is an example of direct
variation, the constant of variation being 4. The rule may also be written
in the form x = \ y, which is of the pattern x = my with m — \. It is clear
that if y varies directly as x, then x varies directly as y. I he value of the
constant of variation in one case is the reciprocal of its value in the other
case.
194 Chapter 9

pfr Properties of Direct Variation

1. If (xi, yi), [x2, y2) represent pairs of numbers which satisfy a direct varia¬

tion relationship, then — = — •

xi x2

This is the property expressed by the statement that y is proportional

to x. It follows at once from the fact that the pairs of numbers satisfy the
rule y = mx.
We have yi = mx i,

and it follows that ^ = m.

X\
Also y2 = mx 2,
• • V2
giving cL-=m.
X2

Hence, =
X\ X2

2. If (xi, yi), (x2, y2) represent pairs of numbers which satisfy a direct varia¬
tion relationship and if X2 = kxi, then y2 = ky 1.

This property also follows directly from the rule y = mx.

We have y 1 = mx 1
and y2 — mx2.
V2 _ mx2 _ X2
Hence,
y1 mx 1 x\
If X2 = kxi,
then —= k.
Xi

Therefore, —= k,
y1
or y2 = kyi.
The second property shows us that in a direct-variation relationship,
if the value of one variable is multiplied by some number, then the value
of the other variable is also multiplied by that number. For example, if
the value of x is doubled, then the value of y is doubled. Or, if the value
of y is multiplied by f, then the value of x is multiplied by f.
The statement "y varies directly as x” is sometimes shortened to the
form "y varies as x” When the word "directly” is not used, care must be
taken to distinguish the restricted meaning of "varies as” from that of the
general expression "varies with ” While y may be said to vary with x in a
great variety of relationships, we say that y varies as x only when there is a
rule of the form y = mx.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 195

Example 1. (a) Does the perimeter of a square vary directly as the length
of one of its sides?
(b) What is the constant of variation?
Solution: (a) The perimeter (p) is related to the length of a side (s) by the
formula p = 4 s.
The relationship is of the form y = mx, so the perimeter of a square does vary
directly as the length of one of its sides.
(b) The constant of variation is 4.

Example 2. If y varies as x, and y= 20 when x= 12, (a) express y in

terms of x, (b) find the value of x when y = 7.5, (c) describe the change in
the value of y which accompanies an increase of 50% in the value of x.
Solution:
(a) Since y varies as x, we know that y = mx, where m is a constant.
But y — 20 when x = 12, so that 20 = 12 m.
m = J.
We therefore have y = § x.
(b) Since y = § x, we also have x = § y.
Hence, when y = 7.5, x = §(7.5) = 4.5.
(c) Let the original value of x be denoted by x\.
If this value is increased by 50%, the new value is 1.5 x\.
Let the original value of y be y\, and the new value be y2.

Then we have ^ ^ Xl = 1.5.

yl xi
Thus y2 = 1.5 yi, and it follows that the value of y is also increased by 50%.

Exercises [A]

1. (a) Write the formula for the circumference of a circle.

(b) Does the circumference vary directly as the radius?
(c) What is the value of the constant of variation?
2. (a) If y = § x what is the value of the constant of variation?
(b) If the relationship in (a) were expressed in the form "x varies
directly as y” what would be the value of the constant of varia¬
tion?
3. (a) If y varies directly as x, and y— 10 when x = 4, what is the value
of the constant of variation?
(b) If the same relationship were expressed in the form "x varies
directly as y” what would be the value of the constant of varia¬
tion?
4. If y varies as x, and y — 20 when x = 15, find the value of y when
x = 60.
196 Chapter 9

5. If y varies as x, and y= when x = find tne value of x when y — 15.

6. If y varies as x, and two values of x are in the ratio 3:2, what is the
ratio of the corresponding values of y?
7. If y varies as x, and two values of x are in the ratio 6:5, what is the
ratio of the corresponding values of y?
8. If y varies as x, describe the change in the value of y when the value
of x is increased 100%.
9. If y varies as x, and y = 4 when x = 2, write the rule relating y and x.
Draw the graph of the function defined by the rule.
10. If y varies as x, and y = 6 when x = 2, write the rule relating y and x.
Draw the graph of the function defined by the rule.
11. A boy bicycles at the rate of 100 feet in 6 seconds. How long does it
take him to travel (a) 350 feet, (b) n feet?
12. Using the formula d — r ■ t, show that if r is constant, the ratio of
any two values of d is equal to the ratio of the corresponding values
of /. State in words the relationship of distance to time when the
rate is constant.
13. The speed of a car remains constant, and in 10 seconds it travels
n feet. How many feet does it travel in (a) 5 seconds, (b) 12 seconds,
(c) t seconds?
14. The length of a rectangle is fixed. When the width is 5 in., the area
is n square inches. What is the area of the rectangle when the width
is (a) 10 inches, (b) 7 inches, (c) k inches?

Inverse Variation
A rule of the form y = mx defines a linear function with graph passing
through the origin. The study of direct variation is a natural part of the
study of the general linear function. We now examine a relationship which
is not linear, and we do it at this time because it complements our study
of direct variation.
If x and y are variables, and m is a constant, not zero, the relationship

y — — is described by saying either that y varies inversely as x or that y is

x
inversely proportional to x.

m
The relationship y = — can be written y = m • - • The second form shows
x x
that y varies as the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of x, and this ex¬
plains the use of the phrase "varies inversely as.”
Functions • Graphs • Variation 197
^ Properties of Inverse Variation

1. If (xi, yi), (x2/ Y2) represent pairs of numbers which satisfy an inverse-

variation relationship, then x\y\ = X2y2, and — = — •

Y2 xi

m
The results are readily deduced from y\ = — and y2 =
x\ ' X2

2. If (xi, yi), [x2, y2) represent pairs of numbers which satisfy an inverse-

variation relationship and if X2 = kx 1, then y2 = - yi.

k

Since x2y2 = Xiyi and x2 = kxi,

we have kx\y2 = Xiyi by the substitution axiom.

Solving for y2:

3,2 = p-i
Property 2 shows us that in an inverse-variation relationship, if the value
of one of the variables is multiplied by some number, then the value of the
other variable is multiplied by the reciprocal of that number. If, for exam¬
ple, the value of x is multiplied by f, then the value of y is multiplied by f.

An illustration of inverse variation. An example of inverse variation in

physical science is the relation of volume to pressure for a quantity of gas.
Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature is kept constant, the volume of

the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure. This is symbolized by P = —

or PV = m. In a particular case where

the volume is 20 cu. in. when the pressure
is 15 pounds per square inch, the specific

relationship is P = ~, or JPF = 300.

Some corresponding pairs of values for

this particular case are shown in the fol¬
lowing table, and the general relationship
between such pairs is shown by the graph.

p 5 10 15 20 25 30 60

V 60 30 20 15 12 10 5

Notice that as the values of P get larger the curve flattens rapidly. What
is the value of V when P = 300, and when P = 3000? Does the graph ever
become actually horizontal? Is there a value of P for which the correspond¬
ing value of V is zero?
198 Chapter 9

The curve is one branch of a rectangular hyperbola, a special case of the

family of curves known as hyperbolas which we shall consider more fully
in our later work. It is of interest to note
that if a number of rectangles, each of area ^
300 square units, were placed with one
vertex at the origin and the adjacent ver¬
tices on the coordinate axes, the fourth
vertex in every case would be a point on
the hyperbola.
For any given value of m, except zero, -
7fl
the graph of the relationship y = — or -
x -
xy = m is a rectangular hyperbola. If the o 30 60
variables are unrestricted in value, the
curve has a second branch corresponding to negative values of x, but we
shall not concern ourselves with negative values at this time. Almost all
the physical quantities with which we are dealing are restricted by their
nature to positive values; thus the positive branch of the rectangular
hyperbola is the characteristic graph of an inverse-variation relationship
between two such quantities.

Example. A cylinder contains 2 cu. ft. of gas at a pressure of 60 pounds

per square inch. Conditions are such that the volume varies inversely as
the pressure.
(a) Express V, the volume in cubic feet, in terms of P, the pressure in
pounds per square inch.
(b) Find the pressure at which the volume of the gas would be 4.5 cu. ft.
(c) Find the percentage change in P which corresponds to an increase
of 25% in the value of V.
Solution:
TK
(a) Since V varies inversely as P, we have V = — •

But V = 2 when P = 60, so 2 = —> giving m= 120.

Hence V= —> or PV= 120.

(b) When V = 4.5, we have 4.5 P — 120

4.5
240
= = 26.7, to the nearest tenth.
9
Hence the required pressure is 26.7 pounds per square inch.
Functions Graphs • Variation
•
199
(c) Let V i and Pi be the original values of V and P.
The new value of V is 1.25 Vor f V\.
Let the new value of P be denoted by P2.
Then, because of the inverse-variation relationship,
P2 = t Pi (P2 • f Vi = Pi • Vi)
The new pressure is therefore 80% of the original pressure, so the original
pressure has been reduced by 20%.
Note that the procedure used in (c) is of general application. We may deduce that
whenever two quantities have an inverse-variation relationship, an increase of
25% in the value of one is accompanied by a decrease of 20% in the value of
the other.

Exercises [A]
1. If y varies inversely as x, does x vary inversely as y?
2. A rectangle is to have an area of 60 square inches. If the length is
x inches and the width is y inches, express y in terms of x. Does y
vary inversely as x?

3. If y varies inversely as x, and y = 20 when x = 6, find the value of x

when (a) y = 6, (b) y = 12.

4. If y varies inversely as x, and y = 15 when x = 14, find the value of y

when x = 21.
5. If y varies inversely as x, and y= 12 when x = 12, find the value of y,
(a) when x = 6, (b) when x — 24.
6. If y varies inversely as x, and two values of x are in the ratio 3:2,
what is the ratio of the corresponding values of y?
7. If y varies inversely as x, and two values of x are in the ratio 7:5,
what is the ratio of the corresponding values of y?
8. If y varies inversely as x, describe the change in the value of y when
the value of x is increased 100%.
9. If y varies inversely as x, and y = 4 when x = 3, write the rule relating
y and x. Draw the graph of the function defined by the rule.
10. If y varies inversely as x, and y = 2 when x = 2, write the rule relating
y and x. Draw the graph of the function defined by the rule.
11. A number of rectangles have the same area. One has length 20 ft. and
width 15 ft. What are the lengths of those having widths (a) 10 ft.,
(b) 5 ft., (c) n ft.?
12. A farmer has enough feed to last 50 cattle 42 days. How long would
the same amount of feed last (a) 35 cattle, (b) x cattle?
200 Chapter 9

More Complicated Variations

The discussion of variation to this point has dealt only with the relation¬
ship between two variables, each to the first power. The two cases con¬
sidered may be extended to include higher powers of the variables and
situations involving more than two variables. In general, when a power
of one variable is equal to a constant times a product or a quotient of powers
of other variables, corresponding pairs of values of the variables are related
by a proportion, and the situation may be described in terms of "variation.”
Some illustrations of the commonly occurring rules, corresponding propor¬
tions, and verbal descriptions follow. In each case m is a constant and the
other letters are variables.

1. y = mx2;
y1
—=
_
y varies (directly) as the square of x.
y<i av
m
2. y= y varies inversely as the square of x.
x2 y2
(There are numerous instances of this form of relationship between physi¬
cal quantities. It is often referred to as "the inverse-square law.”)

3 v _ mx}. ll _ Sifr . y varies jointly as x and t, or

y2 x2t2 ’ y varies as the product of x and t.
(Note that in this case, if x remains constant, y varies as t; if t remains
constant, y varies as x.)

A ml . Vi _ t\x22. y varies directly as t and inversely as the square

4-y=-,;
X* y<i hxv of x.

Example 1 . If y varies inversely as the square of x, show that the effect

of multiplying a given value of x by 3 is to reduce the value of y to ^ of its
original value.
Solution: Let the original values of the variables be denoted by x\ and y\. The
new value of x is 3 xi; let the corresponding value of y be y2. Then by the given
law of variation, as in Illustration 2 above,

ll — 111 _ £i2 _ 1
yi x22 (3 xi)2 9

Hence l2 = g ?i-

Example 2. For wires made from the same metal, the electrical resistance
of a wire is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional
to the square of its diameter. A wire 100 meters long, with diameter 0.5
millimeters, has a resistance of 1.25 ohms. Find the resistance of a wire
made from the same metal, if it is 120 meters long and has diameter 0.3 mm.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 201

Solution: By the stated law of variation we have, as in Illustration 4 above,

R represents the resistance in ohms,

R = ~7} > where L represents the length in meters,
, D represents the diameter in millimeters.

Then,
£(100)
L2S- w
This gives k=—.
320
Hence, the specific formula for wires made from this particular metal is:
L
320 D2'

When L= 120, and D = 0.3, * = 3^

R = 4.17, to the nearest hundredth.

The resistance of the wire is 4.17 ohms.

Exercises [A 1]
1. If y varies as x, and if y = 5 when x = 2, express y in terms of x. Find
the value of y, (a) when x = 2.8, (b) when x = 5.6.

2. If y varies as the square of x, and if y = 10 when x = 4, express y in

terms of x. Find the value of y, (a) when x = 1.2, (b) when x = 2.4.

3. If P varies inversely as V, and if P = 15 when V = 4, find the value

of V, (a) when P = 2.5, (b) when P = 250.

4. If y varies inversely as the square of t, and if y = 3.5 when t— 4.0,

express y in terms of t. Find the value of y to the nearest tenth when
*=1.4.

5. If S varies jointly as h and R, and if S = 628 when R = 8.0 and

h = 12.5, find the value of S when R = 4.0 and h = 6.25.

6. If h varies directly as V and inversely as the square of R, and if h = 4

when V = 314 and R = 5, find the value of V when h = 5 and R = 4.

7. The perimeter (P inches) of a regular polygon with a given number of

sides varies as the length (5 inches) of a side. If P— 19.2 when
s— 2.4, write the formula giving P in terms of s. What information
about the polygon is given by the coefficient of s? Find the value of s
for which the value of P is 27.2 inches.

8. The area of an equilateral triangle varies as the square of the length

of a side. When the side is 20 in. long, the area is 173 sq. in. to the
nearest square inch. Find to the nearest tenth of a square inch the
area of an equilateral triangle of side 4 inches.
202 Chapter 9

9. The volume of a gas at a constant temperature varies inversely as

the pressure. The volume of a gas under a pressure of 1400 pounds
per square inch is 0.64 cu. ft. Find the volume occupied by the gas if,
without change in temperature, the pressure is reduced to 14 pounds
per square inch.

In the following exercises it may be assumed that there is a variation

relationship between the quantities for which corresponding pairs of values
are given. In each case, (a) write the variation statement which describes
the relationship, (b) write the formula expressing the upper variable in
terms of the lower, (c) determine the missing value, (d) illustrate the rela¬
tionship by a graph.

10. w 20 30 60 ? 12. F 0 5 20 32

n 4 6 12 16.8 w 0 2 8 ?

11. R 4 8 10 48 13. y 12 48 75 ?

T 12 6 ? 1 X 2 4 5 10

14. y 5 8 10 ?

X 2.4 1.5 1.2 0.8

Exercises [A 21

1. If y varies as x, and if y = 8.4 when x — 2.4, express y in terms of x.

Find the value of y when x= 3.2.
2. If y varies as the square of t, and if y = 2.5 when t = 2.5, express y in
terms of t. Find the value of y when t = 3.5.
3. If F varies inversely as D, and if F = 9.6 when D = 2.5, find the value
of D, (a) when F = 2.5, (b) when F = 25,000.
4. If / is inversely proportional to the square of d, and if I = 120 when
d= 1.5, express / in terms of d. Find the value of d for which I is 10.8.
5. If V varies jointly as h and the square of R, and if V = 105 when
R = 5 and h = 4, find the value of h for which V = 105 and R = 4.
6. If y varies directly as x and inversely as t, and if y = 6 when the values
of x and t are equal, find the value of y for which x = 2 t.
7. At a point in a body of water the pressure due to the water is pro¬
portional to the depth below the surface. At a depth of 100 ft. the
pressure due to the water is 45 pounds per square inch. Find the
depth to the nearest foot at which the pressure is 100 pounds per
square inch.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 203

8. The friction force required to prevent a car from skidding in making

a certain turn varies as the square of the speed of the car. If the
friction force required at 20 m.p.h. is 240 pounds, find the friction
force required at 25 m.p.h. If the maximum friction force between
the road and the car is 540 pounds, find the highest speed at which
the turn may be taken without skidding.
9. The force required to open a gate varies inversely as the distance of
the force from the line of hinges. The least force that can be used to
open a certain gate 8 ft. wide is 10 pounds. What force applied at a
distance of 15 in. from the hinges would be needed to open the gate?

In the following exercises it may be assumed that there is a variation

relationship between the quantities for which corresponding pairs of values
are given. In each case, (a) write the variation statement which describes
the relationship, (b) write the formula expressing the upper variable in
terms of the lower, (c) determine the missing value, (d) illustrate the rela¬
tionship by a graph.
2 4 6 ? 12. y 1 4 9 ?
y
X 30 15 10 2.5 X 2 4 6 10

C 9 18 45 60 13. u 2.1 3.5 4.9 ?

n 2 4 10 ? t 0.6 1.0 1.4 2.4

Exercises [B]
1. The weight of a metal sphere is proportional to the cube of its radius,
(a) A sphere of radius 2 in. weighs 9.6 pounds. Find the weight of a
sphere of radius 2.5 in. made from the same metal, (b) Show that if
two spheres made of the same metal are such that the radius of one
exceeds the radius of the other by 25%, the weight of the larger is
almost double that of the smaller.
2. When a ball is thrown vertically up, the height reached varies as the
square of the speed with which the ball is thrown. A ball thrown
with speed 40 ft. per second reaches a height of 25 ft. above the throw¬
ing point. Find the height reached by a ball thrown with speed 60 ft.
per second.
3. The strength of a radio signal is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the receiver from the transmitter. A signal received
from a certain transmitter at a point 50 miles away is rated 90% of a
standard strength. What would be the rating of the same signal at a
point 75 miles from the transmitter?
204 Chapter 9

4. The surface area of a sphere varies as the square of the radius, (a) If
the area is 50 sq. in. when the radius is 2 in., find the area when the
radius is 3 in. (b) The radius of one sphere exceeds that of another
by 20%. By what percentage does the surface area of the larger
exceed that of the smaller?
5. When a steel bar of fixed length and width is supported at its ends
and loaded in the middle, the deflection produced at the middle varies
directly as the load and inversely as the cube of the thickness of the
bar. When a bar 2 in. thick carries a 1000-pound load, the deflection
is 0.25 in. Find to two significant figures the deflection produced on
a bar 3 in. thick by a load of 5000 pounds.

6. When a small steel ball drops freely from rest, the distance traveled
varies as the square of the time of falling. If the ball falls 64 ft. in
2 sec., obtain the formula which expresses the distance (in feet) in
terms of the time (in seconds). Find the distance dropped in 3 sec.
from rest, and in 3.1 sec. Hence find the average speed of the ball in
the interval from 3 sec. to 3.1 sec.

7. T varies directly as x and inversely as the square of y. What per¬

centage change takes place in the value of T if (a) the value of x is
increased 25% and the value of y is unchanged? (b) the values of
x and y are both increased by 25%?

8. Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that the force of gravitational

attraction between two given masses varies inversely as the square of
the distance between them. If there is an attractive force of Fi units
between two masses when they are d\ feet apart, express in terms of F\
the force between them when they are \ d\ feet apart.

9. The volume of a square pyramid varies jointly as the height and the
square of the edge of the base, (a) If the volume is 400 cu. in. when
the height is 12 in. and the edge of the base is 10 in., find the volume
when the height is 10 in. and the edge of the base is 12 in. (b) Compare
the volumes of two square pyramids if the pyramids have equal
heights and base edges in the ratio 1:2. (c) Compare the volumes
of two square pyramids if the pyramids have equal base edges and
heights in the ratio 1:2.

10. The illumination received at a point from a lamp varies as the candle-
power of the lamp and inversely as the square of the distance from
the lamp. A lamp of 60 candle-power 45 cm. from a point gives the
same illumination as another lamp which is 70 cm. from the point.
Find the candle-power of the second lamp to the nearest integer.
Functions • Graphs • Variation 205

Chapter Review
1. If y varies as x, and x varies as t, state the relationship between y
and t.
2. If y = 2 x -f 4, does y vary with x? Does y vary as x? Does y vary
as (x -f 2)?
3. What is the domain of the function defined by y — V4 — x?
4. Write a simple rule which would generate the following ordered pairs:
(-4,-5), (-2,-3), (0,-1), (2,1), (8, 7).

5. If y = 4 x2 — 16 x -f 16, does y vary as the square of x? Does y vary

as the square of (x — 2)?
6. The length of a pendulum varies as the square of the time of swing.
How must the length of a pendulum be changed in order to double
its time of swing?
7. The total surface area of a cube varies as the square of its edge. If
the edge of one cube is twice the edge of another, what is the ratio of
their total surface areas?
8. The lines a and h are the graphs of direct-variation relationships
between y and x. Express y in terms of x in y
each case.
9. If y varies directly as x and inversely as t,
what is the effect on the value of y of doubling
the values of x and t?
10. If 3 x — 2 y=2 and y=t — 3, express x in
terms of t. Find the value of t for which the
corresponding value of x is zero.

11. If y varies inversely as the square of x, what is the effect on the value
of y of multiplying the value of x by 4? What is the effect on the
value of x of multiplying the value of y by 4?

12. If *y = 6, and if values of y are plotted against the reciprocals of the

corresponding values of x, what form of graph results?

13. The weight of a piece of copper wire varies as its length and as the
square of its diameter. If 50 ft. of copper wire of a certain diameter
weighs 1.25 pounds, find the weight of 175 ft. of copper wire having
diameter 80% of that of the first wire.

14. If y varies jointly as x and t, what is the effect on the value of y of

doubling the values of x and t?

15. If y varies as the cube of x, and y = 2 when x = 2, find y when x — 6.

206 Chapter 9

Chapter Test
1. If y varies inversely as x, and x varies inversely as /, state the rela¬
tionship between y and t.

2. If y varies as the square of x, and if the ratio of a pair of values of x

is 3 : 2, what is the ratio of the corresponding values of y?

3. What is the domain of the function defined by y = —^—?

x—3
4. Write a simple rule which would generate the following ordered pairs:
(-3,-5), (-1,-1), (0,1), (2,5), (3, 7).
5. If y varies as x, and y = 7.5 when x = 4.5, find y when x = 7.5.
6. The volume of a sphere varies as the cube of its radius. If the radius
of one sphere is 10 times that of another, what is the ratio of their
volumes?
7. If y varies inversely as x, and y = 7.5 when x = 4.5, find y when x= 7.5.
8. Draw the graph of the function defined by y = 5 — 2 x. State the
zero of the function. State the set of values of x for which values of
the function are negative.
9. If y varies directly as x and inversely as t, what is the effect on the
value of y of doubling the value of t when the value of x remains
constant?
10. Using the rule y = x2 — 2 x, state the set of values of x for which
(a) y > 0; (b) y < 0; (c) y = 0.
11. If y varies inversely as the square of /, and y = 1.5 when t — 2.4, find
y when t— 1.2.
12. Pi is the point (2, — 3), and P2 is the point (6, 5). A horizontal line
through P1 meets a vertical line through P2 at N. What are the co¬
ordinates of N?
13. If 2 y — 5 x = 7 and x = 2 — t, write the rule which expresses y in
terms of t. Find the value of t for which the corresponding value of y
is 10.
14. If the height of a cylinder is equal, to its diameter, its volume varies
as the cube of its radius. Find the percentage increase in the volume
of such a cylinder when the radius is increased from 5 in. to 6 in.
15. If F varies directly as the square of v and inversely as r, and if F = 160
when v = 8 and r = 5, find the formula for F in terms of v and r.
 Linear Programming

Linear programming has been described as a method of finding the most

effective course of action when the number of choices is unlimited. It is a
recent development in mathematics, and one which is widely used in many
fields of business. Many companies which are concerned with the distribution
of a commodity, such as oil, depend on linear programming for the organization
of their transportation in the most efficient and economial way.
A given operation may involve several variables, and the replacement sets
of the variables may be restricted in certain ways by the nature of the operation.
It may be possible to express the cost of the operation as a first-degree expression
in the variables. Determining the minimum cost of the operation, subject to the
restrictions on the variables, is a problem in linear programming.
When there are many variables, the procedure is laborious, and high-speed
computers are needed to handle the numerical work in the solution of a problem.
The approach to an elementary problem and the application of an important
theorem are illustrated in the following example.

Problem. A company manufactures two types, A and B, of a certain article.

The total production capacity of the company is 1800 articles per day, and the
profit is $2 per article for type A and $1 per article for type B. Type A must be
taken to a warehouse 5 miles away and type B must be transported 2 miles to a
railroad. Trucks are available for deliveries totaling 480 miles (each way) per
day, and 10 articles of either type make a truckload. How many articles of each
type should be manufactured per day to give the maximum profit?
The process of linear programming begins when the conditions of the manu¬
facturing situation are expressed in the form of algebraic inequalities. Let
x = the number of truckloads of type A manufactured daily,
y = the number of truckloads of type B manufactured daily.
Since x and y cannot be negative numbers, we have

x ^ 0, and 7 ^ 0.

The fact that the company cannot produce more than 1800 articles (180
truckloads) per day is represented by

x -\-y = 180,

and the transportation restriction is represented by

5 x -f 2 y ~ 480.

The graphs of the inequalities are shown on the next page. Each graph is a
closed half-plane, that is, a line and all the points on one side of that line.
 The points which have coordinates satisfying all the inequalities are those
which are common to the four graphs. These
points form the set called the intersection of the
four graphs, and they are shown in the shaded
region consisting of the quadrilateral ABCD
and its interior. Every point of this set has co¬
ordinates (x, y) which satisfy the four require¬
ments.
x ^ 0, y ^ 0, x +y ^ 180, 5 x -\-2 y ^ 480.

The problem is to decide which point gives

the values of x and y for which the profit is
greatest. Since the profit is $20 per truckload
for articles of type A and $10 per truckload for
type B, the daily profit in dollars is given by the
expression
20x + 10 y.

Let K(xi,y]) be a point in the interior of the quadrilateral ABCD, and let
the vertical line through K meet AB at M(x1,y2)-
The profit at K is 20 x1 4- 10 yy and the profit at
M is 20 Xi 4- 10 y2. Since y2 > y\, the profit at M
is greater than the profit at K. Similarly, if the
horizontal line through K meets BC at N, the
profit at N is greater than that at K. It appears
therefore that we should look on the boundary of
the region for the values of x and y giving the
maximum profit.
The fundamental theorem of linear program¬
ming is based on the following result:
For a given ordered pair (xl5 j^) the expression
ax -\-by -\~c has the value axY -\-byi -\-c. Con¬
sider the values of the expression when the ordered pairs are the coordinates of
the points on a given line segment. If the expression does not have a constant
value for all pairs in this domain, then the expression attains its greatest value
208
at one endpoint of the line segment and its least value at the other endpoint.
We shall not prove this statement, but the student will find it illustrated in
exercises 1 and 2.
It can now be seen that, for a region such as ABCD above, the greatest
(and the least) value of any expression of the form ax + by+c occurs at a
comer point of the region. This is the important theorem on which linear
programming depends. It applies to every region which is the intersection of
a number of closed half planes. The points of any such region are called a
polygonal convex set.
We now complete the solution of our original problem by finding the values
of the expression for the profit at the corners of the region ABCD. The coor¬
dinates of B are found by solving the system of equations x-f.y = 180,
5 x -\-2y — 480. The solution is (40, 140). Hence, we have:
A (0, 180), profit is 20 • 0 +10 • 180 = 1800 dollars
B (40, 140), profit is 20 • 40 + 10 • 140 = 2200 dollars
C (96, 0), profit is 20 • 96 + 0 = 1920 dollars
D (0, 0), profit is 0
Hence, the greatest profit is obtained when 400 articles of type A and 1400
articles of type B are manufactured daily.

EXERCISES

1. The points A(0, 10), B(2, 9), C(4, 8), D(6, 7), £(8, 6) are all on the line
segment AE. Evaluate the following expressions at each point:
(a) 2 x — 3 y + 5, (b) x -f 4
2. The points A(6, 2), B(7, 5), C(8, 8), D(9, 11), £(10, 14) are all on the line
segment AE. Evaluate the following expressions at each point:
(a) 2 x —y — 2, (b) 2 x -J- y.
3. A region of the coordinate plane is determined by the inequalities x ^ 0,
y s 0, x -\~2y = 20, 3 x -f y ^ 30. Find the coordinates of the corner
points of the region. For values of (x, y) which satisfy the given inequali¬
ties, find the maximum and the minimum value of (a) 4 x -f- 3 y, (b) 2 x —y.
4. For values of (x, >>) which satisfy the inequalities
2 x — y = 4, x — 2 y = — 8, x — y = 2,
find the maximum and the minimum value of (a) 3 x +7, (b) — 2 x 3 y.

209
 Many of the improvements in modern technology are due to the development
of instruments of greater precision and of more refined methods of measurement.
The photograph shows a scientist using an electron microscope, which permits
useful magnification up to 100,000 times the original size. The scale on the left is
in microns, which are units of length equal to 10-4 centimeters.
The electron microscope is so powerful that someone has said it could magnify
"the mark of the touch of a flea’s foot to the size of a watermelon.”
 Exponents and Logarithms

Positive Integers as Exponents

One of the great advances in simplifying the symbols of algebra was made
when, by the invention of the exponent notation, awkward products such
asa-a-a-u-a-a-a-a-u-a were reduced to the concise form a10. The
latter symbol is read "a, to the power 10.” The letter a is referred to as the
base number, or merely as the base, in the expression, and the number 10 is
called an exponent. The exponent in such a case indicates the number of
times the base is included as a factor in the product. Thus, a4b2 means
a-a-a-a-b-b; 2 x3 means 2 • x ■ x ■ x; (ab)2 means (ab)(ab), which is
the same as a2b2.
In general, if a is any real number and n is a positive integer, an means
a - a - a - a • a••• to n factors. For n= 1, we have a1 = a, so there is
little occasion to use the exponent in this case. The meaning of the symbol
an leads directly to results such as

a5 • a = (a • a ■ a • a • a) (a) = a6, or a5+1,

a3 • a2 = (a • a • a) (a • a) = a5, or a3 + 2.

These results suggest an interpretation for the product of am and a", where
m and n are positive integers. The symbol am represents the product of m
factors, each equal to a, and the symbol an represents the product of n of
the same factors. It appears, therefore, that the product of am and an con¬
tains (m + n) factors, each equal to a, and the product may be written
in the form am+n.
This result is the basis of all our work with quantities expressed in expo¬
nent form. It states that if two quantities are powers of the same base, their
product is that power of the base which is determined by adding the ex-
ponents of the two quantities. As is usually the case, the expression of the
statement in the symbols of algebra makes the point much more clearly
and concisely.

Qm . Qr — Qm + n
^ Law la
212 Chapter 10

The inverse law, concerning the division of one quantity by another,

when they are powers of the same base, may be deduced from Law (la) or
justified in the same way. It is expressed by the statements:

^ Law lb am 5
- - an — am n if m > n
= 1 if m = n
1
n— m
if m < n
a

cl
• a • a • a • a • cl
Example 1. a6 -s- a4 = a2, because -= a • a.
cl • d • a • cl

CL • CL • CL
Example 2. a3 a3 = 1, because
CL * CL • CL

Example 3. a3 a5 = —^ > because—-————— = — •

a2 a • a • a - a • a a • a <

It is clear that in Law lb the value a — 0 must be excluded. Since no

helpful results are obtainable by considering powers of zero, we shall rule
out zero as the possible base of a power from here on.
The following special cases of Law la should be verified:
a3 • a3 = a6, that is, (a3)2 = a3'2.
a5 • a5 • a5 • a5 = a20, that is, (a5)4 = a5'4.
an • a11 • an = a3n, that is, (a")3 = a3'".

The results illustrate the fact that Law la may be extended to give the
following rule for raising to a further power a quantity which is already
expressed as a power of some base number.

Law 2 (am)n = amn.

Example 4. (a2)4 = a8, from which it follows that Va8 = a2.

Example 5. (a5)3 = a15, from which it follows that \4z15 = a5.

The definition of an, together with the rules of multiplication for our
number system, provides us with rules for raising a product or a quotient
to a power.

^ Law 3a {ab)n = anbn

/a\n __ cC
^ Law 3b
W ~b"

Example 6. (2 xy)3 = (2 xy)(2 xy)(2 xy) = 23 x3y3 = 8 x3y3.

^\2 _ /x\fx\ _x?_x?

Example 7.
?) "WW^"9'
Exponents and Logarithms 213

Law 3a shows us how the same powers of different bases may be multi¬
plied, an • bn = (ah)n, whereas Law la shows how different powers of the
same base may be multiplied. If two quantities in exponent form have
different bases and different powers, the product cannot be obtained by
using the laws of exponents.

Example 8. 25 • 2 3 = 28, using Law la.

Example 9. 23 • 53 = (2 • 5)3 = 103, using Law 3a.

Example 10. 23 • 32 = 8 • 9 = 72, no exponent law applying.

Note particularly that 23 • 23 is either 26 (Law la), or 43 (Law 3a), but

is not equal to 46.

Exercises [A 1]
Simplify:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 vV • *v
A• /y O ry*2i
(x3)2 (— x)5 • X2 (- X3)2

2. y3 • y2 23 • 22 y 5 -4- y 25 + 2
(2 x)3 ■ 3 x2 (— 2 a;)3 • 3 x2 9 /v*3 • 9 /y*2
3. 2 x3 • 3 x2
4. 4 y5 • 5 y4 ylO <y5 6 y6--7- 2 y2 (2 ;y)3 h- (2 31)

5. (x3)2 (23)2 (- 2 x2Y (— 3 x3)3

6. 26 ■ 23 62 • 32 212 ■+■ 29 122 ■+• 32

7. (2 x2y)3 (— 3 x4)2 V16 x16 V27 X27

8. 15 x7y -r- 3 x6y2 2 4 x4 -4- 2 x5 (5 • 1010) -r (2 • 108) (102)3

IV 3 fc*
9. 8 a3 h- (- 2 a)3 (i *4)2
V X6 \ 8

10. (J re3) • (J x2) 1

2 /y*3 • - —
^ /v*2 (i*)2 X2 -5" Q-x)2
/^2 71
11. xn • X 0C * 00 ^ Xn+1 -4- x • 71

/y 71 • . /y 71
12. (xn)2 (xn)n xn~2 • X2 vV • *V

Exercises [A 2]
Simplify:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

/y»6 •• -■ *v
/v»
Ai • */v
/y 6
•• «/v
/y* 2 2 x6 -i- 2 x2 (2 *)6 -t- (2 *)2 •A/

2
m • *A/ vV (*8)2 Vx16 (3 x3)2
/y 7 •• - »v
/y
3. 3 b5-5 b3 (- 3 b3)3 29 • 2

4. 10 n10 -r-5 w5 (— 2 w3)4 (— x)(— 3 x)2 (4 *4)3

214 Chapter 10

(a) (b) (c) (d)

5. 3 x3 • 3 x3 3 x3 + 3 x3 3 x3 -*• 3 x3 3 x3 — 3 x3

6. 8 y4 • 4 y4 8 y4 + 4 y4 8 y4 4 y4 8 y4 — 4 y4
3j
7. (- 2 p2)3 V—8 p6 (- 2)3 + (- 2) y/16 a16
8. If x = 2 a2, and a = 3 b, express x in terms of b.
9. If a = 4 b3, and b = — \c2, express a in terms of c.

10. If x = 2 y3, and y = —> show that t = 8 y7.

2 x2
11. (a) Express 84 as a power of 2. (b) Divide 85 by 210.
12. (a) Express 9n as a power of 3. (b) Find n if 9n = 312.

Rational Numbers as Exponents

Exponents originated as symbols indicating the number of equal factors

in a product. Only positive integers are used in counting a number of factors;
hence in their original sense exponents were automatically restricted to the
set of positive integers. It is characteristic of mathematical procedure,
however, that a concept as helpful as the exponent should be explored with
the object of extending its usefulness. The following paragraphs show how
the set of numbers having significance as exponents is extended from the
positive integers to the rational numbers. Useful meanings are assigned )
to symbols such as a0, a~3, aand as a consequence, the scope of operations
with exponent quantities is widened considerably. It is clear that expo-
nents such as — 3 and \ cannot represent the number of equal factors in a
product, and that therefore some other property of exponents must be i
made the basis of our interpretation of the new symbols.
We agree to extend Law la to include expressions with exponents which
are rational numbers. Thus, we agree that ax • av — ax+v when x and y are
rational numbers. This agreement enables us to give meanings to such
1

symbols as a0, a~3, a?, and to use with the new symbols the same laws as
are used when the exponents are positive integers.

Meaning of a0. In the law ax • av = ax+v, let x = 3, y = 0.

Then, a3 • a0 = u3+0 = a3. ,
It appears that when a3 is multiplied by a0, the product is a3. But, if a is
itself not zero, the only multiplier for a3 which gives the product a3 is 1.
Hence we give meaning to a0 by the definition

^ a0 = 1, for all values of a except a = 0

(We are not able to give a meaning to 0°.)
Exponents and Logarithms 215

Meaning of a 3. In the law ax • ay = ax+y, let x = — 3, y = 3.

Then, a~3 - a3 = a0 = 1.
It appears that a-3 is the reciprocal of a3. Hence, we give meaning to
the symbol a~3 by the definition

^ a-3 = ^f for all values of a except a = 0.

l
Meaning of a2. In the law ax • av = ax+y, let x = y=
Then, a? • a? = = a1 = a.
It appears that a is the product of two equal factors, each denoted by a?.
But the equal factors in such a case have already been defined as one of the
square roots of a. To avoid ambiguity, we select the principal square root,
and give meaning to a? by the definition

^ 02 = yfa, for all positive values of a.

3
Meaning of a4. Using the same basic law, ax • ay = ax+y, we have:
3 3 3. 3 3 .3 i 3 i 3 „
a4 • a4 • a4 • a4 = a4 4 4 4 = a3.
3
Thus, a3 is the product of 4 equal factors, each denoted by a4. The equal
factors in such a case are defined as one of the fourth roots of a3. We select
the principal fourth root as the most useful, and give meaning to the symbol
3

a4 by the definition:

^ a^ = V^a3, for positive values of a.

Alternatively, using the law (am)n = amn, we have (a4)3 = a4.

Hence

^ a4 may be defined as (V^a)3.

The exponent j is therefore a symbol that the operations of finding the

fourth root and raising to the power three are to be performed in succession
on the base number. The alternative forms of the definition indicate that
the order in which the operations are performed is immaterial. In numerical
cases, however, the values are more easily controlled if the operation of
finding the root is performed first. _ ( _
Compare, for instance, >/(16)3 = a/4096 = ? with (\/16)3 = 23 = 8.

Meaning of an. If m and n are integers, the above approach may be

m
extended to the general form an. We give meaning to the symbol by the
definition:

for values of a which give meaning to the radicals.

216 Chapter 10

Meaning of a z. For any rational value of x, our basic law gives

a 'x • ax = a0 = 1. Hence a~x is the reciprocal of ax, and we give meaning
to the general symbol a x by the definition:

W a % = ~x
cr

for all values of a which give meaning to — •

ax

A useful consequence of the definition of a~x is that the operation of

division by a~x is equivalent to the operation of multiplication by ax.
Immediate recognition of the meaning of symbols such as 8^ and 3-2 comes
only with experience in using them. In each of the following Examples,
the definition which gives meaning to the exponent should be carefully
considered.
2\-2 _ /3\2
Example 1. (§) (!)2 =

Example 2. 9 ^ — —7= = \
V9 3

Example 3. 16* = (V 16)5 = 25 = 32

1
Example 4. (—27) » =
V^27 3
1 2
Example 5. Evaluate (a) 2 x~*, (b) (2 x)*, (c) (2 — x)°, when x = 4.
Solution:

(a) 2 x~i means -7=*

_i 2 2
Hence, when x = 4, 2 x 2 = —— = - = 1.
V4 2.
3 r

(b) (2 x)% means ('\ZYx)2.

Hence, when x — 4, (2 x)% = (V8)2 = 22 = 4.

(c) (2 — x)° means 1, for all values of x except x= 2.

Hence, when x = 4, (2 — x)° = 1.

Parts (a) and (b) of the preceding example illustrate an important point i
concerning the order of operations in expressions such as 3 x2, 2 x~x, and in
general, axb. In such situations, the exponent operates before the coefficient,
so that the meaning of the symbols is actually 3 ■ x2, 2 • x~1, a • xb, and not
(3 x)2, (2 x)_1, (ax)b. The understanding is that an exponent operates only
on the individual number, letter, or parenthesis to which it is attached. As
a further illustration, we see that (2 x)° = 1, but 2 x° = 2.
Exponents and Logarithms 217

Graph of y = 2X

We now have a meaning for ar when a > 0 and r is any rational number.
It is more difficult to define ar when r is
an irrational number and we shall not
attempt to do so. We shall, however,
consider that a rule such as y = 2X de¬
fines a function with domain the set of
real numbers. The graph of the func¬
tion is then a continuous curve, a por¬
tion of which is shown in the diagram.
The y-intercept of the graph is 2° or 1,
and when x is large in absolute value
but negative, the value of y is corre¬
spondingly small.
Note that if the exponents were re¬
stricted to positive integers, the only
points on this portion of the graph would be A, B, C, D. The diagram
exhibits in a vivid way the manner in which the defined values of symbols
such as 2*, 2°, 2-1 help to fill in the pattern outlined by the values of 2n
when n is a positive integer.

Laws of Exponents

We now restate the laws of operation- for quantities expressed as powers

of a base number. They are valid for all rational exponents and all positive
base numbers. We have no meaning, at present, for even roots of negative
numbers, such as are indicated by (— 2)? and (— 9)T

1. (a) ax • ay — ax+y, (b) ax -*■ ay = ax~y.

2. (a) (ax)y = axy, (b) 'Jax = ay.

3. (a) (aby = axbx, (b) (£)=$■

Now that we have extended our exponents to include rational numbers,

it will be seen that the parts of the above laws labeled (b) are not actually
distinct from those labeled (a), although they emphasize a different opera¬
tion. Thus, 1(b) with y = 3 is equivalent to 1(a) with y = — 3; 2(b) with
y = 3 is equivalent to 2(a) with y = and 3(b) with b = 3 is equivalent
to 3(a) with b = J. However, until the student is thoroughly familiar with
the new forms of exponent, it is probably best for him to think in terms of
the six operational procedures indicated above.
218 Chapter 10

2 5 3
Example 1. Simplify: (a) OC ^ * 0C ^ j (b) (*“*)-*•
Solution:
(a) Applying law (1) we have:
2 5 2,5. 9 3
X3 ' X6 = =16 = £2.

(b) Applying law (2), we have:

(x_4)“5 = = x3.
Note that in the above operations no attempt is made to interpret the fractional
exponents as equivalent radicals. Our rules for working with exponents allow us to
operate directly on the given quantities, and the introduction of the radical
equivalents would merely make the operations more awkward to carry out.

Example 2. Simplify: v8 x3y6 -h a/.xy -2

Solution: V8 x3y 6 -f- V.ry-2 = 2 xy2 -f- x^y~1
2o —i i Division by x*y~1 is equivalent
xy- • x zyl
to multiplication by x~zyl.
Adding exponents for the powers of
= 2 x?y3
x and for the powers of y.

Example 3. Simplify: 2 x~^ • (x~* + x^)~l.

Solution: Note particularly the binomial x~?-\-x^ raised to power —1. The
only valid interpretation of this quantity is

1 , i
2 + X2
Thus, we have:

1
2 x' £2 2 (Multiplying each of the
2 x~s • (x~^ + x^)_1 _1 I 1
-•

X 2 -f- X2 1,1 1+x three terms in the frac¬

— + X2
X2 tion by x2)

Exercises [A 1]
In exercises 1-8, select the correct definition from (a), (b), and (c).

(a) (b) (c:

2
1. x2 is defined as ix y/x
X
X
2. x° is defined as 0 1
0
- 1 1
3. x~Y is defined as — X
X X

2 2_
4. xTi is defined as V? "VX3
3x
Exponents and Logarithms 219

(a) (b) (c)

1 1
5. x-2 is defined as —2x
X2 Vx
1 1
6. x-^ is defined as —2x
Vx ix
1 2
7. 2 x_1 is defined as —2x
2x X

X2 2x
8. (-) is defined as —6x
\x/ 9 3

In exercises 9-15, write the numerical values without exponents or radicals.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

9. 32 9* 9-i 90
(§)"2
10. 23 85 (i)-3 8“* (-8 y
11. 2-4 4* (i)_* ' (i)-1
12. 85 164 27_* 27° 2(7°)
13. 4-* 64* (*)“* 16* 25*
14. (i)-3 (*r* (2i)* (A)1 (i)'2
15. (- 2)—2 (-i)-3 1001* (I*)'

Simplify:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16. x6 • x-2
/y» 6 ♦
wv •
/v*2
vV (x6)^ V*6
17. x8 • x-5
/v»
«/v
8 *•
/y» O
«/v
(x27)i Vx27

18. x-3 • x-3 (*-3)2 (x~3)^ 3/I

\x3

(x-1)-1 (x-3)"^ (27 x-3)-

222
20. x2 • x2 x3 • x3 • X3 (x*)4 (2 x-*)-2

21. (a) x2 • x2 • x-3; (b) 2 x *‘3x 2-x3; (c) x3-x2>2x6

22. (a) (3 x^)2 • (2 x^)"3; (b) (8 x~3)* + 3 x"1

/ \ 3 / 1 _ _i . _3X
23. (a) x2 • x 2; (b)x2(x2-fix 2); (c) x2 (x2 — 2 x 2 + x 2)
_ 1 3

s x^ + x~? 2 x2 — x2
24. (a) x^ -4- x-^; r~i (c) 1
(b)
X 2 w 2 x2
/| \
O /y*
Z* *2v
2 . -y 1 2~l
25. (a) x_1 2 x-2
-fi
(b) 2 X-2 ^ 2-1 + 2~2
220 Chapter 10

26. Find the value of x for which x* = 8.

27. Find the value of x for which 5 x? = 20.
28. Solve: (a) 2 a;-2 =18; (b)6aU^=2.

29. Evaluate the expression ( —) when x 25.

30. Simplify: (2 a~1b)~2 • (J a3b~3)~K

Exercises [A 2]

1. When x = 5, evaluate (a) 2 x_1; (b) (2 x)—1; (c) (2 a:2)-4.

2. Evaluate: (a) 2~3; (b) 100^; (c) 16“4; (d) (J)~2.
3. Evaluate: (a)3°-^3-2; (b)2-3-f-2; (c) 10*-f-10E

4. Simplify: (a) (16 p4q2)^; (b) (27 a3b~6)^] (c) a4 VI

,4 b2
5. Evaluate + y^)2 when x = 9 and y = 4.
6. Using the values x = 4, y = 3, show that (x2 -{- y2)-^ is not equal to
x 1+y -1

7. When x = f, evaluate (a) 9 a;*; (b) (9 x)~^\ (c) 4 a:_U

8. Simplify: (a) (2 a-*)4; (b) (4x~6)^; (c) (8
9. Evaluate — y^)3 when x = 27 and y = 8.
10. Simplify: (a) (4 x)^ • (9 x)~~^; (b) (4 x4)^ -f- (4x_4)_U
11. Evaluate: (§) ~ 2 — (^7)
12. Find the value of x for which 2 x^ =
13. Find the value of x for which 3 x~3 = — 24.
14. If 2 x~l = 8, find the value of 3 x~?.
15. Solve: (a) 4 = 16; (b) (3 #)f = 8.
16. Simplify: (— a~6bl2)~K
17. Simplify: (3 aT^)2 • (2 af“$)“3.
18. Evaluate [(2 x)~l + x^~\~l when x = 5.
Simplify:
io|o

-1
4: — x 2 •^A / \ *^2 * *^6 . /L.\ *^2 ^
19. (a) ; (b) 20. (a)-r, (b) 3
2x 2 2 — x~l a; X~2

21. Show that (a: + y) 1 • —ip—^ may be reduced to y h

22. Express in simplest radical form: (12— (4j)*.

Exponents and Logarithms 221
11 2
23. From the four numbers 16-*, 3^ g-^ (_ i)-3 select (a) one that is
negative; (b) one that is irrational; (c) one that is the square of one
of the others.
24. If y = x2, and x3t = 8, show that y = 4 t~*. Find the value of y in
simplest radical form when t = 2.
25. If x? + = 4(x2 — y4)? find the ratio of x to y.

26. Show that (a*b~2c*)~2 • (J a~lb2c^)~3 may be simplified to

Sa2
b2c2
27. Evaluate ^— when a = §.
2 a
28. In evaluating 3^ + 3^ + 3^, a student treated the expression as though
111* 3

it were 32 • 32 • 32, and so obtained the result 32. (a) Is the procedure
valid? (b) Is the result correct?

29. Evaluate: (a) ~ (b) —2

3-1
a2 — a 2
30. Show that . . . —— may be simplified to the form a H—

[B]
Exercises

1. If A = a — y and B = -——^— » show that A2 — B2 = 1.

2 2
2. Simplify, by expressing each factor as a power of 2:
2~n . gn-i . 471+3 15/1.

10 71+2
3. (a) Divide 10n by 10. (b) Divide 10n by 100. (c) Simplify
100
13 1
4. If x^y^z~~^ = 3, express z as a power of 3 when both x and y have value 3.
5. (a) Multiply 2X by 2. (b) Show that 2X+2 — (2x+l + 2X) = 2X.

6. (a) Show that (x+ *)* + (s+ 1) reduces to for all positive
(x + l)2 — (x -f- 1) 2 x
values of x.

(b) Show that -^7 reduces to x+ (x2— 1)* for all

(x + l)2 — (x — l)2
values of x greater than or equal to 1.
7. Show that there are two rational numbers which satisfy the equation
x^-3x^= 10.
8. Show that there are four real, but no rational, numbers which satisfy
the equation x2 -f 10 x~2 = 7.
222 Chapter 10

9. If x = \(y-\-y *)> show that y = x±{x2 — l)2, and that the two
values of y are reciprocal quantities.

3 3
10. If x = —- —-1 and y = —-» show that:
F+t 3 /3 + t *
(a) y3 = to3; (b) x3 + y3 = 3 xy.

Simplify:

11. (x — 1)* + x (x — 1)~T (a2 — x2)* -f x2(a2 — x2) 3

15.
12. (x2 + 2)?-x2 {x2 + 2)~^. a2 _
13. (2*+ l)*-4(2*+ 1)"*. (x + 3)4 (x + 3)4 — x{x -f 3) *
16.
14. (1 — x2)~% — 3 x2 (1 — #2)~2. X x+3

Powers of 10

The basis of the number system of arithmetic is that every digit in a

number is understood to be multiplied by an integral power of 10. The
power of 10 associated with a particular digit depends upon the position of
the digit in relation to the decimal point in the number. Thus,
(i
3258. means 3000 + 200 + 50 + 8, or 3(103) + 2(102) + 5(10) + 8,
7.32 means 7 + 3(T1o) + 2(Tfc)), or 7 + 3(10“1) + 2(10-2).
»
No power of 10 has been written with the digits 8 and 7 in the above
illustrations, but the fact that 10° = 1 enables us to write them as 8(10°)
and 7(10°) when it is desirable to do so. In the following arrangement of
the number 1503.4798, the multiplier for each digit is written over the digit, fjl

103 102 10' 10° 10-' 10-2 10-3 10-4 '

1 5 0 3.4 7 9 8 5

Taken from left to right, the powers of 10 form a sequence of successive 'i
integers in descending order. The zero and negative exponents fit neatly d
into the scheme and complete the pattern established by the positive powers, f
This pattern exhibits clearly the reason for the arithmetic rule for moving
the decimal point when a number is multiplied or divided by an integral 1
power of 10. The following illustrations show how the rule operates when 5 j
5.682 is multiplied by 100 and when 3.147 is divided by 100.

10° 10"1 10~2 10~3 102 101 10° 10"1

5.6 8 2 X 100 (or 102) = 5 6 8.2 1

10° 10"1 10-2 10-3 io° 10-1 i0"2 10-3 10"4 10"5 I
3.1 4 7 h- 102 = 0.0 3 1 4 7
Exponents and Logarithms 223

In multiplying a number by 100, or 102, the power of 10 associated with

each digit is increased by 2, and in dividing by 102 each power is decreased
by 2. The changes in value are achieved mechanically by moving the deci¬
mal point 2 places to the right or to the left of its original position in the
number.

Standard Form

In exploring the universe, the scientist makes use of numbers to represent

quantities which may be very large or very small in comparison with the
unit of measurement. A light-year, for instance (the distance traveled by a
ray of light in one year) is 5,880,000,000,000 miles, and a certain constant
used in connection with the energy radiated by a particular substance is
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,006,55. Such numbers are difficult to
write or read correctly, and they are unwieldy in computation. They may
be expressed in more compact and usable form by means of powers of 10.
Thus the light-year may be written as 5.88 X 1012 miles, and the other
constant may be written as 6.55 X 10-27. In this notation the first factor
shows the significant figures, and has one significant figure to the left of the
decimal point. The other factor is the power of 10 required to give the
number its correct value.

A number having one significant figure to the left of the decimal point, and
hence having a value between 1 and 10, is said to be in standard form.

The numbers 3.142, 5.8, 6, 1.23 are in standard form; and any number
which is not between 1 and 10 in value may be written as the product of a
number in standard form and a power of 10. This has already been illus¬
trated by the cases 5.88 X 1012 and 6.55 X 10~27. While it is still difficult
to grasp the actual significance of such numbers, the standard form ar¬
rangement is comparatively easy to read and write. It also simplifies the
I operations of multiplication and division with such numbers, since the laws
of exponents may be used on the powers of 10.

Example. Divide 35,000,000,000 by 0.0014.

Solution: Using the standard-form notation, the division may be expressed as

3.5 X 1010
1.4 X 10“3
T5
The result is therefore X 1013
1.4
2.5 X 1013
 Chapter 10

Exercises [A]
1. Write each of the numbers used in the following statements as the
product of a number in standard form and an integral power of 10.
The numbers have been rounded off to 1, 2, or 3 significant figures.
(a) The speed of sound is 1100 ft. per second.
(b) One kilometer is 0.62 miles.
(c) The speed of light is 186,000 miles per second.
(d) The circumference of the earth is 25,000 miles.
(e) One cubic centimeter is 0.061 cubic inches.
(£) The speed of light is 30,000,000,000 cm. per second.
(g) The wave length of light of a certain color is 0.000085 cm.
(h) The weight of the earth is 5,970,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
kilograms.
(i) The diameter of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom is
0.000,000,000,000,000,05 centimeters.
2. Write the following numbers in the normal arithmetic form:
(a) 2.47 x10s (b) 5.68 X 10~4 (c) 6.8 X 109 (d) 5.02 X 10'1
(e) 4.68 X 10~3 (£) 1.50 X 101 (g) 4.52 X 10"7 (h) 7.11 X 102
3. (a) Multiply 2 x3 + 5 x2 + 3 by x2.
(b) Multiply 2 (103) + 5(102) + 3 by 102.
(c) Write (b) and its result in normal arithmetic form.
4. (a) Divide 4x5 + 6x3 by x3.
(b) Divide 4(10s) + 6(103) by 103.
(c) Express (b) and its result in normal arithmetic form.
5. (a) Multiply 2 + x~l + 3 x~2 by x.
(b) Multiply 2 T 10-1 + 3(10-2) by 10.
(c) Express (b) and its result in normal arithmetic form.
6. (a) Divide 5 + 2 x-2 + 4 x-3 by x2.
(b) Divide 5 + 2(10~2) + 4(10“3) by 102.
(c) Express (b) and its result in normal arithmetic form.
7. State the necessary value of n in each of the following:
(a) 127 = 1.27 X 10* (b) 0.732 = 7.32 X 10*
(c) 60.9 = 6.09 X 10* (d) 0.00523 = 5.23 X 10*
(e) 986,000 = 9.86 X 10” (f) 0.00000234 = 2.34 X 10*.
8. Evaluate (1.5 X 10-3) • (4.2 X 10s).
9. Evaluate (4.8 X 10" 5) (3.0 X 10~8).
(2.5 X 106) • (5.2 X 107)
10. Evaluate
1.3 X1010
Exponents and Logarithms 225

11. Evaluate (3 X 1010)2 V4 X 1036.

12. Einstein’s formula relating energy (£) and mass (m) is E = c2m,
where c is constant and equal to the speed of light in centimeters per
second. (See exercise 1 (f).) Find the value of E when m = 0.0000002.
13. (a) Write without exponents the values of 10°, 101, 10-1.
(b) Is lO0,0001 greater or less than 1?
(c) Is 10°-9999 greater or less than 10?
(d) Is 10“100 greater or less than 0?
14. If 10* = n, what is known about the value of x when
(a) n is between 1 and 10?
(b) n is greater than 10?
(c) n is between 1 and 0?
15. Evaluate: (a) 10^* 10^ (c) lO1*5^- 100,5
(b) 102-58 X 10°-42 (d) (101-8)2 (101-6)

16. (a) Multiply 10^ by 10.

(b) If 100,5 = 3.16, what is the value of 101-5?
17. (a) Multiply 10* by 100.
(b) If 10°-25 = 1.78, what is the value of 102-25?
18. If 10°-5 = 3.16, and 10°-25 = 1.78, express the product (3.16)(1.78) as
a power of 10.
19. Express as powers of 10: (a) 0.001, (b) a/1000, (c) V"l0, (d) lOOVTl),
(e) 0.1, (f) Vo.l.
20. If 2 =_10°-30, express as powers of 10: (a) 20, (b) 2000, (c) 4, (d) 8,
(e) V2, (f) S.
21. If 3 = 10°-4S, express as powers of 10: (a) 300, (b) 9, (c) V3, (d) 27,
(e) 90.
22. If 3 = 10°-48, and 2 = 100-30, express as powers of 10: (a) 6, (b) f,
(c) 15, (d) 12.

Logarithms
The importance of integral powers of 10 in the number system of arith¬
metic has been indicated. We now consider the simplifications made possible
in complicated computations by a more general use of powers of 10. The
following statement, which we accept without proof, is the basis of the
simplified procedures.
Given any positive number N, it is possible to determine a real number x
such that N = 10x; that is, every positive number can be expressed as a
positive or negative power of 10. When N is the subject of the functional
226 Chapter 10

relationship N = 10x, the statement is read "iV equals 10 to the power x”

I
If x is to be the subject, the statement must be reversed. We might say
that x is the exponent or power of the base 10 that is required to produce
the number N. For traditional reasons a different word is used to describe
this form of the relationship. When x is to be the subject of N = 10x, the
statement is read "x is the logarithm of N to the base 10,” and is written
x = logio N.
Values of x corresponding to any given values of N have been calculated,
and are obtainable from tables arranged for the purpose. The first table of
logarithms was published in 1614 by its inventor, Baron John Napier of
Scotland. At that time the exponent notation had not achieved a form in
which it was generally accepted and used. The fact that Napier took the
word logarithm (meaning "artificial number”) to describe his invention
reflects the lack of understanding of exponents, and emphasizes the mag¬
nitude of his achievement. We now consider logarithms, as used in com¬
putation, to be a natural development from exponents. Thus, while the
name logarithm is preserved, none of the ingenuity and original thinking of
Napier’s approach is necessary for us.

^ Definition.

The logarithm to base 10 of the number N is a number x such that 10x = N.

In order to understand operations with logarithms it is necessary to

recognize the equivalence of the statements

N= 10x, and x = logio N.

Thus, we have logiol00 = 2 because 102= 100, and logioO.l = — 1 be¬

cause 10-1 = 0.1.
Numbers other than 10 may be used as bases. Since 32 = 9, for instance,
we may write log39 = 2.
Our present concern, however, is with logarithms as aids to computation,
and in this case the most convenient base is 10. This follows from the fact
that the number system of arithmetic is based, in the way we have noted,
on powers of 10. In the following paragraphs, which deal with computation
by means of logarithms, no base other than 10 is used. We shall omit the
base in writing the logarithms, except where it may be desirable to include
it for emphasis. Thus, log 100 = 2 shall be understood to mean logiolOO ==
2, and log N = x shall be understood to mean logioN = x. For computa¬
tion, in other words, every logarithm is understood to be an exponent
operating on base 10.
Exponents and Logarithms 227

Use of Table of Logarithms

Since 10°= 1 and 101 = 10, we have log 1 = 0 and log 10= 1. Any
number in standard form has a value between 1 and 10, and its logarithm
is therefore between 0 and 1. It follows that the logarithm of any number
in standard form is a decimal 0.- • • *. Approximations to these logarithms,
correct to the fourth decimal place, are provided for your use. The table
is arranged in precisely the same manner as the table of squares and square
roots. The logarithms of numbers such as 3, 4.6, and 7.32 may be read
directly from the table. Verify the following values:
2 = 100-30U or log 2 = 0.3010.
7.6= 10°'8808, or log 7.6 = 0.8808.
8.43 = 10°-9258, or log 8.43 = 0.9258.

We are not yet in a position to understand the procedure by which the

values in the tables were originally computed. We should note, however,
that logio2 is an irrational number, and that any decimal value we may
obtain for it is an approximation. The same is true of most of the logarithms
which we shall use. The accuracy of the result of a computation is therefore
limited by the number of significant figures given in the table of logarithms
being used. In our tables, not more than 4 significant figures are available,
so that no result based on them should be given to more than 4 figures. The
possibility of accumulated small errors, due to the approximations in the
values of the logarithms, makes even the fourth figure doubtful in many cases.

Example 1 . Evaluate by using logarithms: 2.07 X 3.99.

Solution: From the tables we express each number as a power of 10.
We have: 2.07 X 3.99= 10°-3160 X 10°-6010
= 10°-9170 (law 1 for exponents).

We now determine the number whose logarithm, or power of 10, is 0.9170. To do

this, we locate 0.9170 among the values of the exponents in the body of the table,
and find that the corresponding number is 8.260. Thus, to three significant figures,
which corresponds to the accuracy of the given values, we have

2.07 X 3.99 = 8.26.

Example 2. Evaluate by using logarithms: v/8.11

Solution: From the tables we have
8.11 = 10°-909°

Hence, 'v/im=io°'9090
— 1Q0.9090 5

_ ^QO. 1818

= 1.52 (from the tables)

228 Chapter 10

In the preceding Examples the numbers were given to three significant

figures. When four significant figures are given, adjustment of the exponent
values found in the body of the table must be made by the principle of inter¬
polation, or by the use of the given "differences.” The procedure is the same
as that used in the tables of squares and square roots, and we shall not discuss
it here. In the following three examples, numbers containing four significant
figures are used. The logarithmic form of setting up the computation is
shown, as well as the exponential form illustrated above. The logarithmic
form is the more convenient, especially when the computation involves
several operations, but the exponential form shows more clearly the basis
of the procedures. It will be noticed that the operations performed in the
logarithmic form duplicate those of the exponential form, and that the only
differences in the two forms are those of expression and arrangement. The
laws of exponents are the essential guides to procedure, whichever form
is used.

Example 2. Divide 9.831 by 4.265.

Solution:
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

9.831 = 10°"26 log 9.831 = 0.9926

4.265= 10°-6299 log 4.265 = 0.6299
To divide one power of 10 by another, the To divide one number by another,
exponent of the divisor is subtracted from the logarithm of the divisor is sub¬
the other exponent. Thus, tracted from the logarithm of the
9.831 _ 10°"26 other number. Thus,
4.265 ~ 10°-6299 log 9.831 = 0.9926
— ;K)0.3627 log 4,265 = 0.6299
= 2.306 log quotient = 0.3627
quotient = 2.306

Example 3. Evaluate (1.748)4.

Solution:
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

1.748= 10°-2425 log 1.748= 0.2425

To raise to the power 4 a number expressed To raise a number to the power 4,
in exponent form, the exponent is multiplied the logarithm of the number is
by 4. Thus, multiplied by 4. Thus,
(1.748)4 = (io°-2425)4 log 1.748 = 0.2425
_ 1Q0.9700
4
log (1.748)4 = 0.9700
= 9.332 (1.748)4 = 9.332
Exponents and Logarithms 229

Example 4. Evaluate "n/6.238.

Solution:
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

6.238= 10°-7951 log 6.238 = 0.7951

To obtain the cube root of a number ex¬ To obtain the cube root of a num¬
pressed in exponent form, the exponent is ber, the logarithm of the number is
divided by 3. Thus, divided by 3. Thus,

^6.238 = V/100-7951 log 6.238 = 0.7951

log^238 = ^P
— 1Q0.2650 = 0.2650
= 1.841 ■^6.238 = 1.841

Exercises [A 1]
In exercises 1-8, evaluate to 3 significant figures. In exercises 9-20,
evaluate to 4 significant figures.
1.1.42 x 3.56 3. 8.72 h-2.05 5. (2.02)3
2.2.38 x 3.75 4. 9.64-h 6.13 6. (1.23)6

7. v/8?78 5.923 X 1.161

15.
8. V/9X)0 4.472

9. 2.768 X 1.457 16. (1.323)3

10. 1.972 X 1.853 17. (1.147)10
11. 2.155 X 2.748 X 1.025
18. -^8.098
12. 7.636 h-2.194
13. 8.834 ■+■ 5.296 19. ^2.467 X 3.831
14. 9.008 h- 7.376 20. V8.325 + 1.796

Exercises [A'21
In exercises 1-8, evaluate to 3 significant figures. In exercises 9-16,
evaluate to 4 significant figures.
1. 4.42 X 1.27 5. (1.73)4 9.3.842 x 2.166
2. 3.14 X 2.40 6. (1.41)6 10.4.097 x 2.112
3. 7.56-^2.08 7. \/3W 11.1.342 X 1.414 X 1.667
4. 8.50 ■+• 4.66 8. (9.42)3 12. 6.009 -s- 4.275

13. 9.734 h- 3.308 15. (1.828)3

14. 7.025 ■+■ 3.142 16. ^3.811 X 2.056
230 Chapter 10

Logarithms of Numbers Greater than 10

Since 101 = 10, and since in the relationship 10x = N, x increases as N
increases, it is clear that when N is greater than 10, x is greater than 1.
Thus, any number which is greater than 10 has a logarithm which is greater
than 1. We have used the table of logarithms to obtain the power of 10
corresponding to any four-figure number from 1.000 to 9.999, that is, corre¬
sponding to any number in standard form. We have also seen how any
number greater than 10 may be written as the product of a number in
standard form and a positive integral power of 10. Hence the logarithm of
any number greater than 10 is obtained by adding a positive integer to the
power of 10 obtained from the tables for the corresponding number in
standard form.

Example. Find the logarithm of 683.5.

Solution: We may write the number as
6.835 X 102
From the tables, we have
6.835= 10°-8347
Hence, we have 683.5 = 10°-8347 X 102
— 1Q2.8347

Thus, log 683.5 = 2.8347

The integer 2 in the logarithm of 683.5 is called the characteristic of the

logarithm, while the decimal part .8347 is called the mantissa. Since
102 = 100 and 103 = 1000, any number between 100 and 1000 has a loga¬
rithm between 2 and 3, and such a logarithm must begin with 2. Hence,
the integer 2 characterizes the logarithms of numbers between 100 and
1000. In the same way, since 101 = 10 and 102 = 100, the logarithms of
numbers between 10 and 100 have the characteristic 1. Every number
formed from the sequence of digits 6, 8, 3, 5 is equal to the standard-form
number 6.835 multiplied by an integral power of 10. Hence, all such num¬
bers have logarithms with the same mantissa, namely .8347. Consider the
following:
6.835 = 10°-8347 or log 6.835 = 0.8347
68.35 = 6.835 X 101 = 101-8347 or log 68.35 = 1.8347
68 3 50 = 6.835 X 104 = 104-8347 or log 68350 = 4.8347

Oral Exercises
1. Given that 2.134= 10°-3292, state the value of
(a) log 21.34; (b) log 2134; (c) log 2,134,000; (d) log 213.4.
2. Given that 7.435 = 10°-8713, state the value of
(a) log 743.5; (b) log 74.35; (c) log 74,350; (d) log 7435.
Exponents and Logarithms 231

3. Given that log 5.006 = 0.6995, state the value of

(a) log 5006; (b) log 50.06; (c) log 500.6; (d) log 500,600.
4. Given that log 1.826 = 0.2615, state the value of
(a) log 182.6; (b) log 18,260; (c) log 18.26; (d) log (1.826 X 108).
5. Given that log 8054 = 3.9060, state the value of
(a) log 8.054; (b) log 805.4; (c) log 80540; (d) log 80.54.

The preceding discussion may be summarized as follows.

In finding the logarithm of a number N, which is greater than 10, the
integral part (the characteristic) and the decimal part (the mantissa) are
obtained independently. The number may be considered as the product of a
standard-form number and 10n, where n is a positive integer. The char¬
acteristic of the logarithm is then n. The mantissa is the power of 10 giving
the standard-form number, and is obtained from the tables.
We have seen that when a number is multiplied by 10n, where n is a
positive integer, the decimal point is relocated n places to the right of its
original position. The characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater
than 10 may therefore be obtained by inspection of the number in the
following manner:
If the decimal point in the number is n places to the right of its standard
form position, the logarithm of the number has characteristic n.
In the reverse procedure of obtaining a number from its logarithm, the
parts played by the mantissa and the characteristic must be carefully ob¬
served. The significant figures in the number are obtained from the tables
by use of the mantissa. The basic standard-form number is thus estab¬
lished. The number is then given its correct value by moving the decimal
point as many places to the right of its standard-form position as the
characteristic indicates.

Oral Exercises
1. Given that 100-3247 = 2.112, state the value of
(a) 101-3247; (b) 102-3247; (c) 103-3247; (d) 104-3247.
2. Given that 100-4713 = 2.960, state the value of
(a) 102-4713; (b) 104-4713; (c) 101-4713; (d) 105-4713.
3. Given that log 6.705 = 0.8264, state the number of which the loga¬
rithm is (a) 1.8264; (b) 3.8264; (c) 5.8264; (d) 2.8264.
4. Given that log 8.004 = 0.9033, state the number of which the loga¬
rithm is (a) 2.9033; (b) 6.9033; (c) 1.9033; (d) 4.9033.
5. Given that log 76.42 = 1.8832, state the number of which the loga¬
rithm is (a) 0.8832; (b) 2.8832; (c) 3.8832; (d) 5.8832.
232 Chapter 10

Apart from the determination of the characteristic, no new techniques

are needed for logarithmic computation with numbers greater than 10. In
the following example the exponential and logarithmic forms are again illus¬
trated. Students who wish to concentrate on the logarithmic form should
make clear to themselves the reasons for the following statements of pro¬
cedure. Each statement is based on a law of exponents.
1. The sum of the logarithms of two or more numbers is the logarithm
of the product of the numbers. (10* • \0V = 10x+y)
2. The difference of the logarithms of two numbers is the logarithm of
the quotient of the numbers. (10x -s- 1CF = 10x_2/)
3. The logarithm of the nth power of a number is obtained by multiplying
the logarithm of the number by n. [(10x)n = 10xn]
4. The logarithm of the nth root of a number is obtained by dividing
the logarithm of the number by n. (\/l0x = 10n).

3 50650
Example. Evaluate:
\ 32.46
Solution:

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

50650= 104-7046 log 50650= 4.7046

32.46= 101-5113 log 32.46= 1.5113

log 50650 = 4.7046

log 32.46 = 1.5113
—— 3)3.1933
3.1933

—. JQ1.0644

= 11.60

Exercises [A 11
Evaluate:
1. 3.142 x 41.27 5. 98200 + 63.25 9. (2.386)5
2. 35.62 x 793.5 6.897.4+ 1.965 10. (84.88)3
3. 11.83 X 37.04 X4.074 7.420.6 + 76.55 II. S^324.6
4. 8425 X 125.8 8. 4567 + 66.32 12. >714460
13. 3.142 x (21.58)2 16. (3.213 x 6.108)3
14. V279.0 X 4.926 17. (57.37)2 • V82.32
 Exponents and Logarithms 233

Exercises [A 2]
Evaluate:
1. 2.202 X 54.36 12. "\/6475
2. 23.98 X 425.7 ,, 587,6
3. 34.51 X 9.604 x 1.898 19.04 X 7.592

4. 7462 X 843.8 14. 1.805 X (61.06)2

5. 88360 -T- 68.52 15. ^732.7 X 1.062
6. 559.6 -4- 97.24 16. (13.25)2 -4- (4.372)3
7. 254800 -4- 740.5 17 V51.60X 1.904
0 8219 X 10.08 ■ ^ioo
725.4 18. 5.468 X 106 (7S.97)2
o 3932 x 6.084 ]9 52.62 X 1.976
y' 23.22 X 47.06 ' V203
10. 215.4 x (45.80)2 ,n Z57.68 X Xl0\4
11. ^28.45 \ 120.5 /

The Logarithms of Positive Numbers Less than 1

We have seen that 10° = 1, 10-1 = 0.1, 10~2 = 0.01, and we shall expect
the logarithm of a positive number less than 1 to have a negative value.
Consider the logarithm of the number 0.4386.

We may write 0.4386 = 4.386 X 10-1

From the tables, we have the result

4.386 = 100-6421
Hence, 0.4386 = 100-6421 X lO”1
— |Q —0.3579

Thus log 0.4386 = - 0.3579.

The use of negative values, such as that found above, complicates the
addition and subtraction of logarithms in computation. Hence, when a
logarithm has a negative value, it is convenient to keep the mantissa positive
and not combine the negative characteristic with it. The result obtained
above would then be written:

! log 0.4386 = 0.6421 - 1.

! In the same way, since 0.04386 = 4.386 X 10“2,
; and 0.004386 = 4.386 X 10~3,
* we have: log 0.04386 = 0.6421 — 2
log 0.004386 = 0.6421 -3
234 Chapter 10

We are thus able to extend to numbers less than 1, the two basic points
used in writing the logarithms of numbers greater than 10. (1) The man¬
tissa of the logarithm is the power of 10 giving the corresponding standard-
form number. (2) The characteristic of the logarithm is the integer n
(positive or negative), such that the given number is the product of the
standard-form number and 10”.
Logarithms with negative characteristics add a slight complication to
computations because it is necessary to distinguish the positive and the
negative parts. The positive and negative parts may be kept separate as in
the above values 0.6421 — 1, 0.6421 — 2, 0.6421 — 3. More commonly, such
values are written in the form 9.6421 — 10, 8.6421 — 10, 7.6421 — 10, which
is designed to minimize the need for combining positive and negative inte¬
gers. We shall use a more compact arrangement in which the values are
written 1.6421, 2.6421, 3.6421. The minus sign written over the char¬
acteristic, rather than before the number, indicates that the characteristic,
and only the characteristic, is negative. The arrangement allows us to
write all logarithms in the same form. Consider the following:

5.425 = 100-7344, i.e. log 5.425 = 0.7344

542.5 = 5.425 X 102, i.e. log 542.5 = 2.7344
0.5425 - 5.425 X 10"1, i.e. log 0.5425 = 1.7344
0.05425 = 5.425 X 10“2, i.e. log 0.05425 = 2.7344
0.005425 = 5.425 X 10~3 i.e. log 0.005425 = 3.7344

The negative characteristics in the above logarithms are read as "bar 1,”
"bar 2,” "bar 3," to indicate that the minus sign is limited in application to
the integer. In using the "bar" notation for negative characteristics, there
is frequent need for combining positive and negative integers. It provides
an excellent opportunity to strengthen the understanding of operations with
these numbers.

Oral Exercises

Give the characteristics of the logarithms of the following numbers.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1. 0.8643 0.004538 56.93 4.736
2. 12.58 0.05231 0.125 0.0004
3. 32.48 3.248 0.3248 0.03248
4. 0.00002 0.004732 0.00083 0.7529
5. 0.1236 100.5 0.015 0.0003725
Exponents and Logarithms 235

In the following, use the given logarithm to determine the numbers of

which the logarithms are given in (a), (b), and (c).

(a) (b) (c)

6. log 7.36 = 0.8669. 1.8669 1.8669 3.8669
7. log 8.726 = 0.9408. 2.9408 4.9408 1.9408
8. log 1.527 = 0.1838. 3.1838 5.1838 2.1838
9. log 4.172 = 0.6203. 1.6203 4.6203 2.6203
10. log 31.42 = 1.4972. 0.4972 1.4972 3.4972

Perform the indicated operations in the following exercises, leaving the

result in the "bar” notation.

(a) (b) (c)

11. 2.4+ 1.3 2.4- 1.3 1.3 X 2
12. 2.4+ 1.9 2.4-1.9 1.9 X 2
13. 2.8 -s- 2 1.7+ 2.8 2.8-1.7
14. 2.5 + 1.8 2.5 - 1.8 1.8 X 3
15. 0- 1.6 1.21 - 1.46 1.25 - 0.84
16. 3.60 = 3 1.60 X 3 2.80 -4- 3
17. 2.85 - 4.90 1.70 X 4 2.80 ^ 4
18. 3.68 = 2 4.70 -f- 3 5.28 4

Summary
There is no operation with logarithms which gives either the sum or the
difference of the corresponding numbers. When the operations of addition
or subtraction are required in a computation, they must be performed with
the original numbers. All other computational procedures may be replaced
by the corresponding operation with the logarithms of the numbers.
1. Positive numbers. The logarithm of every positive number is a real
number. An approximation to the value of the logarithm is obtained as
follows: Consider the number as the product of a standard-form number
and 10n, where n may be a positive or negative integer. The characteristic
of the logarithm is n, and the mantissa is obtained from the tables as the
logarithm of the standard-form number. The following rule may be used in
determining the characteristic.

^ If the decimal point in a number is n places to the right of its standard-form

position, the characteristic of the logarithm of the number is n. If the decimal
point is n places to the left of its standard-form position, the characteristic of
the logarithm of the number is —n.
236 Chapter 10

2. Negative numbers. A negative factor or divisor in a computation

affects the sign but not the absolute value of the result. When one or more
negative factors are present, the sign of the result is determined by inspec¬
tion, and the absolute value is obtained by using positive factors in the
computation. No real-number power of 10 gives a negative result; hence
we are not able to find a value for the logarithm of a negative number.

In the following examples, which illustrate logarithmic computation with

numbers of any size, the emphasis is on procedures with logarithms having
negative characteristics. Powers of 10 are no longer used explicitly, but the
laws of exponents remain the basis of the operations performed on the
logarithms.
/0.02346X3
Example 1. Evaluate
\ 0.4875 / '
Solution: Let the value be denoted by x. Then to obtain log x we subtract
log 0.4875 from log 0.02346 and multiply the result by 3.
log 0.02346 = 2.3703
log 0.4875 = 1.6879
2.6824
_3
log x = 4.0472
x = 0.0001115

(15.62)2(-0,0625)
Example 2. Evaluate
1 - 0.0625
Solution: Before going into logarithms, we must perform the indicated sub¬
traction in the denominator, and note that there is a negative factor in the numera¬
tor. Let the required value be denoted by — x. Then
(15.62)2 • (0.0625)
0.9375
To find log x, add twice log 15.62 to log 0.0625, and from the sum subtract
log 0.9375.
log 15.62= 1.1937
_2
2.3874
log 0.0625 = 2.7959
1.1833
log 0.9375 = 1.9720
log x = 1.2113
x = 16.27
Hence, the required value is —16.27.
Exponents and Logarithms 237

Example 3. Evaluate V 0.7324.

Solution: If the value of the cube root is x, log x is found by dividing log 0.7324
by 3.
log 0.7324 = 1.8647
. 1.8647 3 + 2.8647
log X = =-3-

log x = 1.9549
x = 0.9015

Note. In the operation of dividing a logarithm in the form 1.8647 by 3, it is impor¬

tant to understand that 1.8647 means — 1 4- 0.8647. In performing the division we wish
to avoid combining the negative and positive parts of the logarithm. We therefore write
the number — 1 + 0.8647 in the equivalent form — 3 + 2.8647. In the latter form the
negative part is exactly divisible by 3, and the quotient is readily obtained as
- 1 + 0.9549.

Exercises A'p

Evaluate:
1. 0.7136 X 0.09620 15. (0.8602)4
2. 0.008710 X 0.07643 16. (0.03908)3
3. 24.86 X (- 0.01975)
17. 16.12 x (0.02875)2
4. 384.8 X 0.007390 X 0.8966
18. Sy0.002366
5. 2 X 3.142 x 0.06385
6. 0.05061 0.3030 19. S/0.8274
7. 0.006486 -4- 16.93 20. 'V/0.0002404
8. 5.086 ■+• 0.07398 21. V,0.09472
9. 0.007245 4 0.08192
- -
22. 10 -s-Vo.04635
10. 1 4 236.4
- -

23. ^^000075
11. 0.09690 +• (- 22.42)
12. 5.736-4-0.008906 24. V0.007218 -4- 0.8605

0.09058 X 1.414 V0.6042

13. 25.
35.81 1.238 X (— 0.0850)2

0.9402 2946):
14.
0.04417 x 760.6 vdl 732 X 12.94
27. A cube is made from material which weighs 19.30 grams per cubic
centimeter. Let W grams be the weight of the cube when its edge
is e centimeters.
(a) Express W in terms of e, and find W when e = 29.40.
(b) Express e in terms of W, and find e when W = 10,000.
238 Chapter 10

28. The formula for the area of a circle is A = 7rr2.

(a) Express r in terms of A, and find r if A = 2.000 sq. ft.
(b) A circular disc is to be cut from a metal sheet which weighs
0.00175 pounds per square inch. Find the weight of the disc if its
radius is 15.25 in.
29. An equilateral triangle of side 5 inches has area A square inches, given
W3
by the formula A = Express s in terms of A, and find the

length of the side needed to make the area 62.50 sq. in.
30. The area of a trapezoid is given by A = J(6i + b2)h. Find the value
of A when b\ = 49.44 in., b% — 38.62 in., h = 26.33 in.
31. A section of metal pipe / feet long, having outer radius r feet., and in
which the thickness of the metal is t feet, has volume V cubic feet,
where V — irl\r2 — (r — /)2]. Find V when l = 20.25, r = 0.6250, and
t = 0.0420.
32. Evaluate Va2 — ab when a = 0.09334 and b = 0.06442.

Exercises [A 2]
Evaluate:
1. 850.7 X (-0.9860) 12. (0.1899)3 -4- (0.9164 X 19.56)
2. 45.88 X 0.006600 X 0.0009430 13. Vo.9774 -J- 28.35
3. 0.3342 5
- - 76.80
0.03333 X 0.3458
4 0.4431 X 0.9750 14.
6.833 X 0.7056
4.186
5. (0.06754)4 15. V27.55 X 1.875 -4- 35.89
6. 1 -4- 0.09880 16. V/(0.7658)3+ (0.5125)3
7. y/- 0.03628 3341 X (- 0.6647)2
17.
1 0.9806
8.
0.09667 X 0.7441
28.55 X 0.04143
268 X 24.97 18.
V0.9276 X 0.7311
360.8
7.8752 9.4732
10. l9- n/o:08640 X 39.91
(0.1188)(- 0.07580)
2Q (- 10-55)3
11. -i- + -!_
2.568 0.8440 ' 172.5 X (42.08)
21. A radian is a unit of angle measure such that ir radians are equal to
180°. Find, to 4 significant figures, the number of degrees in 1 radian.
Exponents and Logarithms 239

22. The time of swing, t seconds, for a pendulum of length l feet, is given

by the formula t — 2 tv ^ /—-—

J \ 32.20
(a) Find the value of t when / = 18.50.
(b) Express l in terms of t, and find the value of / when t = 2.000.
23. A square pyramid with base edge x inches and height h inches has
volume V cubic inches given by V = i x2h. Solve the formula for x,
and find the value of x when V = 500.0 and h = 12.75.
24. The total surface, S square inches, of a cylinder with radius r inches
and height h inches is given by S = 2 tvrh -f- 2 tvr2. Find S when
r — 3.640 and h — 14.38.
25. If $1000 were invested at 3j% compound interest for 100 years it
would amount to $1000(1.035)100. Use log 1.035 = 0.014940 to eval¬
uate this amount.
26. Evaluate the expression Aekt when A = 7.280, e— 2.718, k = 1.500,
and t = 4.000.

Logarithms to Bases Other than 10

A logarithm is defined by the following statement:

If three numbers L, b, and x are such that x = bL, then L is the logarithm of x
to the base b, that is, L = logt, x.

If a positive value, other than 1, is assigned to b, a logarithm may be

found for any positive value of x, and a system of logarithms to that base,
comparable to that with base 10, may be built up. Logarithms to base 10
are called common logarithms, and, as we have noted, are the most con¬
venient for use in computations. However, the general concept of a loga¬
rithm has applications in mathematics far exceeding in importance the
simplifying of the processes of arithmetic. In this wider field, the system of
logarithms which proves most convenient is that known as natural or
Napierian logarithms. The base used in this system is an irrational number
which, like tv, occurs so frequently in mathematics that a special symbol e
is used to represent it. A four-figure approximation to the value of e is
2.718, and closer approximations may be obtained by adding more and more
terms of the nonterminating expression

e= i ! _L _L_ _l---1___---h • • •
11-21-2-31-2-3-41-2-3-4-5
in which the pattern for the formation of further terms is clearly indicated.
We are not yet equipped to investigate this system, and reference is made
240 Chapter 10

to it only because it has such great importance in more advanced mathe¬

matics. It is a surprising fact that such an apparently awkward base as e
gives rise to a system of logarithms in terms of which many important
relationships take their simplest form. The following exercises are intended
to widen our understanding of logarithms by emphasizing bases other than
10.

Example 1 . Find the value of logs 125.

Solution: Let the required logarithm be L; then by the definition of a logarithm,
we must have 5L = 125, from which it is apparent
that L = 3.

Example 2. What is the base of a system of logarithms in which the

logarithm of 2 is 2?
Solution: Let the required base be 5; then by the definition of a logarithm we
must have b2 = 2
b = V2.

Exercises [A]
Express each of the following in the form logs % = L:
1. 34 = 81 4. 4^—8 7. 5-] = 0.2
2. 52 = 25 5. 2-3 = | 8. 16*= 8
3. S°= 1 6. 9* = 3 9. ba — c

Express each of the following in the form bL = x:

10. log2 8 = 3 13. logx 2 = — 1 16. logio (0.01) = — 2
11. logs 64 = 2 14. log8J = —§ 17. logs 1 = 0
12. log2 16 = 4 15. logo 3 = \ 18. logs N = k

State the value of each of the following:

19.log4 16 23.logs 2 27. log4 J
20. logio 1000 24. log4 8 28. logs (0.04)
21.1og3 3 25. logs (64) 29. logs (2V)
22. log4 1 26. log27 3 30. log6 (bn)

Verify each of the following statements by evaluating the logarithms:

31. log2 8 + log2 4 = logs 32 35. log2 64 = 3 log2 4
32. log2 64 - log2 16 = log2 4 3g 1 _ log2 Vi
33. logs 27 + logs (i) = logs 3 V2
34. logs 1 - logs (i) = logs 9
Exponents and Logarithms 241

37. In a system of logarithms to base 3, what would be the characteristic

of log 10?
38. In a system of logarithms to base 2, what would be the characteristic
of log 20?
39. What is the base of a system of logarithms which is such that adding
1 to a logarithm is equivalent to doubling the corresponding number?
40. Complete the following table of logarithms to base 2.
1 1 1 V2 2 2V2
4 2 4 4V2 8
-2 0 14

Graph of y = logb x

The graph pictures the relation¬

ship between a number and its log¬
arithm to base 2. The base 2 is
used because of its convenience in
obtaining values of the logarithms.
The ordered pairs used in drawing
the graph are taken from the table
in exercise 40 above. The graph
shows the pattern that is charac¬
teristic of the function defined by
y = logs x for any usable value
of b. The domain of the function
is given by x > 0, and the x-inter-
cept of the graph is 1.

The Laws of Logarithms

In carrying out indicated operations on logarithms, the effect of these

operations on the corresponding numbers must always be kept in mind.
These effects are indicated by the following laws:

► 1. logb M + log?, N = logdMN). For example, log2 3 -f log2 5 = log2 15.

► 2. logb M — logb N = logb^j • For example, logs 20 — logs 4 = logs 5=1.

^ 3. n • logs M = logb (Mn). For example, 3 logs 2 = logb 8.

^ 4. - • logb M = logb VM. For example, \ logs 16 = log6 4.

Each law may be justified by relating it to the corresponding law of ex¬

ponents, and this will be done for (1) and (3) in the following paragraph.
242 Chapter 10

Care must be taken in applying the laws because the operation which must
actually be performed on the numbers (M, N) is in every case different from
the indicated operation on the logarithms. In particular, it must be recog¬

nized that we have no general means of expressing logb(M + N) or

log bN
in terms of log& M and logb N. The fact that logb(M + N) is not equal to
log;, M + logb N serves to remind us that, in most cases, an operation to be
performed on a binomial is not distributive over the terms of the binomial.

Law 1. logb M -f- logb N = \ogb(MN).

Let log6 M = X, log6 N =Y, \ogb(MN) = Z,
so that by the definition of a logarithm
M = bx, N = bY, MN=bz.
Hence, we have b7' = MN = bxbY — bx+ Y,
and since b is positive and not equal to 1, it follows that
X+Y = Z,
or logb M + log6 N ~ logb(MN).

Law 3. 7i • logb M = logb(Mn).

Let log6 M = X,
and logb(Mn) = F,
so that by the definition of a logarithm
M = bx,
and Mn = bY.
Hence, we have bY = Mn = (bx)n = bnX,
from which it follows that nX = F.
That is, n • log6 M = \ogb{Mn).

Example 1. Evaluate logio 20 + logio 5, without using tables.

Solution: We are not able to determine the values of the individual logarithms
without using tables. However, by applying the law concerning the addition of
logarithms, we have:
logi o 20 -f- logi o 5 = logi o 100
= 2

2 x3 .
Example 2. Express log-in terms of log x and log y.

Solution: We have

log = log 2 -f log x3 — log y

= log 2 -f 3 log x — log y.

Exponents and Logarithms 243

In the preceding example the base of the logarithms was omitted because
transformations made by means of the laws of logarithms are valid for all
usable bases. In this section of our work the base 10 has no particular im¬
portance, and when it is necessary to use 10 as a base, it will be written as
it was in the first example. The absence of a base in the following exercises
is an indication that the required result is valid for any base.

Exercises [A]
In exercises 1-10, use the laws of logarithms to reduce each expression to
the form log n.
1. log 2 -f- log 4 6. 2 log 6 + log J — log 3

2. log 15 - log 5 7-i lo§ 16 + log 5 + log i

8. 2 log 4 — J log 8
3. log 4 + log \
9. log 2 x — log x
4. log 5J + log §
10. log V# -f \ log -
5. log li-log-¬ x

in exercises 11-20, express each formula as a relationship between the

logarithms of the individual letters and numbers involved, to the extent
that this is possible.

Example. If V = § ivR3, log V = log 4 + log tv + 3 log R — log 3.

11. C — tv D

12. K = hbh
is. a-3 r 17. V =
cl

6 TV2
18. A = P(1 + r)n
t-H

II

13. A = 7vR2 di 19. x = Va2 — ab

14. T — ar5 20. S = 2 7vrh + 2 Tvr2

21. Evaluate log2 12 + log2 lj. 23. Evaluate log2A/28 — i log2 3.5.
22. Evaluate 3 logio 5 + logio(0.8). 24. Evaluate 2 logs 12 — J logs 81.
25. Find x in terms of M and N, if
(a) log x = log(M -f N) -f- log(M — N).
(b) log x = (log M + log N) + (log M — log N).
26. Show that log(£ + i) — (log ^ + log %) = 3 log 2.

27. Show that log^- + ^ — ^log ^ + log ^ — log (a + b).

28. If logioy = 1 + logio xt express y in terms of x.

29. If log a — log b = log b — log c, express b in terms of a and c.
30. If log y = log 3 + 2 log x, express y in terms of x.
244 Chapter 10

Exponential Equations
If a sum of $1000 is invested at 5% compound interest, the value of the
investment at the end of x years is $1000(1.05)*. To find the number of
years in which the value of the invested sum is doubled, we have to solve
the equation:
1000(1.05)* = 2000
or 1.05* =2
An equation in which the variable is an exponent is called an exponential
equation. In solving such an equation we use the law log an = n • log a.
Example 1. Find the value of x if 1.05* = 2.
Solution: 1.05* = 2
log (1.05*) = log 2
x log 1.05 = log 2
log_2_
log 1.05
0.3010 log 0.3010 = 1.4786
0.0212 log 0.0212 = 2.3263
x = 14.2 log x = 1.1523
Example 2. Find the value of x if 3* = 0.25.
Solution: 3* = 0.25
log (3*) = log 0.25
x log 3 = log 0.25
log 0.25
log 3
1.3979
X — 0.4771
- 0.6021 log 0.6021 = 1.7797
0.4771 log 0.4771 = 1.6786
x = — 1.262 log \ x\ = 0.1011
Note. The logarithm of 0.25 is a negative number. For most purposes it is convenient
to write it in the form 1.3979. This symbol means 0.3979 — 1 or — 0.6021, and the latter
form of the number is used in the final step of the division.

Exercises l#1
Find the value of x in each of the following equations:
1. 3* = 12 6. 2*+3 = 50
2. 4* = 100 7. 52*-i = 1000
3. 1.06* = 3 8. 1.25* = 0.5
4. 1.05*= 10 9. 4* = 0.1
5. 102* = 2500 10. 0.2* = 20
Exponents and Logarithms 245

11. If a sum of %P is invested at 4% compound interest, the value of the

investment after x years is $P(1.04)*. Find the least integer x for
which the value of the investment exceeds $2P.

12. Find the smallest whole number of years required for a sum of money
invested at 5% compound interest to increase in value to 20 times its
original value.

Exercises [B]

1. Before logarithms were invented, tables giving the "quarter squares”

of numbers were used in multiplication. The quarter square of x is
\ x2. The rule for obtaining the product of numbers a and b was:
"Subtract the quarter square of the difference of a and b from the
quarter square of the sum of a and b; the result is the product ab.”
Demonstrate the validity of the rule.

2. Simplify log(x + \/x2 — 1) + log(x — \/x2 — 1).

3. If XY = 102-73, find the value of logioX + logioF.

1
4. If 4* = 10, show by taking logarithms of both sides that x =
logi04
and so find the value of x to 4 significant figures.

5. Evaluate log530. (This means: Find x where 5* = 30.)

6. If x = log&TV, then bx = N. By taking logarithms to base 10 of both

logioA7
sides of the latter statement, show that logbN =
logiofr
7. Find x if 10* = 0.25.

8. To evaluate log23 a student argued that log22 = 1 and log24 = 2, so

that log23 =1.5 by interpolation. Why is this not valid? Find the
required value to 4 significant figures.

9. Find the value of x for which (0.55)x = 2.718.

10. In combining log 1 + log 2 + log 3, a student argued that
log 1 + log 2 + log 3 = log(l + 2 + 3) = log 6.

Is his procedure correct? Is the result correct? If it is required that

log(a + b + c) = log a + log b + log c, express c in terms of a and b.

11. If log x = n\\og{n + 1) — log «], express x in terms of n.

12. Using the approximations e= 2.718, tv — 3.142, evaluate (a) e3;
(b) e3-2; (c) e\
13. Express X in terms of A, e, and t, if logeX — loge2l = 2 /.
246 Chapter 10

14. Using the compound interest formula A = P(1 + r)n, find

(a) the sum to which $1000 amounts when invested at 3j% for 100
years (log 1.035 = 0.014940);
(b) the number of years required to make the amount 10 times the
principal, when invested at 4% (log 1.04 = 0.01703);
(c) the rate of interest, to the nearest 0.5%, at which the amount
after 100 years is 100 times the principal.
15. The product form 1 • 2 • 3 • 4 is called "factorial 4” and symbolized
by 4!, so that 10!, read as "factorial 10," is an abbreviation for
1 •2-3*4*5*6*7-8*9* 10. Find the sum to 4 significant figures
of the first 7 terms of the following expression for e, and give to 1
significant figure the value of the eighth term.
_i I 1 | 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1
'-1+l! + 2! + 3! + 4! + 5! + 6! +
16. Use log 1.01 = 0.0043214 to obtain the value of (1 + Too)100 1° four
significant figures. Express as a percentage, to two significant figures,
the difference between this value and the four-figure approximation
2.718 for e.
17. Use log 1.001 = 0.0004341 to obtain the value of (1 + i do o)1000 to
four significant figures. Express as a percentage, to one significant
figure, the difference between this value and the four-figure approxi¬
mation 2.718 for e.
18. Show that logbM — logbN = log6

19. (a) Show that log&a • loga5 = 1.

(b) Use tables to find logioe (e= 2.718), and hence the value of loge10.
20. (a) Show that loga7V = logbN • loga6.
(b) Find logioc from your tables (e= 2.718), and so express logioiV
in terms of logeiV.
/^3 ^4
(c) Assuming loge(l + x) = x —— + —-— + * • • for values of x
2 3 4
less than or equal to 1, obtain the value of loge1.2 to 4 decimal
places, and deduce the value of logiol.2 to 4 decimal places.

Chapter Review
Simplify:
1. (2 x2)3 5. (§)~2 9. V2»
2. „») 6. {\x2)~^ 10. (3
_ 3 3
3. } a3 -s- J a2 7. n4 -f- n4 11. (- 8)"*
4. V(2 «2)(3 n)2 8. (n*)% 12. 1015-f- 100-5
Exponents and Logarithms 247

13. (101-2)(102-8) 20. [4 a4 -s- (J a)2] 2 25. 4* h- (4° + 4-*)

14. (102-65 -T- 10215)4 21. (2-2 ■+■ 2~3)2 26. (2.25)-1-5
15. n° -4- 2 n~3 22. (2-2 -2“3)2 27. 3"+2 h- 3”
16. 2 x-3 -h (2 x)-3 _ 2° • 2^ 28. 51+” • 51-"
23.+f
17. (3 x)*- (3x)“* 2 2
18. 3x2-3 x~^
24 1
19. J x3 • f x* -f- J x* 3~2 30. (4 n2)3 ~r~ (4 n2)3

27.25 X 315.4
31. Evaluate:
5428
(0.6325)3
32. Evaluate:
0.05863 ’
33. Evaluate: a/0.04658.
34. If log y = 3 log a — log b, express y in terms of a and b.
35. Give the value of (a) log2 8; (b) log2(■§■).
36. Find the value of log6 4+2 logo 3.
37. Find the value of x if 5* = 40.
38. Find the value of x if (-§-)x =12.

Chapter Test
Simplify:

i. it)-2 5. (3-2 — 3-3)2

9.
2° + 2_1
2- (^5 #4) 2 6. 2a • 42a a )-1

3. (a3)3 7. wa • (m2)2a 10. 5^-! 5^-3

4. (-27)“* %.2 a3 - 2
1 2 1 2
11. If x = J, evaluate (a) 2 x~2; (b) (x3 • x~3)3-, (c) (x^ — x3)3.
12. If logiow = 0.6, write the value of (a) logio(10 n)\ (b) logioVV
13. Evaluate a/O.2854.
14. If V = i 7rR2h, find V when R = 5.625, h = 12.25, tt = 3.142.
15. If log x = J log a — log 5, express x in terms of a and b.
16. Give the value of (a) logs4; (b) logs(i).
17. Find the value of 3 logio2 + logiol2j without using tables.
18. Find the value of x if log x = \ log 9 — log 2.
19. Find the value of x if 6X = 50.
20. Find the value of x if 2.5X = 0.25.
 •

4m

. ♦» B
. 4* 9*

* * * V

Modern mathematical techniques have made a considerable contribution in the

field of geological exploration. In the problem of operating an oil field in the
most effective manner, for instance, new methods of solving differential equations
involving many variables are being used.
During the International Geophysical Year an extensive study of the Antarctic
ice cap was undertaken. The photograph shows an augur with an ice core taken by
hand-drilling from a depth of about 150 feet. A recent development in this field
is a thermal drill which is able to probe more than two miles into the ice cap by
actually melting a way through the ice.
 Measurement in Right Triangles

Trigonometric Functions

In many of the functions we shall study in the remainder of this book we

shall have an algebraic rule which enables us to find the second member of
an ordered pair when the first member is given. In this chapter, however,
we make use of some important functions for which there is no simple alge¬
braic rule relating the two members of an ordered pair. In these functions
the ordered pairs are provided in tables, much like the table of logarithms,
and when we are given one member of an ordered pair we look in the appro¬
priate table for the other member. The functions introduced in this chapter
are studied in the branch of mathematics known as trigonometry and they
are called trigonometric functions. They originate in the following manner.
Consider a circle of radius 1 unit with its center at the origin O of a co¬
ordinate system. A is the point at which the
circle intersects the x-axis, and P is any point
on the circle. Let 6 (read "theta”) represent
the number of degrees in the angle AOP meas¬
ured counterclockwise from OA. Then any
given value of 6 determines a particular posi¬
tion for P on the circle.
Let the coordinates of P be (x,y). Corre¬
sponding to each value of 6 in a given set there
is just one value of y, and the set of ordered
pairs (6, y) is a function. The number y is called the sine of 6° and the set
of ordered pairs is called the sine function. The rule relating a value of y
to the corresponding value of 6 is written y = sin 6°.
In the same way, corresponding to each value of 6 in a given set there is
just one value of x, and the set of ordered pairs (d, x) is a function. The
number x is called the cosine of 6° and the set of ordered pairs is called the
cosine function. The rule relating a value of x to the corresponding value
of 6 is written
x = cos 0°.
249
250 Chapter 11

If x 0, the ratio ^ is also a number which is related to the value of 6.

x
This number, -> is called the tangent of 6° and the set of ordered pairs,
x
(0, — L is called the tangent function. If we represent the number - by t,
\ x) x
then we write t = tan 6°, and we have

tan 6 = ^ = sin-^-Q > provided cos 6° Z 0.

x cos 6
For the purposes of this chapter we shall restrict the domain of the trigo¬
nometric functions to the set 0 < 0 < 90. In this case the point P is in the
first quadrant and the values of x and y are positive.

Ratios in Right Triangles

Consider a right triangle ABC with ZC = 90°, and let a coordinate system
be constructed with origin at A and x-axis
containing AC. Let the circle with unit radius
and center at the origin meet AB, or AB
extended, at P. Construct PN perpendicular
to the x-axis.
The triangles ABC and APN are clearly
similar, and pairs of corresponding sides of
the triangles have equal ratios. Thus, if 6 is
the number of degrees in Z BAC, we have:
BC _ y
= 2 = sin 0C
AB 1
AC, A o
~ = I = cos 0

= tan 6°
AC x
In this chapter we are concerned only with the relationships between the
sides and angles of a right triangle. Thus, in the right triangle ABC, above,
we make the following definitions:
length of side opposite Z BAC
sin Z BAC =
length of hypotenuse
length of side adjacent to Z BAC
cos Z BAC =
length of hypotenuse
length of side opposite Z BAC
tan Z BAC =
length of side adjacent to Z BAC
Measurement in Right Triangles 251

Using these definitions we may write, with reference to any right triangle
that is labeled as indicated: z?

a b
sin A sin B
c c
b a
cos A cos B -
c c
a b
tan A tan B -
b a

Note. It is proved in geometry that for a A ABC, (1) if Z C is a right angle, then
c2 = a2 + b2, (2) if c2 = a2 + b2, then Z C is a right angle.

Exercises [A]

1. What is the relationship between the acute angles, Z A and Z B, of a

right triangle? What is the relationship between the tangents of these
angles? Compare sin A with cos B. Compare cos A with sin B.

2. In the triangle ABC, C = 90°, a — 4 in., b = 3 in. Show that c = 5 in.

Find the values of sin A, cos A, tan A, sin B, cos B, tan B.

3. In the triangle XYZ, x = 8 in., y = 15 in., z= 17 in. Show that Z Z

is a right angle, and find the values of sin X, cos X, tan X, sin F,
cos F, tan F.

4. The triangle PQR has Z R = 90°. If r = 25 in. and sin P = f-, find p.
Find q by using q2 = r2 — p2, and then give the values of cos P, tan P,
sin Q.

5. The triangle XYZ has Z Z = 90°. If x = 4 in. and tan X = 2, find y.

Find z by using z2 = x2 + y2, and then give the values of sin X, sin F,
tan F.

6. A right triangle has an acute angle of x°. If the opposite leg is a inches
long, and the adjacent leg is b inches long,
(a) Express the length of the hypotenuse in terms of a and b,
(b) Express sin x° in terms of a and b,
(c) Express cos x° in terms of a and b,
(d) Express tan x° in terms of a and b.

7. (a) Show, from a diagram, that sin 45° and cos 45° have the same value.
(b) Find the value of sin 45° in radical form.
(c) What is the value of tan 45 °?

8. The triangle ABC has AB — AC — 10 in., BC = 12 in. Draw the alti¬

tude from A to BC, and find the values of cos C and tan C.
252 Chapter 11

Use of Tables

The tables of ordered pairs defined by y = sin 6, x = cos 6, t = tan 6, are

headed, respectively, "Natural Sines,” "Natural Cosines,” "Natural Tan¬
gents,” pp. 592-597. They are used in the same way as the tables of loga¬
rithms or the tables of squares. The tangent ratio is used when only the legs
of a right triangle are involved in a problem. The sine ratio or the cosine ratio
is needed when the length of the hypotenuse enters into the problem. In
using the tables, the following points should be kept in mind.
1. Both sin n° and tan n° increase continually in value as n increases from
0 to 90. Hence, an increase in the size of the angle produces a corresponding
increase in the value of sin n° and in the value of tan n°.
2. The value of cos n° decreases continually as n increases from 0 to 90.
Hence, an increase in the size of the angle produces a corresponding decrease
in the value of cos n°.
3. The accuracy of a correctly computed result is limited by the accuracy
of the numbers on which it is based. If tables are used which give values to
four significant figures, no result can be relied on beyond the fourth figure.
When the measured values in a problem are given to two or three significant
figures, the computed value should be rounded off to the same degree of
accuracy. It is well, in such cases, to indicate also the four-figure result, so
that the accuracy of the computation may be checked. Accuracy to the
nearest minute in the measure of an angle is roughly comparable to accuracy
to the fourth decimal place in the values of its trigonometric functions.

Angles of Elevation and Depression

The convenient descriptive phrases "angle of elevation” and "angle of

depression” are illustrated by the diagram. All the lines represented are in
the same vertical plane.
An observer at A, looking up to B,
has "elevated” his line of vision from the
horizontal to the direction AB. The
angle formed by A B and the horizontal
line AC is called the angle of elevation of
B from A.
An observer at B, looking down to A,
has "depressed” his line of vision from
the horizontal to the direction BA. The angle formed by BA and the hori¬
zontal line BD is called the angle of depression of A from B.
Since the horizontal lines AC and DB are parallel, the angle of elevation
of B from A is equal to the angle of depression of A from B.
Measurement in Right Triangles 253

Example 1 . A ABC has ZC = 90°, Z A = 32°, and £=12.0 inches.

Find a to three significant figures.
B
Solution: We have 7 = tan A or a — b tan A.
0

Hence, a = 12.0 • tan 32°.

a
The table of natural tangents gives
tan 32°- 0.6249.
Therefore a = 12.0(0.6249) C
a = 7.4988
The length of the side BC is therefore 7.50 in., to 3 significant figures.

Example 2. A ABC has ZC = 90°, a = 4.50 in., h = 7.50 in. Find Z B.

_ . ... 1 _ b 7.50
Solution: We have tan B = - = 7-77 •
a 4.50
Hence, tan B = 1.6667.
The table of natural tangents gives tan 59° O' — 1.6643,
tan 59° 6' = 1.6709.
The size of Z B is therefore between 59° O' and 59° 6'.
Assuming that the values given for the sides are sufficiently
accurate to determine the angle to the nearest minute, we
find from the tables that Z B = 59° 2'.

Example 3. In the triangle ABC, ZC = 90°, Z A — 32° 15', c = 12.50 in.

Find a and b.
B
Solution: To find a, we use
. .
- = sin A, or a = c sin A.
.
c
a
Thus, a — 12.50 sin 32° 15'.
a= 12.50 (0.5336)
a = 6.670
The length of side BC is 6.670 in.
b
To find b, we use -= cos A, or b = c cos A.
c
Thus, b= 12.50 cos 32° 15'
b= 12.50 (0.8458)
b= 10.57
The length of the side AC is 10.57 in.
Check: The values of a and b should satisfy a2 + b2 = c2. Using the table of
squares, we have:
a2 + 62 = 6.6702+ 10.572 c2 = 12.502
= 44.49+ 111.8 = 156.3
= 156.3
254 Chapter 11

Example 4. In the triangle XYZ, ZZ = 90°, 2 = 22.50 in., y = 17.50 in.

Find the size of ZX. v
Solution: We have
y 17.50
cos X = z =
2 22.50
_
35
That is, cos X 45 —

cos X = 0.7778
From the table of natural cosines we find cos 38° 54' = 0.7782, cos 39° 0' = 0.7771.
The required value of X is therefore between 38° 54' and 39° O', and from the
tables we have
Z X = 38°56'.

Note that cos X is a little less than cos 38° 54', and that since the value of the
cosine decreases as the angle increases, X is a little larger than 38° 54'.

Exercises [A 1]

1. Use the tables to find tan 40° 30', tan 26° 36', tan 63° 24', sin 54° 10',
cos 54° 10'.
2. Find the size of Z X in each of the following cases:
(a) tan X = 0.4040, (b) sin X = f, (c) cos X = 0.7784,
(d) tan X = 0.6950, (e) tan X = 1.7045.
3. Find tan 12° 20', tan 38° 45', tan 52° 40'.
4. Find to the nearest minute the angles which have the following tan¬
gents: 0.3729, 0.5000, 1.4000, 0.6240, 2.4200.
5. Use tables to find the size of Z X if (a) cos X = §, (b) sin X = 0.3085,
(c) cos X = 0.9468.
6. Use tables to find sin 28° 5', cos 28° 5', tan 71° 45'.
7. In the triangle ABC, C = 90°, B = 42° 30', a = 6.00 in. Find b.
(In such statements, a means the length of the side opposite Z A,
b means the length of the side opposite Z B, etc.)
8. In the triangle XYZ, Z = 90°, Y = 58° 15', x = 7.50 in. Find y.

9. In the triangle PQR, R = 90°, Q=63° 15', r = 12.50 ft. Find the
remaining parts of the triangle.
10. Find, to the nearest inch, the height of a pole which has a shadow
12 ft. 6 in. long on horizontal ground when the angle of elevation of
the sun is 57° 48'.

11. Find the length of the longer leg of a right triangle which has hypot¬
enuse 12.5 in. long and an acute angle of 32° 20'.
Measurement in Right Triangles 255

12. A ladder 40 ft. long leans against a wall with its lower end 8.5 ft.
from the wall. Find the inclination of the ladder to the horizontal.

13. A triangle has sides 20.0 in., 20.0 in., 16.9 in. long. Find the size of
the smallest angle.

14. In the triangle PQR, P = 90°, q = 12.5 in., r = 17.5 in. Find Z Q.
15. Find the angle of elevation of the sun when a vertical pole 6 ft. 8 in.
high has a shadow 4 ft. 6 in. long on horizontal ground.

16. An isosceles triangle has equal legs l units long, and a base angle X.
Express the altitude of the triangle and the base of the triangle in
terms of l and Z X.

17. One leg of a right triangle is § the length of the hypotenuse. Find the
larger acute angle of the triangle.

18. Find the angles of a triangle which has sides in the ratio 3 : 3 : 4.

Exercises [A-2]

1. Use tables to find sin 53° 42', tan 15° 12', cos 35° 50', tan 54° 10'.
2. Find the size of Z X when (a) tan X = 2.0323, (b) tan X = 0.3000,
(c) cos X = 0.4011.
3. Find tan 63° 50', tan 46° 16', cos 15° 33', sin 71° 45'.
4. Find to the nearest minute the angles which have the following tan¬
gents: 1.4000, 0.6240, 2.4200.
5. Find the size of Z X if tan X = J tan 60°.
6. In the triangle ABC, C = 90°, B = 29° 20', h = 25.0 ft. Find a.
7. In the triangle ABC, C = 90°, A = 38° 42', c = 10.0 in. Find h.
8. In the triangle XYZ, Z = 90°, x = 6.24 in., z = 12.0 in. Find Z F.
9. The angle of elevation of a small cloud C, measured at a point A on
the ground, is 82° 15'. The cloud is vertically over point B, which is
on the ground 600 ft. from A. Find, to two significant figures, the
height of the cloud.
10. Find the smaller acute angle of a right triangle which has hypotenuse
12.0 in. and one leg 7.80 in.
11. An isosceles triangle has legs 15.0 in. long, and the angle formed by
the legs is 45°. Find the length of the base.
12. A lookout point on a lighthouse is 250 ft. above the level of the water.
From this point the angle of depression of a floating object is 14° 20'.
Find the horizontal distance of the object from the lighthouse.
256 Chapter 11

13. The legs of a right triangle are 6.00 in. and 9.00 in. long. Find the
smallest angle of the triangle.
14. The triangle XYZ has a right angle at Z. Express (a) y in terms of z
and Z X, (b) x in terms of z and Z X, (c) y in terms of x and Z X.
15. A roof is to rise 10 ft. 0 in. in a horizontal distance of 15 ft. 6 in. Find
the inclination of the roof to the horizontal.
16. The triangle ABC has C = 90°, c = 2500 ft., B = 27° 15'. Find a.
17. A right triangle has hypotenuse k units and an acute angle A. Ex¬
press the lengths of the legs in terms of k and Z A.
18. Find Z A if tan A = 2 tan 45°.
19. A staircase is to rise 10 ft. 8 in. in a horizontal distance of 13 ft. 4 in.
Find the inclination of the handrail to the horizontal.
20. The horizontal distance between two towers is 120 ft. From the top
of the taller tower, which is 96.5 ft. high, the angle of depression of
the top of the other tower is 15° 20'. Find the height of the shorter
tower to three significant figures.

Bearings
A bearing is a statement of the direction in which one point lies from
another. It is expressed by the angle formed in the horizontal plane by the
required direction and some reference line, usually the north-south line.
A common way of giving the bearing of B from A is to state the angle
measured from the north line through A clockwise to the line AB. In
diagram (1) the bearing of B from A is 60°. Diagram (2) shows the bearing
of A from B as 240°.

An alternative procedure is to state the acute angle made by the required

direction line toward the east or the west from the north-south line. Using
this method, the bearing of B from A in figure 1 is N. 60° E., or 60° east
of north. Similarly, the bearing of A from B in figure 2 is S. 60° W., or
60° west of south.
The course sailed by a boat is expressed in the same terms as a bearing.
Measurement in Right Triangles 25 7

Example 1 . The point B is 80 miles from the point A and the bearing of
B from A is 38°. Find the number of miles B is east of the north line
through A.
Solution: In the diagram, the required distance is repre- B
sented by BN.
We have
BN .
—= sin 38
AB
BN = 80 sin 38°
BN = 80(0.6157)
BN = 49.3 miles, to the nearest tenth.

Example 2. A boat sails 6 miles on course 90° from A to B, and then

4 miles on course 225° from B to C. Find the bearing of A from C.
Solution: The diagram illustrates the situa¬
tion. Since the bearing of C from B is 225°, the
angle ABC is 45°.
Hence, BD = DC = 2V2 miles.
Thus, AD=(6-2V2) miles.
Let Z DC A = *°.
„ AD 6-2V2 3V2-2
Then tan x = f— = -
DC 2V2 2
tan x° = 1.1210
Z DC A = 48° 16'
The bearing of A from C is 360° — Z DC A.
Therefore, to the nearest degree, the bearing of A from C is 312°.

Exercises [A]
1. B is 6.25 miles from A, and the bearing of B from A is 90°. C is 4.50
miles from B, and the bearing of C from B is 180°. Find (a) the bearing
of A from C, (b) the bearing of C from A, (c) the distance AC.
2. Point A is d miles from B, and the bearing of A from B is n°, where
0 < n < 90. Write expressions representing the number of miles A is
(a) to the north of B, (b) to the east of B. Express the bearing of B
from A in terms of n.
3. An airplane flies 125 miles on course 65°. How many miles is it to
the east of its original position? What is the course for the return
journey?
4. B is 7.50 miles due north of A. The bearing of C from A is 37° 307,
and the bearing of C from B is 127° 30;. Show that Z ACB = 90°, and
find the distance AC.
258 Chapter 11

5. B is 8 miles due north of A. C is 12 miles from B, and the bearing of

C from B is 60°. Find the bearing of C from A.
6. A rocket is discharged vertically upward from point A. Ten seconds
later the angle of elevation of the rocket from a point B is recorded
as 72° 20'. B is at the same level as A, and AB = 600 yd. Find, to
three significant figures, the average speed of the rocket in feet per
second during the 10 seconds.

Exercises [B]
1. If a regular pentagon is inscribed in a circle, what angle is formed by
the radii to two successive vertices of the pentagon? Find the perim¬
eter of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 15.0 in.
2. A regular polygon of 9 sides is inscribed in a circle of radius 10.0 in.
Find the perimeter of the polygon to three significant figures.
3. Use a diagram of an isosceles right_ triangle and of a 30°-60°-90°
triangle to find X if (a) sin X = Ja/3, (b) sin X = Ja/2,
(c) cos X = (d) tan X = V3.
4. A regular octagon is inscribed in a circle of radius 25.0 in. Find the
perimeter of the octagon.
5. A diagonal of a rectangle divides one of the angles into parts which
are in the ratio 3:2. Express the width.of the rectangle as a per¬
centage of its length.
6. The longer base of a trapezoid is 210 ft. long, and the other three sides
are each 120 ft. long. Find the angles of the trapezoid.

Other Trigonometric Functions

For some computations it is convenient to use the reciprocals of the

tangent, sine, and cosine ratios. The reciprocal of tan n° is called the
cotangent of n°, and is written cot n°. The reciprocal of sin n° is called the
cosecant of «°, and is written esc n°. The reciprocal of cos n° is called
the secant of n°, and is written sec n°.

In the right triangle ABC, Z C being 90°, we then have:

f & i a\ length of leg adjacent to X A b

the cotangent of Z A (cot A) = —-—-——2-'-= -
length of leg opposite Z A a

the cosecant of X A (esc A) = - 'engt,h ,°f hypotenuse =£

length of leg opposite Z A a

the secant of Z A (sec A) = --^th- °f hypotenuse-= £

length of leg adjacent to Z A b
Measurement in Right Triangles 259

Corresponding definitions involving Z B are obtained by replacing A by

B, and interchanging a and b.
The values of cot n°, esc n°, sec n° are given in the tables headed "Natural
Cotangents,” "Natural Cosecants,” "Natural Secants.” It should be noted
that the value of the secant increases and the values of the cotangent and
cosecant decrease as the angle increases from 0° toward 90°.

Example. In the triangle ABC, ZA = 68° 40', a = 8.00 in., b = c. Find,

to three significant figures, the length of b.
Solution: Let M be the midpoint of BC. Then MC = 4.00 in., Z AMC = 90°,
Z CAM = 34° 20'.
The required length is the hypotenuse of the right A
triangle AMC, and we have

-^-=csc ZCAM
MC
b = 4.00 esc 34° 20'
b= (4:00) (1.7730)
b = 7.092
Hence, the length of the side b is 7.09 in.

Exercises [A]
1. In the triangle ABC, ZC — 90°, Z A = 26° 45', a = 12.0 in. Find c.
2. In the triangle XYZ, ZZ — 90°, z= 16.5 in., x= 10.0 in. Find X.
3. A ladder 38 ft. long leans against a wall. Find the angle the ladder
makes with the horizontal if its foot is 9.0 ft. from the wall.
4. Find the angle of elevation of the sun when a pole 10 ft. high has a
shadow 4 ft. 9 in. long on horizontal ground.
5. A pole is supported by a wire from the ground to a point on the pole
20 ft. above the ground. If the wire is inclined at 52° 45' to the hori¬
zontal, find its length.
6. A rectangle is 700 ft. long. Find the length of one of its diagonals if
they intersect at an angle of 65° 30'.
600 250
7. Evaluate 8. Evaluate
sin 39° 20' tan 52° 45'
9. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 14 ft. 6 in., and one of the legs
is 8 ft. 0 in. Find the larger acute angle of the triangle.
10. Find the angles of a triangle having sides 25.6 in., 25.6 in., 20.0 in.
11. The base of an isosceles triangle is 32.0 in. long, and the angle formed
by the equal sides is 50° 30'. Find the length of one of the equal sides.
260 Chapter 11

12. AB is a chord 8.00 in. long in a circle of radius 6.75 in. If 0 is the
center of the circle, find the size of Z AOB.
13. A regular pentagon of side 16.0 cm. is inscribed in a circle. Find the
radius of the circle.
14. In the triangle ABC, Z B = 32° 15', ZC = 46° 45', and the altitude
from A to BC is 10.0 in. long. Find the length of BC.
15. In the triangle XYZ, Z X = 38° 20', Z Z = 67° 45', and the altitude
from Y to XZ is 12.0 in. long. Find the length of XZ.
16. A right triangle has an acute angle of x°, and the side opposite this
angle is d in. long. Express each of the other sides of the triangle as
the product of d and a trigonometric function of x°.
17. In the triangle ABC, AB = AC. If the length of BC is n inches, and
the size of ZB is y°, express the perimeter of the triangle in terms
of n and a trigonometric function of y°.

Use of Logarithms

When measurements are given to three or four significant figures, loga¬

rithms may be used to good advantage in the computations of trigonometry.
To evaluate 36.48 tan 62° 30', for instance, we add log 36.48 to log tan 62° 30'
and obtain the product from the table of logarithms. We obtain the value
of log tan 62° 30' directly from the table of "Logarithmic Tangents,”
which gives the logarithm of the tangent of any acute angle. The tables of
"Logarithmic Sines” and "Logarithmic Cosines” provide the values of
quantities such as log sin 52° 30' and log cos 72° 42'.
The characteristics of these logarithms are included in the tables, but
they are given only in the left-hand column on each page and care must be
taken not to overlook them. Note that when Z A is acute, sin A and cos A
have values less than 1; it follows that log sin A and log cos A have negative
characteristics in all cases. On the other hand, log tan A has a negative
characteristic only when Z A is less than 45°.

Example 1. In the triangle ABC, C = 90°, B = 37° 16', a = 69.47 in.

Find b.
A
Solution: We have - = tan B or b = a tan B;
a
that is, b = 69.47 tan 37° 16'
b
log 69.47 = L8418
log tan 37° 16'= 1,8813
log 6= 1.7231 C
B
Hence, the side b = 52.86 in. 69.47r
Measurement in Right Triangles 261

Example 2. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 37.45 in. long, and one
of the legs is 28.34 in. long. Find the size of the angle formed by the hypot¬
enuse and the given leg.
Solution: Let the required angle be denoted by X.
Then, as illustrated by the diagram, we have
v 28.34
COS X = -^TTZ
37.4s
log 28.34 = 1.4524
log 37.45 = 1.5735
log cos X = 1.8789
The value of X is obtained directly from the table of logarithmic cosines, and
we have
zc\!
Z X = 40 50 O

Exercises [A]
1. A ABC has ZC= 90°, ZB = 27° 55', c = 32.68 in. Find a and b.
2. A XYZ has Z Z = 90°, Z F = 41° 27', x = 46.77 ft. Find y and z.
3. Find Z B of A ABC in which Z C = 90°, c = 34.62 in., a = 21.06 in.
4. Find the angles of a triangle whose sides are in the ratio 5:5:4.
5. Find the angles of the triangle whose sides are 37.49, 37.49, and
22.84 in.
6. Solve the A PQR if Z R = 90°, Z Q = 21° 39', r = 40.98 in.
7. Find the length of the horizontal shadow which is cast by a vertical
post 16 ft. 8 in. high when the angle of elevation of the sun is 50° 22'.
8. A yacht sails due east for 16.4 miles and then due north for 28.4 miles.
Find the bearing of the starting point.
9. Find Z A if sin A sin 68° 40'.
15.25 sin 58° 27'
10. Find Z X if sin X
19.75
11. At a point 270 ft. horizontally from the foot of a flagstaff the angle of
elevation of the top is 34° 14'. Find the angle of elevation of the top
from a point 162 ft. horizontally from the foot of the flagstaff.
12. A ABC has ZC = 90°, Z5 = 56° 20'. If M is the midpoint of AC,
find Z MBC.
13. Find the angles of a trapezoid which has sides 22.6, 12.0, 12.0, and
12.0 inches.
14. Find the area of a right triangle having an angle of 54° 44' and the
shorter leg 10.0 in.
262 Chapter 11

15. From a point 325 ft. above sea level the angles of depression of two
buoys are 28° 39' and 61°44/. The buoys and the observer form a
triangle in a vertical plane. Find the distance between the buoys.
16. A ship starts at 0 and sails 12 miles on a course of 338°. It then sails
20 miles on a course of 43°. Find its distance (a) north of 0, (b) east
of 0. Find the bearing of 0 from the final position of the ship.
17. (a) A ABC has AC acute. Show that the altitude from B to AC
has length a sin C and that the area of the triangle is \ ab sin C.
(b) Find the area of A ABC if a = 25.6 in., b = 38.4 in., AC = 71° 21'.
18. Find the area of A ABC if a = b = 15.75 in. and AC = 62° 20'.
19. (a) A parallelogram has sides a inches, b inches, and an acute angle C.
Show that the area of the parallelogram is ab sin C square inches,
(b) Find the area of a parallelogram with sides 25.18 in. and 29.62 in.,
and angle 36° 56'.
20. (a) A rhombus has sides a inches and acute angle X. Show that the
area of the rhombus is a2 sin X square inches.
(b) Find the area of a rhombus with sides 15.63 in. and angle 58° 20'.

Chapter Review

1. A PQR has A R = 90°, AQ = 36° 19', r = 10.00 ft. Find p and q.

2. Find the larger acute angle of a right triangle having legs 12.00 and
16.50 inches long.
3. Find the angles of a triangle whose sides are in the ratio 10 : 10 : 7.
4. Find Z A if cos A = \ cos 20°.
5. Find the height of a monument which casts a shadow 152.5 ft. long
on horizontal ground when the elevation of the sun is 68° 28'.
6. A ABC has A A = 54° 21', A B = 62° 15', and the altitude on AB
is 22.50 in. long. Find the length AB.
7. The longer base of an isosceles trapezoid is 18.75 in. long. The equal
sides are each 10.00 in. long and are inclined at an angle of 63° 45' to
the longer base. Find the shorter base of the trapezoid.
8. A ABC has AC = 90°, A B = 36° 20', a = 20.00 in. Find the area
of the triangle.
9. A XYZ has x = 12.00 in., y= 16.00 in., ZZ= 120°. If XN is the
perpendicular from X to YZ extended, find the lengths XN, ZN and
the size of Z Y.
Measurement in Right Triangles 263

10. B is 8.25 miles due north of A. C is 12.00 miles from B, and the bearing
of C from B is 64° 30'. Find the bearing of A from C.

Chapter Test
1. A ABC has ZC = 90°, ZB — 63° 11', b = 12.50 in. Find a and c.
2. Find the angles of a triangle whose sides are in the ratio 3:4:5.
3. A ABC has ZC = 90°, a = 45.00 in., c = 67.50 in. Find the size of
ZB.
284.5 sin 68° 32'
4. Find ZI if sin A =
315.6
5. A tower stands on the edge of a cliff. From a point which is 250 ft.
horizontally from a point at the foot of the cliff directly under the
tower, the angles of elevation of the bottom and top of the tower are
32° 15' and 40° 10'. Find the height of the tower.
6. Find the angle subtended at the center of a circle of radius 10.25 in.
by a chord 15.50 in. long.
7. A rhombus has an angle 56° 44'. Express the length of the shorter
diagonal as a percentage of the length of the longer diagonal.
8. A ABC has ZC = 90°, Z A = 67° 33'. If M is the midpoint of BC,
find the size of Z MAC.
 Elements of Coordinate Geometry

Algebra and Geometry

The Cartesian coordinate system provides us with a numerical approach

to the study of geometry. The coordinate system is based on the corre¬
spondence between the points of a plane and ordered pairs of real numbers.
This correspondence enables us to express geometric ideas in the language
of algebra, and allows the procedures of algebra to be used in solving geo¬
metric problems. Thus sets of points may be studied through the sets of
ordered pairs of numbers which correspond to them. If the algebraic rule
which generates a set of ordered pairs of numbers is known, we can usually
obtain from it information about the geometric pattern formed by the cor¬
responding set of points.
Two of the basic concepts of geometry are:

(a) the distance between two given points,

(b) the directional ideas associated with parallel and perpendicular lines.

We shall see how these concepts can be treated numerically. All dis¬
tances will be considered as absolute values.

Distance between Two Points

Two points with the same y-coordinate lie on a horizontal line, that
is, a line parallel to the x-axis. The
Y
distance between them is the absolute B
A
O V_ _w «
value of the difference of their x- (-2,3))£-
A A Wi-V

coordinates. In the diagram, A has in

IV/ Li 111Lv3

coordinates (—2,3), B has coordi¬

nates (8, 3). Then the distance A B
is | (— 2) — (8) |, or 10 units. o X
The distance between two points
with the same x-coordinate is the absolute value of the difference of their
y-coordinates. For example, the distance between the points (5,-4) and
(5, 3) is |(— 4) — (3)|, or 7 units.
264
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 265

The distance between points such as P, Q in the diagram is found by

the Pythagorean theorem. P is the
point (—2,3), and Q is the point
(6, 7). The right triangle PNQ is
formed as shown, the coordinates of
N being (6, 3).
Then PN = 6 — (— 2) = 8 units
QN =7 — 3 = 4 units
(PQ)2 = 82 + 42
(P())2 == 42 (22 + 1)

(P02 = 42.5
PQ = 4\/5 units

The Midpoint of a Line Segment

Many situations in geometry involve the midpoint of a line segment.

When the coordinates of the end¬
points of a line segment are known,
the coordinates of the midpoint can
be found.
Let P, Q be points with coordi¬
nates (— 2, 3), (6, 7), and let M be
the midpoint of the line segment.
We use (xM, Jm) to indicate the co¬
ordinates of M.
Form the right triangles PAM,
MQB as shown. When M is the
midpoint of PQ, the triangles are congruent, so PA = MB and MA = QB.
But PA = xM — (— 2) = xM + 2, MB = 6 — xM.
The condition PA = MB is satisfied only if

Xm T 2 — 6 Xm
6-2
XM = = 2.
2
7+3
In the same way we find that Jm = = 5.

Hence, the midpoint of PQ has coordinates (2, 5).

Try to state the general relationship between the coordinates of the end¬
points of a line segment and the coordinates of the midpoint of the
segment.
266 Chapter 12

Exercises tA|

In each of the following exercises the coordinates of two points are given.
Let the points be named A, B and let M be the midpoint of AB. (a) Find
the length of AB; (b) find the coordinates of M.
1. (4, 0), (4, 10) 4. (4, 0), (0, 8) 7. (- 3, 1), (3, - 5)
2. (0, - 6), (0, 2) 5. (0, 0), (- 4, 6) 8. (1.5, 1), (0, 1)
3. (2, 0), (8, 8) 6. (- 2, 4), (2, 1) 9. (4, - 2), (- 2, 1)

Formula for Distance between Two Points

The subscript notation is

widely used in coordinate
geometry when results of a
general nature are being estab¬
lished. Let the coordinates of
P be (xi,yi) and the coordi¬
nates of Q be (x2, 3^2). Com¬
plete the right triangle PNQ
as shown in the diagram.
Then QN = \ Xi — x2 |, PN = \ y\ — y2
But (PQ)2 = (QN)2 + (.NP)2
(■PQ)2 = (*i — X2)2 + (yi — y2)2

PQ = V(*i — x2)2+ (2/1 — i/2)2

Formula for the Midpoint

Let P have coordinates (xi, y\)

and Q have coordinates (x2,y2).
Let M be the midpoint of PQ and
let (xM, yv) be the coordinates of
M. Complete the right triangles
QAM, MBP as shown. These
triangles are congruent, so that
AQ=BM, MA = PB.
Since AQ = BM, we have xM — X2 = X\ — xM
Solving for xM: 2 xM = x\ -f- x2
%F ^(Xi + X2).

In the same way, yM = \(yi + y2).

The coordinates of the midpoint are *2 > ~~

Elements of Coordinate Geometry 267

Exercises [A 1]

In exercises 1-4, find (a) the length AB, (b) the coordinates of the mid¬
point of AB.

1. A has coordinates (22, — 6), B has coordinates (6, 6).

2. A has coordinates (6, — 9), B has coordinates (3,-3).

3. A has coordinates (1-J, 3j), B has coordinates (— 1, — 2j).
4. A has coordinates (-4,-3), B has coordinates (4, 3).
5. Points A, B,C, D have coordinates (1,5), (6, 8), (9, 5), (4, 2) respec¬
tively. Show that AB = DC and that AD = BC. What type of
quadrilateral is A BCD}

6. Show that points with coordinates (1, 2), (6, 4), (8, 2), (3, 0) are the
vertices of a parallelogram.

7. (a) Draw a figure to illustrate the statement: "If two line segments
have the same midpoint, the segments bisect one another.”
(b) Show that the line segment with endpoints (1, 5) and (8, 6) and
the line segment with endpoints (3, — 1), (6, 12) bisect one another.

8. Points A, B, C, D have coordinates (— 2, — 2), (0, 4), (8, 6), (6, 0)

respectively. Show that the midpoint of AC coincides with the mid¬
point of BD. What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?

9. (a) Show that P(3, 0) is equidistant from .4(8, 0) and 22(0, 4).
(b) Find k so that Q( 1, k) is equidistant from .4(8, 0) and B(0, 4).

10. Find k so that the distance from A(— 1, 2) to B(2, k) shall be 5 units.
11. P is a point on the x-axis which is 10 units from (3, 6). Find the co¬
ordinates of P.

12. A, B, C have coordinates (0, 8), (4, 0), (12, 4) respectively. Show by
finding lengths that Z ABC is a right angle. What is the size of
ABAC?

Exercises [A-2]

In exercises 1-4, find (a) the length AB, (b) the coordinates of the mid¬
point of AB.

1. A has coordinates (3, 6), B has coordinates (-3,-2).

2. A has coordinates (2,-3), B has coordinates (— 3, 7).

3. A has coordinates (1, — 2j), B has coordinates (— 1^, 3j).
4. A has coordinates (-4,-2), B has coordinates (4, 2).
268 Chapter 12

5. Points A, B, C, D have coordinates (— 2, — 5), (6, 1), (6, 11), (— 2, 5)

respectively.
(a) Show that all sides of ABCD are equal in length.
(b) What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?

6. Points A, B, C, D have coordinates (1, 1), (5,3), (7,5), (3,3) re¬

spectively.
(a) Show that the midpoint of AC coincides with the midpoint of BD.
(b) What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?

7. (a) Show that (5, 9) is equidistant from (— 1,2) and (3, 0).
(b) Find k if (3, k) is equidistant from (— 1,2) and (3, 0).

8. P, Q, R have coordinates (0, 2), (4, 10), (6, 14) respectively.

(a) Show that Q is on the segment PR by verifying that PQ + QR = PR.
(b) Find the ratio of PQ to PR.

9. P, Q, R have coordinates (— 2, 7), (1, — 2), (3, — 8) respectively.

(a) Show that Q is on the segment PR by verifying that PQ + QR = PR.
(b) Find the ratio of PQ to PR.

10. Find k so that the distance from (1,-2) to (k, 4) shall be 10 units.

11. P is a point on the y-axis which is units from (2j, — 1). Find the
coordinates of P.

12. ^4, B, C have coordinates (4,1), (10,-5), (2,-3) respectively.

L, M are midpoints of AB, AC. Show that LM = J BC.

Slope

Conditions for two lines to be parallel or for two lines to be perpendicular

form an important part of the study
of geometry. In approaching such
"directional” relationships from an
algebraic standpoint we need a way
of associating the direction of a line
with a number. We make use of a
number which measures what might
be called the "steepness” of the line
relative to the x-axis.
Consider the lines h, h in the dia¬
gram. We say that h is "steeper”
than /1 and we give numerical pre¬
ciseness to the concept by using the
term "slope" in the following way.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 269

Let points A, B, C have coordinates (2, 0), (6, 4), (6, 7).
BN 4-0
The slope of l\ =
AN 6-2
CN 7-0
The slope of h —
AN 6-2
The steeper line (4) has the larger number for its slope.
The length of AN is the difference of the ^-coordinates of A and B. The
length of BN is the difference of the ^-coordinates of A and B. The symbol
Ax (read "delta x”) is often used to represent the difference of the ^-coordi¬
nates of two points, and the symbol Ay (delta y) to represent the differ¬
ence of their y-coordinates. Thus, in the diagram (p. 268),
for the points A and B, Ax = 4, Ay = 4,
for the points A and C, Ax = 4, Ay =7.
Ay
With this notation, the slope of a line is represented by
Ax

Formula for Slope

Let P and Q be points on a line l which is not vertical and whose slope is
represented by m. Let the coordinates of P be (xi, yi) and the coordinates
of Q be fa, y2).
yi — V2 _ Ay
Then, m=
Xi — X2 Ax
The difference of the y-values must be taken in the same order as the dif¬
y i — y2
ference of the x-values. But since ——— has the same value as
X2 — X\ X\ — X2

it does not matter which pair of coordinates is used first in the differences.

For a horizontal line, the value yi — j2 is 0 and the slope is 0. For a

vertical line the value of x\ — X2 is 0 and no value can be given for the slope.
270 Chapter 12

Negative Slope

When a line slopes upward to the right (see line /, p. 269), Ay and Ax have
. . Ay
the same sign and so the ratio is positive. Thus we associate a positive

slope with a line having an upward-to-the-right direction.

When a line slopes downward to the right, Ay and Ax have opposite
Ay
signs and the ratio
Ax
is negative. Thus, we
associate a negative slope
with a line having a
downward-to-the-right di¬
rection. In the figure at
the right, P has coordi¬
nates Q has
(—1,3),
coordinates (5, 1). If m
represents the slope of
the line PQ, we have
yi — J2 — (3) - (1) 1
m = --—
xi — x2 (— 1) — (5) —6 3
Inclination

It is sometimes convenient to refer to

the direction of a line by the angle whith
the line makes with the x-axis. In the
diagram, the steeper line (/1) makes the
greater angle (6i, read "theta-sub-one”)
with the positive end of the x-axis. The
angle, measured counterclockwise from
the positive end of the x-axis to a given
line is called the inclination of that line.
Thus 61 is the inclination of li, d2 is the
inclination of l2.
The inclination of a line with positive
slope is an acute angle. The inclination
of a line (I3) with negative slope is an
obtuse angle ($3). In most cases the
inclination of a line is not as readily ob¬
tained as its slope. The inclination is,
therefore, useful only in a few special
cases.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 271

Example 1. Find the inclination of the line containing the points A(0, 6),
B(6, 0).
Solution: In A AOB
AO = 6 units,
OB = 6 units,
Z AOB = 90°.
Therefore, A AOB is isosceles and
Z OAB = Z OB A =45°.
Hence the inclination of the line AB is
135°.

Example 2. Find the slope of the line

Solution: Let (xi, yi) be (3, 2) and
(X2, y2) be (- 1, 4).

Then

X2 — X\

4-2
“- 1-3
2
~—4
m——\
The diagram enables us to obtain the
slope by inspection, the negative value
being clearly indicated by the "down¬
ward to the right” direction.

L«-IJ
Exercises
Find the slope of the line joining the two points in each of exercises 1-10.
1. (3, 2), (8, 5) 6. (i i), (21 - 1)
7. (2.1,-3.0), (- 1.5, 1.8)
2. (-3,-2), (-1,4)
3. (0,0), (-3, 6) 8.(3,4i),(-4i,3)
9. (|,i), (3, 2)
4. (0,4), (6, 0) . A

5. (-2,-2), (3,-7) 10'(a’ i)’(b,a)

11. State (a) the direction, (b) the slope, of the line joining (3, 8), (—1,8).
12. State (a) the direction, (b) the inclination, of the line joining (2, — 4),
(2,5).
13. State the slope of (a) a horizontal line, (b) a line having an inclination
of 45°.
272 Chapter 12

14. The definition of slope does not apply to vertical lines. Give the reason.

15. Show that the slope of the line joining the points
independent of the value of a.
16. ^4, B, C have coordinates (—2,10), (2,2), (4,-2) respectively.
Show that the slope of AB is equal to the slope of AC. What may
be deduced concerning the points A, B, C? Verify by showing that
AC= AB + BC.
17. A, B,C have coordinates (— 1,8), (3, 4), (5, 2) respectively. Use the
slopes of AB and BC to show that the points are collinear (i.e., on a
straight line). Verify by showing that AC = AB + BC.
18. A, B, C, D have coordinates (0, — 2), (10, 3), (21,5), (11, 0) respec¬
tively. (a) Show that ABCD is a rhombus, (b) Find the slope (mi)
of AC and the slope (m2) of BD, and verify that W1W2 = — 1.
19. A and B are points on a line that has slope 3. The abscissa of B
exceeds the abscissa of A by 2.5. State the
relationship of the ordinate of B to the ordi¬
nate of A.
20. A is the point (— 2, 0). A line through A
with slope 2 meets the y-axis at B. A line
through A with slope — \ meets the y-axis at
C. Show that A B is perpendicular to AC,
(a) by showing that A BAO is similar to
A AOC and using angle relationships,
(b) by using lengths to show that
(BC)2 = (AB)2 + (AC)2.

Exercises [A 2]
Find the slope of the line joining the two points in each of exercises 1-10:
1. (0, 5), (-3,8) 6- (- h 1), (i, - I)
2. (4, - 4), (- 2, 0) 7. (1.2,- 2.4), (- 2.7, 2.8)
3. (-4, 3), (-2,-3) 8. (a, b), (b, a)
4. (-3,-3), (1,-3) 9. (a2, kb), (b2, ka)
5. (-2,-1), (0,0) 10. (3f,-f),(2i 1J)

11. Find the inclination of the line joining (4, — 1), (7, 2).
12. Find the inclination of the line joining (— 2, 4), (4, — 2).

13. Find the slope of the line joining the points

Elements of Coordinate Geometry 273

14. Find the slope of the line joining the points

15. O, P, Q have coordinates (0, 0), (3, 2), (— 2, 3) respectively.

(a) Use the lengths of OP, OQ, PQ to show that Z POQ is a right angle.
(b) Find the slope (mi) of OP and the slope (m2) of OQ and verify
that W1W2 = — 1.
16. A, B, C have coordinates (—3, 1), (4, 2), (—2,— 1) respectively.
(a) Use the lengths AB, BC, CA to show that AC is perpendicular
to BC.
(b) Verify that the product of the slopes of AC and BC is — 1.
17. A, B, C, D have coordinates (-3,-1), (1,4), (10,1), (6,-4)
respectively. Show that each pair of opposite sides of A BCD have
equal slopes and equal lengths.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

In the Cartesian coordinate system it is clear that (a) two horizontal

lines are parallel, (b) two vertical lines are parallel, (c) a vertical and a
horizontal line are perpendicular. Horizontal lines have slope zero, but the
slope definition does not provide a number for the slope of a vertical line.
Vertical and horizontal lines are therefore excluded from the following
discussion of parallel and perpendicular lines. The number which we have
defined as the slope of a line enables us to express algebraic (i.e., numerical)
conditions for the parallelism or the perpendicularity of two lines in all
other cases.

^ Theorem. If two lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal.

^ Converse. If two lines have equal slopes, then the lines are parallel.

The theorem and its converse may

be established for the lines h, I2 in the
diagram by considering the triangles
ABC and DFE.
The student should satisfy himself
that either the given condition of the
theorem or the given condition of the
converse is sufficient to establish the
similarity of the two triangles. The
required result may in each case be
deduced from the fact that the tri¬
angles are similar.
274 Chapter 12

Theorem: If lines having slopes mi and m2 are perpendicular, then m\m2 = — 1.

Converse: If two lines have slopes m 1 and m2, and mim2 = — 1, then the lines
are perpendicular.

Given: Lines h, I2 with slopes Wi, m2, h is perpendicular to I2.

To prove: W1W2 = — 1.

-Proof-

We shall assume that if the lines are perpendicular, one slope (mi) is
positive and the other (m2) is negative.
Let h and I2 intersect at A. Construct
the horizontal segment AC so that C is
1 unit to the right of A. Construct the
vertical line through C to meet l\ at Bi
and I2 at B2.
Let CB1 = a units and B2C — b units.
Then by the definition of slope we have:
mi = a, m2 — — b.
Also, ZBi = ZCAB2.
(Each is the complement of ZB\AC.)
Hence, A B\AC is similar to A AB2C.
a_ 1
AC B2C °r 1“ ft'
This gives a • b = 1.
But m\ = a and m2 — — b, so that m\ • m2 = — 1.

Conversely,
Given: Lines h, I2 with slopes Wj, m2 such that m\m2 = — 1.
To prove: l\ is perpendicular to I2.

-Proof-

Let l\ (slope mi) meet I2 at d.

Construct through A a line /, with slope m, perpendicular to h.
Then by the above theorem m • mi = — 1.
But it is given that W1W2 = — 1, and it follows that m = m2.
Now there cannot be two different lines through A having the same slope,
hence I2 coincides with l.
Since l was constructed perpendicular to h it follows that h is perpendicular
to I2.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 275

Example 1 . Show that the point P(6, 10) is on the perpendicular bisector
of the line segment joining A(0, 3) to B(4, 1).

Solution: The midpoint M of the line segment

AB is (2, 2).
P is on the perpendicular bisector of A B if MP
is perpendicular to AB.

The slope of A B = ^^ •

The slope of MP = ^ = 2.
6—2
The product of the slopes = — 1, so the lines
are perpendicular.
P is on the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Example 2. Find k if the line through (1, — 1), (5, k) is parallel to the
line through (0, 0), (2, 4).
4-0
Solution: The line through (0, 0), (2, 4) has slope = 2.
2-0
k -j- 1 k 1
The line through (1, — 1), (5, k) has slope
5-1
k-\- \
If the lines are parallel, then —:— = 2,

k=7

Exercises [A 1]

1. A line / has slope 2. What is the slope of a line (a) parallel to l, (b) per¬
pendicular to /?
2. A line l has slope §. What is the slope of a line (a) parallel to l,
(b) perpendicular to l?
3. P,Q have coordinates (3, 2), (5, 8). Find the slope of a line (a) parallel
to PQ, (b) perpendicular to PQ.
4. Show that the line through (3, — 2) and (8, 3) is perpendicular to the
line through (— 2, 8) and (3, 3).
5. A, B, C, D have coordinates (-3,-2), (5,0), (6,6), (—2,4) re¬
spectively. Show by using slopes that ABCD is a parallelogram.
Verify that the midpoint of AC coincides with the midpoint of BD.
6. A, B, C have coordinates (2, 3), (6, 11), (— 6, 7) respectively. Show
by using slopes that Z A is a right angle. Verify that if M is the
midpoint of BC, AM = \ BC.
276 Chapter 12

7. A, B,C have coordinates (4, 2), (0, 4), (7, 13) respectively. Find the
coordinates of the midpoint M of AB and show that MC is perpendic¬
ular to AB.
8. Show that (7, 5) is on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment
joining (—2, 12) and (4, — 6).
9. Show that for unequal values of a and b the line joining (a, a2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(b, b2) is parallel to the line joining (1, — a) and (2, b).
10. Find the value of k for which the line joining (2.1, 3.3) and (k, — 3.2)
is parallel to the line joining (— 1,0) and (1, 5).
11. P, Q have coordinates (0,-3), (—2,2). A, B have coordinates
(2, 5), (4, k). Find the value of k which makes AB (a) parallel to
PQ, (b) perpendicular to PQ.
12. Show that if the line joining (1,3) to {x,y) is parallel to the line
joining (-1,-3) to (5, 3), the value of y must exceed the value of
x by 2.

Exercises [A_2]
1. A line l has slope — 1. What is the slope of a line perpendicular to l?
What are the inclinations of the lines?

2. A line l has slope 7• What is the slope of a line perpendicular to /?

b

3. P, Q have coordinates (— 2, 3), (1, 7). Find the slope of a line (a) par¬
allel to PQ, (b) perpendicular to PQ.
4. Show that the line through f) and (2§, — 1-J) is perpendicular to
the line through (f, 2§) and (— lj, J).
5. A, B, C have coordinates (—5,3), (0,-1), (5,4) respectively,
(a) Find the coordinates of M the midpoint of AB, and N the midpoint
of AC. (b) Show that MN is parallel to BC, and that MN = J BC.
6. A, B, C have coordinates (2,-2), (10,4), (—1,2) respectively.
(a) Show by using slopes that /.A is a right angle, (b) Verify that if
M is the midpoint of BC, AM = MB.
7. (a) Show that the quadrilateral with vertices (-2,-3), (4,-1),
(6, 5), (0, 3) is a rhombus.
(b) Show that the diagonals of the figure are perpendicular.
8. Show that for unequal values of a and b the line joining {a2, a) and
(b2, b) is perpendicular to the line joining (a, b2) and (b, a2).
9. Show that if (a, b) and (c, d) are distinct points, the line joining them
is perpendicular to the line joining (b, c) and (d, a).
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 277

10. P, Q have coordinates (0,0), (6,2). A, B have coordinates (2,3),

(— 2, k). Find the value of k which makes AB (a) parallel to PQ,
(b) perpendicular to PQ.
11. Show that any point which has ordinate and abscissa in the ratio 2 : 1
is on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining (—2, 1)
and (2, — 1).
12. Find the value of k for which the line joining and

perpendicular to the line joining (0, 0) and (b, 1).

Proofs of Geometric Theorems [B]

It is instructive to consider the way in which the coordinate system can

be used in giving proofs of general geometric statements. An advantage of
this system is that the same fundamental processes are employed in every
situation and it is unnecessary to develop a long string of related results.
The following are the procedures most commonly needed:

1. To prove line segments equal, show that the same number represents
the length of each segment.
2. To prove lines parallel, show that the same number represents the
slope of each line.
3. To prove lines perpendicular, show that the product of the numbers
representing their slopes is — 1.
4. To prove that two line segments bisect each other, show that the same
coordinates give the midpoint of each segment.

In proving general results we represent the coordinates of points by

letters, not by numerals. In this and other ways, we must be careful to
avoid special cases. It is possible, however, to simplify the algebraic work
by choosing the most convenient position for the origin and the coordinate
axes. The main stages of a general proof are the following:

Stage 1. Place the origin and coordinate axes so as to simplify the coordi¬
nates of as many points as possible.
Stage 2. Assign coordinates to the points required to establish the figure.
Points which are independent of one another must be given coor¬
dinates which are not related. The general shape of the figure is
used, however, to express the coordinates of some points in terms of
those already assigned.
Stage 3. The geometric relations between the points are then expressed in
algebraic form and the required result obtained by algebraic
procedures such as solving equations and simplifying expressions.
278 Chapter 12

Study the three stages in the following Example.

Example. Prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each

other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Solution:
Stage 1. Let A BCD be a quadrilateral with diagonals bisecting each other at 0.
Choose 0 as the origin of a coordinate system, and choose the line Ci as the
a'-axis.

Stage 2. Assign coordinates (a, 0) to A, (b, c) to B. Note that these m no way

restrict the size or shape of the figure. The given conditions of the theorem are
now used to assign coordinates to C, D.
Since the coordinates of 0, the midpoint of AC, are (0, 0), the coordinates of
C must be (— a, 0). Similarly, the coordinates of D must be (— b, — c).
c—0
Stage 3. The slope of BA =
b—a
0 — (-c) c
The slope of CD = -•

— a — (— b) b—a
Thus, the slopes of BA and CD are equal, showing that BA || CD.
The slopes of BC and A D are also equal, showing that BC 11 AD.
The quadrilateral A BCD is, therefore, a parallelogram.

Exercises [B]
1. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Procedure: Let A BCD be any parallelogram.
Y
Select A as the origin, so that the coordinates
D{b,c)

r
of A are (0, 0). c
Let the rr-axis contain A B, and let the co¬
ordinates of B be (a, 0).
Let the coordinates of D be (b, c). A 1.
(a) Determine coordinates of C so that O (0,0) (a,0) X
DC || AB and BC || AD.
(b) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of AC.
(c) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of BD.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 279

2. Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle are equal. [Choose origin and
axes so that three of the vertices are (0, 0), {a, 0), (0, b).]
3. Prove that the diagonals of a square are perpendicular.
4. Prove that the medians bisecting the equal sides of an isosceles tri¬
angle are equal.
5. Prove that the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a
triangle is parallel to the third side and equal to half the third side.
6. Prove that the midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is
equidistant from the three vertices.
7. Prove that if the adjacent sides of a parallelogram are equal then the
diagonals are perpendicular.
8. Prove that the line segments joining the midpoints of successive sides
of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
9. If P is any point in the plane of a rectangle A BCD, prove that
{PA)2 + (PC)2 = (PP)2 + {PD)2.
10. Prove that in any triangle ABC, if O is the midpoint of BC, then
{AB)2{AC)2 = 2{AO)22{BO)2. [Select O as origin, and let
A, B, C be (*i, yi), {x2, 0), (— x2, 0).]

Geometric Aspects of the Linear Equation

A straight line drawn in the coordinate plane has certain geometric char¬
acteristics which distinguish it from other lines. The characteristics with
which we shall be concerned are (a) the slope of the line, (b) the points at
which the line meets the £-axis and the y-axis. We shall investigate the
relationship between these geometric characteristics and the coefficients
which appear in the equation of the line.

Slope. We begin by showing that when the equation of the line is written
in the form y = mx -j- k, the slope of
the line is m.
Let P{x\,y\), Q{x2,y2) be points
on the line y = mx + k. Since P is
on the line, y\ = mx\ -f k. Since Q is
on the line, y2 = mx2 + k.

yi — y2 = m{x i — x2)
yi — y2
A-— = m.
Xi — x2
The slope of the line is defined as ^^
X\ — x2
.'. the slope of the line is m.
280 Chapter 12

Intercepts. If a line meets the x-axis at a point with coordinates (a, 0),
the abscissa a of the point is called the ^-intercept
of the line. If a line meets the y-axis at a point
with coordinates (0, b), the ordinate b of the point
is called the y-intercept of the line.
The ^-intercept of the line with equation
3 x — 2 y = 12 is 4. It is obtained by solving for x
after replacing y by 0. The y-intercept of the line
is — 6.
If an equation is written in the form y = mx + k,
then k is the y-intercept of the line.

Example 1. Find the slope and the y-intercept of the line with equation
2 x -f 3 y = 6.
Solution: The equation of the line is 2 x -f- 3 y = 6. Solving for y, we have
3 y=— 2x+6
y = — §x+ 2
the line has slope — § and y-intercept 2.

Example 2. Write the equation of a line having slope 3 and y-intercept — 4.

Solution: The equation is of the form y = mx + k, with m = 3 and k= — 4.
the equation is y = 3 x — 4.

The Point-Slope Equation of a Line

A line in the coordinate plane is uniquely determined if we are given its

slope and the coordinates of a point on the line. We now examine the
method of obtaining the equation of a line from such data.

Example. Find the equation of the line with slope § which passes through
(4, 2).
Solution: Let A be the point (4, 2).
Let P be any other point, and let its coordinates be (x, y). Wherever P is
y — 2
located in the plane, the slope of the line A P is --

Now P is a point of the set forming the re¬

quired line if, and only if, the slope of AP is
The coordinates of P must in that case satisfy
y— 2_ 3
the relationship
x— 4 2
y- 2 3
Hence, the equation of the line is
x-4~2:
or 3 x — 2 y — 8 = 0.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 281

We now establish the following general result:

The equation of the line with slope m which passes through (xi, y{] is
y — yi
-= m, or y — y\ = m{x — xi).
x — xi

Let A be the point (xi, yf) and let P (x, y) be any other point. Then for
any position of P the slope of

APIs 2=21.
X — Xi
P is on the required line if,
and only if, the slope of AP is
m. The coordinates of P must
in that case satisfy the relation¬

ship ——— = m.
X — X\
Hence, the equation of the required line is

——— = m, or y — yi = m(x — Xi).

x — Xi
Example 1. Find the equation of the line through the points (— 1,3),
(3,0).
Solution:
3_o 3
Method 1. The line through (— 1, 3), (3, 0) has slope —; -- = — - •
1 v) T

Since the line passes through (3, 0), the required equation is
a n

--- = — 7 > or 33C+4y — 9 = 0.

x—3 4
Method 2. Let the equation be y = mx + k.
Since (— 1, 3) is on the line, the coordinates satisfy the equation and we have
3= -m + k. (1)
Similarly, since (3, 0) is on the line, we have
0=3 m+k (2)
Equations (1) and (2) give m — — f, k = f.
Thus, the required line has the equation
y = — fx + f, or 3x + 4y — 9 = 0.

Example 2. Find the equation of the line through (— 2, 5) perpendicular

to the line x + 2 y = 0.
Solution: The equation x + 2 y = 0 may be written y = — \x.
The slope of its graph is therefore — J, and the slope of a line perpendicular to
x+ 2 y= 0 is 2.
The equation of the required line is y~5 = 2, or 2 x — y + 9 = 0.
x-\- 2
282 Chapter 12

Exercises tA 1]
In exercises 1-6 find the slope, ^-intercept, ^-intercept for each line. Use
the intercepts to make a rough sketch of each graph. Check the slope.
1.4a; — y = 4 3.y = -Jo; + § 5. 3 x + 2 y = 6

2.3a; + 5y=15 4. 2 x + y -f 8 = 0 6. 3 a; — 2 y — 12 = 0

7. Find the equation of the line with slope 3 and ^-intercept 4.

8 . Find the equation of the line with slope — J and ^-intercept 3.
9. Find the equation of the line through (0, — 3) with slope 2.
10. Find the equation of the line through (0, 0) with slope 1.5.
11. Consider the equations y = 2.5 x and y = 2.5 x + 5.
(a) In which equation does y vary directly as x?
(b) Which equation has a graph passing through the origin?
12. If y = mx, where m is a positive constant, y varies directly as x.
Draw graphs illustrating this relationship when (a) m = \, (b) m= 1,
(c) m = 5.
13. What point lies on the graph of every equation representing a direct-
variation relationship between y and x?
14. The graph of a direct-variation relationship between y and x has
slope 4.2. Find the value of y when x = 15.

Find the equations of the straight lines determined by the given condi¬
tions in exercises 15-25.
15. The line through (1, 3) with slope 1.
16. The line through (5, — 10) with slope — 2.
17. The line through (—2,0) with slope f.
18. The line through (0, 0) with slope — §.
19. The line through (— 6, 2) and (10, 10).
20. The line through (0, — 4) and (6, 0).
21. The line through (3, 6) parallel to the a;-axis.
22. The line through (—2,3) parallel to 2 x — y = 6.
23. The line through (3, — 2) perpendicular to a; T 2 y — 12 = 0.
24. The line through (6, 4) perpendicular to y = 3 x — 5.
25. The line through (-2,-1) parallel to 3 x — 2y + 2 = 0.
26. A, B have coordinates (1, 6), (3,0). (a) Find the coordinates of M
the midpoint of AB. (b) Find the equation of the line through M
perpendicular to AB.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 283

27. (a) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line seg¬
ment joining .4(3, 8) and B(— 1, 2).
(b) If the perpendicular bisector meets the x-axis at P, find the lengths
PA and PB.
28. (a) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line seg¬
ment joining 4(1, — 3) and B(5, 5).
(b) If the perpendicular bisector meets the y-axis at P, find the lengths
PA and PB.

Exercises [A_2]

In exercises 1-6 find the slope, x-intercept, ^-intercept for each line. Use
the intercepts to make a rough sketch of each graph. Check the slope.
1. y=2x —8 3. 5x — 2 y20 = 0 5. y^fx+2
2. x + 3y = 9 4. x + y=6 6. 3x+2y— 4 = 0

7. Find the equation of the line with slope 2 and ^-intercept —3.
8. Find the equation of the line with slope — § and ^-intercept 2.
9. Find the equation of the line with slope — \ and ^-intercept 0.
10. Which of the graphs (a) and (b) represents a
direct-variation relationship between y and x?
Find the equations of the graphs if the slope
of each is 2.
11. The graph of a direct-variation relationship
between y and x passes through the points
(xi, yi), (x2, ^2). Show that
yi _ y2 _ y2 — y 1
Xi %2 X2 — Xi

Find the equations of the straight lines determined by the given condi¬
tions in exercises 12-24.
12. The line through (— 4, 2) with slope 1.
13. The line through (— 3, 2) with slope — §.
14. The line through (0, 6) with slope §.
15. The line through (— — 2) with slope 2.
16. The line through (—2, 1) and (8, 6).
17. The line through (3, 0) and (0, 2).
18. The line through the origin with slope — 2.
19. The line through (0, — 4) and (6, — 4).
284 Chapter 12

20. The line through (5, 0) and (5, 8).

21. The line through (—3,2) parallel to x + 3 y = 0.
22. The line through (— 2, — 1) perpendicular to x + 4 y = 0.
23. The line through (4, 3) perpendicular to2x + 3^ + 6 = 0.
24. The line through (3, — 1.5) perpendicular to 2 x — 5 y — 14 = 0.
25. (a) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line seg¬
ment joining .4(1, 3) and B(— 3, 5).
(b) If the perpendicular bisector meets the y-axis at P, find the lengths
PA and PB.
26. (a) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line seg¬
ment joining A (2, 3) and B(4, — 5).
(b) If the perpendicular bisector meets the £-axis at P, find the lengths
PA and PB.

Point of Intersection of Two Lines

If two lines h and h intersect at A, then A is a member of the set of

points that form fa and also a point of the set forming fa. The coordinates
of A must therefore satisfy both the equation of fa and the equation of fa.
The coordinates of the point of intersection may be obtained by solving the
equations as a system.
In solving systems of two equations we have seen that the equations
may be
1. Consistent, that is, satisfied by a single pair of values of x and y;
2. Inconsistent, that is, having no common solution;
3. Dependent, that is, equivalent, so that any solution of one is also a
solution of the other.
The corresponding geometric relations between fa and fa are
1. fa intersects I2;
2. fa is parallel to I2;
3. fa coincides with fa.

Example 1. Show in two ways that the line 3 # — 6 y = 5 is parallel to

the line y = \ x -f 2.
Solution:
Method 1. Compare the slopes of the lines.
The first equation may be written y = % x — f.
Comparing this with y = \ x + 2, we see that the lines have equal slopes and
different y-intercepts.
The lines are therefore parallel.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 285

Method 2. Solve the equations as a system.

In the first equation replace y by -J x + 2, and we have
3 x — 6(-| # -j- 2) = 5
3#—3# — 12 = 5
- 12 = 5.
The result shows that the equations are inconsistent, that is, they have no
common solution. The lines therefore have no common point and are parallel.

Example 2. Find the equation of the line which is concurrent with the
lines 3 x — 2 y — 8 = 0 and 2# + y — 3 = 0, and is perpendicular to the
line 4 x + 3 y = 0.
Solution: Three lines are concurrent if they have a point in common. Hence
the required line passes through the point of intersection of 3 x — 2 y — 8 = 0
and 2 # + y — 3 = 0.
By solving the equations as a system, the point of intersection is found to
be (2,-1).
The equation 4 x + 3 y = 0 may be written y = — § x, so the slope of the line is
4
3*
.*. The slope of a line perpendicular to y = — % x is §.
The required line must pass through (2, — 1) and have slope §. Hence its
equation is
=j or 3 x — 4 y — 10 = 0.
#—2 4 J

Exercises [A_1]
In exercises 1-8, state whether the lines intersect or are parallel. If they
intersect, find the point of intersection, and state whether or not the lines
are perpendicular.
1. x— 2y— 1 = 0; 2# + y — 8 = 0.
2. 3#+2y— 8 = 0; 6# + 4y —5 = 0.
3. # + 3y — 2 = 0; x — 3y — 8 = 0.

4. x + 3 = 0; #—1 = 0.
5.2# —3y —4 = 0; 4# + 6y + 8 = 0.
6. y — 4 = 0; 2# + 5y—12 = 0.
7. # + 2 = 0; # + 2y = 0.
8. # — 3 = 0; y + 2 = 0.
9. Find the equation of the line which passes through (4, — 3) and the
intersection of the lines 3# — y — 1 = 0 and #+2y — 12 = 0.
10. Find the equation of the line which passes through (— 1,4) and the
intersection of the lines # + y— 12 = 0 and # — y — 2 = 0.
286 Chapter 12

11. Show that the three lines x-\~3y — 19 = 0, x— 2y — 4 = 0, and

2 x — 5 y — 5 = 0 are concurrent. (Find the point of intersection of
two of the lines and show that this point is on the third line.)
12. (a) Find the equation of the line which passes through (— 1,2) and is
perpendicular to3x — 4;y — 4 = 0.
(b) Find the point of intersection of the two lines and hence find the
distance of the point (—1,2) from the line 3 x — 4 y — 4 = 0.
13. A ABC has vertices A(— 2, 0), B(6, 0), C(0, 8). Find the equations
of the altitudes from A to BC and from B to AC. Show that their
point of intersection is on the third altitude.
14. Find the equations of the medians of A ABC in exercise 13. Show
that the medians are concurrent at (§, -§).
15. (a) Find the vertices of the triangle whose sides are segments of the
lines x-\~ 4y — 4 = 0, 4# — 3 ;y + 3 = 0, 5 x + ^ — 20 = 0.
(b) Find the equation of that altitude which has a negative slope.

Exercises [A-2]

1. Find the point of intersection of the lines 4 x — 3y — 8 = 0,

2x + 6^H-l = 0.
2. Find the point of intersection of the lines 5 x y — 10 = 0,
4 x — 2^+15 = 0.
3. At what point does the line joining (4, 3) to the origin meet the line
2 x 2 y — 7 = 0?
4. Find the equation of the line which passes through (—5,2) and the
intersection of the lines x + 3 y = 0 and 4 x — y — 13 = 0.
5. Show that the lines 2 x — 3^ + 5 = 0, x — ^+7 = 0, 3 x — 4 y + 12 = 0
are concurrent.
6. (a) Find the equation of the perpendicular from (5,-1) to the line
2x + 3^ — 20 = 0.
(b) Find the point of intersection of the two lines and hence obtain
the distance from (5,-1) to 2 x -|- 3 y — 20 = 0.
7. Show that for all values of a and b except a = 1 or — 1, the point of
intersection of the lines ax -f- y = b, x + ay = b is on the line y = x.
8. Using the equations a\X b\y + C\ = 0 and a2X + 62^ + £2 = 0, obtain
a formula for the point of intersection of two straight lines.
9. Show that if the lines in exercise 8 have no point of intersection then
&1&2 = 02^1-
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 287

Exercises 10-15 refer to A ABC with vertices A(— 2, 0), £(0, 8), C(4, 2).
10. (a) Find the equations of the three medians of the triangle ABC.
(b) Show that the three medians are concurrent at some point G.
11. If M is the midpoint of AB, and G the meeting point of the medians
in exercise 10, show that CG = 2 GM.
12. (a) Find the equations of the three altitudes of the triangle ABC.
(b) Show that the three altitudes are concurrent at some point H.
13. (a) Find the equations of the three perpendicular bisectors of the
sides of the triangle ABC.
(b) Show that the three perpendicular bisectors are concurrent at
some point P.
14. Show that P in exercise 13 is equidistant from A, B, C.
15. Show that G, H, and P (exercises 10, 12, 13) are collinear.

Exercises L8]
1. (a) Write the distance of any point P(x,y) from ^4(4,0) and from
B(0,2).
(b) Find the equation of the locus of P under the condition PA = PB.
(c) Verify that this locus is a line perpendicular to AB through the
midpoint of AB.
2. Find the equation of the locus of points (a) equidistant from (— 1,2)
and (3, 8), (b) equidistant from (a, 0) and (0, b).
3. Show that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are
concurrent. (Let the vertices be (0, 0), (a, 0), (b, c).)
4. Show that the medians of the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (a, 0), (b, c)
are concurrent.
5. Show that for any value of k the equation
(# + 2 y + 3) + k(3 x — 2 y — 1) = 0
is that of a line through the intersection of the lines #-f2yH-3 = 0
and 3 x — 2 y — 1 = 0. Find the value of k so that the line shall be
perpendicular to y = § x.
6. Use the method indicated in exercise 5 to obtain the equations of the
altitudes of the triangle determined by the lines x-f4y — 4 = 0,
4 x — 3y-f3 = 0, 5 # + y — 20 = 0.
7. (a) Write the slope (mi) of the line joining any point P(x, y) to the
origin (0, 0).
(b) Write the slope (m2) of the line joining P to ^4(0, 2).
(c) Find the equation of the locus of P if mi — m2 =
288 Chapter 12

8. (a) Write the distance of any point P(x, y) from 0(0, 0).
(b) Write the distance of P from A(l, 3).
(c) Find the equation of the locus of P under the condition
{PO)2-{PA)2 = 1.

Related Changes

Scientists and engineers are constantly concerned with the ways in which
quantities change. The length of a metal rod changes as the temperature
changes. The distance required to bring a car to a halt increases as the
speed of the car increases. The force of gravitational attraction to the
Earth decreases as the distance from the Earth increases. Many other
examples of a similar nature could be given.
In each illustration of change given in the preceding paragraph two sets
of numbers are involved. In the first illustration the two sets are the
temperatures (/) and the lengths (/) of the metal bar. A set of ordered pairs
{t, /) might be given to show the way in which the value of the variable l
depends upon the value of the variable t. If the rule relating l and t were
known we could use it to obtain the value of l for a given value of /. A
further question that might arise is "If the temperature changes by a certain
amount, what is the corresponding change in the length of the metal rod”?
The answer would clearly depend on the nature of the rule relating values
of the two variables. In the following Example we consider this question
in a case in which there is a linear relationship between the variables.

Example. A linear function is defined by y = 2.5 £ — 4. Find the change

in the value of the function when the value of x is increased by 6.

Solution: For any given value of x the value of the function is the value of y
obtained by the rule y = 2.5 x — 4.
A change in the value of the function is the
difference of two values of y.
When x is increased by Ax, let Ay represent
the corresponding increase in y.
The graph of the given function is the line
y = 2.5 x — 4.
• Ay . .
The ratio ^ is the slope of this line, which

is 2.5.
It follows that Ay = 2.5 Ax.
When Ax = 6, Ay =15, and we conclude
that the value of the function is increased by
15 when the value of x is increased by 6.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 289

The Linear Function

We now show that for the ordered pairs of any linear function corre¬
sponding changes in x and y are related by a simple rule.
Let (xi, yi), (x2, yz) be pairs of values satisfying the rule y = mx-\-k.
Then yx — mx\ + k
y2 — mx2 + k
Hence yi — y2 = mxi — mx2 (Subtraction rule)
yi — J2 = m(x 1 — x2)
or

^ Ay = m • Ax
We may also write this result in the form

Ay
= m
Ax
Thus, for pairs of values satisfying the rule y = mx T k:
1. A change Ax in the value of x produces a corresponding change
equal to m • Ax in the value of y,
and
2. The ratio of "the change in y” to "the change in x” is constant and
equal to m.
The relationship between Ay and Ax is therefore one of direct variation,
the constant of variation being m, the coefficient of x in the original rule.

The above result is summarized in the statement:

Ay
If y = mx T k, then — m.
Ax
We shall accept also the converse of the result. The converse is stated as
follows:

If a set of ordered pairs (x,y) is such that ^ has a constant value for

all corresponding differences, then the ordered pairs satisfy a linear rela¬
tionship. In symbols:

If = m for all corresponding differences, then the values (x, y) satisfy a

Ax
rule of the form y = mx T k.

We thus have a simple procedure for determining whether the ordered

pairs of a given set are consistent with a linear relationship between the
variables. This procedure is illustrated in Example 2 on page 290.
290 Chapter 12

Example 1. If y = 10 — 3 x, find the change in the value of y when the

value of x is increased 7.2 units.
Solution: In y = 10 — 3 x, we have a linear function with m = — 3.
Ay = (— 3) • Ax.
When Ax = 7.2, Ay = (- 3)(7.2) = - 21.6.
The value of y is decreased by 21.6 units.
(Note that when the coefficient of x is negative, the value of y decreases as the
value of x increases.)

Example 2. (a) Show that the values

X -5 -2 0 6

y - li -2 4 22

are consistent with a linear relationship between y and x.

(b) Determine the equation which defines the relationship.
Solution:
(a) Successive pairs of values from left to right in the given table provide the
following corresponding differences.

Ax 3 2 6

Ay 9 6 18

Ay
The values of ^ are §, -§, each of which equals 3.

Since ^ = 3 for all corresponding differences, the given values are consistent

with a linear relationship between y and x.

(b) The rule relating y and x is of the form y = mx + k.

Since ^ = 3, the value of m is 3.

Ax
The value of k is found by substituting any of the given pairs in the equation
y = 3 x + k. Using (0, 4), we have k = 4.
Hence, the required equation is y = 3 x + 4.

Exercises [A 1]
1. If y = 3 x + 8, find the change in the value of y, (a) when the value of
x increases from 3 to 5, (b) when the value of x decreases from 4.93
to 2.93.
2. If y = 10 — 4 x, find the change in the value of y, (a) when the value
of x increases from 2 to 5, (b) when the value of x decreases from 4.73
to 1.73.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 291

3. If y = 2 x — 5, write the equation relating Ay to Ax. Does y vary

directly as x? Does Ay vary directly as Ax?

4. If y = 4 —2.5x, write the equation relating Ay to Ax. Find the

change in the value of y when x is increased 10 units.

5. Find the change in the value of 5 t — 4 when the value of t is increased

1.6 units.

6. Find the change in the value of 50 — 16 t when the value of t is in¬

creased 2.5 units.

7. Draw the graph of the function defined by y = 2.5 x -f 5. For what

values of x are the corresponding values of the function positive?

8. The length L centimeters of a metal rod at temperature f centigrade

is given by L = 30.50 + 0-03 t. Find the change in the length of the
rod corresponding to an increase of 20 degrees in temperature.

9. If a ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 120 feet per

second, its speed v feet per second at a moment t seconds later is
given by v = 120 — 32.2 t. Find the change in the vertical speed in 1.5
seconds.

10. Find the equation defining a linear function of x if y = 5 when x — 1

and y = — 4 when x = 4.

11. A linear function of x has value 3 when x = — 1 and value 6 when

x = 1. Find the value of the function when x = 3.

12. Show that the given values of 5 and t satisfy

t 0 2 5 12
a linear relationship and determine it in the
form s = at + b. s 20 32 50 92

Exercises !A 21

1. If y = 3 x — 10, find Ay when Ax = — 1.5. Interpret the result.

2. If 3 x + 4 y = 8, find the value of • Hence find the change in the

Ax
value of y which corresponds to an increase of 8 units in x.

3. Find the change in the value of 40 — 5 t when the value of t is in¬

creased 2 units.

4. Does the value of 10 — 3 t increase or decrease as t increases? lor

what values of t is the expression positive?

5. The graph of a linear function of x has x-intercept 6 and slope — 2.

Determine the equation which defines the function.
292 Chapter 12

6. If y = §0& — 32), express Ay in terms of Ax. Find the increase re¬

quired in the value of x to produce an increase of 20 in the value of y.
7. Verify that (2,3) is a point on the line 3 x + 4 y = 18. Show that

if (2 + Ax, 3 + Ay) is another point on the line, then ^ = — -•

Ax 4
8. A linear function of t has value 15 when t = 5 and value 6 when t= 11.
Find t when the value of the function is zero.
x Y
9. The graphs of y = ->y = x-\-3,y = 3 — x
O

are shown in the diagram. Write each

equation and beside it write the letter
which labels its graph.
10. (a) Show that the following values of P
and W are consistent with a linear
relationship between P and W.

w 100 120 160 200

p 16 18 22 26

(b) Express P in terms of W, and find the value of P corresponding

to W = 300.

4 10 12.4 24.8
11. (a) Show that the values are consistent
y 4 13 16.6 35.2

with a linear relationship between y and x.

(b) Find the value of x for which y is zero.
12. Obtain the formula for converting the temperature on the Fahrenheit
scale (F) to the corresponding reading on the Centigrade scale (C)
using the freezing point (F = 32, C = 0) and the boiling point (F = 212,
C = 100) readings, and the fact that the values (F, C) form a linear
function.

The Functional Notation

When an expression such as x2 — 3 x — 2 is to be used several times in a

discussion it is convenient to have an abbreviation for the expression. The
symbol/(x), read "/ of x” or "/ at is often used for this purpose.
If we let/(x) = x2 — 3 x — 2, then throughout the discussion we may use
f(x) in the place of the expression itself. Hence, the notation/(x) provides
considerable economy in writing and reading.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 293

The rule y = x2 — 3 x — 2 defines a function. If we let f(x) = x2 — 3 x — 2,

then the rule may be written y=/(x). An ordered pair belonging to the
function may be represented by (x, y) or by (x,/(x)). Thus, both/(x) and y
are symbols for the value of the function corresponding to a value of x.
The letter / is used to represent the function itself, and/(4) means the value
of the function when x = 4. For example,
if /(x) = x2 — 3 x — 2,
then /(4) = 42 — 3-4 — 2 = 2.
When a second function is involved in a discussion, a symbol such as
F,fi, g may be used to denote it. Thus, in a given situation we might have
fix) = x2 — 3 x — 2 and F(x) = 3 x + 8.
The graph of a function / is the graph of the equation y =/(x) which
defines the function. Thus, if fix) = 2 x — 5, the graph of / is the straight
line whose equation is y = 2 x — 5.

Example. If / is a linear function such that /(2) = 2, and /(4) = — 1,

determine fix).
Solution:
Method 1. Since / is a linear function,/(T) = mx + k.
When x = 2,f(x) = 2. Hence, 2 = 2 m -f- k.
When # = 4,/(F) = — 1. Hence, — 1 = 4 m + k.
The solution of the pair of equations is m = — §, k = 5.
Hence, /(x) = — f x + 5.
Method 2. Let y =f(x), then when x = 2, y = 2,
and when x = 4, y = — 1.
Using these pairs of values, we have Ax = 2, A^ = — 3.
Ay
For the pairs in a linear function, the value of ^ is constant and is equal to

Ay 3
the coefficient of x in/(x). In this particular function, therefore, ~ —3’

and we have y = — f x + &.

This equation is satisfied by (2, 2), giving
2=— 3T& or k = 5.
Hence, y = — fx-j-5, or /(x) = — fx + 5.

Exercises [A 1]
1. If /(x) = 3 x + 10, find /(0) and /(- 2). Draw the graph of y =/(x)
and state the set of values of x for which /(x) is positive.
2. If/(x) = 2 - | x, find/(l) and /(— J). Does /(x) increase or decrease
in value as x increases? What is the slope of the graph of the function/?

3. If f{x) — 3 x2 — 6 x, show that /(J) = /(f). Solve /(x) = 0.

294 Chapter 12

4. If /(x) = > show that/(f) =/(3). Solve/(x) = 1.

2 x
5. If /(/?) = 3 7? — 6, (a) find the increase in f(R) when R is increased
by 0.4, (b) find the set of values of R for which/(i?) > R.
6. If F(x) = 10 — 2.5 x, (a) draw the graph of y = Fix), (b) state the
set of values of x for which both x and F(x) are positive, (c) evaluate
F(a+ 2) — F(a), and interpret the result.
7. Determine/®, given that/® varies directly as t and/(2) = 5.
8. Determine/®), given that/®) is linear,/(2.4) = 0, and/(0) = 3.6.
9. (a) Draw the graph of y —fit) given that/® is linear,/® is positive
for all values of t greater than 2.5 and no others,/®) = — 5.
(b) Determine/®.
10. If Fix) = ax+ b, F{- 2) = 5.4, F(1.5) = 3.3, find a and b.
11. Show that the following pairs of values are consistent with the sup¬
position that/® is linear. Determine/®.

t 0 2 4 6 8

fit) 12 2 -8 - 18 -28

12. Show that all but one of the following values of /®) belong to the
same linear function.

X 0 2 4 6 8 10

fix) 10 14 22 28 34 40

Adjust the one value of /®) so that it also belongs to that function.

Exercises [A-2]
1. If fix) = 2.5 x + 4.2, does /®) increase or decrease in value as x in¬
creases? Find/(2.4) — /(— 1.6).
2. If F(x) = 3.9 — 1.2 x, does F(x) increase or decrease in value as x in¬
creases? Find F(0.5) — F(— 0.5).
3. If/®) = 2 x2 — 3 x-f- 1, show that/(f) =/(0). Solve/®) = 0.
4. If /(x) = (2 x — 1)(3 x-f 4)4, show that /(f) =/(—§). Solve
fix) = 0.
5. If F(R) = 2 7rR, describe the change (a) in F(R) when R is doubled,
(b) in FiR) when R is increased by 1, (c) in R when FiR) is increased
by 1.
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 295

6. Select that statement from (a), (b), (c), (d) which is inconsistent
with the other three: (a) fix) varies directly as x, (b) f(x) = 3 x + 12,
(c) f(x) = 2.4 x, (d) the graph of / is a straight line through the origin.
7. If the graph of / is a straight line with slope — 2, what is the change
in the value of f(x) when x is increased by 5?
8. If F(t) is linear, F(0) = 4 and F(— 6) = 0, determine F(t).
9. If f(x) is linear,/(3) = 12 and /(4) = 14.5, show that /(— 1.8) = 0.
10. Determine/(x), given that/(2) = 6 and that the value of f(x) is de¬
creased by 3 when x is increased by 2.
11. The graph of / is a straight line with slope —1.6, and /(2.5) = 5.2.
Determine/(F) and solve f(x) = 0.
12. Do the following experimental results support the hypothesis that
within the range examined the rate of chirping of a cricket is a linear
function of the temperature?

Fahrenheit scale temperature 50 55 60 65 70

Number of chirps per minute 52 72 91 112 130

[B]
Exercises
1. If y = ax + b and x = ct + d, show that the set of ordered pairs (t, y)
is a linear function.
2. If f(x) = x2, what is the ratio of f(2 a) to f(a) when a ^ 0?

3. If/(F) = — f find the change in f(x) when x changes from 0.001 to

0.0001. *
4. In which of the following sentences, if any, does/(2 a) = 2/(a)?

(a) /(*) =3x, (b )/(*) = * +3 , (c)/(*) = §*, (d)/(*) = k

Ji/

5. If f(pc) = mx + k and F(x) = x2, show that ^'d is independ-

rL

F(a + h) - F(a) .
ent of a and h, but that is not.
h
6. In each of the following cases find the values of x for which f\{x) and
fzipc) have the same value:
(a) fi(x) — 3 x2 + 2 x — 2,f2(x) = x.
(b) /i0) = (2 x — 3)(x — l),/20) = 2{x — f)2 —
(c) f\(x) = 3{x — 2)2 — 2,f2{x) = 3 x(x — 4) — 10.
7. If /(/) = 64 t — 16 t2, show that /(2) > /(2 + k) when k ^ 0. Show
also that/(2 + k) =/(2 — k) for all values of k.
296 Chapter 12

8. If/(x) = 10 x — 2 x2, show that/(2.5) > /(2.5 + k) when k ^ 0. Show

also that/(2.5 + k) =/(2.5 — k) for all values of k.
9. Iffix) = x2 + x, (a) evaluate/(100) —/(99); (b) express/(w) —f(n — 1)
in as simple a form as possible.
10. If f(x) = x(x + l)(ac + 2), (a) evaluate /(10) —/(9); (b) express
fin) —f{n— 1) in as simple a form as possible.
11. If f{x) = 2X, show that (a) f(n) +/(») =f(n + 1), (b) [/(»)]2 =/(2 »).
x2 + 1
12. If/(*) = for what value of x is fix) undefined? Show that
X

V
when a is not zero /( - ) == f(a).
,a,
x
13. lif{x) = for what value of x is f(x) undefined? Show that,
x— 1
if a is not equal to 1, then f(a) •/( 1 — a) = 1 and/( —-—) = -
\1 — a) a
2 x— 1
14. If fix) =
x—2
(a) state the approximate value of fix) when x = 106.
(b) state the value of fix) when x = 2.0001.
(c) express f(l + as simply as possible.

Chapter Test
1. Find the value of k for which (— 5, k) is on the line 2 x + 3 y = 8.
2. State the slope and the y-intercept of the line 3 x — 4 y = 12.
3. Find (a) the length, (b) the slope, of the line segment with end points
(3.4, 2.2), (9.8, 7.0).
4. Find the equation of the line through the points (3, — 2), (5, — 3).

5. Find the relationship between x and y if (2,3), (4,5), (x,y) are

collinear points.

6. Does the point (0, 3) lie on the line determined by the points (— 1,5),
(4, - 5)?

7. Find the equation of the line which is parallel to x — 3 y = 6 and

passes through the point (2, — 3).
8. Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to 3 x + 2 y = 8
and has an x-intercept of 5.

9. Find the value of k if (4, k) is equidistant from (1,1) and (3, 5).
Elements of Coordinate Geometry 297

10. A line is drawn through the points (1, 3), (— 2, 1), and a second line
is drawn through (1,0), (k, 2). Find the value of k if the lines are
(a) parallel, (b) perpendicular.
11. ABCD is a rectangle with A, B, C having coordinates (-5,-2),
(— 7, 4), (2, 7). Find the coordinates of D.
12. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment with
end points (3, 0), (— 1, 6).
13. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines 3 x — 2 y = 16,
2 x + 3 y = 15, and the y-axis.
Ay
14. If 5 x + 2 y = 10, find the value of and determine the change in

the value of y when rr is increased by 4.8.

15. What is the change in the value of 32 — 0.5 x when x is increased
by 10?
16. Determine f(x) given that f(x) is linear, /(l) = — 5 and/(3) = 1.
 The set of ordered pairs (1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), (4, 12) is a function /with domain
{1, 2, 3, 4} and range {3, 6, 9, 12}. A rule by which the second number of a
pair can be obtained from the first number is y = 3 jt.
If the first and second numbers in each pair belonging to / are interchanged,
we have (3, 1), (6, 2), (9, 3), (12, 4). This set of ordered pairs is a function g
with domain {3, 6, 9, 12} and range {1, 2, 3, 4}. A rule by which the second
number of a pair can be obtained from the first number is y = J jc.
The graphs of the functions / and g are
shown in the diagram. These graphs illus¬ • Graph of/
trate the effect of interchanging the ordinate • Graph of g

and the abscissa of a point. The rule y x,

used for the pairs in g, may be rewritten as
x = 3 y. Comparing this with y = 3 x, the
rule used for the pairs in /, we see that the
parts played by x and y in the two rules have
been interchanged.
The function g was formed from the func¬
tion / by interchanging the first and second O X
numbers of each ordered pair of /. Two
functions whose ordered pairs are related in this way are called inverse functions.
Each function is said to be the inverse of the other. It is apparent that for any
two inverse functions, / and g, the domain of / is the range of g and the range
of / is the domain of g.
The table of logarithms provides us with a good illustration of a function
and its inverse. Using the table to find logio 3.750, for example, we find 0.5740.
The ordered pair (3.750, 0.5740) is an element of the function F defined by
y = logio The table is also used, however, to find a number when its logarithm
is known. Given that the logarithm of a number is 0.5740, we know that the
number is represented by 10°-5740 and the table enables us to give the number as
3.750. Thus, the ordered pair (0.5740, 3.750) is an element of the function G
defined by y = 10x. F and G are inverse functions.

EXERCISES
1. State the domain and the range of Fand of G (above).
2. Evaluate G(F( 100)); F(G(3)).
3. Write the inverse of the function defined by the following table:
X l 2 3 4 5

y l 4 9 16 25
298
The Inverse of a Linear Function
It is not hard to see that a linear function has an inverse that is also a linear
function. We consider the function/defined by y = 3 x — 1, and show how the
rule defining the inverse function is obtained.
Some of the ordered pairs belonging to/are:
(-3,-10), (-2,-7), (-1,-4), (0,-1), (1,2), (2,5), (3,8).
We wish to find the rule for a function g containing the following pairs, which
are obtained by interchanging the first and second numbers in the pairs listed
for/:
(-10,-3), (-7,-2), (-4,-1), (-1,0), (2,1), (5,2), (8,3).
The pairs belonging to g are the same as those belonging to / except that the
values of x and y are interchanged. The pairs which belong to /satisfy the rule
y = 3 x — 1, and to find the rule for g we merely interchange jc and y in the rule
for/. Thus we have:
x = 3 y — l,
x -4- 1
and solving for y, y = —r—

EXERCISES

x-{- 1
1. Verify that the rule y = gives the ordered pairs listed for g, above.
3
2. (a) Make a table showing a function which consists of 6 ordered pairs
of numbers obtained from the rule y=^(3x-\-7). (b) Make a table
giving the inverse of the function shown in (a), and write the rule which
defines the inverse function.
3. If a function / is defined by the rule y= 5 x— 6, write the rule defining
the function which is the inverse of/.

The Graphs of a Function and its Inverse

The graphs of / defined by y = 3i-l,
x 1
and of g, defined by y =—j—> are shown

in the diagram. Their relationship to the

graph of y = x illustrates a characteristic
feature of the graphs of a function and its
inverse.
Corresponding to each point Px on the
graph of / there is a point P2 on the graph
of g such that the line y = x is the perpen¬
dicular bisector of the segment P\P2• This
feature of the graphs is described by saying
that the graphs of / and g are symmetric
with respect to the line y =x. Using the analogy of an image in a mirror,
P2 is sometimes called the reflection of Px in the line y =x.
299
Existence of an Inverse Function
The function defined by y — x(jc + 2){x — 5) contains the ordered pairs
(0, 0), (— 2, 0), (5, 0). If we interchange the first and
Y
second numbers in the pairs, we have (0, 0), (0, — 2),
(0, 5). Hence, in forming the inverse we obtain three
distinct pairs with the same first number, and these
pairs belong to a relation which is not a function.
If a function / is to have an inverse function it is
necessary that no two ordered pairs of / should have
f °\ X
the same second number. This means that the graph
of / must be such that a horizontal line meets the
graph in not more than one point. Thus, if a function
/ has an inverse, there must be just one value of x
corresponding to each value off(x) as well as just one value off(x) corresponding
to each value of jc.

Graph of a function Graph of a function

which does not have which does have an
an inverse function inverse function

EXERCISES

1. Iff(x) = 3x-l and g(x) = show thatf{g(xx)) = jcx.

2. If F is defined by y = 4 x -f- 3, find the rule defining the inverse of F.

3. Evaluate 2X for x = — 2, — 1, 0, 1, 2, 3. Sketch the graphs of y =2X and
of y = log2 x on the same axes. Use the points (3, 8) and (8, 3) to illustrate
reflection in the line y =x.
4. If/(x) =2X and g(x) = log2x, evaluate/(g(16)).
5. If /is defined by y =ax -\-b, find the rule defining the inverse of /.
6. If F is defined by y = x2, x ^ 0, find the rule which defines the inverse of F.
Draw the graphs of F and its inverse on the same axes.

300
 Cumulative Review Exercises

GROUP 1 (through Chapter 8)

1. Find x if 0.3 x + 0.4 = 0.13.

2. Simplify: (a) V(2.5)2(6.0)2; (b) V(2.5)2 + (6.0)2.

3. Factor: (a) kx2 — k\ (b) ax2 — bx2 — a + b.

4. Combine into a single term: \/2f + V24 — 3"\/1^.
5. Simplify: \/§ • a/iJ \/f-.

6. Evaluate to the nearest hundredth: - ^ --.

2V3 3V2
7. Find to the nearest hundredth the values of x for which (x — 2)2 = 5.
8. Simplify: (2 — a/2)(3 + 2'V/2).
9. The length and width of a rectangle are in the ratio 2:1, and the
diagonal of the rectangle is 320 ft. Find the width of the rectangle
and the area of the rectangle.

10. Solve: (a) (3 x — 2)(2 x + 1) = 0; (b) (3 x — 2)(2 x + 1) = 3.

3 — oc /—
11. Evaluate-- when x = V2 — 1.
3+x
x x+ 1
12. Solve in simplest radical form: = 2.
X+ 1 X

13. A rectangular picture has dimensions in the ratio 4:3. A frame lj

inches wide surrounds the picture, and the area of the frame is f the
area of the picture. Find the dimensions of the picture.

14. If a > 2 b + c and b > \ c, is c greater or less than \ a?

15. Solve: 1 — Vx — 3 = \/2 x — 4.

GROUP 2 (through Chapter 8)

1. Simplify: \/l3^ + 3\/J — V24.

2. Evaluate to the nearest hundredth: \^2f • v3j.

3. Divide 2V3 + 3 by 2V3 — 3.

4. Evaluate —— when x = 1 +\/3.

x+ 1
5. Find the roots of 5 x2 — 12 x -f 3 = 0 to the nearest hundredth.

6. Factor a2 — a — 4 b2 + 2 b.

7. Solve for x: (x — a)2 = 2 b2.

8. Write the set of solutions of (a) 3 x — 5 < 7, (b) | x — 3 | = 4.

301
302 Review Exercises

n Tf 180(w — 2) . r
9. If x =----» express w in terms of x.
n
10. If the average speed of a train is reduced 20% on a certain journey,
what is the percentage change in the time taken for the journey?
11 c i 5.x x + \
11. Solve: + 77
-7 =-+
4 J x— 2
12. Solve: V4-3x-V3-(-x = 1.
x— 1 x+5 x—4
13. For what values of x does ?
x+ 1 x2 — 1 1 —x
14. If x articles can be bought for $50, express in terms of x the number of
articles that could be bought for $50 if the price of an article were
increased 50 cents.
x+y_ y
15. Show that if then — is an irrational number,
y X x

GROUP 3 (through Chapter 9)

1. Simplify: (a)V§ + V|; (b)V§*Vi; (c)^=~^*

2. One angle of a quadrilateral is 120°, and the others are in the ratio
3 : 4 : 5. Find the size of each angle.
3. If y — 4 x, describe the change in the value of y, (a) when the value
of x is increased by 2; (b) when the value of x is doubled.
4. If y varies directly as x2, by what percentage is the value of y reduced
when the value of x is reduced by 50%?
5. IF varies directly as x and inversely as y/~y. If IF = 8 when x = 2
and y = 9, find y when IF = 18 and x = 6.
6. Find the value of x for which f (2 x + §) — f (x — j) = 3.
7. If x pounds of potatoes cost n cents, write the cost in dollars of one
ton of potatoes.
8. Factor: (a) w2 — 3»; (b) (x + a)2 — 3(x + a).

9. Divide

10. Find x in terms of a and b if - + - = --

a x b x
x + 2\/ x
11. Simplify:
.x — 3
+ x / \3 + x
Review Exercises 303

12. If p = q -f- r and - = - > find the value of t.

2 9
13. If 10 machines produce 800 articles in 4 days, how long will it take
to produce 1800 articles with 5 machines?
14. How many gallons of water must be added to 50 gallons of a 75%
acid solution to reduce the strength to 45% acid?
15. State the domain of the function defined by y — v 4 — x2.

GROUP 4 (through Chapter 9)

1. If y varies inversely as the square of /, what change takes place in the

value of y whemthe value of t is doubled?
2. The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by V = f irr3 cu. in. Com¬
pare the volumes of two spheres of radii ri, 7% if r\ : r2 = 3 : 2.
3. The weight of a metal rod varies as its length and the square of its
diameter. When the length is 8 in. and the diameter 1.5 in., the weight
is 30 ounces. Find the length of a rod of the same metal with diameter
2.5 in. if its weight is 100 ounces.

4. Find y when x = j if -- = 5.
2 x 3 y

5. Simplify:

6. If y = 8 — 3 x, write the set of values of x for which y > 0.

7. Solve for x and y: ax + y = 0, x + ay = o(l — a2).
8. Solve: (3 x — 4) (x + 1) = 6.
9. If xy = 10, find the percentage change in x when y is increased 100%.
x
10. Solve:
x-{- 1
+ 1 —X x2 — 1
-0.

11. If 7 = 7
b 4 b+c 5
\
and ----- — , find the ratio -•
c
12. Factor: (a) 1 — x3; (b) 15 ax — 20 ay + 9 bx — 12 by.
13. In mixture A the ratio of acid to water is 3 : 4, and in mixture B the
ratio of acid to water is 5 : 2. If a new mixture of A and B is to be
50% water, in what ratio should A and B be mixed?

14. If aJr^)] = show that - = \m

c ~\~ 2 d c c d
15. Two trains each travel 180 miles. One averages 5 miles per hour more
than the other and takes 30 minutes less time for the journey. Find
the rates of the trains.
304 Review Exercises

GROUP 5 (through Chapter 10)

1. Solve: 2 x3 = x2 + 6 x.
2. Find n if n + / = 3.5 and t is 25% of n.
3. Simplify: (a) 9* • 9* (b) 9^ -f- 9^ (c) (9^)2.
4. If 3 x_1 = 6, find x.
5. Divide 3 + 2>/3 by 2 + a/3.
6. Find the roots of 2 x2 — 3 x = 3 to the nearest hundredth.
2 x x+y x— v
7. Simplify: _ y2
x2 2 x(x — y) 2 x(x + y)
2+V2
8. Evaluate 3 x2 — 4 x when x =

9. If a = and 6 = ——- > show that a3~ ^ = - •

2 x ao + 1 y
10. If V = § 7ri?3, evaluate F when i? = 2.625, using 7r = 3.142.
dx'DI
11. (a) Evaluate 8 ^ + (b) simplify
8 \ x*
12. Evaluate 'n/O.5468.
13. A rectangle is 2 x feet long and x feet wide. Inside the rectangle
there is a border 2 feet wide all around the figure. Express the area
of the border in terms of x.

14. Evaluate ^ ,A when x = 9.

2 x 2

15. If # pounds of coffee at 50 cents per pound are mixed with y pounds
of coffee at 70 cents per pound, express the cost of one pound of the
x 3
mixture in terms of x and y. Evaluate the expression when - = -•

GROUP 6 (through Chapter 10)

1. Simplify: 10° • 10* • 10“i K) _5_ _ 5

2. Simplify: Va4 5" • a 2" 3 x 2 y 6
6. Solve: (
1 _1 10 5 _ 10
3. Evaluate: 1 when x = 2 [ x y 3
2 x~*
4. Solve: vl-f-2x = 2\/x — 1 7. Factor: (a) x3 — 8 y3;
5. Simplify: (3 b~^)2 -r- \ a? b (b) x2—a2—4ab—4:b2
8. If a sum of $x is invested at 3% and a sum of $(5000 — x) is invested
at 8%, express the total income in terms of x in simplest form.
Review Exercises 305

9. Solve in simplest radical form: 9 x2 — 12 x = 4.

10. Divide x3 — 7 x + 6 by x — l and find all the roots of — 7 x + 6 = 0.

11. Evaluate: (27.32)2(0.007348).

12. Solve for *: -—- - = -2-ax

a-b a+b a2 - b2

nl
13. Solve the formula E = for n.
C + nR
3 \x2 — y2
14. Evaluate when x = 182.5, y = 102.5.
xy

15. If —= b and —. = c, express c in terms of a.

CL -f- 1 6+1

GROUP 7

1. Factor: (a) MN + 3 aN; (b) x2 + 3 ao: — 3 ay.

2. Subtract V4j from "V 12j. 4. Divide 2V5 by5-V5.
3. Solve (x + 2) (3 x — 1) = 6. 5. Simplify 27^ —
6. Evaluate 'n/O.006384.

7-w"<i'(SI+H)by r \X — 1
+ X2 — 1

8. (a) Find k if the line y = 2 x-\- k passes through the point (— 1, 3).
(b) Find the equation of the line joining (— 1,2) and (2, — 4).

9. Evaluate
0.009548

10. If s = 5 t — 2.4, find the change in the value of 5 when t is increased

2.4 units.

11. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines 5x-\-6y=24,
3 x — 2 y = 6, and the y-axis.

12. (a) Find cos 36° 27'.

(b) Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle if the triangle
contains an angle of 28° 15' and the longer leg is 22.5 in.

x 2
13. Find to the nearest hundredth the roots of-7-- = 3.
x+ 1 x— 1

14. How many quarts of water must be added to 20 quarts of a solution

which is 18% acid to reduce the strength to 15% acid?

15. If 3 a = 2 b and b > j c, show that c <2 a.

306 Review Exercises

GROUP 8

1. Evaluate 5.7 x2 — 5.7 y2 when x = 7.5, y = 2.5.

2. Find the average speed for a trip on which a man travels (a) one hour
at 60 m.p.h. and one hour at 30 m.p.h., (b) one mile at 60 m.p.h. and
one mile at 30 m.p.h.
■? t1" j , •» X 3 j 5 6 1
3. r md x and v it — = — and-= -
y 4 x y 3

4. Simplify +U+
\x mj \ mx ,
5. Divide 3 — 2V^3 by 3 — V3.
6. Obtain the roots of 3 x2 — 4 # — 5 = 0 in simplest radical form. Find
the sum of the roots and the product of the roots.
7. Explain why n° is defined as equal to 1.

8. If f{x) = 2 x2 — 3 x, find /(— §) and /^-—*

9. Simplify (— a~6bl2)~K
10. (a) Find the slope and the ^-intercept of the graph of 2 x + 3 y = 8.
(b) Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 2 x + 3 y = 8 and
having the same x-intercept.
11. A sphere of radius r inches has a surface area A square inches given
by A = 4 irr2. Solve the formula for r, and find the radius of a sphere
with surface area 1000 sq. in., using tv = 3.142.
12. If /(x) = 12.5 - 2.5 *, find/(10) -/(9).
13. Evaluate (153.8)V0.04635.
14. The vertices of a triangle are (—2,0), (2,0), (3,3). Find the co¬
ordinates of the point at which the medians of the triangle meet.
15. A man drives from A to B at an average speed of 30 m.p.h. He returns
by a road miles longer at an average speed of 36 m.p.h. The return
journey takes 2\ minutes less than that from A to B. Find the length
of the shorter road.
GROUP 9

1. Factor: (a) w4 — k2; (b) y4 — (2 y + 3)2.

2. Divide 12 — by V24 — V6.
3. If Kn = (IT -f 2 n)v2, (a) solve the formula for n; (b) find the value
of n when IT = 2.5, v = 4.5, K = 48.

4. (a) Explain why vA is defined as y/n. (b) Simplify

nA + n~?
n~5
Review Exercises 307

5. (a) Find the value of x if 24.5/x = x/12.

(b) Find the ratio - if ———^ = — •

3/ #— 2 y 3

6. (a) Find tan 74° 20'. (b) Find the angle of elevation of the sun when
a tower 45.0 ft. high has a shadow 37.5 ft. long.

01 ,, , 3 *— 2 5# „ . 12 — x
7. Solve and check: ------ = 24-
#4-5 x2 — 25 5 —x

8. If n quarts of a solution which is 25% acid are added to 6 quarts of a

solution which is 10% acid, express the number of quarts of acid in
the mixture in terms of n. Find the value of n for which the mixture
is 20% acid.

9. Find to the nearest hundreth the roots of 3 x2 — 4.8 x = 6.84.

10. Solve (a) | 3 jc 4- 1 | = 7; (b) | 3 x 4- 1 | < 7.
11. For what value of k is — 1 a root of 3 x2 4- kx — 8 = 0? Using this
value of k, find the other root.

12. Find the equation of the line with ^-intercept 2.25 and ^-intercept — 3.

13. The vertices of a triangle are A (0,0), 22(8,0), C(6, 4). Find the
equations of the perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC. If the per¬
pendicular bisectors meet at K, find the lengths KB, KC.

14. If f(x) = —-7 f find/(2 — y/3). Is there a value/(— 1)?

x 4“ 1

15. P is a point in the first quadrant of a coordinate system such that

the sum of the distances of P from the axes is 12 units. What is the
locus of P?

GROUP 10
2
1. Combine into a single radical term: y/s — 'n/4^- 4~
Vl8*
2. A rectangular grass plot has dimensions 4 n feet, 3 n feet. The plot
is surrounded by a walk of width -§• n feet. Find the ratio of the area
of the walk to the area of the grass plot.

3. Solve for x and y: - 4- - = 2 ab.

x y
4. (a) Find the slope and the y-intercept of the line 3 x — 2y4-7 = 0.
(b) Find the equation of the line through the origin parallel to the
line in (a).
5. If 3 x — 2 > *4-10, what may be deduced about the value of x?
308 Review Exercises

6. A man invests $x at 4% and $(8000 — x) at 2\%. Write in simplest

form an expression for the total income from the investments. What
is the increase in the value of this expression when the value of x is
increased by 100?

7. If y varies inversely as the square of t, and y — 2.4 when t = 4.8, find

the value of y when t = 3.2.
2 x 2 x 4- 1
8. Find to the nearest hundredth the roots of —-— = --—-•
5(^ — 2) 4 10
o 1
9. (a) If n is positive, is n~l positive or negative? (b) Evaluate —————
^

(c) Evaluate
3_1 + 2~l
10. Evaluate: 2500 • (1.035)8.
11. A right triangle has hypotenuse 62.50 ft. and one leg 50.75 ft. Find
the size of the angle between the hypotenuse and the given leg.
12. Find the rule which defines a linear function / such that/(0) = 8 and
/(2) = 5.
13. The vertices A, B of the triangle ABC have coordinates (0, 0), (6, 0).
If C is above AB and the area of the triangle is 12 sq. in., what is the
equation of the locus of C?
14. Find the coordinates of the point on the y-axis which is equidistant
from (4, 2) and (0, 8).
15. (a) Show that — 1 is a root of x3 — x2 — 5 x — 3 = 0.
(b) Divide the expression x3 — x2 — 5a; — 3 by x + 1, and use the
result to find the remaining roots of the equation in (a).

GROUP 11

1. If ^—F —h —j- ? find R3 to 3 significant figures if R = 7.50,

R Ri R‘2 R3
Ri = 30.0, R2 = 25.0.
bx — 2 a
2. Find x in terms of a and b if
ax — 2 b'
3. Factor: n(n + \){n + 2) — 3{n + 1).
4. Find the slope of the line 3 x — 4 y — 12. Construct the line by using
its intercepts on the axes, and check the slope from the graph.

5. Solve: ~ = — ^ i(4 *+ 1) = J(6 y - 5) - 3.

6. If v = f t — 2 and s = 3 — h t, express v in terms of s.

Review Exercises 309

7. Find the equation of the line through (1,-2) perpendicular to y = 3 x.

qo* l . 2x 5 3 | 2
8. Simplify: - +-----
x x—5 2x
9. A rectangular box has base 4 ft. by 3 ft., and it is 3 ft. 6 in. high. Find
the angle between a diagonal of the box and its base.
10. Evaluate: (f)-^ + (2_1 + 6-1)-1.

11. li f(t) =‘EtA, find/(3 + V5).

t
12. Show that the point (5, — 15) lies on the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment joining the points (— 4, 2), (2, 4).
13. A man travels 20 miles at (n — 2) m.p.h. and another 20 miles at
(n -f- 2) m.p.h. Express in terms of n the total time for the 40 miles,

and show that the average speed is in — - ) m.p.h.

\ n]
14. If the sum of $P is invested at 5% compound interest for 10 years, it
amounts to $P(1.05)10. Find, to 2 significant figures, the percentage
increase in the amount of the investment in the ten years.
15. P is a point whose ordinate exceeds its abscissa by 2. Write the co¬
ordinates of four specific points satisfying this requirement. Write
the equation of the locus of points satisfying the requirement, and
construct the locus.

GROUP 12

1. If 5 = -[2 a -f {n — 1 )d], find 5 when a = 13, n = 10, d= — f.

2
2. For what value of k does the line 2 x + ky — 6 have slope J?
3. Find the acute angle made with the x-axis by the line joining the
points (1,0), (4, 4).
9 4 S S _2_ __7_
4. Solve: - + ~ = ^ +
x y 2 Sx 5y“ 30*
5. Show that the point (4, 7) lies on the line determined by the points
(-1,-3), (2,3).
6. Find the remaining parts of the triangle ABC if C = 90°, A — 65° 14',
c = 25.0 in.

-f V2 x — 3
V2 x — 3
7. Simplify:

a/2 x — 3
310 Review Exercises

8. (a) Write the number of articles that can be bought for $100 when the
price per article is $».
(b) If the price per article is increased by 50 cents, express in simplest
form the decrease in the number of articles that can be bought
for $100.

9 . Simplify:

2
10 . Find to the nearest hundredth the roots of = 1.
x+ 1

11. If C— §(F — 32), find the change in the value of C when the value
of F is increased by 36.
12. (a) Use the relationship between the sides of a 30°-60°-90° triangle
to write the exact value of tan 30°.
(b) Find the value of x in simplest radical form if x = x tan 30° + 12.
13. A circle has center (4, 2) and its circumference passes through the
origin. Find (a) the radius of the circle; (b) the smallest value of x
for which there is a point on the circle.
14. A rectangle and a square have the same perimeter, and the area of the
rectangle is 64% of the area of the square. Find the ratio of the length
of the rectangle to its width.
15. If /(or) = 3!-^, find/(- l),/(0),/(l),/(lJ),/(2),/(3),/(4). Use the
values to construct the graph of /, and read to the nearest tenth the
values of x for which the value oi f(x) is 0.8.

Short Question Review

1 . Evaluate: 79 X 73 — 74 x 73.
a( 1 — r4)
2 . Evaluate when a — 2, r = i
2-
1 —r

3. Solve —2 = \ 5. Factor: 8 x2 — 2
2 3

4. Simplify: -X- + ~~— 6. Evaluate: 19.752 — 18.752

x—2 2 —x

7. Solve: 0.5(2 x + 0.24) = 2.2(x — 1.2).

8. Factor: 3 x2 — 5 x — 2.
9. Find values of x for which 3 x2 — 2 x has value 5.

10. Divide - — - by 1 —^•

x y x
Review Exercises 311

11. Find re when y = — i if —-— = 5.

x 2y
3 i
12. Find the value of t for which —— =-•
h-t 4
13. Express in factored form: 4 re (re — y) — y(y — 4 re).

14. If ^ find the ratio of re to 3/.

2 re + 3 y 5
n
15. Simplify:
»— 1 n+1
16. If o = 2 6, and c = 5 + 2, express a in terms of c.
17. If a(b — c) = 0 and a ^ 0, what conclusion is necessary?

18. Find the value (if any) of ———^ when (a) re = 0, (b) x = (c) x = 2.
re — 2
19. Express in factored form: (a -j- b)(a — b) -f c(a — b).
20. If y varies inversely as t, what is the effect on the value of y of doubling
the value of t?
21. If a is 40% of b, what percentage of a is b?
22. Divide 10 by 5^/2.
23. Add V| to Vi|.
24. Evaluate 2 re-1 when x = 2.5.
25. Evaluate (2 re)-1 when x= 2.5.
2 — re
26. For what value of re does not have a value?
1 -f- 2 x
27. Evaluate: 3j% of 437 — 3j% of 237.
28. If y varies as re2 and y = 4.8 when re = 2, find y when x=\.
29. If re and y are positive integers, find all solutions of x + 3 y = 10.
30. Is there any exception to the statement "If x = y, then ax = ay”?
31. Is there any exception to the statement "If ax = ay, then x = y"?

32. Simplify 8^ ^ ~+x

33. Evaluate 2 re2 + 3 re + 1 when x = —

34. Divide 3 re2 — 6 re by 2 — x.
35. Solve: 3 re — 2 < 10.
36. Factor a2 — ab — be + ac.
37. Divide 4 y2 — 6 rey by — 2 y.
312 Review Exercises

38. Simplify: (a + b — c)2 — (a — b + c)2.

x — 0.4 1.2 0.5 x
39. Find the value of x for which
1.2 0.4
40. Is \ a root of "\/3 -f 2 x 4-^/2 x = 1?
41. If <z2 = fr2, is it a necessary conclusion that a — b?
42. A cyclist rides 30 miles at an average speed of 9 m.p.h. At what speed
must he ride another 10 miles to average 10 m.p.h. for the complete
journey?
43. If xy = 10, what change is produced in the value of y when the value
of a; is decreased 20%?
44. Solve (2 x + 3)2 = 4. 46. Evaluate when x =
45. Divide 3 byVf. 47. Simplify: (4 — 2'\/3)(44- 2\/3).
x-\- y _x — 3 y
48. Find the relationship of y to x if
y x—2y
49. What change takes place in the value of N when x, y, z are all doubled,
(a) if N = x -f- y + 2, (b) if TV = xyz?
50. Find the slope of the line 3 x + 4 y = 12.
51. Find k if (— 2, k) is on the line 3 x + 2 y = 2.
52. Find the distance between the points (3, 0), (0, 4).
53. What is the equation of the y-axis?

54. Express a/§ as a percentage of a/6.

55. What must be added to complete the square beginning x2 + 0.6 x?

56. Find t if - + - = 5 and - — - = 1.

u t u t
57. Find the coordinates of the point common to the line 3 x — 2 y = 6
and the y-axis.
58. What is the equation of the locus of points which are equidistant from
the y-axis and the line x = 6?
59. Find the slope of the line joining (— 1, 2) and (2, 6).
60. If y = 2.5 x — 4, find the change in y when x is increased 4 units.

61. Find the average price of n articles costing (c — 4) dollars each and
2 n articles costing (c + 2) dollars each.
62. Simplify: (3 — 2a/2)(4 + 3a/2). 63. Divide 2 by 2 — a/2.

64. Evaluate x — - when x --

2
Review Exercises 313

65. Find x if 3 x * = 12.

66. Express as a single fraction the total time taken to travel d miles at
n m.p.h. and another d miles at 2 n m.p.h.
67. Divide \^6 — V3 by y/2 — 1.
68. Find the slope of a line perpendicular to3x + 2y = 2.
69. If (6, k) is 10 units from the origin, find k.
70. If y = 3 x + 4, express Ay in terms of Ax.
71. Find the equation of the line through (2, 3) parallel to y = 3 x.
72. What angle does the line x — y = 6 make with the x-axis?
73. If P and Q are each increased 100%, what is the percentage increase
in(a)P + (3; (b)P.Q; (c) |?

74. If y = 10 — 1.2 x, find the change in y when x is increased by 5 units.

75. Find the equation of the line through (—2, 1) and (4, — 3).
76. If logiofV = 3, find N.
77. If logio^/V = 0.8 and logioM = 1.2, find MN.
78. Find x if x's/2 — x = 1,

79. If —-= -y solve for m\ in terms of m2.

1 + W1W2 2
JL
80. If i(x + y) = 3 x — y + 1, find x when y = 2

81. Solve: | 5 x — 1 | = 9.
82. If h = 72 t — 16 t2, find t when h = 0.
83. Is —1 a root of 2 x3 — 3 x2 — x + 4 = 0?

84. Solve for x in terms of a: (2 x + a)(x — 1) = a(2 x + a).

85. What must be subtracted from 2 x2 — x — 1 to give x2 - 2 x + 1 ?

86. Evaluate 2(2 x — l)(x — 3) when x = 1.5.

87. If log N = 1.8640, find logViV.
/9 x~*\~b
88. Simplify (——
\ x^
89. Factor: 8 x3 — 1.

90. Write the number having digits represented by a, b, c in order. What

is the remainder when the number is divided by 9?

91. Find x if (2 x — l)2 = 3.

92. If f(x) = 4 x — 2, find /(0) and the value of x for which f(x) = 0.
314 Review Exercises

93. Factor 1 + x + x2 -f x3.

94. What is the difference, if any, between and x4 + —A ?
x4
95. Is J a root of the equation 4 #3 = 3 — 5 x?
96. If fix) = 3 x2 — 2 x, find/(— 2) and/(J).
97. Find the equation of the line through (5, — 1) perpendicular to
3 x — y = 6.
98. Find k if the point (k, 0) is equidistant from (6, 0) and (4, 4).
99. Find k if — 3 is a root of 2 x2 + kx — 6 = 0.
100. Solve 1 + y/x -f 5 = x.
101. Find k if (k, 4) is the vertex of the right angle in a right triangle of
which the other vertices are (1,2) and (3, 4).
102. If (xi, y\) and (x2, 3^2) are pairs of values satisfying the relationship
0 f. 1 yi -r X\ 2
y = —> find if — = - •
x1 y2 x2 3
103. If f{x) = 3 x + 8, find the change in f(x) when the value of x is in¬
creased by 2.
104. If f(x) = 6 — 2 x, find the change in f(x) when the value of x is in¬
creased by 5.
105. Evaluate 2_1 • 2^ • 2E
106. Express in terms of x the total number of miles traveled in 2 hours
at x m.p.h. and 4 hours at (x + 3) m.p.h.
107. If cos 35° 30'= 0.81412 and cos 35° 36' = 0.81310, find cos 35° 32'
to 5 decimal places.
120 120
108. Which of the fractions has the larger value when x is
x+4 x
positive?
109. Write the rule which defines a linear function of x if the function
has value 2 when x = 0, and value 5 when x = 1.

110. If f{x) = 5 x + 2, evaluate —1^1.

a— b
 1iii i

■ PBM

T
i
■ :
■i
The Quadratic Function

The set of ordered pairs of numbers generated by a rule of the form

y = ax2 -f- bx + c, with a ^ 0, is called a quadratic function. Thus the sets
of ordered pairs (x, y) given by y = 4 x — x2, y = 3 x2, y = x2 — x — 6 are
quadratic functions. We shall understand that the replacements for a, b, c
in the general form are restricted to rational numbers, with a ^ 0.

Domain and Range

If / is defined by y = ax2 + bx + c, then the typical element of / is (x, y)

where the set of values of x is the domain of / and the set of values of y is
the range of /. When x is replaced by any real number, then ax2 -\-bx-\- c
is a real number. Thus, as with the linear function, the domain of a quad¬
ratic function is generally the set of real numbers. In individual cases, the
domain may be restricted by the physical conditions or by the requirements
of a particular problem.
The range of a particular quadratic function depends upon the values of
a, b, c. Methods of determining the range of a quadratic function will be
studied in this chapter.

Zeros of a Function

For a given value of x in the domain of a function the value of the function
may be (a) positive, (b) zero, (c) negative. The corresponding point on the
graph of the function is (a) above the £-axis, (b) on the £-axis, (c) below
the x-axis.

^ A value of x which makes the value of the function zero is called a zero of the
function.

Thus, if f{x) = 4 a: — a;2, /(0) = 0 and /(4) = 0. Hence 0 and 4 are the zeros
of f{x) = 4 x — x2.

The zeros of a function / are the roots of the equation fjx) = 0.

The zeros of a function/ are the ^-intercepts of the graph of /.

315
316 Chapter 13

Exercises[A]
Find the zeros of the functions defined below:
1. y = x2 — x — 6 6. fix) = x2 — 2 x — 7
2. f{x) = 8 — 4 x 7. y = 2x2-\-$x
3. y = 8 x — 4 x2 8. fix) — ax2 + bx + c
4. f(x) = 3 x2 — 2 x — 5 9. y = x2 + 2
5. y = x3 — 3 x2 + 2 x

Find the ^-intercepts of the graphs the functions defined as follows:

10. fix) = 3 x2 + 8 x 13. y = 15 x2 + 16 x — 7
11. y = 2 x — 7 14. fix) = x4 — 8 x2 -j- 16
12. f{x) = x3 — 4 x 15. y = x2 -j- 4 x — 6

Graph of a Quadratic Function

A quadratic function has a real value for every real value of x, and unless
the domain is arbitrarily restricted, a complete graph of a quadratic function
cannot be drawn. If the function has two real zeros, the important features
of its graph are usually contained in that portion which includes the points
in which the graph crosses the ^r-axis. The graph is therefore constructed
from the values of x in an interval which contains the zeros of the function.
Such an interval might be indicated by — 1 ^ x ^ 5, or by | x | = 3. What
are the end points of the latter interval?
We begin our study of the quadratic function by examining the graphs
of some specific examples.

Graph of y = 4 x — x2. The zeros of the function are 0 and 4. We there¬

fore consider the portion of the graph for values of x in the interval
— 1 ^ x ^ 5. The following table shows the values of y, or fix), for the
integers in the given interval. Y i
l
i
X - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4- ti
11 b

1i
2

-5 0 3 4 3 0 -5 -9
V
II

ii X
i
Corresponding points are shown in the .0 —
21 5 t
-2 I1
coordinate system at the right. The sym¬ _ 11
metry of their arrangement about the A .

| II
line x = 2 is striking, and it appears that t 1
i X
6 r
the function has an extreme high value i
1
of 4. i
i—
The Quadratic Function 317

It may be verified, by substitution, that

/(li)=/(2i)=3|
m =m) = if
/(- i)=/(4j) = -2i
These values give points of the graph which fit into the regular pattern
outlined by those for the integral values of x.
We complete the required portion of the graph by drawing a "smooth”
curve through the points that have been plotted. The values /(lj) and
/(2%) are very helpful in establishing the shape of the curve near the top.

Graph of y = 4x — x2

The graph illustrates the following properties of the function defined by

y = 4 x — x2.

(1) The function has a positive value for any value of x between 0 and 4,
and for no other values of x.

(2) The largest value of the function is 4 and the range of the function is
y ^ 4. The function has the value 4 when x = 2.

(3) For values of x less than 2 an increase in the value of x produces

an increase in the value of 4 x — £2, but for values of x greater than
2 an increase in the value of x produces a decrease in the value of
4 x — x2.

(4) It appears that if the page were folded along the line x = 2, the portion
of the graph on one side of the line would fit exactly on the other
portion. When this is the case, we say that the line is an axis of sym¬
metry of the curve.
318 Chapter 13

Graph of y = x2 — x — 6. The equation may be written y = (x — 3) (x + 2),

and we see that the zeros of the function are 3 and — 2. We consider the
portion of the graph corresponding to values of x in the set — 3 ^ x = 4.
Values of y, or f(x), for integral values of x in this set are shown in the table:

X -3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4

6 0 -4 -6 -6 -4 0 6
II

Corresponding points are shown —1—

Y 1I
in the coordinate system at the right. j £U; 1 i _
They are symmetrically placed with , 1
1
respect to the line x = %, and clearly 1
the value f(\) is important in 9 1
1
determining what appears to be the | 1 X
extreme low value of the function. — 3_
i !- 0 1 2 L

We have /(i) = ® 2 — \ — 6 = 2
j if
— 6j, and it may be verified that: 4 i x <
1i
m)=f(- i)=-5i <7
u 1 1
/(2*)=/(-l*) = -2i i
i
m) =/(- 2j)=2j
The smooth curve drawn through the points plotted from the values of
fix) is shown below.

The graph illustrates the following properties of the function defined by

y = x2 — x — 6.
(1) The function has a negative value for any value of x between — 2
and 3, and for no other values of x.
The Quadratic Function 319

(2) The smallest value of the function is — 65 when x = The range of

the function is y ^ — 65.
(3) For values of x less than an increase in the value of x produces a
decrease in the value of x2 — x — 6, but for values of x greater than \
an increase in the value of x produces an increase in the value of
x2 — x — 6.
(4) It appears that the line x — \ is the axis of symmetry of the curve.
The graphs of y = 4 x — x2 and y = x2 — x — 6 have been drawn on the
same scale. A careful examination of the curves will show that, if their posi¬
tions with regard to the axes are not taken into account, the curves are
identical. The student may verify this fact by reproducing the graphs on
coordinate paper, carefully cutting around one locus with scissors and
fitting the curve on the other locus. The graphs must be carefully drawn
on the same scale to produce a satisfactory fit.

Exercises [A_1]

1. (a) Draw the graph of y = x2 — 6 x + 5 for the interval 0 ^ x = 6.

(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values of x for which the function has negative
values.
(d) Write the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph.
(e) What is the smallest value of y?
(f) What is the range of the function?
2. If f(x) = x2 — 6 x + 5, (a) show that /(2.9) =/(3.1); (b) show that
/(3 + k) =/(3 — k) for every value of k.
3. (a) Draw the graph of y = 3 x — x2 for the interval — 1 = x = 4.
(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values of x for which the function has negative
values.
(d) Write the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph.
(e) What is the largest value of y?
(f) What is the range of the function?
4. If fix) = 3 x — x2,
(a) show that/(l.4) = /(1.6);
(b) show that /(l.5 + k) = /( 1.5 — k) for every value of k.
5. (a) Draw the graph of y = 3 x2 -f- 2 x — 8 for — 3 = x = 3.
(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values of x for which the function has positive
values.
320 Chapter 13

6. (a) Draw the graph oiy = x2-\-2x-\-2 for — 4 ^ x = 2.

(b) Is there a point of the graph on the #-axis?
7. Find k if the point (2, k) is on the graph of y = 2 x2 — 5 x — 1.
8. Find k if the point (k, 2) is on the graph oiy=2x2 — 5x — 1.
9. Find k if the point (—2, 6) is on the graph of y = 2 x2 — 5 x + k.
10. Find k if the point (k, 4) is on the graph of y = 4 x — x2.

Exercises [A_21

1. (a) Draw the graph of y = (2 + je)(4 — x), — 3 ^ x = 5.

(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values for which the function has negative values.
(d) Write the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph.
(e) What is the largest value of y?
(f) What is the range of the function, if the domain is unrestricted?
2. If f{x) — (2 + x)(4 — x), (a) show that/(0.9) =/(l.l); (b) show that
/(I — k) =/(l + k) for every value of k.
3. (a) Draw the graph of y = 2 x2 + 5 x for the interval — 3 ^ x ^ 1.
(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values of x for which the function has negative
values.
(d) Write the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph.
(e) What is the smallest value of y?
(f) What is the range of the function, if the domain is unrestricted?
4. li f(x) = 2 x2 + 5 x, (a) show that/(— 1.2) =/(— 1.3); (b) show that
/(— 1.25 — k) = /(— 1.25 + k), for every value of k.
5. (a) Draw the graph of y = 3 + 5 x — 2 x2, for — 1 ^ x ^ 4.
(b) State the zeros of the function defined by the equation.
(c) Write the set of values of x for which y > 0.
6. (a) Draw the graph of y = 2 x — x2 — 2, for — 1 ^ x ^ 3.
(b) Is there a point of the graph on the ^-axis?
7. Find k if the point (3, k) is on the graph of y = x2 + 2 x.
8. Find k if the point (k, 3) is on the graph of y = x2 + 2 x.
9. Is the point (— 3, — 1) on the graph of y = 2 x2 + 4 x — 7?
10. Find the value of k for which (—1.5, —2.5) is on the graph of
y = 2 x2 2 xk.
Exercises Bi
1. Find the distance of the point (3,4) from (a) the point (— 1, 1),
(b) the line y = — 1.
The Quadratic Function 321

2. (a) Show that the points (6,3) and (8, 8) are on the graph of
y — \x* 1 2 — x.
(b) Show that (6, 3) is the same distance from the point (2, 0) as
from the line y = — 2.
(c) Show that (8, 8) is the same distance from the point (2, 0) as
from the line y = — 2.

3. Show that — 1 — (x — l)2 = 2 x — x2 — 2 is an identity. Use it to

show that the greatest possible value of 2 x — x2 — 2 is — 1.

4. Find the distance of the point (1,2) from (a) the point (— -J, 0),
(b) the line y = — i-

5. (a) Show that the points (-2,-4) and (3, — 1.5) are on the graph
of y = x — \ x2. (b) Show that (-2,-4) is the same distance
from the point (1,0) as from the line y— 1. (c) Show that (3,-1.5)
is the same distance from the point (1, 0) as from the line y— 1.

The Parabola

A parabola is a curve defined as follows: Let d be a fixed line and F a

fixed point not on d. The locus
of points in the plane of F and d
which are at the same distance
from the point F as from the
line d is a parabola.
The point F is called the focus
of the parabola and the line d is
called the directrix.
The definition means that in
the diagram (a) if P is a point on the parabola, then PF — PM, (b) if Q is
any point in the plane such that QF = QN, then Q is on the parabola.

The Quadratic Function and the Parabola

It can be shown that the graph of a quadratic function is in every case a

parabola. We are not prepared to establish the general result at this time.
In the following paragraphs we demonstrate that the graph of the par¬
ticular function defined by y = x2 — 4) is a parabola having the origin as
focus and the line y — — 2 as directrix. We do this by showing that
1. Any point on the graph of y = \{x2 — 4) is the same distance from the
origin as from the line y = — 2.
2. Any point which is the same distance from the origin as from the line
y= — 2 has coordinates which satisfy the equation y = \{x2 — 4).
322 Chapter 13

1. We first illustrate by considering a particular point. Let P be the point

on the graph having abscissa 4. Since P is on the graph, the ordinate of P
is given by y = ^(42 — 4) = 3. Hence
P has coordinates (4, 3). The dia¬
gram illustrates the following results:

(OP)2 = 42 + 32,
so OP = 5 units.
PM = 3 + 2,
so PM = 5 units.

Hence OP = PM, as required. y——2

We now consider the general case, following the procedure used in the
numerical illustration.
Let 5 be the point on the graph having abscissa £. Then 5 represents any
point on the graph. Since S is y
on the graph, the ordinate of S
is obtained by replacing x by £
in the equation

y = \(x 2-4).
This gives

y = i(fe2 — 4).

Hence, the coordinates of S are

k2 — 4N y— —2
k, Using the distance

formula, we see that the distance from 5 to the origin is given by

fb2 _ 4A2
(OS)2 = k2+' x

16 k2 + k4 — 8 k2 + 16 k* + 8 k2 + 16
(osy2 =
16 16

os = £2 + 4
The distance from S to the line y — — 2 is given by

£2-4
SN = ^——^+2

£2-4 + 8 £2 + 4

Hence the distance from 5 to the origin is equal to the distance from S to
the line y — — 2.
The Quadratic Function 323

2. We now show that if the distance of a point from the origin is equal to
its distance from the line y = — 2, then the
coordinates of the point satisfy the equation
y = \{x2 — 4).
Let P(x, y) be a point in the coordinate
plane. Then OP2 = x2 + y2
OP = ~\/x2 + y2
Let PN be the perpendicular from P to
the line y = — 2; then
PN = y + 2
If the distances OP and PN are equal, we must have

~\/x2 + y2 = y + 2
That is, X'2
‘ T y2 — y2 T 4 y T 4
x2 — 4 = 4 y
_ JL
y= f(x2 — 4)
In (1) and (2) above we have shown that the graph of y = \{x2 — 4) is a
parabola with its focus at the origin and having the line y = — 2 as directrix.
The student will have an opportunity to demonstrate similar results for
other quadratic functions in the next set of exercises. Following that we
shall assume that the graph of y = ax2 + bx -f c is a parabola for all values
of a, b, c. The position of the parabola with respect to the axes depends
upon the values of a, b, c. Given the coordinates of the focus and the equa¬
tion of the directrix, one may obtain the equation of the parabola as in (2)
above. Given the equation of the parabola, it is possible to find the focus
and directrix; but we are not prepared to undertake this at present.

Vertex of a Parabola
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is the axis of
symmetry of the parabola. The geo¬
metric definition of the locus indi¬
cates why this is so. In the diagram,
for instance, the pairs of points
Pi, P2, andQi, Q2 are symmetrically
placed with respect to this line. The
point V, where the parabola crosses
its axis of symmetry, is called the
vertex of the parabola. V is midway between the focus and the directrix and
it is the point at which the distance from the curve to its directrix (or to its
focus) is least. In the graph of y = ax2 + bx -f- c it corresponds to the ex¬
treme high or low value of the function.
324 Chapter 13

Exercises [A]

1. (a) Find the distance of the point (3, 2) from the point (0, 1).
(b) Find the distance of the point (3, 2) from the line y — — 1.
2. (a) Find the distance of the point (—2, 1) from the point (2,-2).
(b) Find the distance of the point (—2, 1) from the line y = 6.
3. (a) Find the distance of the point (x, 4) from the line y = — 1.
(b) Find the values of x for which the distance of the point (x, 4)
from (0, 1) is equal to its distance from the line y = — 1.

4. (a) Find the distance of the point {x, — 2) from the line y=\.
(b) Find the values of x for which the distance of the point (x, — 2)
from (1, — -§■) is equal to its distance from the line y = J.
5. (a) State the distance of any point on the line y = 2 from the x-axis.
(b) State the locus of points which are 2 units from the point (0, 1).
(c) Draw the x-axis near the lower edge of a sheet of graph paper.
Locate, by means of compasses, those points on the line y = 2
which are at the same distance from the :r-axis as from the point
(0, 1).
(d) Repeat (c) using the lines y = J, y = 1, y = lj, • • • to y = 5.
(e) Draw a smooth curve through the points.
6. (a) State the distance of any point on the line y = 3 from the x-axis.
(b) State the locus of points which are 3 units from the point (0, 2).
(c) Draw the £-axis near the lower edge of a sheet of graph paper.
Locate, by means of compasses, those points on the line y = 3
which are at the same distance from the rr-axis as from the point
(°, 2).
(d) Repeat (c) using the lines y = 1, y = 1-^, y — 2, • • • to y = 5.
(e) Draw a smooth curve through the points.
7. As in exercises 5 and 6, locate a number of points which are at the
same distance from (0, 0) as from the line y = 1, and draw a smooth
curve through them. (Place the x-axis near the top of the page and
use the lines y = J-, y = 0, y = — J, y = — 1, • • • to y = — 4.)

8. As in exercise 7, locate a number of points which are at the same dis¬

tance from (2, 0) as from the line y = 2, and draw a smooth curve
through them.
9. (a) Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y — x2 which
have abscissas 1, 2, 3.
(b) Show that each of the three points is the same distance from
(0, 5) as from the line y = —
 The photograph shows a parabolic radar antenna, 142 feet wide, situated at
Fraserburgh in Scotland. The antenna is used in the study of upper-atmosphere
effects in radio propagation.
The parabolic form is used because a certain geometric property of the parabola
makes the form particularly suitable for such instruments. This property is that all
rays which come to the antenna from the direction of its central axis are reflected
to one point, the focus of one of the parabolic sections. Thus the instrument is ex¬
tremely sensitive, for the recording unit is placed at this focal point and so receives
all the rays which meet the antenna.

4
326 Chapter 13

10. (a) Find the coordinates of each of the points on the graph of
y = J(x2 — 2 x — 3) which have abscissas — 2, 0, 3.
(b) Show that each of the three points is the same distance from
(1, — 1-J) as from the line y — — 2
11. (a) Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y — \x2 — 2x
which have abscissas 0, 4, 10.
(b) Show that each of the three points is the same distance from
(4, — 3) as from the line y = — 5.
12. (a) Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y = 2 x — x2
which have abscissas 0, — 2, 3.
(b) Show that each of the three points is the same distance from
(1, f) as from the line y = I5.

Exercises [B]
1. (a) Show that the point on the graph of y = x2 having abscissa k is
the same distance from (0, J) as from the line y = — 5.

(b) Show that if the point with coordinates (x, y) is the same distance
from (0, 5) as from the line y = — 5, then y = x2.
2. (a) Show that the point on the graph of y = J(x2 — 2 x — 3) having
abscissa k is the same distance from (1,— 1-|) as from the line
y = -2b ....
(b) Show that if the point with coordinates (x, y) is the same distance
from (1, — lj) as from the line y = — 2j, then y = ^-(x2 — 2 x — 3).
3. (a) Show that the point on the graph of y = J x2 — 2 x having ab¬
scissa k is the same distance from (4, — 3) as from the line y = — 5.
(b) Show that if the point with coordinates (x, y) is the same distance
from (4, — 3) as from the line y = — 5, then y — \ x2 — 2 x.
4. (a) Show that the point on the graph of y = 4 x — x2 having abscissa
k is the same distance from (2, 3}) as from the line y = 4j.
(b) Show that if the point with coordinates (x, y) is the same distance
from (2, 3f) as from the line y = 4j, then y = 4 x — x2.
5. Find the equation of the locus of points which are the same distance
from (0, 1) as from the x-axis.
6. Find the equation of the locus of points which are the same distance
from the origin as from the line y = 1.
7. Find the equation of the locus of points which are the same distance
from the point (2, — 1) as from the line y = — 3. (j
8. Find the equation of the locus of points which are the same distance
from the point (— 1, 2.5) as from the line y = 3.5.
The Quadratic Function 327

9. Find the equation of the locus of points which are the same distance
from the origin as from the line x = — 2. Sketch the locus.
10. Show that the equation of the locus of points which are the same
distance from the point (a, 0) as from the line x = — a is y2 = 4 ax.

Graph of y = ax2 -f bx + c; (1) a > 0, (2) a <0

(1) a > 0. If a > 0 and x ^ 0, the number represented by ax2 is positive.

This positive number outweighs any negative numbers in the value of the
quadratic function when the absolute value of x is sufficiently large. Thus,
for values of x sufficiently far above or below zero, the value of the function
is positive.
In this case the graph of the function is said
to open upward (or be concave upward), and is
of the form shown in the diagram. It is a
parabola having its vertex at the lowest point
of the curve.
If the value of the quadratic function at this
lowest point of the graph is k, the function can¬
not have a value less than k for any real value
of x. There are, however, two real values of x
corresponding to every value of the function
greater than k. The value of k is the minimum value of the quadratic function.

(2) a < 0. If a < 0 and x ^ 0, the number represented by ax2 is nega¬

tive. In this case, for values of x sufficiently far above or below zero, the
value of the quadratic function is negative.
When a < 0 the graph of the function is
said to open downward (or be concave down¬
ward), and is of the form shown in the dia¬
gram. It is a parabola having its vertex at the
highest point of the curve.
If the value of the quadratic function at
this highest point is n, the function cannot
have a value greater than n for any real value
of x. There are, however, two real values of x
corresponding to every value of the function less than n. The value of n is
the maximum value of the quadratic function.
We shall refer to the maximum or the minimum value of a quadratic
function as the extreme value of the function. The extreme value of a func¬
tion defined by y — ax2 T bx -f- c is a minimum if a > 0, and is a maximum
if a < 0.
328 Chapter 13

Range of a Quadratic Function

If a quadratic function has a minimum value of 2, the range of the func¬
tion is given by y ^ 2. If a quadratic function has a maximum value of 15,
the range of the function is given by y ^ 15. The range of a quadratic
function is known when the extreme value of the function is determined.
We now illustrate two methods of finding the extreme value of a quadratic
function.
1. Method of Symmetry. If the graph of a quadratic function intersects
the x-axis, the zeros of the function are real numbers. The symmetry of the
graph enables us in this case to find the extreme value of the function by
using its zeros.

Example. Find the minimum value of f(x) = x2 — x — 2.

Solution: We have f(x) = (x— 2)(x-\- 1), and the zeros of the function are
2 and — 1. The graph of y = x2 — x — 2
Y
crosses the x-axis at the points (2, 0) and
(— 1,0). The axis of symmetry of the graph
is the perpendicular bisector of the segment
joining these two points. The midpoint of —Its /
the segment is (■§•, 0), so the axis of symmetry II /
H /
is the line x =
The value of the function when x = ^ is
therefore the extreme value. Since the 1 /
coefficient of x2 in f(x) is 1, the extreme (-1,0)\ 0 ' (2,0)/ X
value is a minimum.
The required minimum value is/(-|), and
f(¥) ~ — 2 = — 2\
Hence, the minimum value of the function
is — 2b.
^ Summary of Method

1. Find the zeros of f[x) = ax2 -f- bx + c. Let them be denoted by x\, X2-
2. Find the average of the zeros. Let xm = ^Ui + *2).
3. The equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph is x = xm.
4. Find f(xm). This is the extreme value of the function.

2. Method of Completing the Square. The extreme value of a quadratic

function can be determined by a purely algebraic method. The procedure
can be applied to any quadratic function, and it is based on the fact that
the square of a real number is never negative. For instance,
— 2)2 = 0 if x = 2,
(x — 2)2 > 0 if x ^ 2, x being a real number.
This result is used in the following illustration.
The Quadratic Function 329

Example 1. Find the extreme value of f(x) = 1 -f 4 x — x2.

Solution: We have f(x) = 1 + 4 x — x2
f{x) = 5 — (4 — 4 x + x2)
f(x) = 5 — (2 — x)2
The final form in which f(x) is written shows that the maximum value of the
function is 5. This conclusion is reached in the following manner.
If x = 2, the value oif(x) is clearly 5.
If x ^ 2, the value of (2 — x)2 is a positive number.
If we let this positive number be represented by k, then the value of f(x) is
5 — k, which is less than 5.
Hence, the maximum value of f(x) is 5, attained when x = 2.

Example 2. Find, by completing the square,

the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola
having equation y = x2-{-2x-\-S. Sketch the
parabola.
Solution: We have
y = x2 -j- 2x+5
y = (x2 + 2 x -f- 1) + 4
y — (x + l)2 + 4
Since (x-\- l)2 = 0 when x = — 1,
and (jc+ l)2 > 0 for x — 1,
the minimum value of y is 4, when x = — 1.
.'.the vertex of the parabola has coordinates (— 1, 4).

Example 3. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 96 ft.

per sec., and its height h feet above the starting point t seconds later is given
by h = 96 t — 16 t2. If the ball is caught on returning to its starting point,
find (a) the set of values of t for which the above formula for h is valid,
(b) the greatest height reached by the ball.
Solution:
(a) The ball is at the starting point when
h= 0
We then have 96 t— 16 t2 = 0
16 /(6 -0 = 0
t = 0, and t=6
Thus, the ball returns to its starting point in 6 sec., and the formula is valid for
0 ^ t ^ 6.
(b) Since the pairs (/, h) form a quadratic function, and the zeros of the function
are 0 and 6, h reaches its extreme value when t = 3. The greatest height reached
by the ball is the value of 96 t — 16 t2 when t = 3.
Thus, the greatest height reached by the ball is 144 feet.
330 Chapter 13

Exercises [A 1]
For each function defined in exercises 1-10, (a) find the zeros, (b) find the
extreme value and state whether it is a maximum or a minimum, (c) sketch
the graph of the function.
1. f(x) = x(x — 5) 6. f(x) = 2 x2 — 6 £ + 3
2. f(x) = (2 x — 3) (x + 2) 7. f(x) = x2 — 6 x + 9
3 ./(/) = 12/-3/2 8 ./(/) = 1 + 3/-2/2
4. f(x) = x2 — 4 9. /(+) = 4 x2 — 20 x + 7
5. /(+) = 4 — 3 x — x2 10. f(x) = x + 5 — 3 x2
11. Show that x2 — 2 x — 7 = (x — l)2 — 8 is an identity. Use the fact
that (x — l)2 is positive for all real values of x} except 1, to show that
x2 — 2 x — 7 has a minimum value of — 8 when x = 1.
12. Show that 2 + 10 x — 2 x2 = 14.5 — 2(2.5 — x)2 is an identity. Deduce
the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola y = 2 + 10 x — 2 x2.
13. The sum of two numbers is 30. Find the numbers if their product is
to be as large as possible.
14. The sum of two numbers is 10. Find the numbers if the sum of their
squares is to be as small as possible. (Show that the sum of the squares
may be written 2(x — 5)2 + 50, where x is one of the numbers.)

15. The formula h = 80 / — 16 t2 gives the height h feet of a ball above its
starting point / seconds after it is thrown upward with a speed of
80 ft. per sec. Find (a) the number of seconds taken by the ball to
return to its starting point, (b) the maximum height reached by the
ball, (c) the values of /, to the nearest tenth, when the ball is 40 ft.
above its starting point.
16. The formula h = 104/ —16 t2 gives the height h feet of a ball above
its starting point / seconds after it is thrown upward with a speed of
104 ft. per sec. Find (a) the number of seconds taken by the ball to
return to its starting point, (b) the maximum height reached by the
ball, (c) the values of /, to the nearest tenth, when the ball is 80 ft.
above its starting point.

17. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry

y= 3)2+ 1?
18. Show that ax2 + bx + c may be written in the form
b\2 . / b2\
a( x + + \c
\ 2 a) 4 a)
Deduce the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c
The Quadratic Function 331

Exercises [A 2]

For each function defined in exercises 1-10, (a) find the zeros, (b) find
the extreme value and state whether it is a maximum or a minimum,
(c) sketch the graph of the function.

1. fix) = x(4 — x) 6. fix) = 3 x2 — 6 x — 9

2. fix) = (3 x — 4)(# + 1) 7. f(t) = 4 t2 + 4 t + 1
3. fix) = 9 — 4 x2 8. f{x) = x2 — 4 x + 1
4. /(/) — 2t2 — 10/+8 9. f{x) = 5- 8i-3x2

5. fix) = 5 — 3 x — 2 x2 10. fix) = 3-\~4x — 2x2

11. Show that x2 — 4 x — 2 = (x — 2)2 — 6 is an identity. Deduce the

minimum value of x2 — 4 x — 2 and the corresponding value of #.

12. (a) Explain why the value of x which produces the minimum value
of x2 — 3 x also produces the minimum value of x2 — 3 x 4.
(b) Deduce the minimum value of x2 — 3 x + 4.

13. (a) Explain why the value of x which produces the maximum value
of 4 x — x2 also produces the maximum value of 4 x — x2 — 10.
(b) Deduce the maximum value of 4 x — x2 — 10.

14. Find the minimum value of 3 x2 — 4 x + 8.

15. (a) Find the value of x for which ax2 + bx reaches an extreme value,
and obtain the extreme value in terms of a, b.
(b) Deduce, in terms of a, b, c, the extreme value of ax2 + bx -f c.

16. A rectangular enclosure is to have a perimeter of 100 ft. Find the

largest possible area for the enclosure.

17. A farmer has 100 ft. of fence and he makes a rectangular enclosure,
using a wall for one side and the fence for the other three sides. Find
the largest possible area for the enclosure.

18. If / is the function defined by fix) = px2 + qx + r, what may be stated

concerning p, q, r in the following circumstances?
(a) The graph of / opens downward,
(b) the graph of/passes through the origin,
(c) the y-axis is the axis of symmetry of the graph of /.
19. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola
y = 2 x2 — 5 x + 4?
20. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola
y = x2 + x + 3?
332 Chapter 13

Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations

The essential property of a point on a graph is that the coordinates of the
point satisfy the equation of the graph.
Suppose we have the graph of the equation y = ax1 2 3 + bx + c, and suppose
the horizontal line y = k meets it in two points. Let the abscissas of the
points be X\ and X2; then since they both
have ordinate k, the points (xi, k), (0C2, k)
both lie on the graph. Substituting the co¬
ordinates of the points in the equation of
the graph, we have
ax 12 + bx 1 + c = k
ax22 -f bx2 + c = k
It follows that Xi and X2 are the roots of the
equation ax2 + bx + c = k.
If the horizontal line is the x-axis (y = 0),
the values x\ and X2 are the roots of the equation ax2 -f- bx -f- c = 0. This
merely reaffirms the fact that the zeros of ax2 -f bx + c are the roots of
ax2 -f bx -f c = 0.
In considering the intersection of the line y = k and the parabola
y = ax2 + bx -j- c, note that three cases may occur:

1. The line y = k may intersect the parabola in two distinct points. In

this case the equation ax2 + bx + c = k has two real, unequal roots.
2. The line y = k may have only one point in common with the parabola,
so that only one value of x satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c = k. In this
case the line must be tangent to the parabola at its vertex, and the equation
has the equivalent form (x — r)(x — r) = 0, where r is the value of x satis¬
fying the equation. We express this result by the statement that the equa¬
tion ax2 -j- bx + c = k has two equal roots.
3. The line y = k may have no point in common with the parabola. In
this case the equation ax2 + bx + c = k has no real root.
The Quadratic Function 333

Example. Construct the graph of y —3 x2 — 4 x — 6 for — 2 ^ x ^ 3.

Use it to obtain, to the nearest tenth, the roots of

(a) 3 x2 — 4 x — 6 — 0,
(b) 3 x2 — 4 x - 10 = 0,
(c) 3 x2 — 4 x + 4 = 0.

Solution: The graph is constructed from the following table of values:

(a) Roots of 3 £2 — 4#—6 = 0 are the values of x for which y — 0, that is, the
values of x at the points of intersection of the graph and the :r-axis. They are, to
the nearest tenth,
2.2 and — 0.9.
(b) The equation 3 x2 — 4 x — 10 = 0 is equivalent to 3 x2 — 4 x — 6 = 4.
Hence the required roots are the values of x at the points of intersection of the
graph of y = 3 x2 — 4x—6 and the line y — 4. They are, to the nearest tenth,
2.6 and — 1.3.
(c) The equation 3 x2 — 4x + 4 = 0 is equivalent to 3 x2 — 4 x — 6 = — 10.
Hence the required roots are the values of x at the points of intersection of the
graph of y = 3 x2 — 4 x — 6 and the line y = — 10.
This line has no point in common with the parabola, so the equation
3 x2 — 4 # -f- 4 = 0 has no real roots.
334 Chapter 13

Exercises [A|
The graphs in the following exercises should be constructed as accurately
as possible. Use a scale of 1 inch to 1 unit for x, and plot points at intervals
of \ unit in the value of x. Read roots of equations to the nearest tenth.
1. Construct the graph of y — x2 — 2 x for — 2 ^ x ^ 4. Use the graph
to obtain the roots of (a) x2 — 2 x = 1, (b) x2 — 2 x — 5 = 0.
2. Construct the graph of y=2x2 + 4x — 5 for — 4 = x = 2. Use it to
solve (a) 2 x2 -f- 4 x — 5 = 0, (b) 2 x2 + 4 x — 11 = 0, (c) x2 + 2 x = 1.5.
3. Construct the graph of y = 3 x2 — 4 x — 5 for — 2 = x = 3. Use it to
solve (a) 3x2 = 4x+5, (b) 3 x2 — 4 x = 8, (c) 3 x2 — 4 x + 1.
4. Construct the graph of y = x2 for — 3 = x = 3. On the same axes
construct the line y — x + 2. Read the abscissas of the points of inter¬
section of the line and the parabola, and explain why they are the roots
of x2 — x — 2 = 0.
5. Construct the graph of y = x2 for — 3 = x = 3. On the same axes
construct the line y = \ x + 4, and obtain the roots of 2 x2 — x — 8 = 0.
6. Use a graphical method to obtain the roots of 2 x2 — 4 x — 5 = 0, and
to show that no real values of x satisfy 2 x2 — 4rr-J-3 = 0.

Inequalities
Our investigation of the quadratic function has been mainly concerned
with relationships expressed by equalities. In particular, we have dealt with
the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c and with the set of solutions of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
We now examine relationships expressed by inequalities and consider the
following questions:
1. What is the graph of an inequality of the form y > ax2 + bx + c?
2. What values of x satisfy an inequality of the form ax2 + bx -j- c > 0?
We illustrate each question by an example.

Example 1. Draw the graph of y > 2 x2 — 5 x.

Solution: We require the set of points determined by the condition that the
ordinate is greater than the value of 2 x2 — 5 x,
where x is the abscissa.
We draw the graph of y = 2 x2 — 5 x as shown.
For any given value of x, the point on the curve has
ordinate equal to the value of 2 x2 — 5 x.
For any point in the shaded area "above” the
curve, the ordinate is greater than the ordinate of
the point with the same abscissa lying on the curve.
(See P, Q in the diagram.)
The Quadratic Function 335

Hence the shaded area, not including the curve itself, shows the points for
which y > 2 x2 — 5 x. The set of points in this shaded region is the graph of
y > 2 x2 — 5 x.
The set of points in the unshaded region "below” the curve, not including the
curve itself, is the graph of y < 2 x2 — 5 x.

Example 2. Find the values of x for which x2 — 4 x + 3 > 0.

Solution:
Method 1. Sketch the graph oif(x) = x2 — 4 x + 3. The zeros of the function
are 1, 3, and the graph clearly indicates that
f(x) > 0 for any value of x in the set x < 1 or
in the set x > 3.
Method 2. We have x2 — 4 £ + 3 > 0
(x — 3)(x — 1) > 0
The product of two numbers is positive only
if the numbers have the same sign. Hence a
solution of the inequality must be a member of
either (a) the set x > 3 and the set x > 1,
that is, the set x > 3;
or the set x < 3 and the set x < 1,
(b)

that is, the set x < 1.

Thus the required set of values is the union of the set represented by x < 1
and the set represented by x > 3.

Exercises [A]

1. Sketch the graph of y > 3 x2 + 6 x.

2. Sketch the graph of y = x2 — 4 x + 4.
3. Sketch the graph of y < 4 x - x2.
4. Sketch the graph of y = 2 x2 — 3 x — 2.
5. Find the values of x for which
(a) x2 — 2 x = 0, (b) x2 — 2 x > 0, (c) x2 — 2 x < 0.
6. Find the values of x for which
(a) 3 x + 2 x2 = 0, (b) 3 x + 2 *2 > 0, (c) 3 x + 2 x2 < 0.
7. Find the values of x for which x2 — 5 x + 4 ^ 0.
8. Find the values of x for which x2 — 2 x + 1 =0.
9. Find the values of x for which 3 x2 — 2 x ^ 8.
10. Find the values of x for which 3(x + 2)2 -f4 = 0.
11. Find the values of x for which 4 x — x2 > 0.
12. Find the values of x for which 3 — 2 x — x2 <0.
336 Chapter 13

Complex Numbers
The expression x2 — 4 x + 5 may be
written in the form (x — 2)2-f 1. Since
(x — 2)2 is positive for all real values of x
except 2, the expression x2 — 4 x -f 5 has
a minimum value of 1 when x = 2. The
diagram shows the graph of the function
defined by y = x2 — 4 # -f 5, and illus¬
trates the fact that there is no real value
of x for which the value of the function is
less than 1. In particular, the function
has no real zeros.
If we attempt to find the zeros of the
function defined by y = x2 — 4 x + 5, we
have to solve the equation x2 — 4 x + 5 = 0. Using the quadratic formula,
and indicating the roots by x\ and X2, we have
4 + Vl6- 20 4-Vl6- 20
X\ = x2 =

4 + V-4 4 —V—4
X\ x2 =

The square of every real number is positive or zero. There is no real number
whose square is — 4, so the symbol V—4 does not represent a number in
the sense that we have used the word up to this point. _
4 + V-4 , 4 — V— 4
The question arises whether the symbols and may

be interpreted and used as numbers in some wider sense. Can we use them
in such a way, for instance, that these two symbols may be included in the
statement that if the zeros of ax2 -f- bx + c are x\ and x2, then the extreme
value of ax2 -j- bx + c is obtained by using x = %(xi + x2)? It can be seen
that if we assume that the procedures for adding real numbers apply to
4 + y —4 and 1 V-4
we have

1 1/4 + V^4 + 4 - V-4

-(*1+*2) = -

We saw earlier that x2 — 4 x + 5 does reach its minimum value when x = 2.

We now extend our concept of number so as to give meaning to symbols
such as those denoted by x\ and x2 above. This extension leads us to
the most general system of numbers used in ordinary algebra, the system
of complex numbers. This system is developed from pairs of real numbers
and a new symbol i which is defined by the statement that i2 = — 1.
The Quadratic Function 33 7

A number that can. be expressed in the form a T bi, where a and b are real
numbers and i2 = — 1, is a complex number.

If we choose a— 2 and b = 3, the resulting complex number is written

2 + 3 i. If we choose a = 2, b = — 3, we have 2 -f- (— 3)f, which is usually
written 2 — 3 i. Other examples of complex numbers are — 2.5 + 3.2 i,
V3 — 7ri. The complex number 0 -j- 1 i is usually written simply as i, and
since i2 = — 1 we agree that >/— 1 and i are symbols for the same number.
As we examine the system of complex numbers we shall see that the roots
of the equation x2 — 4 x + 5 = 0, represented on page 336 by X\ and X2, may
be written 2 -f i and 2 — i.

Subsets of the Complex Numbers

At each extension of our system of numbers we have been guided by two
main considerations. We have required (1) that the new system include all
the numbers in the old system as well as numbers of the new type, and
(2) that the results of operations such as addition and multiplication in the
new system be in agreement with results obtained in the old system.
The first requirement for the system of complex numbers is that every
real number be included in the set of complex numbers. This is readily
seen to be the case if we regard the complex number a + bi as equivalent to
the real number a whenever 5 = 0. The idea that every real number is
contained in the set of complex numbers is expressed by the statement that
the real numbers constitute a subset of the complex numbers.

^ A set A is a subset of a set 8 if each element of A is also an element of 8.

This relationship is symbolized by A C B. Thus, we may say:

1. The integers are a subset of the rational numbers.
2. The rational numbers are a subset of the real numbers.
3. The real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers.
A complex number a -f* bi in which 5 ^ 0 is called an imaginary number.
Thus 2 -j- 3 i, 1 — i, — 2.5 + 1.2 i are examples of imaginary numbers. The
number a is called the real part and the number b is called the imaginary
part of the complex number a + bi. A number such as 3 i, in which the
real part is zero, is sometimes called a pure imaginary number.

Note. The logical basis of the system of complex numbers was not fully understood
until the nineteenth century. Before that time, symbols involving the radicals of nega¬
tive numbers were regarded with suspicion. The difficulty of finding a convincing
interpretation of such numbers led to their being labeled "imaginary numbers.” Once
such labels have become widely used, it is almost impossible to change them. Thus,
while today the reality and respectability of the complex numbers is no longer in question,
we continue to use the adjectives "real” and "imaginary" in classifying numbers.
338 Chapter 13

Equality of Complex Numbers

In the following paragraphs we shall examine the operations of addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division in the system of complex numbers.
We begin by defining the equality of two complex numbers.

^ The complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal if and only if a = c and

b = d.

Thus, when two complex numbers are equal, their real parts are equal and
their imaginary parts are equal.
In particular, a + bi = 0 if and only if a = 0 and b — 0.
It can be seen that an equation involving complex numbers is usually
equivalent to two equations involving real numbers.

Example. Find x and yifrr + 2y+(2:r — y)i =1 + 7 i.

Solution: Since the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts are equal,
we have:
x+ 2y= 1
2 x— y—7
The solution of this system of equations is x — 3, y = — 1.

Addition and Subtraction

The sum of two complex numbers is defined by the statement

► (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.

The definition indicates that the real parts and the imaginary parts are
added separately. It is equivalent to extending the axioms of addition and
the distributive axiom [bi + di = (b + d)i\ to the new numbers.
It follows from the definition of addition that

a + bi + (— a — bi) = 0 + 0 i = 0.
Hence — a —bi is the additive inverse of a + bi and it may be written
— (a + bi).
The rule for subtraction also follows from the definition of addition, and
we have
(a + bi) — (c + di) = (a — c) + (b — d)i.

Example 1. Find the sum of 2 + i and 2 — i.

Solution: (2 + i) + (2 — i) = (2 + 2) + (1 — \)i = 4 + 0 i or 4

Example 2. From 2 + 3 i subtract 1 + 5 i.

Solution: (2 + 3 i) - (1 + 5 i) = (2 - 1) + (3 - 5)i = 1 - 2i
The Quadratic Function 339

Multiplication
The product of two complex numbers is defined by the statement
^ (a + b/)(c + di) — (ac — bd) + (ad + bc)i.

The result is equivalent to extending the axioms of multiplication and the

distributive axiom to the new numbers, and using i2 = — 1. Thus, the mul¬
tiplication of two complex numbers is based on the multiplication of the
binomials a + hx and c + dx, and it is not necessary to memorize the above
definition.

Example 1. Multiply 2 + 3 i by 1 + 2 7.
Solution: We have
(2 + 3 7)(1 + 2 7) = 2(1 + 2 i) + 3 7( 1 + 2 i)
= 2 + 47 + 3 7 + 672
= 2 + 47 + 3 7- 6 = - 4+ 7 7

Example 2. Multiply y/3 + 3 i by V3 — 3 i.

Solution: We have
(VJ + 3 i)(V3 - 3 i) = (V3)2 - (3 i)2
= 3 — 9 i2 = 3 + 9= 12
Two numbers of the form a + hi, a —hi are called conjugate imaginary
numbers. Their sum is the real number 2 a, and their product is the positive
real number a2 + h2.
Exercises [A]

In exercises 1-13 find the sum and the product of the two complex
numbers.
1.2 + 37 and 1 + 27 8. 1 + 7 and \ — \i
2.-2 and 2 + 37 9. 3 — 4 7 and — 3 + 47
3.3 — 27 and 4 + 47 10. 3 — 4 7 and 3 + 47

4. — 2 7 and 3 7 11. f — f 7 and 3 + 47

5. 2 + 7 and 2 — 7 12. yo + to i and 3 — 7
6.2 — i and f + i 7 13. p + qi and p — qi
7. 2 + 7 and — 2 — 7

14. Find the product of 2 + 5 7 and its conjugate.

15. Find the product of 4 — 2 7 and its conjugate.
16. If x + yi = 2 + 3 7 + 4 — 7, find x and y.
17. If a + hi = (2 + 3 7)(4 - 7), find a and h.
18. If a + hi = (3 + 7)(3 - 7), find a and b.
340 Chapter 13

Exercises [B]
1. Use the definition of addition of complex numbers and the fact that
if x = y + z, then x — y — z, to show that
a-\-bi— (c + di) = (a — c) + (b — d)i.
2. If (2 + 3 i)(x + yi) = 1, find the value of x and the value of y. [Multi¬
ply the complex numbers and note that the real part of the product
must be 1 and the imaginary part must be 0.]
3. If (1 — 3 i) (x -f- yi) = 1, find the value of x and the value of y.

4. Find the product of a — bi and . a TO H—- ^ TO i.

a1 + bz az + b2

5. Find the product of p + qi and ^-r-^—^

p2 + q2 p2 + q2

Division
The operation of division by a number a is equivalent to that of multipli¬

cation by - * where - is a symbol for the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal

a a
of a.
Before considering the mechanics of the procedure for dividing by a num¬
ber of the form a + bi, we illustrate the fact that a non-zero complex number
has a unique reciprocal. In the illustration we shall find the complex number
which is the reciprocal of 2 — i.
If x -f yi represents the reciprocal of 2 — i, then
(2 — i) (x-\- yi) = 1.
Performing the indicated multiplication, we have
2 x -f- 2 yi — xi — i2y = 1
(2 x + y) + (— x + 2 y)i = 1 + 0 i.
If the complex numbers are equal, their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal. Hence, we have
2 x+y= 1
—x+ 2y= 0
This system of equations has the unique solution (f, J-).
Hence, 2 — i has the unique reciprocal f -p i i-
The operation of division by 2 — i may therefore be performed by
multiplying by f + £ i.
In practice, division by a complex number is generally performed without
actually finding the reciprocal of the given divisor. The usual procedure,
outlined below, is equivalent to multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor.
The Quadratic Function 341

^ 1. Write the division in the form of a fraction.

2. Multiply numerator and denominator of the fraction by the complex number
which is the conjugate of the divisor.
3. Simplify the resulting expression.

Example. Divide 1 + i by 2 — i.
1 I *

Solution: The quotient may be written as the fraction —— •

2—i
The conjugate of 2 — i is 2 -j~ i, and we multiply numerator and denominator
of the fraction by 2 -f- i.

Thus, 1 ~M __ (1 + i)( 2 -f i)
2-i (2 —0(2 + 0
l + 3i
5
= 14.3:
5 1 5 l-

Exercises tA]
1. Divide 10 by 2 + i 6. Divide 3 i by 2 — i\fl
2. Divide 2 + i by 3 — i 5
7. Simplify:
3. Divide 4 by 1 — i 1 -3i
4. Divide y/3-\-i by \/3 2 — a/2
8. Simplify:
5. Divide 1 + i by 2 -J- i 1-+- i\fl
9. Find the complex number which is the reciprocal of 4 + 3 i.
10. Find the complex number which is the reciprocal of 3 — fV3.
1 y/3
11. Find the complex number which is the reciprocal of - -f i

The Meaning of y/a

The numbers \/3, — y/3 are the solutions of the equation x2 = 3. In the
same way we may think of y/— 4, — "V— 4 as the solutions of the equation
x2 = — 4. It is readily verified, however, that the pure imaginary numbers
2 i, — 2 i are the solutions of x2 = — 4. We agree, therefore, that y/— 4 and
2 i are symbols for the same number.

In general, for any real number a > 0,

1. Vo is a positive real number such that \/a • Vo = a.
2. y/— a = /Vo, and 'V— a • v/— a — — a.

For most purposes the form i\Ta in (2) is preferable to y/— a. Thus, we
usually write y/— 3 as i V3, V- 8 as iy/S or 2 fV2, and so on.
The relation y/a -y/h =y/ab, for positive values of a and b, is the basis
of most of the operations with numbers in radical form. It is important to
342 Chapter 13

note that the relation does not hold when both a and b are negative, though
it may be used when just one of the numbers is negative. Thus, as is shown
in the following Example, >/— 3 • V— 2 is not equal to \/6, though
V3 • \/—2 = V—~6.

Example. Find the product of (a) V— 3 and V— 2, (b) V3 and V— 2.

Solution: (a) 's/— 3 • V— 2 (b) \/3 • a/— 2

= iV3 • i\fl = V3 • fV2
= i2 V6 = i'Vb
= — V6 = V^6

Order of Complex Numbers

We have seen that the real numbers may be represented by the points on
a line, and that it is possible, therefore, to arrange real numbers in order of
size. We shall not consider a geometric representation of complex numbers
at this time, but we may note that they correspond to the points of a plane.
There is no useful way of arranging the complex numbers in order of size,
and terms such as "greater than," "less than," "positive," "negative" are
not applied to them. Any reference to a positive or a negative number
carries the implication that the number is real.
The complex numbers form a system closed under the six algebraic opera¬
tions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power,
and finding a root. No further generalization of the concept of number is
necessary in our algebra. The technique of determining roots of complex
numbers is beyond the scope of this course, but any such root can be ex¬
pressed as a complex number.
The following diagram exhibits the various classifications of numbers
which are encountered in algebra. Note that the whole structure is based
on the set of natural numbers. In a formal development of the system of
complex numbers, the integers are defined in terms of the natural numbers,
the rational numbers are defined in terms of the integers, and so on.

complex numbers
I I
real numbers imaginary numbers
r~ 1
rational numbers irrational numbers
I I
integers fractions
i I
natural numbers J zero
! negative integers
The Quadratic Function 343

Exercises [A 11

Perform the indicated operations:

1. 3V- 4 + 2V- 9 -V- 64 22. (3-2 t)(3 + 2 i)

2. 2V— 8 + 4V— i - V- 50 23. (3-2 i)2
3. (2 + V— 9) + (3 — V— 4) 24. (2 + 3 i)(5 + 30
4. (4 + V- 1) - (3+V-4) 25. (2 + iV3) (2 - iV3)
5. (3 + 4 i) + (3 - 4 i) 26. (- 2 + 0(- 1-20
6. (3 + 4 i) - (3 - 4 i) 27. (3 — «V2)(2 + iV2)
7. (i + V— J) ~ (i + V— D 28. (2 + V— 2)(2 — V— 2)
8. (l-V-4)-i(l-V-3) 29. (2 — V— 3)2
9. z + f2 + i3 + f4 /2 - tV5\/2 + tVS\
10. 4(2 - »V3) + 4(2 + »V3) 30'1 3 A 3 j
11. V— 4 -V— 9 31. (1 — iz)(l + i z)
12. V— 4 • V— \ ^2 /2 -f- zV2\ /3 + zV2\
13. V- lj* V— lj v 2 A 2 y

14. Vf-Vf -V-f 33. 2 H- i

15. 6 i-t- 2 i 34. 5 (3 + *)
16. ;V3 ■+■ iV2 35. 3(2 + V-2)
>
>

36. (4-2 0 (1 - 0
i—H

t—H

00
00

h-
•I-

1
1
•

18. V-f -s-V— 2§ 37. 2 j h- (2 + *V2)

19. (1 + i)(i — 0 38. (3 + 0 -*• (3 - 0
20. (1 - z)2 39. (4-2 0 -5- (2 - 0
21. (2 + 0(1 - i) 40. (3 + tV3) + (1 - »V3)
41. Evaluate x2 — 4 x when x = 2 + z.
42. Evaluate 2 x2 — 5 x when x = 5 _ 1 • 4 4

43. If/(x) = _ 2 evaluate/(I + 2 z).

3—X
1 + »V3\
44. If /(x) — f evaluate f(
x2 + 1 \ 2 /
45. Show by substitution that -|(1 + z) is a root of 2 x2 — 2x+ 1 —
3- is a root of3x2 6x + 4
46. Show by substitution that — =
3
47. (a) Solve x2 — 6 x + 10 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots. (c) Find the product of the roots
344 Chapter 13

48. (a) Solve 3 x2 — 12^-f- 16 = 0.

(b) Find the sum of the roots, (c) Find the product of the roots.
49. (a) Solve 4x2 + 6a; + 5 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots, (c) Find the product of the roots.
50. (a) Solve 9 x2 + 18 x + 13 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots, (c) Find the product of the roots.
51. If x + iy = (2 + i\/2)2, find x and y.

52. If x 4~ iy = (4 — 7 i) (2 — i), find x and y.

53. If f(x) = x2 — 6 x -f- 5, show that f(3 + ik) is a real, negative number
for every real value of k.
54. lif(x) = 1 — 4 x — x2, show that/(— 2 + ik) is a real, positive number
for every real value of k.

Exercises [A 2]

Perform the indicated operations:

1. (2 — *)(3 — 0 11. 3^-2 i
2. (3 - V- 2)2 12. - 4 ■+• iV:2
3. (V3 + »V2) (V3 - iV2) 13. (- 3 + 2 i) -*■ (2 - i)
4. (2-tV3)(3-2 A/3)
14. (3 — V^-3) -s- (1 — V—3)
5. (1 + 1)2(1 - i)
15. (3 + 4») + (2 + *)
6. (2 4-iV2)(2-»V2)
1 - tV3\/l 4- »'V3\ 16. S * + (1 4- 3 t)

8. (1 -
—A
i)3
X 2 ) 17. (3 - 61) -5- (1 - 2 t)

18. (t 4- i2) + (I3 4- i4)

9. (2 4- »V5)(3 - tV5)
19. (i4-i*‘) + (f-i»)
20. (V2 4- i)2 + (i 4- tV2)
21. Show that 2 — f is a square root of 3 — 4 i.

22. Show that (1 + i) is a square root of i.

23. Evaluate 2 i2 -f- 6 x when rc = — 1.5 + 0.5 i.

24. Evaluate 3 x2 - 6 x when x = 1 — z‘V3.

25. If /(*) = ’ evaluate /(I — i).

2 — #
The Quadratic Function 345

26. If /(x) = x + -t evaluate/(I + i\/3).

x

27. (a) Evaluate (1 -M)(i — i i)-

(b) State the reciprocal of 1 + i in the form a -f- bi.
(c) Complete the statement n-r- (1 + i) = n • ( ? ).
28. (a) Evaluate (2 — i)(§ + ii).
(b) State the reciprocal of 2 — i in the form a + bi.
(c) Complete the statement n (2 — i) = w • ( ? ).

29. (a) Show that i ^ iV3 is the reciprocal of i + \ i\f3.

(b) Complete the statement w ■+■ (£ — \ iy/3) = n • ( ? ).

30. (a) Find the reciprocal of a + ib.

(b) If f(x) = x + - > show that f(a + ib) =f(a — ib) = 2 a.

x
31. If x + iy = (3 + i)2, find x and y, and show that x — iy = (3 — i)2.

32. If x -f iy = (1 -f f)3, find x and 3/, and show that x — iy = (1 — f)3.

33. Solve x2 — 3 x -f 3 = 0. Find the sum of the roots and the product
of the roots.

34. Solve 2 x2 + 6 x + 5 = 0. Find the sum of the roots and the product
of the roots.

35. Solve 5 x2 — 2 x + 1 = 0. Find the sum of the roots and the product
of the roots.

36. Solve 3x2 — 4x-f-5 = 0. Find the sum of the roots and the product
of the roots.

The Nature of the Roots of ax2 -f- bx + c = 0

In the complex number system, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

has two roots, given by
— b d: V^2 — 4 ac
2 a
for any values of a, b, c. The roots may be written
— b ~\/b2 — 4 ac —b ~\/b2 — 4 ac
2 a 2 a 2 a 2 a

If a, b, c are rational numbers, the term —— is a rational number. The

2 a
— 4 ac
term on the other hand, may be real or imaginary, rational or
2 a
346 Chapter 13

irrational, according to the value of the quantity b2 — 4 ac. This quantity,

occurring under the radical sign, is an indicator of the nature of the roots of
the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. It provides a means of distinguishing or
discriminating between the sets of numbers which contain the solutions of
particular quadratic equations. For this reason the quantity b2 — 4 ac is
known as the discriminant of the equation.

The roots of ox2 -j- bx + c = 0 may be classified by means of the dis¬

criminant in the following manner. Let D be the symbol for the value of the
discriminant b2 — 4 ac; then

1. If D > 0, the roots are real, unequal numbers. The roots are rational only
if D is the square of a rational number.

— b
2. If D = 0, the roots are equal, rational numbers, each being -—• (Being
- - 2 a
rational, the roots are necessarily real.)

3. If D < 0, the roots are conjugate imaginary numbers.

Example. Determine the nature of the roots of (a) 5 x2 + 8 x — 11 = 0,

■(b) 3 x2 = 7 x — 6, (c) 10 x — 4 x2 = 6.25.

Solution:
(a) In the equation 5 x2 -f- 8 x - 11 = 0, a = 5, b = 8, c = — 11.
Hence, D = b2 — 4 ac = 64 + 220 = 284.
Since D is a positive number but not a square number, the roots of the equation
5x2 + 8^ — 11 = 0 are real, unequal, irrational numbers.

(b) Writing the equation in the standard form 3 x2 — 7 a* + 6 = 0, we have

a = 3, b = — 7, c = 6.
Hence, D = b2 — 4 ac = 49 — 72 = — 23.
Since D is a negative number, the roots of the equation 3 x2 = 7 x — 6 are
conjugate imaginary numbers.

(c) Writing the equation in the standard form 4 x2 — 10 x -j- 6.25 = 0, we have
a = 4, b = — 10, c = 6.25.
Hence, D = b2 — 4 ac = 100 — 100 = 0.
Since D is zero, the roots of the equation 10 x — 4 x2 = 6.25 are equal, rational
numbers.

Since the roots of ax2 -f bx + c = 0 are the zeros of ax2 -j- bx + c, the
nature of these zeros is indicated by the value of the discriminant. The
nature of the zeros of ax2 -f- bx + c, in turn, gives information concerning
the function and its graph. In the following statements f(x) represents
ax2 + bx -j- c, and only real values of x are considered.
^ 1. If D > Of f(x) has two real, unequal zeros. Thus, the graph of y ~ f(x)
crosses the x-axis at two distinct points.
When a is positive, f(x) is negative for values of x between the zeros.
When a is negative, f(x) is positive for values of x between the zeros.

2. If D = 0, f(x) has real, equal zeros; that is, there is only one value of x for
which f(x) = 0. The graph of y = f(x) is tangent to the x-axis.
When a is positive, f(x) is positive for all values of x except the zero.
When a is negative, f(x) is negative for all values of x except the zero.

common with the x-axis.

When a is positive, f(x) is positive for all values of x.
When a is negative, f(x) is negative for all values of x.
348 Chapter 13

Exercises LA]
Find the value of the discriminant and deduce the nature of the roots of
the equations in exercises 1-8.
1. 2 x2 — x+l = 0 5. 7 £ — 4 = 2 x*
2. 2 x2 x— 1 = 0 6. x — f (1 + x2)
3. 3 x2 — 4 x — 5 = 0 7. 1.5 x2 — 6(x — 1)
4. 8 x2 - 20 x + 12.5 = 0 8. 3 *2 = 2(x + 1)

Find the value of the discriminant for each of the following, and deduce
whether the graph of the function (a) contains 2 points on the x-axis;
(b) contains just 1 point on the £-axis; (c) contains no point on the #-axis.
9. f{x) = 2 x2 — 4 x + 3 12. f(x) = 3-\~3x — 2x2
10. fix) — 2 x2 — 4 x + 2 13. fix) = 30 + 10 x + x2
11. /(*) = 2*2-4* + 1 14. fix) = 1.6 a:2-4 a:+2.5

Sum and Product of the Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0

The roots of the general quadratic equation are

-b + y/b2- 4 ac b — y/b2 — 4 ac
X\ = x2 =
2 a 2a
Using R to represent V b2 — 4 ac, we have
b + R + -b-R_-2b b
X\ + x2 =
2a 2a 2a a
- b + R\/~ b-R\ b2- R2 b2-b2 + 4ac c
Xi • x2 ~~ i

2 a )\ 2 a / 4 a2 4 a2 a
Thus, in the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,

!► The sum of the roots =-> The product of the roots = -■

o a

When applied to specific equations, the above relationships often provide

useful information about the roots. If, for instance, a and c have opposite
signs, the product of the roots is negative and it follows that one root is
positive and the other negative. The two relationships may together be
used as a check on the solution of an equation.

Example 1. Solve the equation 3 x2 — 2:r + 3 = 0. Use the sum and

product of the roots as a check.
Solution: In the given equation a = 3, b = — 2, c = 3.
Ti • .i . , , 2±V4-36 2±4*V2
Using the formula, we have x =
6 6
The Quadratic Function 349

. [l + 2iV2 l-2iV2]
The set of solutions is
”1 5 ' 3 V
Check:
1 + 2 »V2 +1-2 tV2 2
The sum of the roots =

The value of — - in the equation is — — > or

a 3 3
(l + 2fV2)(l-2 iV2) 1+8
The product of the roots = = 1.
c .
The value of - in the equation is §, or 1.
b .
Thus the sum of the roots has the same value as-in the equation, and the
a
product of the roots has the same value as - in the equation. It follows that the
ii a
roots themselves are correct.

Example 2. Show that if f(x) = 1.5 x2 — 6 x + 6, there is just one value

of x for which f(x) = 0. Sketch the graph of y =f(x).
Solution: In the given expression for f(x), a= 1.5, b = — 6, c = 6, and we have
D = b2 — 4 ac = 36 — 36 = 0.
Since D = 0, the function has equal zeros, and
there is just one value of x for which f(x) = 0.
The graph of y=f(x), shown on the right, is
sketched from the following information:
f(x) has equal zeros, so the graph is tangent to
the x-axis.
The sum of the zeros is — > or 4, so each zero is

2, and the graph is tangent to the x-axis at (2, 0).

The coefficient of x2 is positive, so the graph is
above the x-axis, in fact,/(0) = 6.

Example 3. Find the value of k for which the roots of x2 — Sx-\-\ — k

are equal.
Solution: We rewrite the equation as x2 — 5 x -f- (1 — k) = 0, and note that
a= 1, b = — 5, c — \ — k.
Hence, D = 25 — 4(1 — k) = 21 + 4 k.
The roots of the equation are equal when D = 0, so the required value of k is
obtained from 21 -f- 4 k = 0.
The required value of k is — 5.25.
The result may be checked by putting k = — 5.25 in the original equation,
which then reduces to (2 x — 5)2 = 0.
Note. In the above example, D = 21 + 4 k defines a linear function of k, and the
value of D increases as the value of k increases. Hence, for all values of k > — 5.25,
D is positive and the roots of the original equation are real and unequal.
350 Chapter 13

Example 4. Determine the values of k for which the roots of the equation
k(x2 l) = £2 + 3a; — 3 are real and unequal.
Solution: We rewrite the equation as (k — l)x2 — 3 x + (k + 3) = 0, and note
that a = k — 1, b = — 3, c= k-{- 3.
Hence, D = 9 — 4(£ - 1) (k + 3)
= 9-4(£2+2 k-3)
= 21 - 8 k - 4 k2 or (7 + 2 k)(3 - 2 k).
We see that D = 21 — 8k — 4 &2 defines a quadratic function of k, and that its
zeros are k — § and & = --§■. The co¬
efficient of k2 is negative, so the value
of the function is positive for any value
of k between the zeros. This is il¬
lustrated by the graph of
T) = (7 + 2 k)(3 - 2 k)
shown on the right.
The roots of the original equation
are real and unequal when D is positive.
Hence, the roots are real and unequal
for any value of k between — \ and •§,
except k = 1.

Note. When k = 1, D is positive but the original equation reduces to — 3^+4=0

and has only one root. If any other value of k in the set — ^ < k < ■§ is substituted
in the original equation, we have a quadratic equation with real and unequal roots.

Exercises [A 1]
In exercises 1-8 find (a) the nature of the roots, (b) the sum of the roots,
(c) the product of the roots.
1. 2 x2 - 5 x + 4 = 0 5. 2 *(3 - t) = 5
2. 5 x2 -f 2 x = 1 6. 5 x2 — 7 x + 2.2 = 0
3. x = \(x2+ 1) 7. 2 /2 + 3 *+ 1.125 = 0
4. 5 *2 + 5 x + 0.8 - 0 8. *2 - 3 kx + k2 = 0

9. (a) Show that the zeros of 5 x2 — 4 x + 0.8 are equal.

(b) Use their sum to find the value of each zero.
10. (a) Show that the zeros of 3 x2 — 5 x -f 1.25 are real and unequal.
(b) By considering the signs of the sum and the product of the zeros,
show that both zeros are positive.
11. Show that 4 x2 + 3 x + 1 has no real zero. Is there a real value of x
which makes the value of 4 x2 + 3 x + 1 negative?
12. Find the value of k for which 9#2 — 4:r + &isa trinomial square.
The Quadratic Function 351

13. Solve the equation 2 x(x-f- 2) = 1. Use the sum and product of the
roots as a check.
14. Solve the equation x2 + 1 = x. Use the sum and product of the roots
as a check.
15. Without solving, state why the roots of x2 — 2x — 5 = 0 must have
opposite signs. Does the positive root or the negative root have the
larger absolute value?
16. Show that if the roots of a quadratic equation are imaginary, the
product of the roots cannot be negative.
17. Is it possible that the equation ax2 -f- bx + c = 0 has a positive root
when a, b, c all have the same sign?
18. Find the value of k for which the roots of 3 x2 — 8 x + & = 0 are equal.
Check by giving k that value and solving the resulting equation.
19. For what values of k is the value of k2 — 2 k, (a) zero, (b) positive?
20. Find the values of b for which the roots of x2 + bx + \ b = 0 are
(a) equal, (b) real and unequal.
21. (a) For what values of k is the value of 36 — 8 k positive?
(b) Find the values of c for which th& roots of 2 x2 — 6 xc = 0 are
real and unequal.
22. Show that if k > 3.2, the roots of 5 x2 — 8 x + k = 0 are imaginary.
23. Find c in terms of a and b if the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are equal.
24. If b2 = 4 ac, write the set of solutions of ax2 + bx -f c = 0.

Exercises [A~21

In exercises 1-6 find (a) the nature of the roots, (b) the sum of the roots,
(c) the product of the roots.
1. 3 x2 - 10 x + 9 - 0 4. 2 /(I - t) = 1
2. 12 x = 3 + 8 x2 5. 3 x2 -f 1.2 = 4.5 x
3. 2.25 x2 = 6 x - 4 6. 2 x2 + 6 kx-+ 3 k2 = 0

7. Show that 2 x2 - 8 x + 8 has equal zeros, and sketch the graph of the
function defined by y = 2 x2 — 8 x + 8.
8. Find the value of k for which 4x24-5x+^isa trinomial square.
9. Solve the equation 3 x2 — 5x + 3 = 0. Use the sum and product ot
the roots as a check.
10. Solve the equation 4 x(x + 2) = — 1. Use the sum and product of the
roots as a check.
352 Chapter 13

%2
11. The equation —— = -- has an obvious solution x = b. Use the
x— 1 o—l
product of the roots of the equation to obtain the other root, and check
by considering the sum of the roots.
2
x -f
12. Is x = 2 a solution of the equation — = Complete the solution
2 -f- a
and check as in exercise 11.
13. If a and c have opposite signs in the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, what
may be deduced about the roots of the equation?
14. State the condition which ensures that ax2 -f- bx + c shall have linear
factors with rational coefficients.
15. State the sum of the roots of x2 — 5 x + k = 0. If the difference of the
roots is 1, find the roots and the value of k.
16. State the sum of the roots of 2 x2 -f 7 x + k — 0. If the roots differ by
1.5, find the roots and the value of k.
17. If the roots of 3 x2 — 8 £ + & = 0 are in the ratio 3:1, find k.
18. Show that the discriminant of (k + \)x2 + 4 kx + 2 = 0 defines a
quadratic function of k. Find the zeros of this function and make a
sketch of its graph. For what values of k are the roots of the given
equation (a) equal, (b) real and unequal?
19. Show that the roots of 4 x2 + 4 mx + 2 m — 1 = 0 are real for all
values of m. Solve the equation using the value of m which makes
the roots equal.
20. Show that the roots of k2(x2 — 1) + 2 kx + 10 = 0 are real except for
values of k between — 3 and 3.
21. Find the values of k for which the roots of (kx-\- 1)2= {k + \)x are
(a) equal, (b) real and unequal.

Exercises [B]
1. Find the values of k for which the parabola y — kx2 + (k — l)x + k is
tangent to the x-axis. Illustrate each case by a sketch of the parabola.
2. Illustrate by a diagram the statement that if the line y = k is tangent
to the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c, the extreme value of ax2 -f bx + c
is k.
3. If the line y = k is tangent to the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c, what is
known about the roots of ax2 + bx + c = k?
4. Find the value of k for which the roots of x2 — 3 x + 3 = k are equal.
What is the minimum value of x2 — 3 x + 3?
T he Quadratic Function 353

5. Find the value of k for which 5 + 3x —2x2=k has equal roots, and
deduce the maximum value of 5 + 3 x — 2 x2.

6. Find the minimum value of 2 x24 x — 5, and the corresponding

value of x. Sketch the graph of the function defined by the equation
y—2x2-\~4x — 5.
7. Find the maximum value of 8 — 9 x — 3 x2 and the corresponding value
of x. Sketch the graph of the function defined by y = 8 — 9 x — 3 x2.

8. If the roots of ax2 + hx + c = k are equal, find the value of k in terms of

a, h, c. Deduce the extreme value of ax2 + hx + c, and state the condition
which decides whether the extreme value is a maximum or a minimum.

9. If ax2 -f hx + c = a(x + n)2 + k is an identity, find n and k in terms

of a, b, c. Use the result to show that
b2
(a) the extreme value of ax2 + bx + c is c — -— >
4a
(b) the value of x which produces the extreme value of the function is
half the sum of the roots of ax2 + bx -j- c = 0.

10. Find the maximum value of 11 — 4 t — 2 t2 and the corresponding

value of t. Sketch the graph of the function defined by the rule
/(*)= 11-4/-2/2.
11. Find the minimum value of 3 x2 — 5x-f5 and the corresponding
value of x. Sketch the graph of the function defined by the rule
fix) = 3 x2 — 5 x + 5.
12. (a) Show that if x\ and £2 are the roots of x2 + bx + c = 0, then
(pci — = b2 — 4 c.
X2)2
(b) Find the value of k for which the roots of x2 — 5.2 x + k = 0 differ
by 2.8.
13. Find the length of the chord of the parabola y — x2 — 2 x — 3 which is
parallel to the £-axis and 4 units above it.

14. A parabolic arch has equation y = 2 x - 0.04 x2, 1 unit representing

1 ft. both horizontally and vertically, and y taking non-negative
values. Find (a) the span (greatest width) of the arch, (b) the greatest
height of the arch, (c) the width of the arch at a height of 12.5 ft.

Formation of Quadratic Functions and Equations

If three ordered pairs belonging to a certain quadratic function are given,
the defining rule for the function can be obtained. The defining rule is ot the
form/(x) = ax2 -J- bx + c, and the function is determined when the required
values of a, b, c are found. Each ordered pair provides a value of x and the
354 Chapter 13

corresponding value of f(x), and when these values are substituted in

f{x) = ax2 + bx + c we have a linear equation in a, b, and c. The three
ordered pairs enable us to write three linear equations, and the solution
of the system provides the required values of a, b, c.
When the zeros of the quadratic function are given, the procedure for
obtaining the defining rule can be simplified. If the zeros are n\ and »2,
then f(x) is of the form k{x — n\)(x — nf), where k is a constant still to be
determined. The value of k may be found by substituting a third pair of
values of x and fix).

Example 1 . Determine fix) if /is a quadratic function such that/(0) = 6

and /(3) =/(- 2) = 0.

Solution:
Method 1. Let fix) = ax2 + bx + c.

m =0, 9a 3 b c— 0
/(- 2) = 0, 4a—2b-\-c = 0 ®
m = 6, c= 6 ®

The solution of equations ®, ®, (5) gives a = — 1, 6 = 1, c = 6.

Hence the equation which defines / is/(x) = 6 + x — x2.

Method 2. Since/(3) = /(— 2) = 0, the zeros of fix) are 3 and — 2.

Hence, the equation must be of the form/(x) = k(x — 3)(x + 2).
But when x = 0,f(x) = 6, so we have 6 = k(— 3) (2), and k = — 1.
Therefore, fix) = — l(x — 3)(x + 2) = 6 + x — x2.

If the roots of a quadratic equation are n\ and W2, the equation may be
written k{x — n\){x — nf) = 0. Different values of k produce equivalent
equations, so the factor k is not important in the equation as it is in the
function. A quadratic equation with roots n\ and n2 may therefore be written
ix — n\)ix — nf) — 0, though if either root is a fraction, an appropriate
value of k is used to convert the coefficients in the equation into integers.

If we wish to write a quadratic equation with specified irrational or

imaginary roots, the relationships of the sum and product of the roots to the
coefficients of the equation are useful. If n\ and W2 are the roots of the

equation ax2 + bx -f c = 0, we know that n\ + «2 = — and n\ • n* = -•

a a
But the equation may be written in the equivalent form

x2 -f - x + - = 0, that is, x2 — (n\ -f nf)x -j- n\ • n2 = 0.

a a
Thus, a quadratic equation with specified roots may be written

x2 — (the sum of the roots)x+ (the product of the roots) = 0.

The Quadratic Function 355

Example 2. Form the quadratic equation having roots — 3 and

Solution: The equation may be written
(x+3)(x — i) = 0,
that is, (a; + 3)(2 re—1) = 0,
or 2 x2 5x—3=0

Example 3. Form the quadratic equation having roots J(2 + i), J(2 — i).
2+i+2-i
Solution: The sum of the roots is = 2.

, . • (2 + 0(2 — i) 5
the product of the roots is---= -<
5 _
Hence, the equation is x* 2 X -J- 4 0
or 4 a;2 — 8 a; -f 5 = 0

Example 4. A quadratic function has a minimum value of zero when

x=2, and the value of the function is 1.5 when x= 2.5. Determine the
equation which defines the function, and sketch the graph of the function.
Solution: Let y—f{x) represent the function. Since f(x) has a minimum
value of zero when x— 2, the graph of y=f(x)
must be tangent to the x-axis at (2, 0). The func¬
tion, therefore, has equal zeros (each being 2).
Hence, f(x) = k(x — 2)2, where k is a constant.
Since f(x) = 1.5 when x = 2.5,
1.5 = &(0.5)2
1.5 = 6(0.25)
k=6
The required equation is y=6(x— 2)2. Its
graph is shown at the right.

Note. The maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function plays a double part
in the determination of the function. It gives an ordered pair of corresponding values
belonging to the function, and it also fixes the axis of symmetry of the graph. It follows
that one other ordered pair belonging to the function is sufficient to specify the function
completely, as is illustrated in the above example.

Exercises [A 1]
1. Form the quadratic equation having roots 2,-2.
2. A quadratic function / has zeros 2, — 2. If /(3) = 10, determine/(F).
3. Form the quadratic equation having roots — 2, 4.
4. The quadratic function / has zeros —2,4 and has value — 4 when
x = 0. Determine f(x) and sketch the graph of /.
5. Form the quadratic equation having roots 0, 5.
356 Chapter 13

6. The graph of a quadratic function / crosses the rr-axis at the origin and
at (5, 0), and passes through the point (1, 4). Determine/^), and
sketch the graph of /.
7. Form the quadratic equation having roots — 3.
8. A quadratic function / is positive for values of x less than — \ and for
values of x greater than 3, but for no other values of x. If/(0) = — 6,
determine/(x) and sketch the graph of/.
9. Form the quadratic equation having roots 2 -f-\/3, 2 — V3.
10. Form the quadratic equation having roots 2 + A/3, 2 — iV^3.
11. The quadratic function / has a maximum value of 8 when x = 4, and
has the value 0 when x = 0. Determine/(#).
- 1 + i V3 - 1 - i V3
12. Form the quadratic equation having roots
2 ’ 2
13. Form the quadratic equation having roots ^(3 +V5), 4(3 -Vs).
14. Form the quadratic equation having roots ——

15. A quadratic function / has zeros 2 +a/2 and 2 — \/2, and /(0) = 4.
Find the minimum value of the function.
16. The sum of the two bases and the altitude of a trapezoid is 32 in. If
the altitude is x inches, express the area of the figure in terms of x.
Find (a) the altitude of the figure when its area is 96 sq. in., (b) the
largest possible area for the trapezoid.

Exercises CA 2]
1. The sum of two numbers is 100, and the larger number is denoted by x.
Write an expression to represent each of the following: (a) The prod¬
uct of the numbers, (b) The sum of the squares of the numbers,
(c) The sum of the larger number and the reciprocal of the smaller
number. Which of the expressions are quadratic?
2. Form the quadratic equation having roots — 1,3.
3. The quadratic function / has zeros —1,3 and has the value — 6 when
x = 0. Determine/(V) and sketch the graph of /.
4. Form the quadratic equation having roots 0, — 4.
5. The graph of a quadratic function/ crosses the x-a.xis at the origin and
at (—4, 0), and passes through the point (1, — 10). Determine f(x)
and sketch the graph of /.
6. Form the quadratic equation having roots — f, 2.
The Quadratic Function 357

7. A quadratic function / is positive for x > 2 and for x < — §, but for
no other values of x. If /(0) = — 3, determine f(x) and sketch the
graph of the function.

8. Form the quadratic equation having roots 2 + V5, 2 — V5.

9. Form the quadratic equation having roots J(1 + iV3), ^(1 — fV3).

10. Form the quadratic equation having roots ———— - > —-—
3 3
11. Values of the quadratic function/are positive for 0 < x < 6 but for no
other values of x, and/has a maximum value of 18. Determine/(V).

12. Form the quadratic equation having roots —

13. Form the quadratic equation having roots 2 +v/— 2, 2 — V— 2.

14. A quadratic function / has zeros — 1 -f-\/3 and — 1 — V3, and
/(0) = 4. Find the maximum value of the function.
15. The perimeter of a rectangle is 28 ft. If one side is x feet, express the
area of the rectangle in terms of x. Show that there is no value of
x for which the area of the rectangle is 50 sq. ft.
16. A total of 400 ft. of fence is to be used to form two separate square
enclosures. If the side of one square is x feet, express the total area
of the enclosures in terms of x. Find the value of x for which the
total area is least.

17. A quadratic function has a minimum value of — 8 when x= 1, and

the value of the function is zero when x — 3. Find the value of the
function when x = 4.

Exercises 81
1. A gardener makes a rectangular enclosure using a wall for one side
and 80 ft. of fence for the other three sides. If
one of the equal sides formed by the fence is ^
x feet, express the area of the enclosure in terms
of x. Find (a) the value of x when the area is S
600 sq. ft., (b) the largest possible area for the
enclosure.
2. A square ABCD of side 10 in. has a square
PQRS inscribed in it, as shown in the diagram. R
If PB — x inches, express the area PQRS in terms of x. Find (a) the
value of x for which the area is 60 sq. in., (b) the minimum value
of the area.
358 Chapter 13

3. A parabolic arch ACB is to have a span AB of 60 ft., and a maximum

height CN of 20 ft. Find (a) the y\
equation of the curve ACB re¬
ferred to the indicated axes,
taking 1 ft. as a unit, (b) the
width of the arch at a height of
10 ft. above AB.
4. There are 20 members of a club for which the dues are $4.00 per
member. To encourage the recruiting of new members the executive
committee makes a rule that for every member above 20 in the club
the dues for all members shall be reduced 10 cents, (a) Show that
when there are x members in addition to the 20, the total received in
dues is a quadratic expression in x. (b) Is there a value of x for which
the club receipts reach $100? (c) Up to what value of x does the total
received in dues increase when a new member is added?

5. In the diagram, AB = 12 ft., AM = 6 ft., BN = 4 ft., and AB is

perpendicular to both AM and BN. P is a ^
point on AB, and the length AP is x feet.
(a) Express (MP)2 + (NP)2 in terms of x.
(b) Find the position of P on AB for which
(MP)2 + (NP)2 is least.
6. A workman is to form a trough to carry water by bending a sheet of
metal 24 in. wide so that it has a cross-section A
. _
Jj
A BCD which is rectangular but open at the top.
Find the length of the vertical segment AB when I
the capacity of the trough is as large as possible. B C
7. Show that with the material of exercise 6 the
capacity of the trough can be increased if the
cross-section is an isosceles trapezoid with the
sides inclined at 60° to the horizontal.
8. A BCD is a cross-section of a retaining wall in which CD is an arc of
a parabola having its vertex at D. If AD = 6 ft.,
AB = 16 ft., and BC = 2 ft., find the thickness of the ^
wall at a height of 9 ft. above the level of AD.
9. A manufacturer makes a profit of $15 on each article
when he produces 1000 per month. The cost of in¬
creasing the rate of production is such that the profit ^
on each article drops 1 cent for every article above
1000 produced per month. Show that when the number of articles
The Quadratic Function 359

produced per month is 1000 + x, the total profit is a quadratic ex¬

pression in x. Find the monthly production figure which gives the
maximum total profit.

10. A parabolic arch is to have a span of 40 ft. and a width of 20 ft. at a

height of 10 ft. Find its maximum height.
11. ABC is a triangle with AB = AC, BC = 8 in., A

and the altitude AN = 10 in. PQRS is a rec¬

tangle inscribed in the triangle, as shown. If
QR = x inches, express the area of the rectangle
in terms of x, and find the maximum value of
the area.
12. The framework for a box with a square base is
to be made from 40 ft. of metal rod; that is,
every edge of the box is to be made from the metal rod. If the side of
the square base is x feet, express the total area of the outside surface
of the box in terms of x. Show that the area of the surface is a maximum
when the box is a cube, and find the maximum value of the area.

13. When an object A is 100 ft. directly north of 0, and is moving toward
0 at 10 ft. per second, object B is 150 ft. directly east of O, and is
moving toward O at 20 ft. per second. Their speeds remain con¬
stant. If d feet is the distance between the objects t seconds later,
express d2 in terms of t. Show that the distance between the objects
is least when t = 8, and find the distance between them at that time.

14. Show that (x — a)2 + (x — b)2 has a minimum value of \{a — h)2.

15. Show that {x — a)2 + (x — b)2 + (x — c)2 has a minimum value when
x is the average of a, h, c.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B]

1. A quadratic function is such that /(0) =/(4) = 4. The maximum

value of / is 8. Find the zeros of / and determine f(x).

2. If Xi, %2 are the roots of 4 x2 + 4 px = 2 p + 1, show that

(xi — x2)2 = (p + l)2.

11 b
3. If x\, x2 are the roots of ax2 -J- hx + c = 0, show that (a)-1-=->

(b) xi2 + x22 = --

a2
4. Find the value of k for which the parabola y = x2 — 5 x + k has a
chord 3 units long on the ac-axis.
360 Chapter 13

5. In the equation ax2 -f bx + c = 0, state the conditions satisfied by

a, b, c if (a) the sum of the roots equals the product of the roots,
(b) — 1 is a root, (c) one root is the negative of the other, (d) one root
is the reciprocal of the other, (e) the roots are equal.
6. Diagrams (1)—(4) are graphs of y = ax2 + bx + c. In each case, state
what may be deduced from the graph concerning the value of the
discriminant b2 — 4 ac, and concerning the values of any of the indi¬
vidual coefficients a, b, c.

Vi2- 4 ac
2 a
8. Show that if the roots of ax2 -f- bx + c = 0 differ by k, the discriminant
has the value a2k2.
9. Show that the roots of 4 x2 — (4 a + 8)*: + a2 -f 4 a — 0 differ by 2.
10. If x\ is a root of ax2 + bx + c = 0, state the value of axi2 + bxi and
show that (x — x\)(ax + axi + b) is identical with ax2 + bx + c.

11. Show that for any real value of x the value of —-- is not greater than
x2 + 1
\ or less than — J. Sketch the graph of the function defined by
x
y- x2+l'
12. (a) Find the value of k so that the roots of (x — 2)(4 — #) = x + k
shall be equal.
(b) Using the value of k determined in (a), draw the graphs of
y = (:r — 2) (4 — x) and y = x + k.
(c) State the geometric relationship of the line to the parabola.
13. Find the values of a, b, c if the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c passes
through the points (1, 1), (2, 4), (5, 1). Obtain the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola.
14. A quadratic function / is such that /(1) = 10, /(2) = 25, /(3) = 35.
Determine f(t).
15. (a) Find the equation of the parabola which has the point (a, 0) as
focus and the line x = — a as directrix, (b) Show that if t is any real
number, the point (a/2, 2 at) is on this parabola.
The Quadratic Function' 361

Chapter Review
1. Show that the expression 3 x2 — 6x + 4 is positive for every real
value of x.
2. Solve 2 x2 — 5 x = 2.25, giving roots to the nearest hundredth. Use
the sum and product of the roots as a check.
3. Draw the graph of f(pc) = x2 — 3 x for — 2 ^ x ^ 5. Use it to read to
the nearest tenth the roots of x2 — 3 x = 5.
4. State the set of values of x for which the function defined by
(a) y = 2 + x, (b) y = 3 — 2 x, (c) y = (2 + x) (3 — 2 x) has positive
values. Sketch the graph of each function.
5. Find the value of k for which the parabola y = 3 x2 — 5 x-\- k passes
through the point (2, 1). Using this value of k, find the length of the
horizontal chord of the parabola having one end at (2, 1).
6. Is there a real value of x for which (x — 2)2 + (# — 3)2 is zero? Find
the minimum value of the expression.
7. Find (a) the minimum value of 3 x2 + 10 x, (b) the coordinates of
the vertex of the parabola y = 4 x — x2.
8. Find the values of x for which (a) x — 1 = (# — l)2,
(b) x — 1 > (x— l)2.
9. Find the value of k for which the roots of 2 x2 + 7 x 5 = k are equal.
What is the minimum value of2x2+7# + 5?

10. Iif(x) = —■—— > evaluate (a)/(2.5), (b)/(2 — i).

x
11. Show that 1 is a root of (a + h)x2 — (a — h)x — 2 b = 0. Use the
product of the roots to determine the other root, and check by using
the sum of the roots.
12. Find k so that k — 2{x -f l)2 is an alternative form of 5 — 4 x — 2 x2.
Deduce the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola y= 5 — 4 x — 2 x2.
13. Find the value of k for which the parabola y = 3x2 — 6x-\~k passes
through the origin.
14. Draw the graphs of y = x2 and y = 4 x — 2 on the same axes for
0 = x = 4. Use them to obtain the roots of x2 — 4 x + 2 = 0 to the
nearest tenth.
.. . . ... 2 + 3iV2 2-3 iV2
15. Form the quadratic equation having roots-- > ^

16. Find the coordinates of those points on the parabola y = 2 x2 -\- S x — 2

which have ordinate equal to twice the abscissa.
362 Chapter 13

Chapter Test
1. Solve the equation 3 x2 — 6 x + 4 = 0. Use the sum and product of
the roots as a check.
2. Find the values of k for which the roots of 2 x2 — 5 x = k are (a) equal,
(b) real and unequal.
3. Solve x2 — 1.20 x = 1.55, giving roots to the nearest hundredth.
4. Find the maximum value of 30 x — 2 x2.
5. Find the value of k for which — \ is a root of 2 x2 + kx = 3.
6. Find the value of k for which \ \2 x — 2 x2 is identical with
k — 2(x — 3)2. Deduce the maximum value of 1 + 12 x — 2 x2.
7. The quadratic function / contains the following pairs of values.
Determine f(x).
X 0 2 4
f(x) 4 0 0

8. Form the quadratic equation having roots -J(l + i), -J(l — i).
9. (a) Evaluate 2 x2 — 4 x -f 5 when x = J(2 — iV2). (b) Divide 2 — i
by 3 + i.
10. Find the minimum value of x2 — 10 x. Deduce the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola y = x2 — 10£ + 5.
11. The quadratic function / has zeros — 1 and 2, and it has the value — 4
when x = 0. Determine fix).
12. Find the values of k for which (x — 5)2 = 9 — k2x2 has equal roots.
 m

Mathematicians and scientists are studying the problem of using earth satellites
as relay stations in a global communications system. Echo I, a 1 00-ft. plastic sphere
coated with a reflecting substance, was put into orbit about 1000 miles above the
earth in August 1960. For its launching, the deflated balloon was packed in the
28 -in. canister shown in the photograph.
While a "passive” satellite such as Echo I is itself a simple instrument, the ground
equipment needed to bounce waves off the satellite is extremely complicated.
 The Formal Development of the Complex Numbers

In this Sidelight we shall see how the system of complex numbers can be
developed from ordered pairs of real numbers without reference to the concept
of V— 1 • In approaching the discussion it is desirable that ideas concerning
the meaning of / and the procedures for operating with complex numbers be
disregarded. It must be admitted however that the formal definitions of opera¬
tions with complex numbers were not picked out of the air, but were selected
with definite objectives in mind.
In the formal approach a complex number is defined as an ordered pair of
real numbers {a, b). We shall use C as a symbol for the set of all such ordered
pairs. The properties of this system of numbers are all obtained from the
following three definitions.
Equality: (a, b) = (c, d)'if and only if a = c and b = d.
Addition: {a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b -f- d).
Multiplication: (a, b) • (c, d) = (ac — bd, ad -f be).
Let us see how these definitions satisfy the requirements of a useful number
system. Consider first the definition of addition:
(a, b) + (c, d) = {a + c, b + d).
The Closure Property. C is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and
the result of adding any two elements of C is an ordered pair of real numbers.
Hence, C is closed under addition.
The Commutative Property. We have {a, b) + (c, d) = {a + c, b + d) and
(c, d) -f (a, b) = (c -f- a, d -f- b). Since a, b, c, d are real numbers, we have
a -j- c = c -j- a and b -f- d = d -f b. Hence (a, b) + (c, d) = (c, d) (a, b).

The Associative Property. It is clear that since only real numbers are
involved, addition is associative.

Exercise: Show that [{a, b) -f (c, d)] -f- (x, y) = (a, b) + [(c, d) + {x, y)].

The Additive Identity. Let (p, q) represent the additive identity. Then
{a, b) + O, q) = (ia, b)
(a+P,b +q) = (a, b)
a-\-p=a, b -\-q = b, giving p = 0, q = 0.
Hence (0, 0) is the additive identity. We associate it with the real number 0.

The Additive Inverse. Suppose (a, b) + (•*> y) = (0, 0).

Then {a -\- x, b -\- y) = (0, 0).
Hence a -\- x =.0, b -\-y — 0, giving x = — a, y = — b.
364
 Hence (— a, — b) is the additive inverse of (a, b).
Using the definition of multiplication, the corresponding properties for multi¬
plication can be established.

EXERCISES

1. Show that C is closed under multiplication as defined.

.
2 Show that multiplication is commutative in C.
3. Show that [(a, b) ■ (c, d)] . (x, y) = (a, b) • [(c, d) • (x, y)].

The Multiplicative Identity. Let (u, v) represent the multiplicative identity.

Then (a, b) • (u, v) = (a, b)
(au —bv, av bu) = (a, b)
\ au — hv =a
[bu -\-av =b
This system has the unique solution u = 1, v =0.
Therefore (1, 0) is the multiplicative identity.

The Multiplicative Inverse. Let {a, b)(x, y) =(1, 0), so that (x, y) is the
multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of (<a, b).
Then (ax — by, ay -j- bx) = (1,0)
lax — by = \
1 bx -|- ay = 0
This system has the unique solution
a _ —b
X~a2-\-b2’ ^ ~ a2-\-b2

Thus the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of (a, b) is Q2 *

A Subset of C
Consider the subset of C consisting of ordered pairs in which the second
element is zero. We can show that

\.(a, 0)+(b, 0) = (a + b, 0)
2. (a, 0) • (b, 0) = (ab, 0).
3. The additive inverse of (a, 0) is (— a, 0).

4. The multiplicative inverse of (a, 0) is

The elements of this subset of C behave just like the real numbers. If we identify
the complex number (a, 0) with the real number a, then the real numbers can
be considered to be a subset of C.
In particular, if we identify (—1,0) with the real number — 1, we have
(0, 1) • (0, 1) = (— 1, 0) = — 1.
What interpretation can then be given to the complex number (0, 1) in rela¬
tion to the real number — 1 ?
365
 EXERCISES

1. Show that (0, 1) • (0, 1) =(— 1, 0).

2. Show that {a, b) • (0, 0) = (0, 0).
3. If (0, 1) is interpreted as i, and (b, 0) is interpreted as b, show that (0, b)
may be interpreted as bi. [Consider {b, 0) • (0, 1).]
4. Show that {a, 0) -f (0, b) = {a, b), and that {a, b) may be interpreted as
a -f- bi.
5. Divide {a, b) by (c, d).
(Suppose the quotient is (x, y); then (c, d) • (x, y) = (a, b).)
6. Show that the complex numbers obey the distributive axiom. Show that
{a, b) • [(/?, q) + (x, y)] = (a, b) • (p, q) + {a, b) • (x, y).

366
 of the Second Degree
and Their Graphs

Equation of a Locus
An important aspect of the use of a coordinate system is that a particular
form of algebraic equation can be associated with a geometric curve of a
certain type. We have associated an equation of the form y = mx + k with
a straight line, and an equation of the form y — ax2 + bx + c with a parabola.
The equation of a locus is such that (1) any point on the locus has co¬
ordinates which give a solution of the equation, (2) any point whose coordi¬
nates satisfy the equation is on the locus. In this chapter we shall examine
the equations which are associated with some other forms of curves. We
begin by considering the circle.

The Circle
A circle is the locus of points in a plane which are at a fixed distance
(r units) from a fixed point (C) in the plane. The
point C is the center of the circle, and the distance,
r units, is the radius of the circle.
A point P in the plane is on the circle if and only
if CP = r units. When a point is on a circle we say
that the circle contains or passes through the point.
Consider, for example, a circle in the
coordinate plane with center at the
origin 0 and radius 3 units. Let P be the
point with coordinates (1.8, 2.4). Using
the distance formula, we have:

00P)2= (1.8)2 + (2.4)2

= 3.24 + 5.76
= 9.00

Hence, OP = 3, and we conclude that

P is a point on the given circle.
367
368 Chapter 14

Equation of Circle with Center at the Origin

The equation of a circle with radius r units and center at the origin is ob¬
tained by using the distance formula.
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of a point
P in the plane. Then, we have
(OP)2 = x2 T y2.
The point P is on the circle if OP = r,
that is, if x2 + y2 = r2.
Also, if x2 + y2 = r2, then OP = r and
the point P is on the circle. Hence the
equation of the circle is
^ x2 + y2 = r2

Any point in the interior of the circle

has coordinates which satisfy the inequality x2 + y2 < r2, and any point
in the exterior of the circle has coordinates which satisfy the inequality
x2 -\- y2 > r2.
Example 1. Write the equation of the circle with center at the origin
which passes through the point (3, 4).
Solution: Since the circle passes through (3, 4), the radius r is given by
t2 — 32 -|- 42 = 25.
The radius of the circle is 5 units, and the equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 =

Example 2. Construct the graph of x2 -f y2 = 8.

Solution: The required graph is a circle with center at the origin and radius
y/s units. The point P(2, 2) is on the graph since
(OP)2 = 22 22 = 8.
The graph is constructed with a compass, using O as center and OP as radius.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 369

Example 3. Draw a diagram showing

the set of points satisfying the two con¬
ditions
x > 2, x2 -f y2 < 9.
Solution: (a) All points for which x > 2
lie to the right of the line x= 2. —
(b) All points for which x2 + y2 < 9 are
in the interior of the circle x2 + y2 = 9.
The shaded region in the diagram, not in¬
cluding the boundaries, contains all points
which satisfy both conditions.

Exercises [A_1]
1. Write the equation of a circle with center at the origin and having
radius 4 units. Classify each of the points (3, 2.5), (3.5, 2), (2.4, 3.2)
as inside, outside, or on the circle.
2. Describe in words the locus having equation (a) x2 + y2 = 25,
(b) y = 3. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to
(a) and (b).
3. Describe in words the locus of points in the coordinate plane which are
2 units from the #-axis. What is the equation of the locus?
4. Describe in words the locus having equation (a) 2 x — 5 = 0,
(b) 2 x + 5 = 0, (c) 4 x2 — 25 = 0.
5. Construct the graphs of (a) 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 49, (b) 4 x2 = 9. Find the
coordinates of all points common to the two graphs.
6. Find the area of a square inscribed in the circle x2 + y2 = 18.
7. Shade the portion of the coordinate plane containing all points (x, y)
for which (a) x2 + y2 < 4, (b) 9 < x2 -f- y2 < 16.
8. What is the radius of the circle x2 + y2 = 10? Is the point (3, 1) on
the locus? Construct the circle.
9. What is the radius of the circle x2 y2 = 13? Is the point (3, 2) on
the locus? Construct the circle.
10. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing all points (x, y)
which satisfy the two conditions y > 2, x2 + y2 < 9.
11. A rectangle having length twice the width is inscribed in the circle
x2 -f y2 =40 with the longer sides parallel to the #-axis. Find (a) the
coordinates of the vertices of the rectangle, (b) the area of the
rectangle.
370 Chapter 14

Exercises [A 2]
1. Write the equation of a circle with center at the origin and passing
through the point (2, — 1). Determine whether the point (1.5, 1.7) is
inside, on, or outside this circle.

2. Describe in words the locus having equation (a) x2 + y2 = 4, (b) y — x.

Find the coordinates of the points which are common to (a) and (b).

3. Describe in words the locus of points in the coordinate plane which are
3 units from the y-axis. What is the equation of the locus?

4. Describe in words the locus having equation

(a) 2 y — 3 = 0, (b) 2 y + 3 = 0, (c) 4 y2 — 9 = 0.

5. Construct the graphs of (a) x2 + y2 = 6.25, (b) y2 = 4. Find the

coordinates of all points common to the two graphs.
6. What condition must be satisfied by k if the point (2, k) is to be
(a) inside, (b) on, (c) outside, the circle x2 + y2 = 20?

7. Find the length of the chord of the circle 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 25 intercepted

on the line x — 1.5. If a chord of half this length is intercepted on the
line x = k, find the value of k.
8. Draw a diagram showing the region of the coordinate plane which
contains all points (x} y) such that 4 < x2 + y2 < 8.
9. Draw the graph of x2 + y2 ^ 17.

Systems of Equations, One First-Degree, One Second-Degree

The circle x2 -f- y2 = 50 and the line 2 x + y = 15 have two points A, B in

common. We refer to these points as
the intersection of the circle and the line.
The coordinates of the points are A (5, 5),
B{ 7, 1).
The equation x2 + y2 = 50 has a set
of solutions, some of which are (1, 7),
(0, V^50), (—5,5). The solutions of the
equation 2 x + y = 15 are a different set.
Some of the members are (0, 15), (3, 9),
(— 5, 25). The only ordered pairs which
belong to both sets are (5, 5), (7, 1).
Just as the points common to two graphs
are described as the intersection of the graphs, so the common elements of
two sets of objects are described as the intersection of the sets. Thus the
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 371

pairs (5, 5), (7, 1) constitute the intersection of the set of solutions of
x2 -f y2 = 50 and the set of solutions of 2 x-\- y = 15.
We call (5, 5), (7, 1) the solutions of the system of equations x2 + y2 = 50,
2 x -f y = 15.
The algebraic process for obtaining the set of solutions of such a system
of equations is illustrated in the following example.
Note. The coordinates of a point are real numbers. If the solutions of a system of
equations are not real numbers, the graphs of the equations do not intersect.

Example 1. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to the
line 2 x + y — 6 and the circle x2 + y2 = 9.
Solution: Any point on the line has coordinates satisfying 2 x T y = 6.
Any point on the circle has coordinates satisfying x2 -f y2 = 9.
Hence, any point common to the line and the circle has coordinates which
satisfy both equations. The required coordinates are obtained by solving the
equations as a system.
2 x+y= 6 ®
x2 + y2 = 9 ©
From equation ® we have y = 6 — 2 x.
We substitute 6 — 2 x for y in equation ©, and solve for x.
x2 + (6 — 2 x)2 = 9
x2 + 36 — 24 £ + 4 £2 = 9
5 *2 - 24 * + 27 = 0
(5 x — 9) (x — 3) = 0
x = 3, x = 1.8
The linear equation y = 6 — 2 x is used in obtaining the corresponding values
of y.
When x= 3, y = 6 — 6 = 0.
When x = 1.8, y = 6 — 3.6 = 2.4.
Hence, the points common to the line and the circle are
(3, 0) and (1.8, 2.4).
The result may be checked by substitution in equations ® and ®.

Any system of two equations in x and y, one first-degree and the other
second-degree, may be solved by the method used in the Example above.
The procedure is outlined in the following steps.

1. Solve the linear equation for y in terms of x.

2. Replace y throughout the second-degree equation by the equivalent

expression in x.

3. Solve the resulting quadratic equation in x.

4. Use the linear equation to obtain the value of y corresponding to each

value of x, and express each solution as an ordered pair of numbers (x, y).
372 Chapter 14

In some cases the process is made easier by solving the linear equation
for x in terms of y. For these cases,
interchange x and y in the statements
given on page 371, except in writing the
ordered pairs. *= 1.8
The reason for the use of the linear
equation in step 4 is illustrated by the
diagram, which shows the graphical solu¬
tion of the equations 2 x + y = 6 and
x2 + y2 = 9. Notice that when x = 1.8,
the equation x2 + y2 = 9 gives y = 2.4 or
2xTy = 6
— 2.4, corresponding to the points A and
B of the circle. The point 22(1.8, — 2.4)
is not common to the line and circle, and
its coordinates do not provide a solution
of the given system of equations. Sub-
stituting x = 1.8 in the linear equation provides only the required common
solution. In addition, it is usually easier to substitute in the linear equation
than in the second-degree equation.

Example 2. Solve the system of equations:

2 x + 3 y = 2, 2 x2 + xy — 2 y2 = 8.

-2-3y
Solution: From the linear equation: x

Substituting for x in the second-degree equation, we have

2(2 —3 y)2 y(2-3y)

This equation reduces to

y2 — 5 y — 6—0
(y — 6)(y + 1) = 0
y = 6, y = — 1
• 2—3y
From the linear equation x = —-—-t we obtain the following values of x:

2 18
- .
When y = 6, x = —-— = — 8.

2+3
When y — — 1, x
2 2
Hence, the solutions of the equations are
(- 8, 6), and (f, - 1).
The solutions may be checked by substitution in the original equations.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 373

Exercises [A 1]
1. Find, by solving the equations as a system, the coordinates of the
points which are common to the line 2 x — y = 2 and the circle
x2 + y2 = 25. Illustrate graphically.

2. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to the line
4x 2 y = 5 and the circle 2 x2 + 2 y2 = 25. Illustrate graphically.
3. Solve the system of equations x2 + y2 = 37,x + y = 5.
4. Show algebraically that the line 2 x — y = 4 and the circle x2 + y2 = 3
do not have a common point. Illustrate graphically.
5. Show that the line 4 x + 3 y = 25 and the circle x2 -f y2 = 25 have just
one point in common. How is the line related to the circle? Can you
verify the result?
6. Solve the system of equations: 2x + 3y = 3, 4x2 + 8xy — y2 = 11.
7. Solve the system of equations: 2 x + y = 5, x2 + 3xy + x + y = 14.
8. Solve the system of equations: 2 x — 3 y = 5, (2 x — 3)(3 y + 4) = 3.

9. Solve the system of equations: X 5 xy — 6

(2 x — 3 y = 1
2 x2 = 3 y2 — 19
10. Solve the system of equations:
2 x=y+ 1

Exercises [A'2]
1. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to the line
3 x + 4 y— 10 and the circle x2 + y2 = 5. Illustrate graphically.
2. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to the line
2 x — 4 y = 9 and the circle 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 17. Illustrate graphically.
3. Show algebraically that the line 3x + 2y = 12 and the circle x2 + y2 = 9
do not have a common point. Illustrate graphically.
4. Show that the line 2 x — y = 5 and the circle x2 + y2 = 5 have just one
point in common. How is the line related to the circle?

In exercises 5-10 solve the systems of equations:

5. 2 x — 6 y = 7, xy = 12
6. x+2y = 4, y = Jx2
7. 2 x — y = 1, 2x2 + y2 — 2x — 2y—7 = 0

8. 2x + 3y=2, xy = — 8
9. 3x-f-2y = 4, x2 + 4y2=16
10. x -(- 6 = 3 y, x2 -f- y2 = 106
374 Chapter 14

Equation of Circle • Center-Radius Form

Let (x, y) be the coordinates of a point P in the coordinate plane. Then

for all values of x and y the distance from P
to the point (2, 3) is given by
PK = V(x - 2)2 +(y- 3)2.
The point P is on the circle with center
(2, 3) and radius 5 units if, and only if,
PK — 5. A point is on the locus, therefore,
if and only if it has coordinates which satisfy
the equation
V(x-2)2+(;y-3)2 = 5.
It follows that the equation of the circle with center (2, 3) and radius 5 units
may be written
(x — 2)2 + (y — 3)2 = 25.
The equation of a circle with center at (h, k) and having radius r is obtained
in the same way. The distance from P(x, y) y
to the point (h, k) is
y/(x — h)2 + (y — k)2.
P is on the circle with center (h, k) and radius
r if, and only if, the condition
(h,k) x-h
\/(x — h)2 + (y — k)2 = r
is satisfied.
O X
Hence, the equation of the circle with
center (//, k) and having radius r may be written

► (x h)2 -|- (y k)2 — r2 ®

Equation ® is called the center-radius form of the equation of the circle.

Using it as a pattern, the equation of a circle with specified center and radius
may be written immediately.

Example. Write the equation of the circle with center (— 1,3) and radius
4 units.
Solution: The equation is
(s-(-l))2+(y-3)2= 42
That is, {x + l)2 + (y — 3)2 = 16
For some purposes it is more convenient to have the equation in the equivalent
form
x2 + 2o;+l + y2 — 6y + 9=16
or x2 y2 2 x — 6y — 6= 0
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 375

Equation of Circle • General Form

Every equation of the form (x — h)2 + (y — k)2 = r2 may be modified, as

in the above example, to x2 -f y2 -f- Ax -f By + C = 0, where A, B, C are
constants. Every circle in the coordinate plane therefore has an equation of
the form x2 -f y2 -f Ax -f By + C = 0, which we shall refer to as the general
form of the equation of a circle. The characteristics of this second-degree
equation are that the coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal (and may therefore
be reduced to 1 by use of the division rule), and there is no xy term.
An equation of the form x2 + y2 + Ax -f By + C = 0, on the other hand,
does not necessarily have a circle as its locus. Every such equation can be
written as (x — h)2 + (y — k)2 = n, but the locus depends upon the value
of n. If n is positive, the locus is a circle with center {h, k) and radius y/n.
If n is zero, the only real values satisfying the equation are x = h, y = k, so
the locus is the point (h, k). If n is negative, no real values of x and y satisfy
the equation, and there is no locus corresponding to the equation.

Example 1. Construct the graph of the equation

iC2q_^2_4a;_|_5^_3_Q

Solution: We write the equation in the center-radius form, as follows:

1. Group the x terms and the y terms and separate
the constant term from the others.
x2 — 4 x + y2 + 6 y = 3.
2. Complete the square of the x terms and of the
y terms by adding the required numbers to both sides
of the equation.
x2 — 4x + 4 + y2 + 6y + 9:::=3-l-4 + 9
3. The equation may now be written in center-
radius form.
(x — 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 42
Hence, the graph is a circle with center at (2, — 3) and having radius 4 units.

Example 2. Find the points of intersection of the circles x2 -f y2 = 13, and

(x-2)2+ (y+ 1)2= 10.
Solution: We write the equations
x2 T y2 = 13 (D
x2 y2 — 4x-j-2y=5 (D
Subtract @ from ®. 4x— 2y= 8
2 x— y—4 d)
Equations ® and ® are now solved as a pair, giving the two points of inter¬
section (3, 2), (0.2, -3.6).
376 Chapter 14

Equation © in Example 2 is of
some interest. Any values of x
and y which satisfy both ®
and © must satisfy ©. Thus,
the locus of © contains the points
which are common to the circles
® and ®. But ® is the equation
of a straight line, and the line
passes through the points of inter¬
section of the two circles. Hence,
® is the equation of the common
chord of the circles.

Exercises [A 1]
Find the center-radius and the general form of the equation of the circle
determined by the conditions in each of the exercises 1-8.
1. With center (3, 1), radius 4 units.
2. With center (—2, 3), radius 3 units.
3. With center (— J, §), radius V3 units.
4. With center (2, 1.5), tangent to the £-axis.
5. With center (— 3, 0), passing through the origin.
6. With center (3, — 2), passing through (1, 1).
7. In the first quadrant, radius 2 units, tangent to both axes.
8. In the second quadrant, radius 3 units, tangent to both axes.

Find the center-radius form of the equation in each of the exercises 9-14,
and construct the graph of the equation.
9. x2 -j- y2 — 4 £ -f 6 y — 12 = 0 12. 2x2-\-2y2 — 6 £ -f- 10 y — 1=0
10. x2 + y2 + 6 x + 8 y = 0 13. x2 -f y2 — 2 x — 4 y + 5 = 0
11. x2 + y2— 10 £ + 9 = 0 14. 4^2 + 4y2—12^ + 4y-fl = 0

15. By finding the radius of each circle and the distance between their
centers, show that the circles x2-\-y2 = S, x2-f-y2 —8x-j-7 = 0
intersect. Illustrate graphically.
16. Solve the equations of the circles in exercise 15. Find the length of the
common chord of the circles.
17. By finding the radius of each circle and the distance between their
centers, show that the circles x2 -j- y2 = 4, x2 -\- y2 — 6 x — 8 y + 16 = 0
are externally tangent. Illustrate graphically.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 377

18. Solve the equations of the circles in exercise 17.

19. Solve the equations x2 + y2 = 5, x2 + y2 — 2 x — 2 y + 1 = 0.

20. A ABC has AB = 14 in., BC = 13 in., CA = 15 in. CN is the altitude
on AB. If BN = x inches and NC = y inches, show that x2 -f- y2 = 169
and x2 + y2 — 28 x = 29. Solve the equations and obtain the area
of the triangle.

21. Find the equation of the common chord of the circles x2-j-y2 = 20 and
x2 y2 — Ax-\-2y — 8 = 0.
22. Find the equation of the common chord of the circles having equations
x2 y2 — 2 x — 3 = 0 and x2 + y2 — 4 y = 0.

Exercises [A 2]
Find the center-radius and the general form of the equation of the circle
determined by the conditions in each of the exercises 1-6:
1. With center (4, — 3), radius 5 units.
2. With center (— 3.5, 3), tangent to the y-axis.
3. With center (0, 2), passing through (—1,0).
4. With center (a, b), passing through the origin.
5. Having (4, 0), (0, 0) as the ends of a diameter.
6. Having (6, 0), (0, 2) as the ends of a diameter.

Find the center-radius form of the equation in each of the exercises 7-12,
and construct the graph of the equation:
7. x2 y2 — 6 x — 4y + 4 = 0 10. 4 a;2 + 4 y2 — 8x — 4y — 3 = 0
8. x2 + y2 + 8 y = 0 11. 2 a;2+ 2 y2 — 7 x -j- y = 0
9. x2 + y2 — x + 2y—1=0 12. x2 -\- y2 — 2 x — 4y-f-6 = 0

13. Find the equation of a circle with center (5, 5) passing through the
point (2, 1). Describe the relationship of the #-axis to the circle.
14. By finding the radius of each circle and the distance between their
centers, show that the circles x2-\-y2 = 2, x2 A-y2 — 2x—2y — 6 = 0
are internally tangent. Illustrate graphically.
15. Solve the equations of the circles in exercise 14.
16. By finding the radius of each circle and the distance between their
centers, show that the circles
x2 -\- y2 — 4 y = 0, x2 y2 — 4#-}-4y-}-4 = 0
do not have a common point.
378 Chapter 14

17. Solve the equations of the circles in exercise 16.

18. Solve the equations
x2 _|_ y2 _ 2 x — 2 y — 2 = 0, x2 + y2 — 10 x — 8 y + 32 = 0.
19. Construct on the same axes the graphs of the equations y2 = 6 x — x2,
and y = 6 x — x2. Give a brief verbal description of each locus.
20. Eliminate y from the equations given in exercise 19, and show that the
abscissas of the four points common to the two graphs are 0, 6,
3 + 2V2, 3 - 2V2.
21. Find the equation of the common chord of the circles x2 + y2 = 10
and (x — 1)2 + (y — 2)2 = 5, and find also the length of the common
chord.

Line Tangent to a Curve [B]

The special shape of the circle enables us to say that a line which meets a
circle in just one point is a tangent to the circle. However, the general con¬
dition for a line to be a tangent to a curve cannot be expressed in such a
simple manner.

Figure (1), for example, shows a parabola and a line parallel to the axis
of symmetry. The line and the parabola have just one point in common but
the line is not a tangent to the curve. Thus, the condition that a line and a
curve have just one point in common is not sufficient to ensure tangency.
Figure (2), on the other hand, shows a line / which is a tangent at A to the
curve and yet meets the curve at a second point B. Thus, a tangent to a
curve does not necessarily meet the curve in just one point.
Without attempting to give a general definition of a tangent to a curve,
we accept the following algebraic condition as necessary and sufficient for
tangency.
^ The condition for a line / to be a tangent to a curve C is that when the
equations of l and C are solved together, there are two (or more) identical
solutions.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 379

Example. Find the equations of the lines through the point (0, 4) which
are tangents to the- circle x2 + y2 = 8.
Solution: Let m represent the slope of any member of the set of lines through
(0,4). Then the equation of the line is
y = mx + 4.
This equation represents any line
through (0, 4) except the y-axis.
Solving equations y = mx + 4 and
x2 -f- y2 = 8 together, we have
x2 + (mx + 4)2 = 8
x2 + m2x2 8 mx +16 = 8
(m2 + I)#2 + 8 mx + 8 = 0. ®
If the two solutions of this
quadratic in x are to be equal, then
the discriminant (b2 — 4 ac) must
have the value zero.
In equation ®, a = m2Jrl,b = 8m, c = 8.
Hence, b2 — 4 ac = 64 m2 — 32(m2 + 1)
= 32 m2 — 32
The value of the discriminant is zero if
32 m2- 32 = 0.
This gives m= 1, and m — — 1.
Hence, the equations of the lines through (0, 4) which are tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 — 8 are y = x + 4 and y = — x + 4.

Parameters [BJ

Every line which passes through (0, 4), excepting the vertical line, has an
equation of the form y = mx + 4.
the preceding Example.) The letter m
(See VI- rn
\m = 1 Y nz
//})i—
o

—l
represents the slope of any member of m 2
the set, or "family,” of lines. Assigning
0,4 )
a particular value to m singles out a par¬ N
ticular member of the family, and some
members are shown in the diagram.
The use of m as a temporary variable
enables us to examine the set of lines de¬
O X

termined by the property that each line

has 4 as its y-intercept. A letter used in \) y = nix+4
this way to enable us to write the typical T L L
equation for a member of the set is called a parameter.
380 Chapter 14

The equation y = 3 x + k is the typical equation for the set of parallel

lines with slope 3. The parameter k represents
the y-intercept of any member of the set. If a
result is established for a line represented by
y = 3 x + k, the result is a property of all lines
having slope 3.
The general linear function is defined by an
equation, y = mx + k, containing two param¬
eters. The quadratic function is defined by the
equation y = ax2 -f bx + c, in which a, b, c are
parameters. If we assign specific values to some,
but not all, of the parameters a, b, c, we obtain
the typical equation for a particular set of
parabolas. For instance, when b = c = 0, we
have y = ax2, representing the set of parabolas
each having the origin as vertex and the y-axis as the axis of symmetry.

Example. Show that all chords of the parabola y = x2 having slope 2

are bisected by the line x = 1.
Solution: The equation y=2x-\-k
represents a line with slope 2 for any value
of k. The common solutions of the system
y= 2x+ k (l)
y = x2 @
may be represented by (x\, yi), (X2, y2). If
line l\ cuts the parabola in P\(x\, yi) and
P2(#2, y2), then the abscissa of the mid¬
point, Mi, of P1P2 is %(x\ + X2). If, now,
M\ is to be on the line x= 1, then
\{xi -f- X2) must equal 1. (s)
To prove ® we note that the first step in
solving the system ®, (2), would be to substi¬
tute x2 for y in ®, getting
x2 = 2 x -f- k
or x2 — 2 x — k = 0. ®
Now the roots of ® are the numbers represented by xi, X2. Therefore, since the

sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is we maY write

Xi-p X2~ 2.
It then follows that -f- *2) = 1.
Thus, every chord with slope 2 is bisected by the line x = 1.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 381

Exercises LB|
1. Show that 4 x — 3 y = 25 is a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 25, and
find the point of tangency. Verify that the radius to the point of
tangency is perpendicular to the tangent.
2. (a) Find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the chord of the circle
x2 + y2 = 25 determined by the line 2 x + y = 10. (b) Show that the
line joining M to the center of the circle is perpendicular to the chord.
3. Show that the line 2 x — 2 y = 5 is a tangent to the parabola y = x2>
and find the point of tangency.
4. Show that the line 2 x Ary — 10 is a tangent to the circle x2 -f- y2 = 20,
and verify that the radius to the point of tangency is perpendicular
to the tangent.
5. (a) Find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the chord of the circle
x2 -f y2 = 10 determined by the line x + 2 y = 5. (b) Show that the
line joining M to the center of the circle is perpendicular to the chord.
6. (a) Show that the point P (2, 1) is on the circle x2 + y2 = 5, and find
the slope of the radius OP. (b) Use the fact that the tangent is perpen¬
dicular to the radius OP to obtain the equation of the tangent at P
to the circle, (c) Check by solving together the equations of the line
and the circle.
7. Find the equation of the tangent at (3, — 1) to the circle x2 + y2 = 10.
Check by solving together the equations of the line and the circle.
8. (a) Using m as a parameter, write the equation of any line through the
origin, (b) Find the values of m for which a line defined in part (a)
is tangent to the parabola y = x2 + 2.25, and illustrate graphically.
9. (a) Using k as a parameter, write the equation of any line having
slope f. (b) Find the values of k for which the line defined in part (a)
is a tangent to the circle x2 A- y2 — 13.
10. Find the equation of a line with slope 3 which is a tangent to the
parabola y — 6 x — x2.
11. Show that all chords of the parabola y = x2 having slope —3 are
bisected by the line x = — §.
12. (a) Find the coordinates of the end points A, B of the horizontal
diameter of the circle x2 -f- y2 = 13. (b) Verify that P (1, 2v/3) is a
point on the circle, and show that AP is perpendicular to PB.
13. (a) Find the coordinates of the end points A, B of the vertical diam¬
eter of the circle x2 -f- y2 = 20. (b) Verify that P (2\/2, 2v/3)
is a point on the circle, and show that AP is perpendicular to PB.
382 Chapter 14

14. (a) Write the slopes of the lines joining P(x, y) to A (3, — 2) and to
B(-3, 2).
(b) Express in simplest form the equation relating x and y when
PA is perpendicular to PB, and interpret the result.

15. Find the values of k for which the line 3 x + ky = 25 is a tangent to

the circle x2 + y2 = 25.

16. Find the values of k for which the line 3 x — y — k is a tangent to the
circle x2 + y2 = 10.

17. Find the values of m for which the circle x2 -j~ y2 — 5 £ + 5 = 0 and
the line y = mx have (a) one point in common, (b) two points in
common.

18. Show that the line y = mx + v 1-j-ra2 is a tangent to the circle

x2 -f- y2 = 1, whatever real number is assigned to m.

19. Prove analytically that the angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right

angle. (Let A, B be the ends of the horizontal diameter of the circle
x2 -f y2 = a2. Show that if P(xi, y\) is on the circumference, then AP
is perpendicular to PB)

20. Prove analytically that a line perpendicular to a radius at the point

where the radius meets the circle is a tangent to the circle. (Let
(xi, yi) be a point on x2 + y2 = a2. Obtain the equation of the re¬
quired line in terms of xi, yi, a, and show that when it is solved with
x2 -f- y2 = a2 there are two equal solutions.)

The Ellipse • A Geometric Definition

Let Fi, F2 be fixed points in a given plane, and let P be any other point
in the plane. If P satisfies the condition
PFi + PF2 = k, where k is a constant
greater than the number of units in
F1F2, then the locus of P is a curve
known as an ellipse.
We may set up a coordinate system
with the line F\F2 as the rr-axis and the
midpoint of F1F2 as the origin. The
equation of the locus can then be shown
to be of the form ax2 + by2 = c, where
a, b, c are all positive numbers and a 9^ b. Some exercises in deriving the
equation from the geometric condition are given later. At this time we
start with a specific equation and investigate its graph.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 383

The Equation x2 + 4 y2 = 16

The basic procedure in obtaining the graph of an equation is to compute

a representative set of ordered pairs and then to plot the corresponding
points. The needed number of ordered pairs is smaller when information
about the general form and extent of the graph is obtained as follows.
Intercepts. The x-intercepts of a graph
are obtained by giving y the value
zero. In x2 + 4 y2 = 16, if y = 0, x = ± 4.
(0,2)- ► C
Thus the x-intercepts of the graph are
zb 4. By giving x the value zero, we B A
-*—P—i—i—i-
see that the y-intercepts of the graph (-4,0) O (4,0) X
are d= 2. Thus the four points A, B, C, D,
which are shown in the diagram, are on (0,-2) *D
the graph.
Domain and Range. The equation
two equations
y= 16 — x2, y = — t^n/16 — x2.
In order that y should have real
values, the values of x must be such
that x2 ^ 16, that is, | x | =4. Thus
the domain of the graph is
— 4 ^ x ^ 4.
In the same way it may be seen
that the range of the graph is
— 2 ^ y ^ 2.
Thus the whole graph is within or on
the rectangle formed by the lines x =
Symmetry. In the diagram the points Pi and P2 are symmetrically placed
with respect to the y-axis. The points Pi
Y
and P4 are symmetrically placed with
respect to the x-axis. In general, points
with coordinates (xi, yi), (— Xi, y 1) are
symmetrically placed with respect to the Pf (-2,1) - (2,D* Pi
y-axis. Points with coordinates (xi, yi),
I f
(xi, — yi) are symmetrically placed with ' ' O X
respect to the x-axis.
A graph has symmetry about the i>(-2,-1) - (2,-D* Pi
y-axis if, for each value of y in the range,
its equation gives two values of x with
384 Chapter 14

the same absolute value but with opposite signs. The equation x2 + 4 y2 = 16
clearly satisfies this condition, so the graph of the equation has symmetry
about the y-axis. The graph also has symmetry about the x-axis.
The graph of y2 = x + 4 has symmetry about the x-axis. Does it also have
symmetry about the y-axis?

Construction of the Graph. The information which we have obtained by

studying the equation x2 + 4 y2 = 16 enables us to plot an accurate graph
using just a few ordered pairs. The following table gives values of y com¬
puted to the nearest tenth from the rule y = 16 — x2.

X 0 1 2 3 3.5 4

y 2 1.9 1.7 1.3 1.0 0

Y Y Y
2 1 • • • • * • •
'
• • • 1 • • •
• • • •

X ‘ 0 X X
1 2 3 4
• ••
# • < • •

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

In Fig. 1 the points corresponding to the ordered pairs in the table are
plotted. Fig. 2 shows the additional points obtained by using symmetry
about the y-axis. Fig. 3 shows the complete pattern obtained by using
symmetry about the x-axis.
The graph is then completed by drawing a smooth curve through the
plotted points as shown below.

The ellipse x2 + 4 y2 = 16
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 385

The graph illustrates the typical "oval” shape of an ellipse. The longer axis
of symmetry, AAh is called the major axis of the ellipse, and the shorter
axis of symmetry, BBi, is called the minor axis. In the general equation
ax2 + by2 = c, the major axis of the ellipse is on the rr-axis if a < b and is on
the y-axis if a > b.
Exercises [A]
1. Draw the graph of x2 + 4 y2 = 25 after completing the following
table by using the rule y = ^\/25 — x2.

X 0 1 2 3 4 5

y 2.5 2.4(5) 2.3

2. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x + 4 y = 10

and the ellipse x2 + 4 y2 = 25.

3. Draw the graph of — -f- f— = 1.

4 16
4. Draw the graph of (a) x2 -f- 9 y2 = 36; (b) x2 + 9 y2 ^ 36.
5. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = x + 2
and the ellipse x2 + 9 y2 = 36.
6. State the domain and range of the function defined by y = — x2.
Draw the graph of the function.
7. State the domain and range of the function defined by y = — §V4 — x2.
Draw the graph of the function.
2 2
8. Draw the graph of = 1.

9. (a) Draw on the same axes the graphs of x2 + y2 = 16 and x2 -j- 4 y2 = 16.
(b) The line x = k, \ k \ <4, meets the circle at A, B and the ellipse

at P, Q. Find the ratio •

AB

Exercises [B]
1. Fi, F2 have coordinates (4, 0), (— 4, 0). If P is any point in the co¬
ordinate plane such that PF1 + PF2 = 10, find the equation of the
locus of P.
2. F1, F2 have coordinates (0, 2), (0, — 2). If P is any point in the co¬
ordinate plane such that PF\ -f- PF2 = 8, find the equation of the
locus of P.
3. The line y = mx + 9 is to be tangent to the ellipse 2x2 + y2 = 9. Find
the required values of m, and make a sketch of the ellipse with the
two tangents.
386 Chapter 14

The Hyperbola • A Geometric Definition

Let Fi, F2 be fixed points in a given plane, and let P be any other point in
the plane. If P satisfies the condi¬
Y
tion | PFi — PF2 \ = k, where k is a
constant less than the number of
units in F\F2, then the locus of P
is a curve known as a hyperbola.
We may set up a coordinate system
with the line F\F2 as the £-axis and
the midpoint of F\F2 as origin. The
equation of the locus can then be
shown to be of the form
ax2 — by2 = c,
where a, b, c are positive numbers.

The Graph of x2 — 4 y2 = 16
Intercepts. If x2 — 4 y2 = 16 and y = 0, then x2 = 16. The graph has
^-intercepts 4, — 4. If x2 — 4 y2 = 16 and x = 0, then y2 = — 4 and the
values of y are imaginary numbers. The graph, therefore, has no point on
the y-axis.
Domain and Range. The equation x2 — 4 y2 = 16 is equivalent to
the two equations y = |Vx2 — 16,
y = — \\x2— 16. In order that y
should have real values, the values of x
must be such that x2 — 16 ^ 0, that is,
| x | ^4. Hence, the domain of the-graph _
is x ^ 4, and x ^ — 4. If we solve the (-4,0) O (4,0) X
equation for x, we have
x = ±Vl6 -f- 4 y2;
hence there is a value of x in the domain corresponding to every real value
of y. The range is therefore the set of real numbers.
Symmetry. The graph of x2 — 4 y2 = 16 has symmetry about the #-axis
and about the y-axis.
The graph is now constructed by obtaining a number of points in the
first quadrant and using symmetry to plot corresponding points in the other
quadrants. The curve extends indefinitely to the right as x takes large
positive values, and the value of y increases with the value of x in the first
quadrant. The following graph is constructed from the given table
of values, obtained from y = -JVx2 — 16, and the considerations of sym¬
metry mentioned above.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 387

The hyperbola x2 — 4 y2 = 16

Exercises [A]
1. Draw the graph of x2 — y2 = 9 after completing the following table by
using the rule y = v x2 — 9.

X 3 4 5 6 7

y 0 2.6 6.3

2. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = 2 x — 6

and the hyperbola x2 — y2 = 9.
/^2 /y2
3. Draw the graph of *-— ~r = 1.
4 9
4. Draw the graph of 3 x2 — y2 = 12.
5. State the domain and range of the function defined by the rule
(a) y =^/x2 — 4, (b) y = —Vx2 — 4. Draw the graph of each function.
6. Draw on the same axes the graphs of y= 2 x, and y = 2^/x2 — 4.
Find the difference of the y-values for the points on the graphs when
(a) x = 6, (b) x = 20.

Exercises [B]
1. Fi, F2 have coordinates (5, 0), (- 5, 0). If P is a point such that
| PFi — PF2 | = 6, find the equation of the locus of P.
2. Fi, F2 have coordinates (0,2), (0,-2). If P is a point such that
| PFi — PF2 | = 2, find the equation of the locus of P.
388 Chapter 14

Asymptotes

The graph of any equation of the form ax2 — by2 = c, where a and b are
positive, and c may be either positive or negative, is a hyperbola. If c is
a
zero, the equation may be written y2 = -x2, which is equivalent to the two
b

equations y - x and y = — These are the equations of two

straight lines through the origin. Their relationship to the hyperbola is

important. To illustrate the relationship we return to the equation
x2 — 4 y2 = 16. y
The hyperbola x2 — 4 y2 = 16 has al¬
ready been constructed. The equation
x2 — 4 y2 = 0 is equivalent to y — \ x
and y = — \ x. These equations repre¬
sent straight lines through the origin
with slopes \ and — J. If these straight
lines are drawn on the same axes as the
hyperbola, they appear to form a bound¬
ary for the region of the coordinate plane which contains the curve. To see
why this is so, let us examine the portion of the hyperbola in the first quad¬
rant in relation to the line y — J x. _
The equation of this portion of the curve is y = \y/x2 — 16. Since x may

not have the value zero, the equation may be written y = x-yj 1 — ^ •

Thus, for any specific value of x greater than 4, the ordinate of the point on
the hyperbola is less than \ x. The point on the hyperbola is therefore below
the corresponding point on the line y = \x. As x increases in value the
distance between a point on the hyperbola and the point with the same
abscissa on y — \x decreases. Hence, the curve approaches the line more
and more closely as x increases, but there is no value of x for which 16/ x2
is zero, so the hyperbola and the line do not have a point in common.
For a given value of x let y\ represent the ordinate of the point on the
hyperbola in the first quadrant, and let y2 represent the ordinate of the
corresponding point on the line y = -J x. The manner in which the value of
y2 — y 1 diminishes as the value of x increases is shown in the following table.

X 4 8 20 50 100 1000

y2 2 4 10 25 50 500
y1 0 3.46 9.80 24.92 49.96 499.996

y2 — yi 2 0.54 0.20 0.08 0.04 0.004

Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 389

The lines y 2 % and y 2 which serve as boundary and guide-lines

for the graph of a;2 - 4 y2 = 16, are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
In the general case ax2 by2 = c, the asymptotes are the straight lines given
by ax2 - by2 = 0. It is a simple matter to draw the straight lines in a specific
case, and they provide worthwhile guidance in the construction of the
hyperbola.
The asymptotes divide the coordinate plane into four regions. If c is
positive, the equation ax~ by2 = c represents a hyperbola lying in the
right- and left-hand regions. If c is negative, the equation ax2 - by2 = c
represents a hyperbola lying in the upper and lower regions of the plane, as
illustrated in the following example:

Example. Construct the graph of 4 £2 — 9 y2 = — 36.

Solution: Intercepts. Wheny = 0, x2 = — 9, so the curve does not meet the

#-axis. When x = 0, y2 = 4, so y = 2 or y = — 2. Thus, the graph meets the
y-axis at (0, 2) and (0, — 2).

Symmetry. The graph is symmetrical about both axes.

Asymptotes. The asymptotes are given by 4 x2 — 9 y2 = 0. They are y = § x
and y = — f x.

The equation may be written y = dz §\/#2 -j- 9, and we have the following table
of values for points in the first quadrant.

Graph of 4 x2 — 9 y2 = — 36, with asymptotes

390 Chapter 14

The Equation xy = k

The graph of an equation of the form xy — k is also a hyperbola. The

equation of the asymptotes is xy = 0, which is equivalent to x = 0 and y — 0.
Thus, a hyperbola with equation xy = k has the coordinate axes as asymp¬
totes. When, as in this case, the asymptotes of a hyperbola are at right
angles, the curve is called a rectangular hyperbola. The diagrams show
portions of the curves obtained with k = 4 and with k = — 4.

When k > 0, the curve xy = k lies in the first and third quadrants. When
k < 0, the curve lies in the second and fourth quadrants.

^ Summary

TYPE OF EQUATION FORM OF LOCUS

1. y = mx -f- k 1. Straight tine. Slope m and y-intercept k.

2. y = ax2 + bx + c 2. Parabola. Axis of symmetry, x = — ~~~•

2 a
x = ay2 -f- by + c
Parabola. Axis of symmetry, y = — 7^—•
2 a

3. (x — h)2 + (y — k)2 = r2 3. Circle. Center at (h, k). Radius = r.

x2 -f- y2 = r2 Circle. Center at (0, 0). Radius = r.

4. ax2 T by2 = c 4. Ellipse. Center at origin. The intercepts are:

(a, b, c all positive)
on x-axis, i on y-axis, ± x ~ •

5. ax2 — by2 = c 5. Hyperbola. Center at origin.

(a, b positive, c 9 ^ 0) a
Asymptotes, y = ± x /- x.

6. xy = k [k 9^ 0) 6. Rectangular Hyperbola. Center at origin.

Asymptotes, x = 0, y = 0.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 391

Exercises |A 1

Construct the graph of each of the equations in exercises 1-8 and name
the curve.
1. 4 x2 -f 9 y2 = 36 4. xy = 6 6. y = x2 — 4 x
2. x2 — y2 = 4 x2 y2 _ 7. 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 25
5
3. 4 x2 + y2 = 4 25 + l: 8. a:2 —4y2 = — 16

9. Construct on the same axes the graphs of y = x2 — 4 and x2 -f 4 y2 = 9.

Read the coordinates of the points of intersection.
10. Construct the hyperbolas ary = 8 and x2 — y2 — 16 on separate sets of
axes, using the same scale for each. Show, by fitting one on the other,
that the curves are identical.
11. Construct on the same axes the graphs of 3x2-f6y2=12 and
x2 — 4 y2 = 1. Read the coordinates of the points of intersection.
12. Illustrate, by constructing graphs of the equations, that points com¬
mon to the ellipses x2 + 4 y2 — 10 and 4 x2 + y2 = 10 lie on the circle
x2 4~ y2 — 4.

Exercises [A 2]

Construct the graph of each of the equations in exercises 1-8, and name
the curve.
1. *2 + 9y2 = 9 4. a:2+ y2 =10 7. 2 *2 + 5 y2 = 20
2. x2 — 9 y2 = 9 5. y = 3 x — x2 x2 y2
3. xy = — 8 6. x = 3 y — y2 4 25

9. Construct on the same axes the graphs of x2 + 4 y2 = 4, x2 — 4 y2 = 0,

x2 — 4 y2 = 4, x2 — 4 y2 = — 4.
10. The diagram shows the circle a:2 + y2 = 16 and the ellipse x2 + 4 y2 = 16.
A B is ^ thin vertical strip of area of the
circle. What fraction of this area (ap¬
proximately) is contained in the ellipse?
Is the same result true for all thin
vertical strips? Deduce what appears
to be a reasonable value for the area of
the ellipse.
11. It can be proved that the area of the

ellipse-b ~ = 1 is nab square units.

a2 b~
Find the area of the ellipse 4 x2 + 9 y2 = 36.
392 Chapter 14

Exercises [B]

1. Draw the graph of -f- ^ n = 1.

4 9
2. Draw the graph of (x + l)2 + 4(y — 2)2 = 4.
3. Draw the graph of (a) (x — 2)(y — 3) = 0, (b) (x — 2)(y — 3) = 6.
4. Draw the graph of (a) (x — 3)2 — y2 = 0, (b) (x — 3)2 — y2 = 9.
5. Draw the graph of
(a) (x + 2)2 - 4(y - l)2 = 0, (b) (x + 2)2 - 4(y - l)2 = 16.
6. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing points (x, y) such
that xy < 8.
7. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing points (x, y) such
that x2 — y2 < 4.
8. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing points {x, y)
which satisfy the two conditions x > 2, x2 -f- 4 y2 < 16.
9. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing points (x, y)
which satisfy the two conditions xy ^ 12, x2 y2 ^ 25.
10. Shade the region of the coordinate plane containing points (x, y)
which satisfy the two conditions y2 > 4 x2 + 4, y2 < 9 — x2.

Systems of Equations • Two Second-Degree Equations

The problem of finding the common solutions of two second-degree equa¬
tions in x and y is too difficult for us to consider in general form. We shall
examine only a few particular cases.

Case I. If one of the equations is of the form xy = k, one of the variables

k k
may be eliminated by substituting x = - or y = - in the second equation.
^ cc
The problem then is to solve the resulting fourth-degree equation in y or x.

Example 1. Solve the system of equations x2 + y2 = 17, xy = 4.

4 . 16
Solution: Substituting x~~ in x2 + y2 = 17, we have — T y2 = 17, or

y4- 17 y2+ 16 = 0.
This fourth-degree equation may be solved by factoring the left-hand side.
(y2 — 16 )(y2 — 1) = 0
(y — 4) (y + 4) (y — l)(y+ 1) = 0
The required values of y are 4,-4, 1,-1.
4
Since x—~t the corresponding values of x are 1, — 1, 4, — 4.

We therefore have the solutions (x, y) — (4, 1), (— 4, — 1), (1,4), (— 1,-4).
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 393

Case II. If both equations are of the form ax1 2 -|- by2 = c, a procedure
similar to that used in solving two linear equations may be followed.

Example 2. Solve the system of equations x2 — 4 y2 = 1

2 x2 -\- y2 = 12 ©
Solution: Eliminate y by addition, after multiplying equation © by 4.

8 x2 + 4 y2 = 48
x2 — 4 y2 = 1
= 49
That is, x = — 73 _
-

Substitute x = J in ©. Substitute x = — J in ©.
2m+y2=12 2(^-) + y2=12
98 + 9 y2 = 108 98 + 9 y2 = 108
y2 — ^9°- ^y2 =

y= §Vio, y = ~ jVio y= y=-

Hence, we have the four solutions
(x, y) = (■§■, ■g-'s/lO), ■j'v/10), ( 3-, ^•’v/lO), ( ■§■, ■$'VTo).
In general, the solution of a system of two second-degree equations con¬
sists of four pairs of values (x, y). In certain situations, as was illustrated
in the case of two circles, the second-degree equations are equivalent to a
linear and a second-degree equation. The solution then consists of two
pairs of values (x, y). The pairs which are real numbers are the coordinates
of the points of intersection of the graphs of the equations. The occurrence
of two identical solutions such as (2, — 1), (2, — 1) is an indication that the
graphs have a common tangent at the point having those coordinates. If
all solutions are imaginary, the graphs of the equations do not meet.

Exercises [A 1]
Solve the following systems of equations:
1. x2 + y2 = 25 5. 4 x2 — 5 y2 = 16
xy = — 12 3 x2 + 2 y2 = 35

2. (x — 5)(y — 1) = 21 6. (x + y)2 = |
5.
xy = 48 X2 + y2 = -
4

3. x2 + y2 = 16 7. xy = 4
3 x2 - 2 y2= 28 (y — aO(y + s) = 6
4. 4 x2 + y2 = 16 8. 4 a;2 + 9 y2 = 36
(y + x) (y — x) = 4 £2 y2 — 24

9. Illustrate the solution of exercise 4 graphically.

10. Illustrate the solution of exercise 6 graphically.
394 Chapter 14

Exercises [A 2]
Solve the following systems of equations:
1. (x+2)(y + 2) = 40 5. (x — y)(x — 2 y) — 0.75
xy = 18 xy = 2.5
2. x2 + 4 y2 = 17 6. x2 — y2 = 1
xy — — 2 x2 + y = 3
3. x2 -f 2 y2 = 17 7. x2 -f 4 y2 = 10
2 x2 — 3 y2 = 6 4 x2 + y2 = 10
4. 5 x2 — 3 y2 = 21 8. 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 15
5 y2 — 4 x2 = 4 x + y2 = 4

Homogeneous Equations of the Second Degree [B]

An equation which contains only terms of the second degree in x and y is

said to be a homogeneous second-degree equation in the variables. The general
form of such equations is ax2 + hxy -f cy2 = 0, where a, h, c are constants.
Specific examples are x2 — 4 y2 = 0, 2 xy — 3 y2 = 0, x2 + xy + y2 = 0.
The equation x2 — 4 y2 = 0 may be written as (x + 2 y)(x — 2 y) = 0.
Hence, the set of solutions of the equation consists of the solutions of
x -f- 2 y = 0 and the solutions of x — 2 y = 0. The graph of the equation
x2 — 4 y2 = 0 is, therefore, a pair of straight lines through the origin.
The equation ax2 -f- hxy + cy2 = 0 is satisfied by (0, 0), and for all other
x 'X1
values of x and y it is equivalent to a( -J + b^~ ) + c = 0. This equation

X
may be treated as a quadratic equation and solved for values of the ratio - •
y
When the values of the ratio are real, unequal numbers, the graph of the
homogeneous second-degree equation consists of two straight lines through
the origin.
In the special case when ax2 + hxy + cy2 is a trinomial square and the
X
values of the ratio - are equal, the graph of the homogeneous equation
y
is a single line through the origin.
The fact that a homogeneous second-degree equation is always solvable
x
for the ratio -, though the ratio may not be a real number, provides a
y
method of solving any pair of simultaneous second-degree equations of
which one is homogeneous. The method may be extended to any pair of
equations which can be combined to form a homogeneous second-degree
equation; in particular, to two equations of the form ax2 + hxy + cy2 = k.
The latter point is illustrated in Example 2 on the next page.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 395

Example 1 . Solve: x2 — xy — 2 y2 = 0 ®
x2 -j- y2 — 4 x — 4 = 0 ©
Solution: Equation © is homogeneous and equivalent to (x — 2 y)(x + y) = 0;
that is, equivalent to x = 2 y and x = — y.
We solve each linear equation in turn with equation ©.
Substituting x = 2 y in ©, we have Substituting y = — x in ©, we have
4 y2 -j- y2 — 8 y — 4 = 0 x2 x2 — 4x — 4 = 0
5 y2 — 8y — 4 = 0 2 x2 — 4 x — 4 = 0
(5 y + 2) (y - 2) = 0 x2 — 2 x — 2 = 0
y=2,y = -§. £=1 + V3, x = 1 — V3.
Since x = 2 y, we have the solutions Since y = — ac, we have the solutions
0, y) = (4, 2), (- f, -f). (*, y) = (1 + — 1 - V3),
(1 - V3, - 1 + V3).

The complete set of solutions of the system of equations consists of the four
ordered pairs listed above.

Example 2. Solve: 11 x2 — 8 xy -f 5 y2 = 32 ®
X2 -f y2 = 8 ©

Solution: Neither equation is homogeneous, but a homogeneous form may be

obtained by eliminating the constant term, as follows:
Equation ®. 11 x2 — 8 xy + 5 y2 = 32
Multiply equation © by 4. 4 x2_-f- 4 y2 = 32
Subtract. 7 x2 — 8 xy + y2 = 0 ©
Equation © is homogeneous and equivalent to the linear equations
y= 7 x and y = x.
The solutions of these equations, in turn, with equation @ give
O, y) = (I, it), (— I, — ¥0, (2, 2), (- 2,-2).
It is interesting to consider the part played by equation ® in the above
example, and to illustrate it graphically.
If equation ® is correctly derived from
equations ® and ©, then any values which
satisfy both ® and © must also satisfy ®.
Thus the lines y — lx and y = x contain all
points common to the circle x2 + y2 = 8

and the ellipse 11 x2 — 8 xy -f 5 y2 — 32. In

other words, the two lines pass through the
points of intersection of the circle and the
ellipse. Solving the linear equations in turn
with either of the original equations must
therefore produce the common solutions of the given pair.
396 Chapter 14

[B—1 ]
Exercises

1. Find the values of the ratio - if 3 x2 -f 5 xy — 2 y2 = 0.

y
2. Draw the graph of y(3 x — 2 y) = 0.

^ i ^
3. Use the quadratic formula to find the values of the ratio
x2 — 2 xy — 2 y2 = 0.

Solve the systems of equations in exercises 4-9:

4. x2 — xy — 2 y2 = 0 7. 2 x2 + 3 xy — 2 y2 = 0
y = x2 — 4x-{-2 x2 + 2 y2 = 6
5. x2 + y2 = 25 8. x2 + 3 y2 = 3
3 x2 — 4 xy = 75 3 x2 — xy = 6
6. x2 -f- #y + y2 = 7 9. X2 + xy = 60
x2 -f y2 =- 10 xy -\- y2 = 84

10. Illustrate the solution of exercise 4 graphically.

11. Show graphically the set of solutions of
\x2 + 4 y2 = 16 \x2 + y2 = 25
(a) (b)
x2 — 2 xy — 0 xy = 0

[B—2]
Exercises
X
1. Find the values of the ratio - if 6 x2 — 11 xy — 10 y2 = 0.
y
2. Draw the graph of 2 x2 + xy = 0.
x
3. Use the quadratic formula to find the values of the ratio if
y
3 x2 + 2 xy + y2 = 0. What is the graph of the equation?

Solve the systems of equations in exercises 4-9:

4. (x — y) (x + 2 y) = 0 7. 3 x2 — 4 xy — 4 y2 = 0
x2 _j_ y2 — 20 2 y2 — x = 4

5. x2 -f xy + y2 = 3 8. x2 — xy — 2 y2 = 28
y2 — x2 — — 3 x2 — 4 y2 = 21
6. 4 y2 + xy = 8 9. 4 x2 + 4 xy — 3 y2 = 48
x2 + 3 xy = 28 6 x2 + 13 xy + 7 y2 = 48

10. Illustrate the solution of exercise 4 graphically.

11. Show graphically the set of solutions of
f x2 -f- y2 == 16 5 xy — 3 y2 = 0
(a) (b)
[y — 2 x ^ 0 y ^ 4 — x2
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 397

The Conic Sections [B]

We have examined particular forms of the second-degree equation in x

and y, and have classified the graphs of these equations as circles, ellipses,
hyperbolas, or parabolas. Typical examples of these curves and their equa¬
tions are shown below.

We have also seen cases where a second-degree equation has a pair of

lines, a single line, or a point as its graph. Disregarding these cases, which
are often referred to as "degenerate,” it can be shown that if a second-degree
equation has a graph, the graph must be one of the four curves classified
above. Superficially, the four types of locus do not appear to have much in
common, but investigation shows that they are closely related in many
geometric properties.
One striking feature of the group of curves is that if a right circular cone
is cut by a plane which does not pass through the vertex of the cone, the
cut, or section, of the surface of the cone is a circle, ellipse, one branch of a
hyperbola, or a parabola. For this reason the four curves are often referred
to as conic sections.
The type of curve formed by the intersection depends upon the angle
which the cutting plane makes with the axis of the cone. Suppose the axis
of the cone is vertical, and suppose the angle which an element of the cone
makes with the horizontal is k°. If the cutting plane makes an angle of x°
with the horizontal, we have the following cases, illustrated on page 398:
398 Chapter 14

1. If x < k, the section is an ellipse, and in the special case when x is zero,
the section is a circle.
2. If x = k, the section is a parabola.
3. If x > k, the section is one branch of a hyperbola (and if a double cone
is used, the same cut gives both branches of the hyperbola).

If we accept a circle as an extreme case of the ellipse, the conic sections

fall into three categories—ellipses, hyperbolas, parabolas. It is of interest
to note that the three classes of curves have a common geometric definition,
which indicates why they all have equations of the second degree.
Let / be a fixed line and F a fixed point not on l. Let P be a point in the
plane of l and F, and let PM be perpendicular to l.
Then, if P is restricted to a set of positions in the
plane for which the ratio PF : PM has a fixed value,
the locus of P is an ellipse, a hyperbola, or a parab¬
ola. The type of locus is determined by the numer¬
ical value of the fixed ratio PF : PM. Thus, when

PF : PM < 1, the locus of P is an ellipse,

PF : PM > 1, the locus of P is a hyperbola,
PF : PM = 1, the locus of P is a parabola.

The technical difficulties are too great to allow us to make a general

examination of the above definition. We shall, however, derive equations of
particular ellipses and hyperbolas from it, as was done in the case of the
parabola in the preceding chapter.
The conic sections occur frequently in the study of physical problems,
and they have interesting geometric properties which give importance to
the curves in engineering, architecture, industrial designing, and other fields.
A discussion of their properties is given in books such as "Mathematics
for the Million” (L. Hogben, Norton) and "The Main Stream of Mathe¬
matics” (E. Kramer, Oxford University Press).
The Examples on page 399 illustrate the fact that two different geometric
conditions may determine the same set of points. Notice that the same
equation is obtained in each Example.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 399

Example 1. F is the point (2, 0), and l is the line x = 8. P(x, y) is a point
in the coordinate plane, and PM is the perpendicular from P to the line 1.
PF 1
Find the equation of the locus of P under the condition-= - •
PM 2
Solution: For any position of P, we
have
PM = 8 — x, PF = V(x — 2)2 + y2.
Hence, P satisfies the geometric con-
PF 1 .
dition —— = - if, and only if, its coordi-
PM 2 J ’
nates satisfy the equation
V(*-2)2 + y2 = i(8-x).
This is the equation of the locus. It may be simplified by squaring both sides
and collecting like terms, as follows:
x2 — 4 x + 4 + y2 = ;|(64 — 16 x + x2)
4 x2 — 16 x + 16 + 4 y2 = 64 — 16 x + x2
3 x2 + 4 y2 = 48
The equation is now recognizable as that of an ellipse with its center at the
origin, having x-intercepts + 4 and y-intercepts ± 2V3.

Example 2. F1 is the point (2, 0), and F2 is the point (— 2, 0). P(x, y)
is a point in the coordinate plane. Find the equation of the locus of P under
the condition PFi + PF2 = 8.
Solution: For any position of P, we
have _
PFj = V(x- 2)2 + y2
PF2 = V(x + 2)2 + y2
Hence, P satisfies the geometric condi¬
tion PFi + PF2 — 8 if, and only if, its co¬
ordinates satisfy the equation +"
V(x — 2)2 + y2 + \/(x + 2)2 + y2 = 8.
This equation may be simplified as follows:
V(x+2)2 + y2 = 8 - V(x-2)2 + y2
Square both sides, and collect like terms.
x2 + 4 x + 4 + y2 = 64 —• 16\/(x — 2)2 + y2 + x2 — 4 x + 4 + y2
16\/(x— 2)2 + y2 = 64 - 8 *
2 V(x — 2)2 + y2 = 8 — x

Squaring both sides, we have:

4 x2 — 16 x + 16 + 4 y2 = 64 — 16 x + x2
3 x2 + 4 y2 = 48
400 Chapter 14

Exercises [B]
1. Find the distance of each of the following points from the line x = 4.
(a) (0,3), (b) (2.5, -3.5), (c) (- 2, 1), (d) (*, y).
2. Find the distance of each of the following points from the point (3, 0):
(a) (1,0), (b) (0, 1), (c) (4, — 2), (d) (x,y).
3. (a) Find the distances of the point (4, ^-) from (4, 0) and from the
line x = 9.
(b) Show that the distances are in the ratio 2:3.
4. (a) Express in terms of x and y the distances of the point (x, y) from
(4, 0) and from the line x = 9.
(b) Write and simplify the equation satisfied by values of x and y for
which the distance of (x, y) from (4, 0) is § the distance of (x, y)
from the line x = 9.
5. Find the distances of (4, •3^-) from (4, 0) and from (— 4, 0), and show
that the sum of the distances is 12 units.
6. (a) Express in terms of x and y the distances of the point (x, y) from
(4, 0) and from (— 4, 0).
(b) Write and simplify the equation satisfied by values of x and y for
which the sum of the distances of (x, y) from (4, 0) and (— 4, 0)
is 12 units.
7. Find the distances of (4, 6) from (4, 0) and from the line x = 1, and
show that the distances are in the ratio 2:1.
8. Find in simplest form the equation satisfied by values of x and y for
which the distance of (x, y) from (4, 0) is twice the distance of (x, y)
from the line x = 1.
9. Find the distances of (4, 6) from (4, 0) and from (— 4, 0), and show
that the difference of the distances is 4 units.
10. Find in simplest form the equation satisfied by values of x and y for
which the difference of the distances of (x} y) from (4, 0) and (— 4, 0)
is 4 units.
11. (a) Express in terms of x and y the distances of (x, y) from (— 3, 5)
and from (5, 1). (b) Find in simplest form the equation of the
locus of points which are equidistant from (— 3, 5) and (5, 1).
12. Find in simplest form the equation of the locus of points which are
equidistant from (4, 0) and (0, 6).
13. Find the equation of the locus of points which are 5 units from (4, — 3).
14. Find the equation of the locus of points which are at the same distance
from (4, — 3) as from the y-axis.
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 401

15. P(x, y) takes positions under the condition that the ratio of the dis¬
tance of P from (4, 0) to the distance of P from the line x = 65 is 4 : 5.
Find the equation of the locus of P.

16. P(pc, y) takes positions under the condition that the sum of the dis¬
tances of P from (4, 0) and (— 4, 0) is 10 units. Find the equation
of the locus of P.

17. P(x, y) takes positions under the condition that the ratio of the dis¬
tance of P from (9, 0) to the distance of P from the line x = 4 is 3 : 2.
Find the equation of the locus of P.

18. P(x, y) takes positions under the condition that the difference of its
distances from (9, 0) and (— 9, 0) is 12 units. Find the equation of
the locus of P.

19. P(x, y) takes positions under’the condition that the line segments
joining P to (4, 0) and P to (—2,0) are perpendicular. Find the
equation of the locus of P.

20. Show that if the difference of the squares of the distances of P from
(0, 0) and (4, 2) is equal to 2, then P lies on one or the other of two
parallel lines.

21. Show that if the sum of the distances of P{x, y) from {c, 0) and (— c, 0)
is 2 a, a being greater than c, then
yz
— _i_ 1, that is, —: -f- ~rz — 1, where b2 = a2 — c2.
a2 ad<2 — c2 7 a2 ' bz
b2
22. Let a, e be constants with 0 < e < 1. F is the point (ae, 0) and l is

the line x = -> P is a point (x, y), and PM is the perpendicular from
e
P to the line l. Show that if PF/PM = e, then

r b2
_ ! — 1, that is, — 4- = 1, where e2 = 1 —
o
a 2 ' a2( 1-e2) .a2 ' b2 a2

23. Show that if the difference of the distances of P(x, y) from (c, 0) and
(— c, 0) is 2 a, a being less than c, then

y2 ;= 1, that is, ~^=1, where b2 = c2-a2.

a2 c2 — a2
24. Let a, e be constants with e > 1. F is the point {ae, 0) and l is the
line x = a/e. P is a point (x, y), and PM is the perpendicular from P
to the line /. Show that if PF/PM = e, then

x2 y2 _ . — \ where e2 — 1 -f — •
that is,
a2 a2{e2 — 1) b2 a2
402 Chapter 14

Chapter Review [A]

Solve the systems of equations:

1. x-y = 6, - + - = ^ 7. 2 x2 — xy — y2 = 0
x y 9
3x—2y= 7
2. xy = 8, x4-2y=10
3. 2 x(x — 1) — y(y + 1) = 0 8. xy = 6
x= 2 y—3 (x — y) (4 x — 3 y) = 6

4. 2 x2 + y2 = §
1 1 2 1
2 x—4y= 3 9. xy =
6 y x 2
5. 4 x2 — 3 y2 = 4
4 x -j- 3 y = 2 10. (x — 3 y) (2 x + y) — 0
6. x2 + y2 + 2 x — 4 y = 20
5 +?=2
3 £ + 4 y = 30 x y

11. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line

2 x — 3 y = 1 and the ellipse 4 x2 + 9 y2 = 25. Illustrate graphically.
12. Find the center and radius of the circle x2 + y2 — x + 3 y = 0.
13. Find the points of intersection and the length of the common chord
of the circles x2 + y2-x + 3y = 0 and x2 + y2 + 3 x - y = 0.
14. Show that x2 + y2 — 5x + y= 6 and 2x2+2y2— 10x+2y = 3
are concentric circles, and find the area of the ring between them.
15. Show that the circles (x — 3)2 + (y — l)2 = 50 and x2 -f (y — 4)2 = 8
have just one point in common, and find its coordinates.
16. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the chord of the circle
^2 -f* y2 — 9 which is formed by the line 2 x + 4 y = 5.
17. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the chord of the ellipse
x2 + 4 y2 = 36 which is formed by the line y = \x— 2.
18. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (0, 0),
(4,0), and (0, 2).
19. Show that the graph of x2 + 9 y2 — 6 xy = 9 is a pair of parallel lines.
Construct the graph.
20. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (4, 6),
(5, 5), and (-2,6).
21. Draw the graphs of x2 + 4 y2 = 16 and x2 — y2 = 9 on the same axes.
Read to the nearest tenth the coordinates of the points of intersection.
22. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (5,5),
(-2,4), (7,1).
Equations of the Second Degree and Their Graphs 403

Chapter Review [B]

Solve the systems of equations:

1. 3 x2 — 5 xy — 2 y2 = 0 4. x2 + 2 xy + y2 = 4
x2 -f- y2 — 40 3 xy -f y2 = 4
2. x2 + xy + y2 = 1 5. 2 x2 — xy = 6
2 x2 — y2 = 1 x2 + xy + y2 = 7
3. x2 + xy = 6 6. (x — y) (2 x — y) = 15
y2 — 2 xy = 7 (x — y)2 = 9

7. Show that the line y = fx + §isa tangent to the parabola y2 — 4 x,

and find the coordinates of the point of tangency. Illustrate the
situation graphically.

8. Show that y/(x — 2)2 -f- y2 + y/(x + 2)2 + y2 = 6 is equivalent to

9. Show that 3 x — 4 y = 20 is tangent to x2 + y2 — 2 x — 4 y = 20.

Illustrate graphically.

10. Show that y/(x + 4)2 + y2 + \/(x — 4)2 + y2 = 10 is equivalent to

x
25 + 9
11. Find the values of k for which the line y = \x-k meets the ellipse
x2 + 4 y2 = 36 at (a) just one point, (b) two distinct points.

12. Find the values of k for which the line x + ky — 5 = 0 has just one
point in common with the circle x2 + y2 = 9.

13. Find the values of k for which the line y = kx + 2 meets the circle
x2 _j_ y2 _ 5 x _|_ 5 _ o at (a) just one point, (b) two distinct points.

14. Show that if x + y2 = 3 and x2 + y = 3, then either x = yorx + y= 1.

Complete the solution of the pair of second-degree equations. Illus¬
trate graphically.

15. Find the values of k for which the roots of 3 x2 — 9 x = k are (a) equal,
(b) real and unequal.

16. Find k if kx — y — 9 = 0 is a tangent to 4 y — x2 = 0.

17. Find the values of k for which the roots of (3 x + k)2 = 5(x2 — 1) are
(a) equal, (b) imaginary.

18. Show that there is one value of k for which the roots of the equation
(x + l)2 + (kx + 3)2 = 0 are equal, but that for all other values of k
the roots are imaginary.
404 Chapter 14

19. P(x, y) takes positions under the condition that its distance from
(1,5) is equal to its distance from (5, 1). Find the equation of the
locus of P, and describe the locus in words.
20. P(x, y) takes positions under the condition that its distance from
(3, 0) is twice its distance from the origin. Find the equation of the
locus of P, and describe the locus in words.

Chapter Test
1. Draw a diagram showing the region of the coordinate plane which
contains all points (x, y) such that 5 = ju2 + = 9.
2. Show that the line x + 5 y = 26 and the circle x2 + y2 = 26 have just
one point in common. How is the line related to the circle?
3. Find the center-radius form and the general form of the equation of
the circle determined by the following conditions:
(a) with center (6, — 2), radius 3 units;
(b) with center (— 2, 3), passing through the point (2, 0).
4. Find the center and radius of the circle with equation
(a) x2 + y2 — 6 y = 0, (b) x2 + y2 — x + 4 y + 2 = 0.
5. Find the points of intersection of the circles
x2 -f y2 = 5, x2 + y2 + 12 x — 12 y -j- 31 = 0.
6. Find the equation of the common chord of the circles in exercise 5.

7. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x — y = 2

and the ellipse x2 + 9 y2 = 36.
8. State the domain and range of the function defined by y = ^/x2 — 4.
Draw the graph of the function.
9. Sketch the graphs of the following equations. Name each curve.
Tell its intercepts, if any. Give the equations of its asymptotes, if any.
(a) xy — — 10 (c) y = 2 x — x2
(b) x2-6y2 = -24 (d) 2 *2 + 5 y2 = 50

10. Solve the following systems of equations:

y = 3 — x2 ,i)\x2-\-y2 = 52
(a)
[x2 S y2 = 9 \xy = — 24
11. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (—2,8),
(-2,2), (7,-1).
12. For what values of m will the line y = mx + 5 be tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 = 9?
 The Sine and Cosine Functions
Oblique Triangles

Angles

An angle is defined in geometry as the figure formed by two distinct rays

with a common end point. The diagram shows an
angle AOB with vertex 0 and sides OA, OB. In the
context of geometry we thought of an angle as a set of
points, and in a geometric proof we were not usually
concerned with the numerical measure of a particular
angle. We shall now be more interested in an angle as a measure of
rotation.
We may think of Z A OB as formed by
B
rotating a ray around O from the initial side
OA to the terminal side OB. If this rotation
is counterclockwise, we regard the measure of
the angle as a positive number. If the rota¬
tion is clockwise, we regard the measure of the
angle as a negative number.
Consider, for example, a bicycle wheel mounted on a horizontal axle at O.
Suppose that a spoke OA is horizontal and a spoke B
OB is vertical. The spoke OA may be brought to
the position of OB by turning the wheel either 90°
counterclockwise or 270° clockwise. Thus we may
think of Z AOB as an angle of + 90° or — 270°.
The concept of an angle as a measure of rotation
means that there is no restriction on the size of an
angle. An angle of 720°, for instance, may be inter¬
preted as the angle turned through by OA when
the wheel makes two complete revolutions in the counterclockwise direction.
If the wheel makes three complete revolutions in the clockwise direction,
then OA may be considered to have turned through an angle of —1080°.
405
406 Chapter 15

Angles in the Standard Position

Consider a point P in a Cartesian coordinate system. The position of P
is usually specified by the ordered pair of numbers (x, y) known as the
abscissa and the ordinate of the point. When these two numbers are given,
two other quantities connected with P are also determined. These quantities
are the length and the direction of the line segment OP.

In Figure 1, for example, when P has coordinates (4, 4), the length of OP
is 4>/2 units and Z XOP = 45°. If, in Figure 2, the length of OP is denoted
by r, and Z XOP, measured counterclockwise from OX, is denoted by 6,
then the numbers r, 6 are dependent upon the values of x, y.
By the Pythagorean theorem we have r2 = x2 + y2, so the value of r is
readily determined when x, y are known.
Excepting in special cases such as that illustrated in Figure 1, the rela¬
tionship of 6 to the two numbers x and y is less apparent. The investigation
of this relationship is our main concern in this chapter. In this investigation
we shall make frequent use of the technical terms described in the following
paragraphs.
An angle is said to be in the standard position if its vertex is at the origin
0 of a Cartesian coordinate system and its initial side is along OX. Thus,
in Figure 2, 6 is an angle in the standard
position. An angle in the standard position
is often characterized by the quadrant in
which its terminal side lies. Thus, an angle
of 120° is described as in the second quadrant
or as a second-quadrant angle.
When the terminal side of an angle lies X
along the x-axis or the y-axis, the angle is
called a quadrantal angle. Angles of 0°, 90°, 180° are quadrantal angles,
and the general representation of the number of degrees in a quadrantal
angle is 90 n, where n is an integer.
The Sine and Cosine Functions • Oblique Triangles 407

Example. Draw an angle of 220° in the

standard position. Describe the angle by the
quadrant in which its terminal side lies.
Solution: The sketch shows the required angle.
The terminal side OP makes an acute angle of 40°
with the rr-axis. Since the terminal side lies in the
third quadrant, the angle of 220° is described as a
third-quadrant angle.

Exercises[A]
Make sketches of angles in the standard position having the following
measures. Describe each angle by the quadrant in which its terminal side
lies.
1. (a) 60°, (b) - 60° 2. (a) 120°, (b) - 120°

3. 240° 5. 315° 7. 300°

4. -90° 6.150° 8.210°

If all angles are in the standard position, find the measure of an angle
between 0° and 360° having the same terminal side as:
9. An angle of 860° 12. An angle of 600°
10. An angle of — 300° 13. An angle of — 400°
11. An angle of 450° 14. An angle of 900°

15. P has coordinates (— 1, — 1). Find the value of r and the value of 6.
16. P has coordinates (— 1, V^3). Find the value of r and the value of 9.
17. P has coordinates (3, — 3). Find the value of r and the value of 9.
18. P has coordinates (0, — 4). Find the value of r and the value of 9.

In exercises 19-21 the letters refer to a situation which corresponds to

that shown in Fig. 2 on page 406. The student should draw the appropriate
diagram for each exercise.
19. The point P lies on the line y = 2 x. Let the values of x be — 4, — 2,
1, 3, 8, and in each case find the corresponding values of y and r.
Find the value of the ratio y/r for each value of x.
20. With the information given in exercise 19, determine, for each value
of x, (a) the value of the ratio x/r, (b) the value of the ratio y/x.
21. The point P lies on the line y = — 3 x. Let the values of x be — 4,
— 2, 2, 5, 6, and in each case find the corresponding values of y and r.
For each value of x determine the value of (a) the ratio y/r, (b) the
ratio x/r, (c) the ratio y/x.
408 Chapter 15

The Sine Function and the Cosine Function

Let P\, P2, P3, • • • be points on the terminal side of an angle 6 in the
standard position. Let the coordinates of the points be (xi, yf), (^2,^2),
(x3, yf), • • respectively, and let their distances from O be n, Y2, r3, • • *.

If P\N 1, P2N2, P3N3, • • • are perpendiculars to the x-axis, then the tri¬
angles P1ON1, P2ON2, P3ON3, • • • are clearly similar.

Hence 21 = 22 = 22=... and & = S = *! = ....

ri r2 r3 n r2 r3
Now let P be a point on the terminal side with coordinates (x, y), and let
y x
OP = r. Then the numbers - > - are not dependent upon the value of r but
Y Y
only upon the value of 6\ Corresponding to each value of 6 there is just one
y . x
value of - > and just one value of -•

►
r r
y
The value of ~ is called the sine of d (sin 6).
r

^ The value of * is called the cosine of 6 (cos 6).

r

These definitions are in agreement with our earlier statements concerning

the sine and cosine of an acute angle but they allow us to operate with
angles unrestricted in size. The values of x, y may be positive or negative,
but the value of r is unsigned and treated as positive. Thus sin 6 is positive
when y is positive, negative when y is negative; and cos 6 is positive when
x is positive, negative when x is negative.

For a given value of 6 there is just one value of - or sin d; hence the set
r
of ordered pairs (6, sin 6) is a function, known as the sine function. The
set of ordered pairs (0, cos 6) is known as the cosine function. Our tables
provide us with the values of sin 6 and cos 6 for values of the angle between
0° and 90°. We now see how we can deduce the values of sin 6 and cos 6

for an angle of any size.

The Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Oblique Triangles 409

Example. Find sin 220°.

Solution: In the diagram

sin 220° = - •
r
If PO is extended to Pi, making
OPi = r, and PiNi is the perpendicular
from Pi to OX, it is readily seen that
A PON = A PiONi. Hence,
• y P\N i .
sin 220 =- =-= — sin 40 .
r r
Using the tables, sin 220° = — 0.6428.

Angle of Reference

As illustrated in the Example, the sine of any angle (6) has the same
absolute value as the sine of some angle in the first quadrant. The angle in
the first quadrant is equal to the acute angle between the terminal side of 6
and the x-axis. For convenience we shall call this first-quadrant angle the
reference angle for 6. Thus, as shown in the Example, the angle of 220° has
a reference angle of 40°.

To find the sine of an angle we first determine whether the ratio - is

r
positive or negative. We note that the ratio is positive for angles in the
first and second quadrants, negative for angles in the third and fourth quad¬
rants. We then obtain the required absolute value by finding the sine of
the corresponding reference angle. A similar procedure enables us to find
the cosine of an angle of any given size.

Example 1. Find cos 240°.

Solution: Since 240° is a third quadrant angle, the ^-coordinate of P is negative,
cos 240° is a negative number. The reference angle is 60°. (240° — 180°)
cos 240° = — cos 60° = — 0.5.

Example 2. Find angles between 0° Y

and 360° such that sin 6 = 0.8.
Solution: Since sin 6 is positive, y must
be positive. The values of 6 are therefore in
the first and second quadrants. (61 and 0-2
in the diagram.) From the tables we have
Oi = 53° 8'.
Hence, d2 = 180° - 53° 8' = 126° 52'.
410 Chapter 15

Example 3. Draw a diagram representing the values of 0 between 0° and

360° such that cos 0 = J. Write the value of sin 0 for each angle.
X
Solution: By definition, cos 0 = -•

To make cos 0 = we must plan to

x 1
have - = - • Draw a circle of radius
r 2
2 units with center at the origin.
Draw the line x—1, meeting the
circle at Pi, P2.
Then
Z XOPi (0i) and Z XOP2 (02)
are angles such that
cos 0i = cos 02 = 2-
Using x2 + y2 = r2, we have
y = ± V3.
V3
2

Example 4. If P is a point such that OP = 4 units and Z XOP = 150°,

write expressions for the coordinates of P.
V X
Solution: Since sin 0 = - and cos 0 = -» Y
r r
D
we have: 1
y = r sin 0, x = r cos 0. 150°
In this particular case:
y = 4 sin 150° = 4 sin 30°. x O X
x= 4 cos 150° = — 4 cos 30°.
the coordinates of P are (— 4 cos 30°, 4 sin 30°).

Exercises [A]

1. If r = 2 and 6 = 60°, show that % = 1, y = \^3. Find the value of

(a) sin 60°, (b) sin 120°, (c) sin 240°, (d) sin 300°.
2. Find the value of
(a) cos 60°, (b) cos 120°, (c) cos 240°, (d) cos 300°.
3. If r — 2 and 0 = 45°, show that x — \/2, y — y/2. Find the value of
(a) sin 45°, (b) sin 135°, (c) sin 225°, (d) sin 315°.
4. Find the value of
(a) cos 45°, (b) cos 135°, (c) cos 225°, (d) cos 315°.
The Sine and Cosine Functions • Oblique Triangles 411

5. Find the value of

(a) sin 0°, (b) sin 90°, (c) sin 180°, (d) sin 270°.
6. Find the value of
(a) cos 0°, (b) cos 90°, (c) cos 180°, (d) cos 270°.
7. If sin 6 <0, in which quadrants may 6 lie?
8. If cos 0 > 0, in which quadrants may 6 lie?
9. If cos 6 = — cos 50°, what are the values of 6 between 0° and 360°?
10. If sin 0 — — sin 28°, what are the values of 6 between 0° and 360°?
11. Draw a diagram representing the two values of 6 between 0° and
360° such that cos 6 = §. Write the value of sin 6 for each angle.
12. Draw a diagram representing the two values of 6 between 0° and
360° such that sin 6 = — §. Write the value of cos 6 for each angle.
13. If sin 6 = ij and 90° < 6 < 180°, find cos 6.
14. If cos 6 = and 6 is a fourth-quadrant angle, find sin 6.
15. (a) If sin 6 = 1 and 0° ^ 6 < 360°, find 6.
(b) Is there a value of 6 such that sin 6 > 1 ?
16. (a) If sin 6 = — 1 and 0° ^ 6 < 360°, find 6.
(b) Is there a value of d such that sin 6 < — 1?
17. (a) If cos 6=1 and 0° ^ 6 < 360°, find 6.
(b) Is there a value of 6 such that cos 6 > 1?
18. (a) If cos 6 = — 1 and 0° ^ 6 < 360°, find 6.
(b) Is there a value of 6 such that cos 6 < — 1 ?
19. Show that, for every value of 6, (sin 6)2 + (cos 6)2 = 1.
[(sin 6)2 is usually written sin20.]

Exercises [B]

1. If a > 0, b > 0, and cosX = y state the quadrants in which the

terminal side of ZX may lie. For each quadrant find the correspond¬
ing value of sin X in terms of a and b.
2. If sin A = k and Z A is an angle of a triangle, state the set of replace¬
ments for k. Write the value of cos A in terms of k.

3. Ifw<0, w>0, and sin F = — > state the quadrants in which the
n
terminal side of Z F may lie. For each quadrant find the correspond¬
ing value of cos V in terms of m and n.
412 Chapter 15

Special Angles
The values of sin 6 and cos 6 for 6 = 30°, 45°, 60° can be obtained from
the geometry of the diagrams below. These values are needed so frequently
that it is desirable to have them readily available.

In Figure 1 we have r = 2 a, 6 = 30°.

The geometry of A PON gives x = a^/3, y = a.
o _ uV3 V3
sin 30° = ^; cos 30 m" •

2 a 2 2 a 2
In Figure 2 we have r = 2 a, 0 = 45°.
The geometry of A PON gives x = a\f 2, y = aV2.

sin 45° =
a•V2 V2
cos 45° =
a V2 V2
■ " ■
2
In Figure 3 we have r = 2 a, 6 = 60°.
Comparing with Figure 1, we see that the values of x and y are inter¬
changed, and we have

sin 60° = (= cos 30°); cos 60° = - (= sin 30°).

The values listed above may be used to deduce the sine and cosine of any
angle which has a reference angle equal to 30°, 45°, or 60°. For instance,

cos 150° = — cos 30° = —

2

Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

One of the reasons for the importance of the trigonometric functions is the
repetitive nature of their graphs. Many natural phenomena follow patterns
of a repetitive, or periodic, type, and the trigonometric functions are used
in studying these patterns.
For our present purposes, the main use of the graphs is to illustrate the
set of values of sin 6 and the set of values of cos 0 which correspond to
 One of the fields in which mathematicians are meeting and solving new problems
is that of space flight.
One of the problems they have struggled with is that of developing an effective
operational control system for a vehicle sent into orbital flight. Another is that of
calculating the orbit of a vehicle from a number of observed positions. Such prob¬
lems are so complex that they can be solved only by using modern computers.
The photograph shows the recovery of the capsule after the first space flight by
an American astronaut.
414 Chapter 15

0° ^ 6 ^ 360°. The graphs are continued beyond this set of values merely
to indicate the periodic pattern.
The graph of y = sin 6 is obtained by drawing a smooth curve through
points having the following ordered pairs as coordinates.

Quadrant: I II III IV

e 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 225° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°

1 V2 V3 V3 V2 1 1 — V2 — V3 —V3 —V2 1
sin 9 0 2 1 2 0 2 -1 2 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 .50 .71 .87

The graph of y = cos 6 is obtained by drawing a smooth curve through

points having the following ordered pairs as coordinates.
Quadrant: I II III IV

9 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 225° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°
V3 V2 1 j 0 1 — V2 -V3 — V3 — V2 1 1 V2 V3
COS 9 1 2 2 -1 2 0 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
.87 .71 .50

The close connection between the sine function and the cosine function
is strikingly illustrated by their graphs. In fact, the graph of y = cos 0 for
values of 6 from — 90° to 270° is identical with the graph of y = sin 6 for
values of 6 from 0° to 360°.
The Sine and Cosine Functions • Oblique Triangles 415

An interesting way to draw the sine graph, using a circle of unit radius, is
illustrated below. The number of degrees marked at any point P on the
circle is the measure of the Z POA in the standard position. The ordinate
of P is the sine of this angle. Make sure you see that this is so. Draw your
own figure and complete the sine graph.

Exercises [A]
1. Obtain sin 240°, cos 240° from a diagram, using r = 2.
2. Obtain sin 315°, cos 315° from a diagram, using r = 2.
3. Obtain sin 270° from a diagram, using r — 1.
4. Obtain cos 180° from a diagram, using r = 1.
5. Write the value of (a) sin 90°, (b) cos 150°, (c) sin 120°, (d) cos 270°.
6. Write the value of (a) cos 90°, (b) sin 300°, (c) sin 180°, (d) cos 225°.

If 0° ^ 0 < 360°, find all values of 0 such that:

7. cos 9 = —
V5 9. cos 0 = 0 12. 5 sin 0 + 4 = 0
10. sin 0 = — \ 13. 2 cos20 = 1
8. sin 0 = — 1 11.3 cos 9 = 2 14. 4 sin20 = 3

15. Evaluate cos 6 — sin 6 when 0 = 315°.

16. Show that 135° is a solution of sin 9 -f cos 9 = 0.
17. Evaluate (a) cos29 — sin20, (b) sin 9 cos 0, for 0 = 150°.

18. Evaluate (a) (b) for 6 = 120°.

sin 0 sm20
19. (a) What is the range of the function defined by y = sin 0?
(b) What is the range of the function defined by y = cos 0?
20. Draw on the same axes the graphs of y = sin 0 and y = cos 0 for
0° 0 ^ 360°. What values of 0 in this set satisfy the equation
sin 0 = cos 0?
416 Chapter 15

Computation in Triangles

In the remaining part of this chapter we shall develop and use some for¬
mulas which facilitate computation in triangles which are not right triangles.
In this section of our work we shall be concerned only with angles which
contain less than 180°, that is, with acute and obtuse angles. It is con¬
venient to summarize the relationship between the sines and between the
cosines of these angles by the following statements:

The sine of an obtuse angle is equal to the sine of its supplement; that is,

sin (1 80 — n)° = sin n°. (0 < n < 90)

^ The cosine of an obtuse angle is the negative of the cosine of its supplement;
that is,
cos (1 80 — n)° = — cos n°. (0 < n < 90)

The statements merely emphasize the relationships between the sines and
cosines of angles in the first and second quadrants which follow from the
general definitions.

Area of Any Triangle

Consider A ABC of any shape in a Cartesian coordinate system with A

as origin and having the line AC as x-axis. Let a, b, c represent the sides of

the triangle opposite A A, AB, AC as usual. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate

the situation when A A is acute and when Z A is obtuse.
The Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Oblique Triangles 417

Let the ordinate of B be y. Then if we regard h as the base of A ABC,

the altitude on the base is y. Hence, if the area of A ABC is represented by
K square units, we have
K = ib-y.
But - = sin A or y = c • sin A (in both figures).

K = \ be sin A.

A different choice of origin and x-axis would enable us to show that

K = \ ab sin C or K = \ ca sin B.
The area of A ABC may therefore be expressed as one-half the product of
two sides and the sine of the angle formed by these sides.

Example 1. Find the area of A ABC if a = 20 in., b = 25 in., Z C = 120c

Solution: Using K — \ab sin C, we have
l.
# = 4-20-25
2 -sin 120°

= 10-25
. V3
= 125V3 square inches.

Example 2. Find the area of a regular 10-sided polygon inscribed in a

circle of radius 5 inches
Solution: Let A B be a side of the polygon and 0
the center of the circle. Then Z AOB = 36°.
Area of A AOB = \ AO • BO • sin 36°
= \ • 5 • 5 • sin 36°
= 12.5 • sin 36°.
The polygon is made up of 10 such triangles.
.’. area of polygon = 10[12.5 sin 36°]
= 125 sin 36°
= 125(0.5878)
= 73.5 square inches.

Exercises [A]

In exercises 1-6 find the area of A ABC:

1. (a) 6 = 6", c=10", ZZ = 30°;
(b) b = 6", c = 10", Zi = 150°.
2. (a) b= 12", c = 15", Zi =45°;
(b) b = 12", c = 15", Zi = 135°.
3. (a) a =10", 6 = 8", ZC = 60°;
(b) a = 10", b = 8" Z C = 120°.
4. a= 12.5", b = 20.0", ZC= 115° 30'.
418 Chapter 15

5. c = 25.0", a = 40.0", ZB = 32° 40'.

6. b = 17.5", c = 8.0", Z A = 128° 20'.
7. A regular pentagon is inscribed in a circle of radius 6 inches. Find
the area of the pentagon.
8. A regular 9-sided polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius 4 inches.
Find the area of the polygon.
9. A regular 8-sided polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius r inches.
Obtain a formula for the area of the polygon.
10. A regular 12-sided polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius r inches.
Obtain a formula for the area of the polygon.
11. A ABC has a = 6 in., b = 10 in. If the area of A ABC is 24 sq. in.,
find the two possible values for the size of Z C.
12. A ABC has b= 12 in., c — 15 in. If the area of the triangle is
45 sq. in., find the size of Z A.
13. A ABC has a = 4 in., b = 6 in. Write an expression for the area K
of the triangle when Z C contains x°. State the domain and range of
the area function so defined. Sketch the graph of the function.
14. Use two expressions for the area of A ABC to show that
a _
b
————— #
sin A sin B

The Law of Sines

A useful relationship between the sides and the angles of a triangle can
be derived from the expressions for the area.
Since be sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C (=2 K),
, abc abc abc , ... , , ,,
we have -—:—- =-:—— = ——;—— > from which we deduce that:
be sm A ca sin B ab sin C

sin A sin 8 sin C

The last statement is called the Law of Sines. It expresses the fact that
for any given triangle the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of the op¬
posite angle is constant.
In using the Law of Sines we should note that the proportion formed by
two of the ratios can be expressed in other forms. If we start with
a _ b
sin A sin b
. „ , . . a sin A
we can deduce a sm B — b sm A or - — ——— •
b sm B
The Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Oblique Triangles 419

If three of the numbers in the proportion -7^— = —— are known the

sin A sin B
fourth number can be computed. Thus, solving the proportion for b we have
a sin B
b=
sin A
and when a, sin A, sin B are known, the value of b can be computed. Solving
the proportion for sin B, we have
b sin A
sin B =
a
and if a, b, sin A are known, the value of sin B can be computed.

Example 1. A ABC has a= \2", b= 6", Z A = 45°. Find the size of

ZB.
Solution: From the Law of Sines,
b sin A
sin B =
a
Hence, in this particular triangle we have
. „ 6 sin 450
sm B = —

■ R 1/V2' 1.4142
sm B=iz
= 0.3535
ZB = 20° 42'.
Note. In obtaining the size of an angle of a triangle from the value of its sine we must
not overlook the fact that a number between 0 and 1 is the sine of an obtuse angle as well
as the sine of an acute angle. Thus Z B = 159° 18' is also a solution of the statement
sin B = 0.3535. Why is this second solution not acceptable for the given triangle?

Example 2. A ABC has Z A = 45°, Z B = 60°. What is the ratio of

a to b?
Solution: From the Law of Sines,
a _ sin A
b sin B
Hence, in this particular triangle we have:
a sin 45°
420 Chapter 15

Exercises [A]

1. A ABC has Z A = 45°, Z B = 60°, and a = 10.0 inches. Find the

lengths of b, c.
2. A ABC has Z. A = 120°, Z B = 18° 26', and c = 25.0 inches. Find
the lengths of a, b.
3. In A ABC, Zi = 120° and b = % a. Find the size of Z B and Z C.
4. In A ABC, a = 15.75", b = 20.25", Z B = 38° 30'. Find the size of
Z A and Z C.
5. In A ABC, b= 12.0", a =10.0", ZZ=42°30'. Find the two
possible values of Z B and the corresponding values of Z C.
6. Find the size of Z C of A ABC if Z A = 38° 20' and a = %b.
7. Find sin C if A ABC has a — 2", c = 5", Z A = 30°. What can be
deduced concerning the given values?
8. Is it possible for A ABC to have b = 25", c = 12", Z C = 31° 30'?
9. A light Z is observed from the ends X, Y of a base line 1500 yd. long.
If Z ZXY = 32° 15' and Z ZYX = 43° 30', find the lengths ZX, ZF.
10. In the diagram, CN is perpendicular C
to the extension of AB. AB = 175 ft.,
Z CAB = 12° 30', Z CBN = 30°. Find
the length CN. A BN

The Law of Cosines

The Law of Sines is useful in computations only if three terms of one of

the proportions are given so that the fourth term can be found. This con¬
dition is not met when (a) the three sides of a triangle are given, (b) two
sides and their included angle are given. The formula which we now develop
enables us to deal directly with each of these two cases.
Consider A ABC of any shape. Choose A as the origin for a Cartesian
coordinate system and the line AB as £-axis.
The Sine and Cosine Functions Oblique Triangles
•
421

Let a, b, c represent the lengths of the sides in the usual way. Let the co¬
ordinates of C be (x, y). The coordinates of B are (c, 0). Figure 1 illustrates
the situation when Z A is acute. Figure 2 illustrates the situation when
Z A is obtuse.
X2 y2 = h2
In both cases
x = b cos A.
Using the distance formula for CB, we have
a2 = (x — c)2 + (y — 0)2
a2 = x2 — 2 cx + c2 + y2
a2 = b2 + c2 — 2 cx (since x2 + y2 = b2)
a2 = b2 -f- c2 — 2 be cos A (since x = b cos A)

This result may also be written

b2 T c2 — a2
cos A =
2 be

In a similar manner it can be shown that

/-2 f,2 _ A2
b2 = c2 -\- a2 — 2 ca cos B or cos B =->
2 ca
a2 -1— h2 — c2
c2 = a2 -\- b2 — 2 ab cos C or cos C =---
2
Any one of these formulas is called the Law of Cosines.

Example 1. A ABC has BC = 12.0/r, AC = 10.0", Z C = 120°. Find the

length of the side AB.
Solution: Use the Law of Cosines in the form c2 — a2 -f- b2 — 2 ab cos C.
Then, c2 = 144 + 100 - 2 • 12 • 10 • cos 120°
c2 = 244— 2-12-10-(—i)
c2 = 244+ 120 = 364
c— 19.1
The length of the side A B is 19.1 inches.

Example 2. Find the largest angle of a triangle with sides 10' , 15 ',
21" long.
Solution: Let a = 10, b = 15, c = 21, so that we wish to find the size of Z C.
a2 £2 _ c2
From the Law of Cosines, cos C =
2 ab
100 + 225 - 441
cos C =
2-10-15

cos C = ~ U- = - 0.3867
300
ZC = 180° — 67° 15' = 112° 45'
422 Chapter 15

Exercises [A]
1. Find the largest angle of a triangle having sides 3 in., 5 in., 7 in. long.
2. Find the smallest angle of the triangle specified in exercise 1.
3. A triangle has sides 6 inches and 10 inches long forming an angle of
120°. Find the length of the third side.
4. A triangle has sides 15.0 inches and 20.0 inches long, forming an angle
of 60°. Find the length of the third side to the nearest tenth of an
inch.
5. A ABC has a = 6, b = 7, c = 10. (a) Find Z C. (b) Find Z A.
6. A ABC has a = 6, b = 8, c = 12. (a) Find Z A. (b) Find Z C.
7. A ABC has Z A = 53° 8', AC = 10.5", AB = 20.0". Find BC.
8. A ABC has Z B = 143° 8', BC = 24.0", AB = 35.0". Find AC.
9. ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = 15.0", BC = 12.0", and
Z B = 70°. Find the length of each diagonal to the nearest tenth of
an inch.
10. ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = 12.0", BC = 10.0", and the
diagonal AC = 18.0". Find (a) the size of Z B, (b) the length of the
diagonal BD.
11. Find the lengths of the sides of a parallelogram if the diagonals inter¬
sect at an angle of 52° 15' and have lengths 10.0 inches and 16.0 inches.
12. A ABC has a = 10 in., b= 21 in., c= 17 in. Without using tables,
find (a) cos C, (b) sin C, (c) sin B, (d) the area of the triangle.

Miscellaneous Exercises [A]

1. Find the value of:

(a) sin 120° (d) sin 405° (g) sin 300

(b) cos 240° (e) cos 220° 00 sin 450
(c) cos 700° (£) cos 360° (i) cos 720
If 0° ^ d < 360°, find all values of 6 such that
(a) sin d = 0 (e) 4 sin d — 3 = 0
(b) cos 6 = — i (f) 2 cos26 = •§•
(c) sin 6 — — iv:? (g) cos 6 — 2 = 7 cos e
(d) cos 6 = — 4V2 (h) 2 cos20 = 1
If cos 6 = JV2 and 6 is a fourth-quadrant angle, find sin d.
<N|C0
• pH
hH

and 180° < 6i < 270°, find

C/)
C
II
1

(a) cos 6, (b) cos(180 — 6).

The Sine and Cosine Functions • Oblique Triangles 423

5. Evaluate:
(a) cos2# — sin2# for 0=120° (d) 2 cos20 — 1 for 0 = 45°
(b) 2 sin 0 cos 0 for 0 = 150° (e) cos 2 0 for 0 = 45°
(c) 1 — 2 sin20 for 0 = 45°
6. Find the value of (sin2 45° -f- cos2 60°)2.

7. A ABC has a = 12, b = 14, c = 20. (a) Find Z C. (b) Find Z B.

8. Find the largest angle of a triangle having sides 4 in., 7 in., 9 in. long.
9. The area of A ABC is 18 sq. in. If a = 4 in., b = 9 in., find the size
of ZC.
10. A triangle has sides 8 in. and 12 in. long forming an angle of 135°.
Find the length of the third side.
11. Find the area of A RST if r = 4 in., s = 5 in., ZT = 121° 20'.
12. A ABC has Z A = 45°, Z B = 30°, and a — 6 in. Find the lengths
of b and c.
13. A regular polygon of 10 sides is inscribed in a circle of radius 8 in.
Find the area of the polygon.
14. In A ABC, b = 11.0 in., a = 9.8 in., Z A = 43° IT. Find the two
possible values of Z B and the corresponding values of Z C.
15. A ABC has Z A = 116° 29', AB = 20 in., AC = 23 in. Find BC.
16. In A ABC, Z A = 150° and a = § b. Find the size of Z B and of Z C.
17. Three measurements in a triangle ABC are given as Z B = 45°,
6 = 6 in., c = 10 in. Show that one of the measurements is incorrect.
18. ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = 7.5 in., BC = 5.0 in., and
ZB = 68°. Find the length of each diagonal to the nearest tenth
of an inch.
19. A ABC has Z A — 48° 20', Z B = 64° 30', AB = 12.50 in. Find the
length of the altitude from C to AB.
20. A XYZ has ZX = 35° 30', Z F = 112° 30', XY = 25.0 in. Find the
length of the altitude from Z to XY.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B]

1. A ABC has Z A — 36° 30', Z B = 70° 45', c = 24.50 in. If CN is the
altitude on AB, find the length CN.
2. A PQR has Z P = 26° 30', Z Q = 42° 15', r = 12.75 in. If RK is the
altitude on PQ, find the length RK.
3. In A ABC find an expression for the length of the altitude on AB
in terms of c and trigonometric functions of the angles of the triangle.
424 Chapter 15

4. A ship is steaming at 12 m.p.h. on a course MN. When the ship is at Si

the navigator sights the lighthouse
L and finds that Z LSiN = 30°.
One hour later the ship is at S2 and
Z LS2N = 70°. Find the distance ^
of the lighthouse from the line of the
ship’s course.
5. A ABC has a = 10 in., b = 11 in.,
c = 9 in. If M is the midpoint of BC, find the length AM.
6. The sides of a parallelogram are 9 in. and 7 in. in length. If the length
of the longer diagonal is 14 in., find the length of the shorter diagonal.
7. In any triangle ABC show that a = b cos C + c cos B.
8. If R is the radius of the circumscribed circle of A ABC, show that
a
= 2 R.
sin A
9. Using the result of exercise 8 and the formula K = \ be sin A, show

that, for any triangle ABC, R =

10. Use the result of exercise 9 to find the radius of the circumscribed
circle of A ABC in which a = 5 in., b — 8 in., Z C = 60°.

Chapter Review
1. Sketch angles in the standard position having the following measures.
In which quadrant does each angle lie?
(a) 75° (b) 280° (c) 185°
2. Find the measure of an angle in standard position between 0° and
360° having the same terminal side as:
(a) an angle of 800°, (b) an angle of 1020°, (c) an angle of — 300°.
3. Find the value of:
(a) sin 140° (d) cos 135° (g) sin 200°
(b) cos 270° (e) sin 90° (h) cos 310°
(c) sin 0° (f) cos 0° (i) sin 165°
4. If 0° ^ 6 < 360°, find all values of 6 such that
(a) sin 0 = \\ (b) cos 9 = f; (c) 3 cos29 = 2.
5. Using the lengths m, n, and the angles
at O, show that the four triangles
ABO, BOC, COD, AOD are equal in
area.
The Sine and Cosine Functions Oblique Triangles
•
425

6. In A ABC, ZC = 120°, c = y/7 b. Find a in terms of b.

7. Find the largest angle of a triangle with sides 12 in., 7 in., 15 in.
8. A triangle has area 32 sq. in. and two of its sides are 8 in. and 12 in.
long. Find the size of the angle formed by these sides.
9. A ABC has A A — 45° and AC — 15°. Find the ratio of a to b.

Chapter Test
1. Find angles between 0° and 360° such that cos 6 = — 0.7.
2. (a) If sin 6 = § and 90° < 9 < 180°, find cos 6.
(b) If cos 0 = 7? and 0° < 6 < 360°, find the possible values of sin 6.
3. A ABC has A A = 130°, a = 32 in., Z B = 22°. Find the lengths of
b and c.
4. Find cos B in A ABC if a : b : c = 2 : 3 : 4.
5. A regular octagon is inscribed in a circle of radius 10 inches. Find
the area of the octagon.
6. A ABC has a = 6.50 inches, b = 10.4 inches, and A A = 30°. Find
the size of Z B.
7. A triangle has sides of lengths 6 in., 10 in., 14 in. Find the size of the
largest angle of the triangle.
8. The area of a triangle is 48 sq. in. If two sides of the triangle have
lengths 15 in. and 8 in., find the size of the angle formed by these
sides.
9. A triangle has an angle of 60°, and the sides which form the angle
have lengths 12 in. and 8 in. Find the length of the third side.
10. A parallelogram ABCD has AB = 6 in., BC = 5 in., and the diagonal
AC =9 in. Find (a) the size of A ABC, (b) the length of the
diagonal BD.
 Vectors in Two Dimensions

In physics, quantities such as velocity and force, which have direction as well
as magnitude, are called vector quantities. When any such quantity is being
considered in a two-dimensional situation it can¬
not be completely represented by a single real
number. Suppose, for example, that an airplane
flies for one hour from its base on a fixed course.
Its position at the end of the hour depends not only
on the number of miles flown but also on the
direction of the flight. If we think of the flight as
a displacement of the airplane from A to B, the
displacement can be specified completely by two
numbers.
The two numbers might be 200, 55, where the first number indicates the
length AB in miles and the second number indicates the size in degrees of the
angle NAB, formed by AB and the fixed line AN.
Alternatively, if we think of AB as placed in a coordinate system with A as
origin and AN as the >>-axis, the coordinates (<a, b) of B are also sufficient to
specify the displacement completely.
The displacement AB can be represented geometrically by an arrow in the
required direction having a length which indicates the distance flown. It can
also be represented algebraically by an ordered pair of real numbers, the pair
being the coordinates of B when A is at the origin. Each symbol, the arrow
A , and the ordered pair {a, b), is called a vector.

Consider the geometric vector OP, having

length rl and Z POX = Qv The numbers
r i, 61 specify the vector completely. If the
coordinates of P are (a, b), then
rl = ^Ja2 -\-b2.
a
sin d\ = cos 6l =
yja2 -f b2 y/a2-\-b2
Thus rl and 6\ can be determined when a
and b are known. Conversely, if rx and d\
are known, then we have

a = rlcosdi, b=r1sindi.
The number a is called the x-component and the number b the y-component
of the vector.
426
 We consider that a geometric vector is completely determined by its magnitude
and direction. Thus, if the four
line segments AB, CD, EF, OP in
the diagram are equal and parallel,
B
then each of the vectors AB, CD,
£Fis equivalent to the vector OP.
With the understanding that all
vectors have their initial point at
the origin, then each vector is
associated with just one ordered pair of real numbers and conversely.

EXERCISES

1. Find r and 6 when (a, b) = (4, 3).

.
2 Find r and 6 when (a, b) = (— 4, 3).

Addition of Vectors
Geometric. The sum of two geometric vectors is defined with reference to
the physical concept of “adding displacements.” Thus if we have displacements
represented by AB and AC, we think of their sum
as a single displacement obtained in the following
manner. At B construct the segment BD making
it equal to AC and parallel to AC. The displace¬
ment from A to B followed by the displacement
from B to D is equivalent to the single displace¬
ment from A to D. The displacement AD is de¬
fined as the sum of the displacements AB, AC.
Thus, the sum of the geometric vectors AB, AC
is a parallelogram.
If AB, AC are specified by the numbers (r1# di), (r2, 02) respectively, we can
compute the numbers (r, 6) for AD by using trigonometry in A ABD. In this
triangle, the lengths AB, BD and the size of ZABD are known when AB, AC
are specified. The length of AD can therefore be found by using the law of
cosines and Z BAD can be found by using the law of sines.
427
 Algebraic. The one-to-one correspondence between vectors and ordered
pairs of real numbers suggests D (a-\~c, b-\~d)
that the addition of vectors has
much in common with the addition
of complex numbers. (See Side¬
light 10.)
If B has coordinates {a, b) and
C has coordinates (c, d), then we
may consider that these ordered
pairs define the vectors AB, AC.
The sum of the two vectors is then defined by
(a, b) -f- (c, d) — (a -f- c, b -\- d).

Thus if AD =AB -f- AC and AB =(a, b), AC = (c, d), then AD ={a -\-c, b
It will readily be seen that this definition of the sum of two vectors is in agree¬
ment with the geometric definition.
When we think of each ordered pair of real numbers in the coordinate plane
as a vector, we call the set of ordered pairs a two-dimensional vector space.
The algebra of this vector space is essentially the same as the algebra of com¬
plex numbers. The x-component and the y-component of a vector are the
real part and the imaginary part of the corresponding complex number.

EXERCISES

Vectors as ordered pairs of real numbers.

1. What is the identity element in adding vectors?
2. What is the additive inverse of the vector {a, b)l
3. Assuming that k(V 0) ={k, 0) and k(0, 1) =(0, k), show that any vector
can be formed from the vectors (1, 0), (0, 1).
4. Show that the addition of vectors is commutative.
5. Show that the addition of vectors is associative.

428
 Trigonometric Equations and Identities

Definitions of Trigonometric Functions

In Chapter 11 we defined the six trigonometric functions for acute angles

only. In Chapter 15 we defined the sine and the cosine for angles of any
size. We now give the general def¬
initions of all the trigonometric func¬
tions and examine the relationships
between values of the six functions.
As in Chapter 15 we consider an
angle 0 in the standard position. P
is a point on the terminal side having
coordinates (x, y), and we let r repre¬
sent the distance OP. Thus, for all
positions of P we have r2 = x2 + y2.
The trigonometric functions are defined as follows:

• o
sin y
a = ~ esc 0 — ~ [y 0)
r y
cos 0 = ~ sec 0 = - (x 7^- 0)
r x

tan 6 = - (x^O) cot 0 = - (y ^ 0)

x y

The exclusions in the definitions should be carefully noted. They all

result from the fact that we are unable to define the operation of division
by zero.
If we refer specifically to the set of values 0° ^ 0 < 360°, we see that:

tan 0 and sec 6 are not defined when # = 0, that is, when 6 = 90°, 270°;
cot 0 and esc 0 are not defined when y = 0, that is, when 0 = 0°, 180°.

We shall understand that when either tan 0 or sec 0 is used, the values
0 = 90°, 270°, • • • are automatically excluded from the set of angle values,
and when either cot 0 or esc 0 is used the values 0 = 0°, 180°, • • • are auto¬
matically excluded.
430 Chapter 16

Values of the Trigonometric Functions

In considering the values of sin 6 and cos 6 for an angle of any size we
used the concept of a reference angle for d. The reference angle is a first-
quadrant angle equal to the acute angle formed by the terminal side of d

and the x-axis. Figure 1 illustrates the reference angle for a second-quadrant
value of 6. Figure 2 illustrates the reference angle for a fourth-quadrant
value of 6.
For an angle of n° in the second
or third quadrant, the number of
degrees in the reference angle is
| 180- n |.
For an angle of n° in the fourth
quadrant, the number of degrees
in the reference angle is 360 — n.
The student should satisfy him¬
self, by considering diagrams such
as Figure 3, that the following principle holds in all cases.

The absolute value of any trigonometric function of an angle 6 is equal to the

value of the same function of the reference angle for 6.

Thus to find the value of a trigonometric function of an angle 6 we

first determine whether the value of the function is positive or negative.
We then use the above principle to determine the required absolute
value.
The signs of values of the trigonometric functions in the four quadrants
are listed in the following table:
Trigonometric Equations and. Identities 431

Quadrant I II Ill IV

sine
+ + — —

cosecant

cosine
+ — —
+
secant

tangent
+ —
+ —

cotangent

Example. Find the value of tan 315°.

Solution: The angle is in the fourth quadrant.
Since x > 0 and y < 0, the value of the tangent

is negative.

The angle of reference is 45°.

Hence, tan 315° = — tan 45° = — 1.

Quadrantal Angles

In a quadrantal angle the terminal side lies along either the x-axis or the
y-axis. Hence, for any quadrantal angle either the value of y is zero or the
value of x is zero. When y — 0, the cosecant and cotangent are undefined;
and when x = 0, the secant and tangent are undefined. The value of a
trigonometric function which is defined for a particular quadrantal angle is
obtained directly from the definition.

Example. Find the value of (a) sec 180°, (b) cot 180°.
r, 0). Y
(a) sec 6 = -* and sec 180° = —•
O
r;
oo
O

x —r
Hence, sec 180° = — 1. F f
X (-r,0) 0 X
(b) cot 0 = '-> and cot 180° is undefined since y — 0.
y

Exercises tA]
1. Find the value of (a) sec 120°, (b) tan 120°, (c) esc 120°.
2. Find the value of (a) tan 135°, (b) sec 135°, (c) esc 135°.
3. Find the value of (a) sec 210°, (b) cot 210°, (c) esc 210°.
4. Find the value of (a) tan 300°, (b) sec 300°, (c) esc 300°.
5. Find the value of (a) sin 330°, (b) esc 330°, (c) cot 330°.
6. Find the value of (a) cos 240°, (b) sec 240°, (c) tan 240 .
432 Chapter 16

7. Find the value of (a) esc 90°, (b) cos 270°, (c) tan 180°.
8. Find the value of (a) sec 0°, (b) sin 180°, (c) cot 90°.

9. Find the value of (a) S*n (b) tan 9, when 9 — 210°.

cos #
10. Find the value of sec # cos # when (a) 9 = 225°, (b) 9 = 180°. Can a
value be found for sec 9 cos 9 when 9 = 90°?
11. Find the value of sec2# — tan2# when 9 = 330°.
12. Find the value of esc2# — cot2# when # = 135°.
13. Find the value of sin2# + cos2# when
(a) # = 90°, (b) # - 135°, (c) # = 240°, (d) # = 270°.
14. Draw a diagram representing the two values of # between 0° and
360° such that sin # = %. Write the value of (a) tan #, (b) sec 9,
for each angle.
15. If tan 9 = \ find the value of (a) sec 9, (b) sin #.
16. If sec 9 = 3 and 180° < # < 360°, find (a) cot #, (b) esc #.
17. If cos # = — J and 0° < # < 180°, find (a) tan 9, (b) esc #.
18. If sin 9 = m, express tan # in terms of m. ( | m j 1)
19. If tan 9 = k, express cos # in terms of k.

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The graph of y = tan # is based on the following table of ordered pairs.

The fact that tan # is undefined when # = 90°, 270°, • • • means that there
are breaks in the graph at these values of #.
Quadrant: I II III IV

e 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 225° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°
tan e 0 jV3 1 V3 -V3 - 1 -W3 0 JV3 1 V3 -V3 - 1 -W3 0
Trigonometric Equations and Identities 433

The graph illustrates the fact that the values of tan 9 are repeated at
intervals of 180°. Thus any two angles which differ by 180° have the same
tangent value.
Domain. The domain of the tangent function includes all values except
±90°, ± 270°, • • ..
Range. The range of the tangent function is the set of real numbers.

The graph of y = esc 9 is based on the following table of ordered pairs.

The fact that esc 6 is undefined when 6 = 0°, 180°, 360°, • • • means that
there are breaks in the graph at these values of 6.

Quadrant: I II III IV

e 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 225° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°

CSC d 2 V2 |V3 1 §V3 V2 2 -2 - V2 §V3 -1 -SV3 -V2 -2

2 1.4 1.2

As was the case with the sine and the cosine, the values of esc 9 are re¬
peated at intervals of 360°.
Domain. The domain of the cosecant function includes all values except
0°, ±180°, ±360°, •••.
Range. The range of the cosecant function is given by | y | = 1.

Exercises [A]

1. Draw the graph of y — cot 6 for 0° = 9 = 360°.

2. Draw the graph of y — sec 9 for 0° = 0 = 360°.
3. (a) Draw on the same axes the graphs of y = tan 9 and y = esc 9 for
0° ^ 9 =1 360°.
(b) From the graphs estimate the values of 9 for which tan 9 = esc 9.
434 Chapter 16

4. (a) Draw on the same axes the graphs of y = 2 sin 0 and y = esc 0 for
0° =1 0 360°.
(b) From the graphs estimate the values of 0 for which 2 sin 0 — esc 0.
5. (a) Draw on the same axes the graphs of y = 3 cos 0 and y = sec 0 for
0° ^ 0 == 360°.
(b) From the graphs estimate the values of 0 for which 3 cos 0 = sec 0.
6. (a) Draw on the same axes the graphs of y — 3 sin 0 and y = tan 0 for
0° 0 =i 360°.
(b) From the graphs estimate the values of 0 for which 3 sin 0 = tan 0.

Relationships between the Values of the Trigonometric Functions

Reciprocal relationships. Using the definitions of the functions we have

y v
sin d • esc 6 = — • - = 1 for all values of 6 for which esc 6 is defined.
r y
Hence sin 6 and esc d are reciprocal numbers, except when sin 0 = 0, and
we may write

CSC 0= or sin 0
sin 0 esc 0
provided sin 0 ^ 0.
In the same way, we have cos 0 • sec 0=1, and we may write

a 1 n 1
sec 0 =-x or cos 0 =-^
cos 0 sec 0
provided cos 0^0.
y x
Also, tan 0 • cot 0 = - • - = 1, and we may write
x y
1
tan 0 = or cot 0 =
cot 0 tan 0 ’
provided tan 0^0 and cot 0^0.

Quotient relationships. Provided that cos 0 ^ 0, we may use cos 0 as a

divisor, and we have
sin 0 y _ x
- = tan 0.
cos 0 r r X
Hence we may write
a sin 0
tan 0 = Q* cos 0^0.
cos 0
In the same way,
, Q cos 0
cot 0 = . sin 0?^ 0.
sin 0
Trigonometric Equations and Identities 435

Pythagorean relationships. The fact that x2 + y2 = r2 enables us to show

that each of the following statements is true for all values of 0 for which
the functions are defined.
(1) sin20 + cos20 = 1
(2) sec20 = 1 + tan20
(3) csc20 = 1 -f- cot20

We prove (2) and leave (1) and (3) as exercises.

-Proof of (2)-

1 -f tan20 = 1 + (provided x ^ 0)
oc
_ x2 + y2
x2
r2
—— (since x2 -f y2 — r2)
OC

= sec20

Identities

The relationships established in the preceding paragraphs are true state¬

ments for all values of 0 for which the trigonometric functions are defined.
Thus, within the domain of definition, they are true statements for all values
of 0 and hence they are classified as identities.
They may be used to establish other identities involving the trigonometric
functions, just as theorems in geometry are used to establish new results.
Their main usefulness, as with algebraic identities such as the sentence
(x — a)2 = x2 — 2 ax -f- a2, is that they enable us to write trigonometric
expressions in alternative forms. Determining the simplest or most con¬
venient form of a given expression is often the key step in solving a problem.

_ vr cos 0 + sin 0 . cos 0 — sin 0

Example 1. Simplify: ---1-:—t-
cos 0 sin 0
Solution: The expression is meaningless if cos 0 = 0 or if sin 0 = 0. Hence we
exclude these possibilities. For all other values of cos 0 and sin 0 we have
cos 0 -f- sin 0 cos 0 — sin 0
cos 0 sin 0
_ cos 0 sin 0 -f sin20 ~h cos20 — cos 0 sin 0
cos 0 sin 0
sin20 + cos20
sin 0 cos 0
1
= esc 0 sec 0
sin 0 cos 0
436 Chapter 16

Example 2. Prove that -:—- = 1 + sin # is an identity provided

1 — sin #
sin # 1.
Solution: For all values of #, sin2# + cos2# = 1 or cos2# = 1 — sin2#.
cos2#
1 — sin #
_ 1 — sin2#
1 — sin #
_ (1 — sin #)(1 ~h sin #)
1 — sin #
= 1 + sin # (provided sin # ^ 1)
cos2#
In using-- = 1 + sin # as an identity, what values of # must be excluded?
1 — sm #
Try to write the value of each side of the equality when # = 90°.

4. tan2# — sec2# _ 2
Example 3. Evaluate--—-if sin # = 3-

Solution: We simplify the expression before substituting the given value of

sin #.
4 -f~ tan2# — sec2#
CSC2#

= ^ since sec2# = 1 + tan2#

CSC"#

= 3 sin2# since-- = sin #

esc #
When sin # = f, the value of the given expression is therefore 3(f) = f.

Example 4. Simplify (1 -f cos #)(csc # — cot #).

Solution: In a situation of this sort we combine terms within the parentheses
rather than use the Distributive Axiom to obtain a number of separate terms.
Thus:
(1 + cos #)(csc # — cot #)
1 cos #\
= (1 + COS #)(—
vsm
\S11 # sin 6/
(1 T cos #)(1 — cos #)
sin #
1 — cos2#
sin #
sin2#
sm #
Trigonometric Equations and Identities 437

Exercises [A 1]

1. Using sin2# -f cos2# = 1, complete the statements

(a) 1 — cos2# = _?_ (b) 1 — sin2# = _?_
2. Using sec2# = 1 + tan2#, complete the statements
(a) sec2# — 1 = _?_ (b) sec2# — tan2# = _?_
3. Using esc2# = 1 -|- cot2#, complete the statements
(a) esc2# — 1 = _?_ (b) esc2# — cot2# = _?_

4. Using only the identities esc # = —_ > cot # = CQS-^ > sin2# + cos2# = 1,
sm # sin #
prove 1 + cot2# = esc2#.

5. Using only the identities sec # = ^ > tan # = sin2# + cos2# = 1,

cos # cos #
prove 1 + tan2# = sec2#.

In Exercises 6-13, simplify the given expressions:

tan # 9. sin # + cos # • cot #
6. cos #
sin #
10. cos3# + cos # • sin2#
sin2#
7. cos # + 1 1
cos # 11.
1 — cos #/\1 + cos #,
1
8. 1
cos2# cot2# 12. cot ^4 • sin A • sec A

13. 1 + (cos A + sin ^4)(cos A — sin ^4)

Show that each of the following is a true statement for all values of # for
which both sides are defined.
14. (a) cot # sec # = esc # (b) sin #(csc # — sin #) = cos2#

15. (esc # -f cot #)(1 — cos #) = sin #

t ^ sin # + cos # cot # n
16. -1---= sec #
cot #
17. (a) tan # + cot # = sec # esc # (b) tan2# — sin2# = tan2# sin2#

i o (1 + sin #)2 4- cos2# _ 0

18> ~2

19. (sec # — tan #)(1 + esc #) = cot #

20. cot2# — cos2# = cot2# cos2#
21. Express tan # in terms of sin #. (| sin # | ^ 1)
22. Express esc # in terms of cos #. (| cos # | ^ 1)
438 Chapter 16

[A—2]
Exercises
Simplify:
1. esc2 3 A{\ — cos2 A) 7. cos 6(sec 6 — cos $)
2. cos2 #(sec2 # — 1) 8. sec x esc x — tan x
3. sin A (esc A — sin A) 9. cos 6 cot 6 + sin 6
4. sin2 y4(tan2 .4 + 1) cos2 6
10. sin 6 +
5. tan2 6(1 — sin2 6) 1 + sin 6

sin2 6
6.
1 — cos 6

Show that each of the following is a true statement for all values of the
angle for which both sides are defined.
11. esc 6 — cot 6 cos 6 — sin 6 sec 4# — 1
15. — tan2#= 2
12. sin 6 tan 6 + cos 6 = sec 6 tan2#

sin 6 cot 6 + cos 6 . n 16. cos4# — sin4# + 2 sin2# = 1

13. -----= sin 6
2 cot 6 17. (sec A + tan ^4)(1 — sin A) = cos A
cos 6 18. sin #(cot # + sin # sec #) = sec #
14. — sec 6 = tan 6
1 — sin 6 19. (1 + sec #)(csc # — cot #) = tan #
sin 6
20. (1 + tan 0) = tan #
sin 6 + cos 6
21. cos4# + 2 cos2# sin2# + sin4# = 1
cos # , 1 + sin #
22. + = 2 sec #
1 + sin # cos #
23. Express sin # in terms of cot #.
24. Express sec # in terms of sin #. (| sin # | ^ 1)

[B]
Exercises
t (tan x — sin x)(l + cos x)
1. Simplify: -—^—--
sin%
'2 — sec2x\/ cos x + sin x\ 2 tan x
2. Simplify: v 9 „ , . 2
\C0S £ — sm ay 1 + tan2#
3. Prove that for any two angles x and y:
sin2# cos2y — cos2x sin2y — sin2# + sin2y = 0.
4. Prove that the value of the following expression does not depend
upon the value of y:
t /tan x -f tan ys
^ \cot x + cot yj
Trigonometric Equations and Identities 439

5. Prove the identity: esc4# — cot40 — csc20 = cot20.

6. Prove the identity: 1 + cot20 csc20 + cot20 = csc40.
7. Prove the identity: sin60 -f 3 sin20 cos2 6 -f cos60 = 1.
8. (a) For what set of values of x does log x have meaning?
(b) For what values of 6 does log cos d have meaning?
(c) Complete the following statements:
(i) log a -f log b = log ( ? )
(ii) log a — log b = log ( ? )
(iii) n log a = log (?)

For values of 6 for which the logarithms are defined, show that the follow¬
ing sentences are identities:
9. log(l + sin 6) + log(l — sin 6) = 2 log cos 6
10. log(cot 6 — tan 6) — log(cot 6 — 1) = log(l + tan 6)
11. log(l + cos 6) — log(l — cos 6) = 2 log(csc d + cot 6)
12. log(cot 6 -f tan 6) + log(csc 6 — sin 6) + log(sec 6 — cos 6) = 0
13. The coordinates of a point P are expressed by x = 4 cos 6, y = 2 sin d.
Show that, as 6 takes values from 0° to 360°, the locus of P is an
ellipse.
14. The coordinates of a point P are expressed by x = 2 cos 6,
y = 2(1 + sin d). Show that, as 6 takes values from 0° to 360°, the
locus of P is a circle. Find the center and radius of the circle.
15. The coordinates of a point P are expressed by x = 3 sin d + 4 cos 6,
y = 3 cos 6 — 4 sin 6. Find the equation of the locus of P.
(0° ^ 6 ^ 360°) Describe the locus.
16. The coordinates of a point P are expressed by x = 2 sec 6, y = 2 tan 6.
If 0° ^ 6 < 90°, find the equation of the locus of P. Describe the
locus.

In the following exercises a, b, c, A, B,C refer to the sides and angles of

A ABC. Use the relationships already established between these quantities
to prove the following identities:
17. (b — c)sin A + {c — a)sin B = (b — a)sin C
18. (a -}- b T c)(a -f- b — c) — 2 ab( 1 + cos C)
19. a cos B -f b cos A = c
20. c(a cos B — b cos A) = a2 — b2
21. c(cos B — sin B) -f b(cos C + sin C) = a
22. 2 K{cot A T cot B) = c2. (K = area of A ABC)
440 Chapter 16

Trigonometric Equations

In the preceding section we were concerned with sentences such as

"sin2# + cos2# = 1.” This sentence states a general property of sin # and
cos #. It is a true statement for every value of #.
The sentence "sin 6 = cos 6” on the other hand, does not describe a gen¬
eral property of sin 9 and cos 9. It states a condition which is satisfied by
some values of 9 and is not satisfied by others. The sentence is therefore
called a conditional equation or simply an equation. Since the condition to
be satisfied is expressed in terms of values of trigonometric functions of 9,
the equation is called a trigonometric equation. A value of 9 which satisfies
the given condition is a root or solution of the equation.
Angles of x\° and of (360 n + £i)°, where n is an integer, have the same
terminal side. The values of the trigonometric functions of (360 w + oq)°
are therefore the same as those of x\°. It follows that if x\° is a solution of
a trigonometric equation, then (360 w + aq)0 is also a solution for every
integer n.
We shall generally list the set of solutions of a trigonometric equation in
the interval 0° ^ 9 < 360°. Other solutions, if required, can readily be
obtained from these. Thus, if sin 9 = \ and 0° ^ 9 < 360°, then the set of
solutions is {30°, 150°}. If there is no restriction on the values of 9, then
n • 360° + 30° and n • 360° + 150° are solutions for every integer n.
The solution of a trigonometric equation may require the standard alge¬
braic operations, including factoring. In carrying out the algebraic opera¬
tions we regard a value of a trigonometric function, the value of cos 9, for
example, as a variable in an algebraic equation. Thus, values of cos 9 which
satisfy the equation 2 cos2# — cos # = 1 are found by the method used in
solving 2 x2 — x = 1.
Some procedures commonly used in solving trigonometric equations are
shown in the following examples.

Example 1. Solve: 3 sin # = 4 cos # for 0° ^ # < 360°.

sin #
Solution: We use the general relationship-- = tan #, cos # ^ 0, to obtain an
cos #
equivalent equation in the value of one trigonometric function. It is clear that
cos # = 0 is not a solution of the equation, and the exclusion of this value does
not affect the set of solutions.
3 sin # = 4 cos #
sin # 4
(Dividing by 3 cos #, cos # ^ 0.)
cos # 3
tan # = 1.3333
# = 53° 8', 233° 8'
Trigonometric Equations and Identities 441
Check:

0=53° 8': 0 = 233° 8':

3 sin 6 4 cos 6 3 sin 6 4 cos 6
3(0.8) 4(0.6) 3(— 0.8) 4(— 0.6)
2.4 2.4 -2.4 -2.4

Example 2. Solve: 1 -f- sin * = 2 cos2* for 0° ^ * < 360°.

Solution: We use the general relationship cos2* = 1 — sin2* to obtain an

equivalent equation involving only sin *.

1 + sin * = 2 cos2*
1 + sin * = 2(1 — sin2*)
1 -}- sin * = 2 — 2 sin2*
2 sin2* + sin * — 1 = 0
(2 sin * — l)(sin * + 1) = 0

2 sin * = 1 sin * = — 1
sin*=J *= 270°
* = 30°, 150°

The required solutions are {30°, 150°, 270°}.

Check: We show only the check for * = 150°.

*= 150°:
1 -f sin * 2 cos2*
1+i
3.
2
2

Example 3. Solve: 3 esc * = 1 + 2 sin * for 0° ^ * < 360°.

Solution: We use the general relationship esc * = -r-—> sin * ^ 0, to obtain an

sin *
equivalent equation involving only sin *.

3 esc * = 1 + 2 sin *

—r~— = 1 + 2 sin *
sin *
3 = sin * + 2 sin2*
2 sin2* + sin * — 3 = 0
(2 sin * + 3) (sin * — 1) = 0

sin * = — § sin * = 1
No value of * corresponds to *=90°
sin * = — §, since — f is not in
the range of sin *.
The only solution of the equation is 90°.
442 Chapter 16

Exercises[A 1]
Solve for values of 0 (or it) in the set 0° ^ 0 < 360°. Notice that 0° is
included in the set but that 360° is excluded.
1. 2 sin 0 = 1 15. 3 sin 0 + 2 cos 0 = 0
2. 3 cos 0+1 = 0 16. 2 sin 0 + 5 cos 0 = 0
3. 4 sin 0 + 1 = 0 17. 4 sin 0 = esc 0
4. 4 tan 0=3 18. 2 cos 0 = sec 0
5. 3 cot 0 + 4 = 0 19. 2 sin2# — sin # = 0
6. 17 sin 0 = 10 (Use esc 0.) 20. 3 cos2# + cos # = 0
7. 13 cos 0 = 5 (Use sec 0.) 21. tan2# + 2 tan # = 0
8. 2 esc 0 + 3 = 0 22. 2 cos2# + cos #—1 = 0
9. sin2# = 1 23. (1 + 2 cos #)(1 + sin #)
10. cos2# = 1 24. 2 cos2# + sin # + 1 = 0
11. 4 sin2# = 5 25. sec20 = 3 tan 0—1
12. tan2# = 4 26. cos2# + 3 sin # = 3
13. sin 0 = 2 cos 0 27. 2 esc20 +1 = 3 cot20
14. 3 sin 0 = cos 0 28. cot20 = 1 + esc 0

29. tan20 + 4 tan 0—1 = 0 (Use the quadratic formula.)

30. sin20 + 2 cos 0 = 0 (Use the quadratic formula.)

Exercises [A_2]
Solve for values of 0 (or #) in the set 0° ^ 0 < 360°:

1. 2 cos 0=1 12. 4 sin20 = 3

2. 3 sin 0 + 1 = 0 13. sin 0 = cos 0
3. 4 cos 0 + 3 = 0 14. 4 sin 0 = 3 cos 0
4. 5 tan 0=2 15. 3 sin 0 + cos 0 = 0
5. 4 cot 0+1 = 0 16. sin 0 + 3 cos 0 = 0
6. 13 sin 0 = 5 (Use esc 0.) 17. 2 sin 0 = esc 0
7. 31 cos # = 20 (Use sec #.) 18. 4 cos 0 = sec 0
8. 3 sec 0+5 = 0 19. 2 cos2# = cos #
9. tan20 = 1 20. 3 sin2# + sin # = 0
10. sec20 = 4 21. 2 tan2# = tan #
11. 2 cos20 = 3 22. 2 sin2# — sin # — 1 = 0
 Trigonometric Equations and Identities 443

23. (1 — 3 sin #)(1 -f cos x) = 0 26. sin2# — 3 cos x = 3

24. 1 — 4 sin x = 4 cos2 # 27. 2(2 -f tan2#) = 5 sec #
25. sec2# = 4 tan # — 2 28. 2 csc20 + cot 6 = 5

29. sec2# = 2 — tan # (Use the quadratic formula.)

30. 4 cos2# — 8 cos # = 1 (Use the quadratic formula.)

Solutions Requiring the Operation of Squaring [B]

In some trigonometric equations the process of squaring both sides is

needed in the solution. In using this process we again note that the equa¬
tion obtained after squaring is not necessarily equivalent to the original
equation. Solutions of the final equation must, therefore, be checked in the
given equation in order that extraneous values may be separated from the
required roots of the original equation. The procedure is comparable to the
solution of radical equations in Chapter 8.

Example. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: sin x + 2 cos x = 1.

Solution: To eliminate cos x from the equation, we take the following steps:

1. Subtract sin x from both sides.

2. Square both sides.
3. Replace cos2# by 1 — sin2#.

Thus: sin # -j- 2 cos # = 1

1. 2 cos # = 1 sin #
2. 4 cos2# = 1 2 sin # -f sin2#
3. 4 — 4 sin2# = 1 2 sin # + sin2#
5 sin2# — 2 sin #—3 = 0
(5 sin # + 3) (sin # — 1) = 0

sin # = — § sin # = 1
#=216° 52', 323° 8' #=90°

Checks:
#=216° 52': sin# +2 cos# 1 # = 90°: sin #+2 cos# 1
(- I) + 2(— |) 1 + 2(0)
1
# = 216° 52' is an extraneous value.
x = 90° is a root.

#= 323° 8': sin #+2 cos# 1

(- i) + 2(1)
1 1
# = 323° 8' is a root.

The solutions of the given equation are 90°, 323° 8'.

i
444 Chapter 16

Exercises [B]
Solve the following equations for 0° ^ x < 360°:
1.1 + cos x = 2 sin x 5. 2 sin x — cos x = 2
2. 1 — sin x = 3 cos x 6. 3 sin x + cos x = 2
3. 1 + sin x = V3 cos x 7. sin x + cos x = 2
4. cos x + sin x = 1 8. 3 sin x — 4 cos x — 4

Chapter Review
1. Write the value of (a) sec 225°, (b) sin 90°, (c) cot 330°.
2. Evaluate (a) sec2315° — tan2315°, (b) (sec 315° — tan 315°)2.
1 . 1
3. Simplify:
1 — sin # 1 + sin #
cos #
4. Simplify: tan # + , , . _
1 + sin #
5. Prove the identity: 1 + sin2# tan2# — tan2# = cos2#.
6. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° 2 sin x cos x — cos x = 0.
7. Solve for 0° ^ # < 360° cos # = 6 sin2# — 5.
8. Solve for 0° == # < 360° 2 sin # cos # = tan #.
9. Is the statement "Vl + 2 sin # cos # = sin # + cos #” true for
(a) some values of # and not others?
(b) all values of #? (c) no values of #?

Chapter Test
1. Write the value of (a) sin 120°, (b) tan 300c (c) cos 180°.
2. Write the value of (a) cos 240°, (b) esc 150c (c) cot 270°.
? c. rr sin2# .
3. Simplify: --- — 1.
1 — cos #
4. Simplify: esc + — cos + cot +.

5. Prove the identity: c°t ^+ tan A) _ ^ ^

J 1 + cot2 A
6. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° 2 sin x = 3 cos x.
7. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° 2 sec2# — 3 sec x = 2.
8. Solve for 0° ^ # < 360° 2 cos2 # = 3(1 + sin #).
9. Is the statement "sec2# > tan2#” true for (a) some values of # and
not others? (b) all values of # for which the functions are defined?
(c) no values of #?
— —
- -
-

w ~A
mm
—
r- — — — -

olynomials

Factorable Polynomials

The expressions 3 x — 8, 3 x2 — 2 x -f 4 are examples of polynomials of

the first and second degree. The general polynomial is an expression of the
form
anxn -f an-\xn~l + • • • + d2X2 + a\x + ao,

where every exponent is a positive integer and every coefficient is a complex

number. If the highest power of x is xk, the polynomial is of degree k.
In this chapter we shall examine some general properties of polynomials
but we shall be mainly concerned with polynomials of degree 3 and with
methods of solving cubic equations. In our work, the coefficients of the
terms of a polynomial will be restricted to rational numbers. A rule of the
form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a ^ 0, defines a cubic function. Examples of
such rules are y = x3, y = 5 x — 2 x3, y = x3 — 2 x2 -f 4 x -f 3.5.
A polynomial with coefficients which are integers is factorable if it can
be written as the product of two or more polynomials with coefficients which
are integers. We begin our study by applying elementary factoring pro¬
cedures to certain polynomials of degree three or four. Two identities
involving polynomials of the third degree are listed here for reference.

^ (x -f- y)3 = x3 + 3 x2y -f 3 xy2 -f y3 for all values of x, y

x3 -f y3 = (x -f y)(x2 — xy -f y2) for all values of x, y

The student should write out the identities obtained by replacing y by — y

throughout the statements.

Example 1. Factor 3 x3 — 4 x2 + 12 x — 16. State the real zeros of the

polynomial.
Solution: The polynomial may be factored by pairing the terms and combining
the pairs by means of a common binomial factor.

3 *3 - 4 x2 + 12 x - 16 = x2(3 x - 4) + 4(3 x - 4) = (x2 + 4) (3 x - 4)

There is no real value of x for which x2 + 4 is zero; thus ^ is the only real zero of
the polynomial.
445
446 Chapter 17

Example 2. Solve the equation x3 = 8.

Solution: The equation is written x3 — 8 = 0, and the left-hand side is factored
as the difference of two cubes, using a3 — b3 — {a — b){a2 + ab -j- b2). Hence,
we have
(x — 2) (x2 + 2 x + 4) = 0.

The product of the two factors is zero if, and only if, one of the factors is zero. All
roots of the cubic equation are therefore given by x — 2 = 0 and x2 + 2 x + 4 = 0.
The quadratic equation may be solved by the formula or by the method of
"completing the square.” Its roots are the conjugate imaginary numbers
- 1 + iV3, - 1 - iV3.
The roots of x3 = 8 are therefore {2, — 1 + iV3, — 1 — fV3.}

Cube Roots
The preceding example illustrates the fact that a number has three cube
roots. Any value of x which satisfies the equation x3 = 8 is a cube root of 8,
and each of the numbers 2, — 1 + i\/3, — 1 — f\/3 satisfies this condition.
Every real number except zero has three different cube roots, one real and
two imaginary. The real cube root is called the principal cube root of the
number.
In the system of complex numbers, every number has 2 square roots,
3 cube roots, 4 fourth roots, and so on. The general method of determining
such roots is based on the representation of a complex number in a trigo¬
nometric form, and we shall not investigate the method here. We shall
only be concerned with cases which can be solved algebraically.

Example 3. Verify that — 1 + iV3 is a cube root of 8.

Solution: We have
(-1 + iV3)3 = (-1 + ;V3)2(-1 + fV3)
= (1 - 2;V3 — 3)(— 1 + tV3)
= - 2(1 + iV3)(- 1 + iV3)
= — 2(— 1 — 3)
= 8

Example 4. Find the fourth roots of 81.

Solution: A fourth root of 81 is a number x such that x4 = 81, and the required
numbers are, therefore, the roots of
x4 — 81 = 0.
Factoring the left-hand side as the difference of two squares, we have
(x2-9)(x2 + 9) = 0
(x — 3) (# -f- 3) (x2 + 9) = 0
The roots are given by x — 3 = 0, x + 3 = 0, and x2 + 9 = 0.
Hence, the fourth roots of 81 are {3, — 3, 3 i} — 3 i}.
Polynomials 44 7

Exercises CA 1]

In exercises 1-10 factor as completely as possible, and find the rational

zeros of each polynomial.

1. x3 — 3 x2 — 4 x + 12 6. 8 x3 - 27
2. x3 + 4 x2 -f 4 ac 7. 6 x3 -f 4 x2 — 15 x — 10
3. 3 x — 2 x3 8. x3 + 1 -f 2 x(x -f 1)
4. 2 x3 + 2 9. 4 x3 — 4 x2 — x + 1
5. x4 — 5 x2 — 36 10. x3 — 3 x2 — 6 x -f- 8

Solve the following equations completely:

11. x3 + 6 x2 + 4 x = 0 17. 4 x4 + 27 = 21 x2
12. x3 = 3 x 18. x3 + x = x2 + 1
13. (2 x + 5)(x — l)2 = 0 19. 4 x3 + 8 x2 — 3 x — 6 = 0
14. x4 - 2 x2 = 24 20. x2(x + 4) -f 8(x -J- 1) = 0
15. 2 x3 + 3 x2 = 4 x + 6 21. (x2 + x)2 -f 2(x2 -f x) — 8 = 0
16. x3 = — 8 22. (2 x2 —3x)2 —3(2 x2 —3x) = 10

Exercises [A 2]

In exercises 1-8 factor as completely as possible and find the rational

zeros of each polynomial.

1. x3 — 2 x2 + 5 x — 10 5. x4 — 4 x2 — 45
2. 2 x3 — 3 x2 6. 4 x3 -I- 8 x2 -f- x 2
3. 12 x2 — 9 x — 4 x3 7. 27 — x3 4- 3 x(3 — x)

4. 3 - 24 x3 8. x3 4~ 3 x2 4~ 3 x 4~ 1

9. If x = — \ 4- \ iy/Sj evaluate (a) x2, (b) x l.

10. Show that (— ^ — \ iy/3)3 = 1.

Solve the following equations completely.

11. x3 4~ 12 = 3 x2 4- 4 x 16. 3 x3 — 5 x2 = 15 — 9 x

12. 4 x3 = 5 x 17. *3+ 1 = 3(x4-1)2

13. 2x4+ 11 x2 4- 12 = 0 18. x4 = ax3 4~ 2 a2x2

14. x3 = 1 19. 2 x3 4- a%2 — 8 b2x 4- 4 ab2

15. 2 x2 4- 3 x3 = 0 20. ax3 + bx2-\-cx = 0

448 Chapter 17

The Cubic Function

In this section we shall illustrate by the graphs of specific but typical
examples the changes which occur in the value of a cubic function as values
of x are taken in a certain domain. In constructing and using the graphs
we accept as postulates the following properties of polynomials.
If f{x) is a polynomial,

^ 1. To each value of x there corresponds just one value of f(x).

2. The graph of y — f(x) is a continuous (unbroken) curve.
3. The graph of y = f(x) is a "smooth” curve, with no abrupt changes of
direction.

It follows that, if fixi) is positive and f{xf) is negative, the graph of /

crosses the #-axis at least once in
the interval from x\ to X2. In
other words, there is a real zero
of / between X\ and X2. This
conclusion is the basis of most
methods of approximating the
real roots of equations of the
form f(x) — 0.
The graphs of cubic functions all conform to a certain general pattern, but
they vary considerably in details. In constructing a specific graph it is
necessary to plot enough of its points to outline the form of the smooth
curve. For some purposes the points obtained by evaluating/(F) for integral
values of x in a given interval are adequate. A more accurate graph is ob¬
tained by using some intermediate values of x. The set of values of x and
the accuracy required in a particular case depend upon the purpose for
which the graph is drawn.

Example 1. Construct the graph of the function defined by

f(x) = x3 — x2 — 7 x + 3 for — 3 ^ x = 3.
Find the real zeros of the function to the nearest tenth.
Solution: The values of f(x) in the following table Y
11D
£
are obtained by substitution.
in
iU
X -3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 »
c:
k D
i
f(x) - 12 5 8 3 -4 - 7 0
3- 2 - 1 0 2 :5 X
The corresponding points of the graph are shown -5
i <

in the diagram on the right. They indicate the gen¬

►
eral pattern of the graph, but leave in doubt its 1,1
precise form in some important regions. We note
. Polynomials 449

that 3 is a zero of /, and that there are other zeros between — 3 and — 2 and
between 0 and 1. By using the following values of /(#), we are able to draw the
required portion of the graph with sufficient accuracy to read the zeros to the
nearest tenth.

The zeros of / are the values of x at the points where the graph crosses the
#-axis. One zero is 3, and the others are — 2.4 and 0.4 to the nearest tenth.

Example 2. Construct the graph of the function defined by f(x) = 4 x — x3.

Solution: We may write
f(x) = x(2 + x)(2 — x),
and we see that the zeros of / are
— 2, 0, 2. Evaluating f(x) for inte¬
gral values of x from — 3 to 3, we
have
X -3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3
f(x) 15 0 -3 0 3 0 - 15
These values enable us to make
the sketch of the graph shown on the right. We note that it has the same
"double bend” form as the graph in the preceding example, but that there is a
reversal of the order of the changes in f(x) as x increases.
 450 Chapter 17

A more accurate drawing of the graph between x = — 2 and x = 2 is now made

with the help of the values in the following table.

Consider the portion of the curve between 0 and B. The fact that/(1.5) = 2.6
and/(0.5) = 1.9 shows that this portion is not symmetrical about the line x=l.
The point (1, 3) is not, in fact, the top point of the bend, as may be verified by
evaluating/(l.l). No portion of a bend of a cubic curve is symmetrical about a
vertical line, and careful drawing is necessary to obtain the correct form of the
curve in regions such as that from A to B above.

Symmetry about a Point

It is a striking feature of the table of values of f{x) = 4 x — z3 that values
of x with opposite signs but the same absolute value produce values of f(x)
with opposite signs but the same absolute value. For instance,/(3) = — 15,
/(— 3) = 15; /(1.5) = 2.6, /(— 1.5) = — 2.6. The points whose coordinates
are (1.5, 2.6), (— 1.5, —2.6) lie on a straight line through the origin and
are at the same distance from the origin on opposite sides. Such points are
said to be symmetrically placed with respect to the origin.
The graph of f(x) = 4 x — x3 consists of pairs of points which are sym¬
metrically placed with respect to the origin. The validity of this statement
is apparent if we consider the values of f(x) for x — a and x = — a. We
have f(a) = 4 a-a3, and /(- a) = - 4 a + a3 = - (4 a - a3). Thus,
f{— a) = — }{a) for all values of a, and it follows that if the point (#i, y\)
is on the graph, so also is the point (— Xi, — y\). A graph with this property
is said to be symmetrical about the origin. Geometrically, this means that
Polynomials 451

if any straight line is drawn through the origin to meet the curve at points
P and Q, then OP = OQ. Algebraically, it means that fix) contains only
odd powers of #, so that each term changes sign when x changes sign.
If a cubic expression contains a term in x2 or a constant term, its graph is
not symmetrical about the origin. It can be shown, however, that in every
case there is one point of a cubic graph about which the curve has sym¬
metry. This fact is helpful in our consideration of the form of the curve,
although we are not at present prepared to determine the position of the
point for a general cubic graph. Nor are we able, at present, to determine
the extreme high or low points of the bends of a cubic curve. In constructing
an accurate graph we rely on plotting an adequate number of points of the
locus.

Exercises [A]

1. If f{x) = x3 — 8 x, (a) evaluate /(1.5) and /(— 1.5), (b) show that
/(— n) = — fin), (c) construct the graph of / as accurately as possible
for — 3 ^ x ^ 3, (d) read to the nearest tenth the values of x for
which fix) = 3.
2. If fix) = #3 — 8 x and Fix) = x3 — 8 x + 3, (a) state the relationship
of Fin) to fin), (b) describe the relationship of the graph of F to the
graph of/, (c) state the coordinates of the point about which the graph
of F has symmetry.
3. If fix) = 6 x — x3, (a) evaluate /(0.5) and /(— 0.5), (b) show that
/(— n) = — fin), (c) construct the graph of / as accurately as possible
for — 3 ^ ^ 3, (d) read to the nearest tenth the values of £ for
which fix) = — 4.
4. If fix) = 6 # - #3 and F(x) = 6 # - #3 - 4, (a) state the relationship
of Fin) to fin), (b) describe the relationship of the graph of F to the
graph of/, (c) state the coordinates of the point about which the graph
of F is symmetrical.
5. Construct the graph of fix) = x3 — 6 x + 3 for — 3 ^ x = 3, and read
the zeros of / to the nearest tenth.
6. Construct the graph of y = 5 + 4 # — x3 for — 2 ^ x ^ 3, and read
to the nearest tenth the value of x for which y is zero.
7. Construct the graph of y = x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x -f 5 for — 2 = x = 4, and
read to the nearest tenth the values of x for which (a) y is zero,
(b) y = 10.
8. Construct the graph of y = x3 — 2 x2 — 5 x + 4 for — 2.5 ^ = 3.5,
and read to the nearest tenth the roots of#3 — 2 x2 — 5 # + 4 = 0.
452 Chapter 17

9. Construct the graph of y — x4 — 2 x2 for — 2 ^ x ^ 2, and read to

the nearest tenth the values of x for which y = 4.
10. Construct the graph of y = x2(4 — x2) for — 2.5 ^ x ^ 2.5, and read
the maximum value of y as accurately as the graph allows.

Characteristics of the Cubic Function

In the cubic function defined by y — ax3 + bx2 -f- cx + d the term ax3
outweighs the others when x is of sufficiently large absolute value. The
sign of the number represented by a therefore determines the sign of the
function value for such values of x.
When a is positive, the ax3 term has the same sign as x; hence the value
of the cubic function is positive and its value increases with x when x reaches
a sufficiently large positive value. Also, when x is negative and of sufficiently
large absolute value, the value of the cubic function is negative and its value
decreases as x decreases. Thus, when a is positive, the values of the ex¬
pression ax3 + bx2 + cx + d follow the general pattern indicated in Figure (1).
When a is negative, the sign of the term ax3 is opposite to the sign of x.
In this case the values of the function follow the pattern indicated by the
graph in Figure (2).

It can be shown that the graph of a cubic function cannot have more
than two points at which the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
Such points, indicated by A and B in Figures (1) and (2), are called the
turning points of the graph. The graph of a cubic function does not neces¬
sarily have two turning points, as is illustrated by Figures (3) and (4). The
forms illustrated by Figures (1) and (2) are, however, regarded as char¬
acteristic of the cubic function.

Real Roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx -f- d = 0

If f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, the function / takes every real value for
some real value of x. In particular, every cubic function takes the value
zero for at least one real value of x. In other words, the graph of every
cubic function crosses the x-axis at least once and every cubic equation has
at least one real root.
Polynomials 453

The real roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are the values of x at the points
at which the graph of / meets the x-axis, and even a rough sketch of the
graph of the function is usually sufficient to indicate the nature of the roots
of the equation.

Figure (1) shows the graph of y=f{x) when the equation/(x) = 0 has
three distinct real roots, two negative and one positive.
Figure (2) shows the graph of y = fix) when the equation f(x) = 0 has
three real roots, one negative and two positive and equal.
Figure (3) shows the graph of y = fix) when the equation fix) = 0 has
one real, positive root, and two imaginary roots.
If we consider the sentence
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx, we see
that the roots of the equation
ax3 -f- bx2 + cx = k are the
values of x for which y=k,
that is, the abscissas of the
points at which the line
y = k meets the graph of
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx. As in¬
dicated in the diagram, this
graph passes through the
origin. Suppose it has two
turning points at which the
values of y are y\ and y2, yi being greater than y2- Then the equation
ax3 + bx2 + cx = k
has three real roots provided that the value of k is not greater than yi nor
less than y2.
Exercises A 1]
1. Construct the graph of y = x3 — 2 x2 — 3 x T 3 for 2 ^ x ^ 3. Read
to the nearest tenth the roots of x3 — 2 x 3 x + 3 = 0.
2. Construct the graph of y = x3 — 2 x1 for — 1=^ = 3, and read to
the nearest tenth the real root of x3 — 2 x~ = 2. State the nature of
the roots of x3 — 2 x2 = k if k is positive.
454 Chapter 17

3. Construct the graph of y = 5 x — x3 for — 3 ^ x ^ 3, and read to

the nearest tenth the roots of 5 x — x3 = 3. What is the largest inte¬
gral value of k for which 5 x — x3 = k has three real roots?
4. Construct the graph of y = x3 for — 3 ^ x ^ 3. On the same axes
construct the graph of y = 4x —3, and read the real roots of
x3 — 4 x + 3 = 0 to the nearest tenth.
5. By constructing the graph of y = 4 — 2 x on the same axes as the
graph of y = x3, show that x3 -f- 2 x — 4 = 0 has only one real root,
and read it to the nearest tenth.
6. Find the real root of x3 + 3 x = 10 to the nearest tenth.

In exercises 7-15 sketch the graph of/ and state the set of values of x for
which f{x) > 0.
7. f(x) = x(x + l)(x — 2) 12. fix) = (x— 1) (x2 + 4)
8. f{x) = x(x + 1) (2 — x) 13. fix) = x3 — 9 x
9. f(x) = x2(x — 3) 14. fix) = 4 x2 — x3 — 4 x
10. f(x) = 4 x — x3 15. fix) = x4 — 4 x2
11. fix) = (x — l)(x2 — 4)

Exercises [A 2]
1. Construct the graph of y = x3 — 2 x2 — 4 x + 4 for — 2 ^ x = 3. Read
to the nearest tenth the roots of x3 — 2 x2 — 4 x + 4 = 0.
2. Construct the graph of y = x(x — 3)2 for 0 ^ x = 4, and read to the
nearest tenth the roots of x(x — 3)2 = 3. What is the largest integral
value of k for which x(x — 3)2 = k has three real roots?
3. Construct the graph of y = 9 x — x3 for 0 = x = 3, and read as ac¬
curately as the graph allows the maximum value of y for x > 0.
4. Construct the graph of y = x4 for — 2 ^ x = 2. On the same axes
construct the graph of y = 2x4-6, and read the real roots of
a:4 — 2x — 6 = 0 to the nearest tenth.

In exercises 5-14 sketch the graph of / and state the set of values of x for
which fix) > 0.
5. fix) = x(x — 2)2 10. fix) = x2(x — 2)2
6. fix) = x2(3 — x) 11. fix) = (x — l)3
7. fix) = x2(2 x — 3) (2 x + 3) 12. fix) — x(3 — x) (2 + x)
8. fix) = x3 — 1 13. fix) = x3 — 2 x2 + x
9. fix) = x3 — x 14. fix) = x4 — x3
Polynomials 455

The Division Identity

Our examination of the graph of y = ax3 + bx2 + cx -f d has shown us that

a cubic equation must have at least one real root. In the following paragraphs
we develop theorems which enable us to solve completely any cubic equa¬
tion which has a rational root. The first of these theorems is based directly
on the division identity which we now illustrate.
If xs — 4 is divided by x — 2, the quotient is x2 + 2 x -f 4 and the re¬
mainder is 4. The division process is shown
at the right.
The result of the division may be ex¬ x2 + 2 x + 4
pressed in the form x — 2)x3 —4
/v»3
vv
- 9
Li
'■v'2
wv
/v*3 _ A A.
--^ = x2 + 2x + 4+-^—, 2X2 ^4
x—2 x— 2
2 x2 — 4 x
or in the form 4x—4
x3 _ 4 = (x - 2)(x2 + 2 x + 4) + 4. 4x—8
This second statement is true for all values 4
of x, and is a particular case of the general
division identity which is written:
Dividend = (Divisor) (Quotient) + Remainder.

Exercises

1. Divide x3 + 1 by x — 1, and complete the statement

x3 + 1 = (x — l)(x2 + x + 1) + -?-

for all values of x.

2. Divide x3 + x2 + 9 by x + 2, and complete the statement

x3 -f” x2 T9=(xT 2)(_?_)-|_ 5

for all values of x.

3. If f(x) = x3 - 4 x2 - 6 x + 12, find the remainder (R) when /(x) is
divided by x — 5. Evaluate/(5). Does/(5) = R?
4. If f{x) = x4 - 2 x2 + 5, find the remainder (R) when /(x) is divided
byx+2. Evaluate/(—2). Does/(— 2) = R?
5. If /(x) = (x-2)(x2 + 4) + 5, find the quotient and remainder (R)
when f{x) is divided by x — 2. Does/(2) = R?
6. If fix) = (x + l)(x3 + 2 x - 1) + 12, find the quotient and remainder
iR) when /(x) is divided by x+ 1. Does /(— 1) = R?
456 Chapter 17

The Remainder Theorem

Consider a polynomial represented by fix). When f(x) is divided by

x — n, let the quotient be represented by Q{x) and the remainder by R.
Since division by x — n is not completed as long as any term in x remains in
the dividend, R must be a constant.
The division identity takes the form:
fix) = (*-»)• Qix) + R
for all values of x.
If we now choose to replace i by w, we have
An) = (0) • Q(n) + R.
That is fin) = R.
The result established above is known as the Remainder Theorem, which
may be stated as follows:

^ If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x — n, the remainder is equal to the value

of the polynomial when x = n. In symbols, R = f(n).

The Factor Theorem

If, when the polynomial f(x) is divided by x — n the remainder is zero,

then x — n is a factor of fix). Since the remainder is fin), it follows that if
fin) = 0 then x — n is a factor of fix).
We thus have the following corollary to the Remainder Theorem, known
as the Factor Theorem:

^ If a polynomial f(x) is such that f(n) = 0, then x — n is a factor of f(x).

This is the converse of the result noted in the early chapters, that if
x — n is a factor of fix), then n is a root of fix) = 0.

Example 1. Find the remainder when x12 + 4 is divided by x — 1.

Solution: Let fix) = x12 + 4.
Then /(1) = l12 + 4 = 5.
But when fix) is divided by x — 1, the remainder is/(l) (Remainder Theorem).
Hence the remainder when x12 + 4 is divided by x — 1 is 5.

Example 2. Show that — 2 is a root of x3 — 6 x — 4 = 0, and find the

other two roots.
Solution: Let f(x) = x3 — 6 x — 4.
Then /(-2) = -8+12-4 = 0.
Hence — 2 is a root of fix) = 0, and the Factor Theorem enables us to deduce
that x + 2 is a factor of/(x).
Polynomials 457

The other factor is found by division to be x* 1 2 — 2 x — 2, so the original equa¬

tion may be written
{x -\- 2)(x2 — 2 x — 2) = 0.
The roots, other than — 2, are given by x2 — 2 x — 2 = 0.
They are {1 -f V3, 1 — V3}.

Example 3. Show that x + a is a factor of x7 -f a7.

Solution: Let f(x) = x7 + a7) then f(x) is a polynomial, and x + ct is a factor
of f(x) if /(— a) is zero.
We have/(— a) = (— a)7 + a7 = — a7 + a7 = 0.
Hence, x + a is a factor of x7 -f- a7.

Exercises [A]

1. Find the remainder when x6 — 3 x4 + 8 is divided by x — 1.

2. Find the remainder when x5 + 6 x2 -f- 20 is divided by x + 2.
3. Show that 2 is a root of x3 — 8 x + 8 = 0, and find the other two roots.
4. Show that 1 is a root of x3 -f- 3 x2 -j- x — 5 = 0, and find the other two
roots.
5. Determine whether x — 2 is a factor of x4 — 5 x2 + x + 4.
6. Determine whether x + 1 is a factor of 2 x3 — 3 a; + 1.
7. If /(#) = 2 x3 — 5 x2 — 4 jc + 3, show that/(— 1) = 0. Factor/(#).
8. If/(^) = x3-j-x2 — 5x — 2, show that/(2) = 0. Factorf(x).
9. Solve completely: x3 — 2 # + 1 = 0.
10. Solve completely: a:3 — 2 #2 + 3 = 0.

Rational Roots of a Cubic Equation

The factor theorem enables us to solve completely any cubic equation of
which we know a rational root. The following theorem gives helpful infor¬
mation concerning the possible rational roots of the equation
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0,
when the coefficients a, b, c, d are integers.
The proof rests on properties of the set of integers. Some of these proper¬
ties are given in the following statements.
1. The set of integers is closed under multiplication.
2. The set of integers is closed under addition.
3. The additive inverse of an integer is an integer.
Illustrate each of the above statements by an example, and note their
use in the proof of the theorem on the next page.
458 Chapter 17

^ Theorem. If - is a root of ox3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, where p and q are in¬

tegers having no common factor, then p is a factor of c/, and q is a factor of a.

-Proof-

Since - is a root of ax3 + bx2 -f cx + d — 0, then

q
a(t\\b(t\\c(t\ + i = 0
\?/ W V?/
Multiplying each side of this equality by q2, we have:

+ bp2 + cpq + d<72 = 0

The terms bp2, cpq, dq2 represent integers. (Statement 1, page 457.)
The sum of the three terms is an integer. (Statement 2, page 457.)
ap3
Since the sum of the four terms is zero, the fourth term is also an

integer. (Statement 3, page 457.)

dp3
In order that —should be an integer, the integer q must be an exact

divisor of the numerator d ■ p • p • p. But p and q have no common factors,

by hypothesis. Hence, q must be an exact divisor of d. That is, q is a
factor of a.
To show that p is a factor of d, we multiply each term in the statement

^j + ^+—+d= 0by^-> giving dp2 + bpq + cq2 + = 0.

q* qz q P p
The argument of the first part is then repeated.

Note that as a special case of the above theorem, when d— 1, the only
possible rational roots of + bx2 + cx + d = 0 (b, c, d being integers) are
integers which are factors of d.

Example. Solve the equation x3 + x2 — 3 x — 2 = 0.

Solution: The only possible rational roots of the equation are 1, — 1, 2, — 2.
Let/(x) = x3 x2 — 3 x — 2; then by substitution we have

/(1) = - 3,/(- 1) = l,/(2) = 4,/(— 2) = 0.

Hence, — 2 is a root of the equation.
Also, x + 2 is a factor of/(x), and we find that the other factor is x2 — x — 1.
The other roots of the equation are therefore obtained from x2 — x — 1 = 0.
I i±y5!i_V5i
The complete set of solutions is
Polynomials 459

Locating a Rational Root of a Polynomial Equation

The result established for the possible rational roots of a cubic equation
may be extended to all equations of the form/(a;) = 0, where fix) is a poly¬
nomial. The following statement may be proved in a manner similar to
that used for the cubic equation.

If — is a root of axn T bxn_1 + • • • + k = 0, p and q being integers having

q
no common factor, and the coefficients a, b, • • • k also being integers, then p
is a factor of k and q is a factor of a.

The importance of the result is that it limits the number of possible

rational roots of a particular equation. It thus enables us to decide, by
trial of the possible values, whether or not the equation has a rational root.
When there is a large number of possible rational roots, it is well to locate
a real root of the equation by finding successive integral values of x for
which fix) changes sign. The number of trial substitutions needed is thus
reduced to those of the possible rational roots which lie between the suc¬
cessive integers.

Example. Find a rational root of 4 x3 + 4 x2 + 3 x + 9 = 0.

Solution: When x is positive, each of the four terms on the left-hand side of the
equation is positive and their sum cannot be zero.
Hence, the equation does not have a positive root, and we consider only negative
values of x.
Let f(x) = 4x3 + 4x2 + 3x+9; then we find by substitution that
f(0) = 9,/(- 1) = 6,/(— 2) = -13.
Since/(— 1) is positive and /(— 2) is negative, there is a real root of the given
equation between — 1 and — 2. Of the possible rational roots the only one between
— 1 and — 2 is — §, so we make a trial substitution of this number.
/(- f) = 4(-¥) + 4(*) —1 + 9
= -13.5 + 9-4.5 + 9
= 0
Hence, — § is a rational root of 4 x3 + 4 x2 + 3 x + 9 = 0.

Exercises [A-1]
Factor:

1. x3 — 3 x 2 4. 4 x3 — 7 x — 3
2. x3 — 7 x — 6 5. 2 x3 + 5 x2 + 6 x + 2
3. 2 x3 + x2 + x - 1 6. x4 - x2 - 4 x - 4
460 Chapter 17

Solve:
7. x3 — 5# — 4=0 11. 3 x3 5 x2 + 4 x = 2
8. x3 — 6 x2 + 9 x — 2 = 0 12. 2 x3 — x2 -f x — 6 = 0
9. 4 x3 = 1 — re 13. x4 = 5 # + 6
10. 3 x3 — 13 x = 2 14. 2 x4 + 3 x3 -{- 2 x2 = 1

15. Show that 3x3-f4x-f-2 = 0 does not have a rational root, but that
it has a real root between — J and — §.
16. Show that 6 x3 — x2 — 3 x — 20 = 0 has a real root between 1 and 2,
and find the rational root of the equation.

Exercises [A 2]
Factor:
1. x3 — 3 x — 2 4. 4: x3 — 5 x — 6
2. x3 — 7 x + 6 5. 3 x3 + 7 x2 -j- 7 x -f 4
3. 2 x3 + 3 x2 — 1 6. x4 — 2 x3 + 3 x2 — 4 £ -f 2
Solve:
7. x3 — 2 x + 1 = 0 11. 2x3 + 9x2 = 2
8. 2 x3 - 5 x2 + 1 = 0 12. 3 x3 + 4 x2 + 2 x — 4 = 0
9. x3 = x2 -f x + 2 13. a:4 + 20 a; = 21
10. 2x3-\-3x2-\-x-\-6 = 0 14. 4 x4 + x2 — 3 x + 1 = 0

15. Show that 2x3-|-4x-|-3 = 0 does not have a rational root, but that
it has a real root between — \ and — 1.
16. Show that 6x3- 13 x2 — x— 10 = 0 has a real root between 2 and 3,
and find the rational root of the equation.
17. (a) Factor x3 + %2 — 2. (b) Deduce the quotient and remainder
when x3 + x2 -f 2 is divided by x — 1. (c) Express x3 -f- x2 + 2 in
the form (x — l)(ax2 + bx + c) + d.
18. (a) Factor 2 x3 + x2 + 3 x — 2. (b) Deduce the quotient and re¬
mainder when 2 x3 + x2 + 3 x -f 4 is divided by 2 x — 1. (c) Ex¬
press 2 x3 -f x2 + 3 x + 4 in the form (2 x — 1) (ax2 + bx -f c) + d.

Synthetic Division
In the study of polynomials and the solution of equations it is frequently
necessary to divide a polynomial by a binomial x — k, where k is a rational
number. Efficiency in this operation is achieved by shortening the division
process. Consider the division of 2 x3 — 3 x2 + 4 x — 7 by x — 2 as illus¬
trated in forms (a), (b), (c) and (d) in the following discussion.
Polynomials 461

2 x2 + x + 6 2 + 1 +6
x — 2)2 x3 — 3 x2 4 x — 7 1 - 2)2 -3 + 4-7
2 x3 — 4 x2 2 -4
x2 + 4 x 1 +4
x2 — 2 x 1 -2
6 x— 7 6—7
(a) 6 x - 12 +>) 6-12
5 5
Form (a) shows the complete arrangement of the long division, the quo¬
tient being 2 #2 + x + 6 and the remainder being 5. Form (b) is a duplicate
of (a) except that the powers of x are omitted. In this form we use "detached
coefficients” with the understanding that 1 — 2 means x — 2 and 2 — 3 -f 4 — 7
means 2 x3 — 3 x2 4 x — 7. The system is an adaptation of that used in
arithmetic. Just as 523 is understood to signify 5 • 102 + 2 • 10 + 3, so in
working with polynomials 5 + 2 + 3 is understood to signify 5x2 + 2x + 3.
It is essential, as in arithmetic, to represent a missing power by a zero in
order to preserve the positional value of the other coefficients. Thus,
2 x2 + 4 must be written 2 + 0 + 4, and 2 x3 — 4 must be written
2+ 0 + 0-4.
An examination of form (b) reveals a considerable amount of repetition.
Terms are "brought down” from the dividend, and others are written
merely to balance terms in the subtraction process. In particular, the terms
of the quotient 2, 1, 6 appear twice in the body of the division process. In
form (c) the numbers 2, 1, 6 are written only once, but they play their part
in the division process and also indicate the quotient. Terms which merely
balance their counterparts in the subtraction are omitted, and this makes
it possible to perform all the operations in one line. Hence, it is unnecessary
to "bring down” terms from the dividend, and another source of duplication
is removed.
2 -3 + 4 — 7 |—2 2-3 + 4 -7 12
-4 -2 - 12 (d) +4+2 + 12
2 + 1 +6 + 5 2+1 + 6 + 5
Quotient Remainder Quotient Remainder
When a polynomial is divided by x — k, the coefficient of the term of
highest power in the polynomial at any stage is the coefficient of the next
term of the quotient. This fact makes it unnecessary in the work above to
keep the coefficient 1 in the divisor, and only the — 2 is used. For con¬
venience in future work it is written at the right of the dividend. Using
form (c), the division proceeds in the following manner: The first term of
the quotient has the same coefficient as the first term of the dividend, so
462 Chapter 17

the number 2 is copied in the quotient two spaces below the dividend. This
2 is multiplied by the — 2 of the divisor, giving — 4 to be subtracted from
the — 3 of the dividend. This results in the second term, + 1, of the quo¬
tient. Compare this step in form (c) with the corresponding one, indicated
by the box, in form (b). The process is repeated until all terms of the divi¬
dend have been used, the final term obtained by subtraction being the
remainder.
A final simplification is achieved by replacing the — 2 of the divisor by
+ 2, and adding instead of subtracting to obtain the terms of the quotient
and remainder. The final form of the division, shown in (d), is known as
synthetic division. It is used only for divisors of the form x — k, where k may
be positive or negative.

Example 1. Divide 3 x4 — 2 x2 + x — 4 by x + 1.
Solution: In the synthetic division shown below note that 0 is used as a place¬
holder for the x3 term, and that — 1 is used in the divisor so that subtraction may
be replaced by addition.
3 + 0—2+1 — 4 |-1
-3+3-1+0
3-3+l + 0|-4
The quotient is 3 A 3 X 2 + x, and the remainder is — 4.
3 x4 — 2 x2 + x — 4
That is, = 3 x3 — 3 x2 + x —
x+ 1 * ’ x +1
or 3 x4 — 2 x2 + x — 4 = (x + 1) (3 x3 — 3 x2 + x) ■

Example 2. Divide 4 x3 + x — 1 by 2 x — 1.
Solution: Since 2 x — 1 = 2(x — we divide by x — + using synthetic divi¬
sion, and then divide the quotient by 2.
4 + 0+1-1 [£
+2+1+1
4+2 + 2|+0
The required quotient is 2 x2 + x + 1. Since there is no remainder, 2 x — 1 is a
factor of 4 x3 + x — 1, and we have
4 x3 + x — 1 = (2 x — 1) (2 x2 + x + 1).

Example 3. If /(x) = 32 x4 — 26 x2 + 6 x + 5, find/(^).

Solution: The remainder theorem tells us that /(-§■) is the remainder when/(x)
is divided by x — Using synthetic division, we have
32+ 0- 26 + 6 + 5
+ 16+ -S-9-lj-
32+16- 18 — 3|+ 3\
Hence, m=3*.
Polynomials 463

Exercises [A 11

1. (a) Show that (x — 4)(x2 + x + 2) 3 is an alternative form of

/V*3 - 2 /V*2 , -- O /y» - C
vV vJ t/V L J,

(b) What is the remainder when x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x — 5 is divided by

x — 4?
(c) What is the value of x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x — 5 when x = 4?
2. (a) If /(x) = 6 x3 — 28 x2 + 19 x -f 3, show that
(3 x — 2)(2 x2-8x + l) + 5
is an alternative form of /(x).
(b) What is the remainder when /(x) is divided by 3 x — 2?
(c) Find/(§).
3. Find the quotient and remainder when 3 x3 — 4 x2 — 3 x — 2 is divided
by (a) x — 2, (b) x + 1.
4. Find the quotient and remainder when 2 x4 — 5 x2 + 2 x — 3 is divided
by (a) x — 1, (b) x + 2.
5. Find the quotient and remainder when 2 x3 — 3 x2 — 8 x + 4 is divided
by (a) x — 3, (b) 2 x + 1.
6. Show that x + 2 is a factor of x5 + 32.
7. Divide 4 x4 — 5 x2 — 8 x — 10 by 2 x — 3.
8. Find the value of k for which x — 3 is a factor of 2 x3 + 4 x2 — 5 x + k.
9. Solve x3 + 2 x - 12 = 0. Find the product of the three roots.
10. Find the value of k for which x — 1 is a factor of x4 — 4 x + k, and
using this value of k factor the polynomial completely.
11. Solve 2 x4 + 2 x3 = (x + l)2.
12. Show that if <2, b, c, d are all positive, then ax3 — bx2 + cx — d = 0
cannot have a negative root.
13. Solve 2 x3 — 9 x2 + 14 x — 5 = 0. Find the sum of the roots and the
product of the roots.
14. Show that x5 — 3 x2 = 20 is satisfied by x = 2, and that the equation
has no other positive root.
15. Solve 3 x3 — x2 + 2 x — 8 = 0.
16. Show that x3 = 9 x + 3 has no rational root but that it has a real root
between 3 and 4.
17. Does x3 + x = 20 have (a) a negative root, (b) a rational root? Show
that the equation has a root between 2 and 3, and determine whether
the root is greater or less than 2.5.
464 Chapter 17

18. Solve 4 #4 — 3 x2 -\-l x — 3 = 0.

19. If f{x) = 3 x3 — 5 # -f 1, show by obtaining values of fix) for integral
values of x that/(x) = 0 has one negative and two positive roots.
20. How many roots of 3 x — x3 = 1 are (a) rational, (b) real?

Exercises [A_2]
1. Find the remainder when 2 x3 25 is divided by x -F 2.
2. Show that x — 3 is a factor of 2 x3 — 5 x2 — 7 x + 12, and find the
other factor.
3. Find the quotient and remainder when 2 x3 — 3 x + 1 is divided by
(a) x — 1, (b) x + 3.
4. Find the quotient and remainder when 2 x4 — x3 — 2 is divided by
(a) 2 x — 1, (b) 2 x-\- 3.
5. Is x + 1 a factor of x6 FI?
6. Show that x — a is a factor of xn — an for any integral value of n.
7. Divide 4 £4 — 5x2 + 2o;by2x — 1.
8. If fix) = 2 x4 — 5 x3 — 10 x -F 8, use synthetic division and the re¬
mainder theorem to evaluate /(3), /(2.5). Is there a root of fix) = 0
between 2.5 and 3?
9. Evaluate 2 x3 — 5 x2 — 3 x-\-2 when x = 1.5.
10. Evaluate 2 x3 + 23 x2 — 19 x + 39 when x = — 12.5.
11. Solve x3 — 9 x + 8 = 0. Find the product of the three roots.
12. Solve x3 — 2 x2 — 4 x + 3 = 0. Find the sum of the three roots.
13. Find the value of k for which 2 x — 3 is a factor of 2 x3 + 3 x2 — 5 x -f k,
and using this value of k factor the polynomial completely.
14. Solve 2 x4+ 5 a:3 = 5^+2.
15. Solve x4 — 2 x3 + 11 ^ — 10 = 0. Find the product of the four roots.
16. Solve 2 x3 — x2 -F x — 6 = 0.
17. If f(x) = x3 — 9 x — 3, evaluate /(3.1) and /(3.2). Does the equation
f(x) = 0 have a root between 3.1 and 3.2?
18. If fix) = x3 — 6 x2 + 9 x— 1, show by considering values of f(x) for
integral values of x that f(x) = 0 has three roots between 0 and 4.
19. Show that 2 x3 x2 — \2 x — 6 = 0 has a root between 2 and 3, and
determine whether the root is greater or less than 2.5.
20. If f{x) = 6 x3 — 28 x2 + 19 x — 2, show that /(0) and /(1) have the
same sign. Does this prove that there is no root of the equation be¬
tween 0 and 1? Show that § is a root, and find the other roots.
Polynomials 465

Approximate Solution of Cubic Equations

We have seen how a cubic equation having a rational root may be solved
completely and exactly. If a cubic equation does not have a rational root,
we shall use the following elementary procedure to find an approximation
to a real root.
Let f{x) be a cubic polynomial such that fix) = 0 has no rational root.
Find values of fix) for integral values of x until an integer n is found such
that fin) and /(«+ 1) have opposite signs. Then one or three real roots of
fix) = 0 have values between n and n-\- 1. A cubic equation with three
real roots between two successive integers is rarely encountered, and it is
reasonable to conclude that when/(w) and/(w+l) have opposite signs,
there is one real root of f(x) = 0 between n and n+ 1. Thus, when fin)
and fin + 1) have opposite signs, we say that a real root of fix) = 0 has
been located between the two integers.
In attempting to locate all the real roots of an equation, the possibility
of two real roots occurring between n and n + 1 should not be overlooked.
The situation does not often arise, but the possibility exists when/(w) and
fin + 1) are close to zero in value and have the same sign. Intermediate
values of the function, such as/(w + -|)> must then be found in order to
determine whether fix) reaches the zero value in that neighborhood.
Having located a real root of an equation between successive integers,
we examine values of fix) for intermediate values of x, and so locate the
root between successive tenths. Within this narrower region, the root may
be located between successive hundredths, and so on.

Example 1. Show that x3 + 3 x - 8 = 0 has a positive root, and deter

mine its value to the nearest hundredth.
Solution: Let fix) = x3 + 3 x - 8.
Possible rational roots of fix) = 0 are
1, 2, 4, 8. It is clear that /(4) and /(8)
are large positive numbers, and we have
/(1) = — 4, /(2) = 6. Hence, the equa¬
tion has no rational root, but since /(1)
and /(2) have opposite signs, the equa¬
tion has a real root between 1 and 2.
The diagram shows the portion of the
graph of fix) for values of # between
0 and 2.
. . MN AM
The triangles AMN and ABC are similar, so we have ~^r =

Since BC = 1 AM = 4, AB = 10, this gives MN = 0.4.

Hence, the ^-coordinate of N is 1.4.
466 Chapter 17

The form of the graph shows that it crosses the x-axis to the right of N. We
therefore examine the values of f(x) for x = 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 to determine when a
change of sign occurs. Using a table of cubes, we have
/(1.4) = 2.744 + 4.2- 8 = - 1.056
+(1.5) = 3.375 + 4.5 - 8 = - 0.125
+(1.6) = 4.096 + 4.8 - 8 = + 0.896
Hence, the root ofx3 + 3x—8 = 0 has a value between 1.5 and 1.6. From the
fact that +(1.5) is much closer to zero than/(l.6) is, we may safely conclude that
the root is 1.5 to the nearest tenth.
The third significant figure in the root may be obtained by the principle of
linear interpolation, as used in tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions.
We have/(1.50) = — 0.125, and/(1.60) = 0.896, so that an increase of 0.10 in the
value of x produces a corresponding increase of 1.021 in the value of the function.
We wish to determine the amount by which x must be increased from 1.50 to
produce an increase in the value of the function from — 0.125 to 0, that is, an
increase of 0.125.

Let the required increase in the value of x be represented by n. For the small
change from 1.50 to 1.60 in the value of x, a sufficiently accurate value of n is ob¬
tained, in most cases, by considering the straight line AC of the diagram as an
approximation to the cubic graph. Then, from the similar triangles A PQ and A BC,

PQ AP
BC~ AB
n 0.125
0.10“ 1.021
n = 0.01+ (to one significant figure)

It appears that the root is between 1.51 and 1.52.

Using a table of cubes, we have

+(1.51) = 3.443 + 4.53 - 8 = - 0.027

+(1.52) = 3.512 + 4.56 - 8 = + 0.072

Since /(1.51) is closer to 0 than +(1.52) is, we conclude that the root is 1.51 to
the nearest hundredth.
Polynomials 467

Example 2. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the negative root of

2 x3 — x2 — 3 x + 40 = 0.
Solution: Let
/(x) = 2x3-x2-3x-f 40.
Then,
/(0) = 40
/(- 1) = 40
/(- 2) = 26
/(- 3) = - 14
There is a root of /(x) = 0
between — 2 and — 3.
In the diagram at the right,
the line A B crosses the x-axis
at the point where x = — 2.65.
The form of the graph of / indicates that the required root is less than — 2.65.
Using tables, we have

/(- 2.7) = 2(— 19.68) - 7.29 + 8.1 + 40 = + 1.45

/(- 2.8) = 2(— 21.95) - 7.84 + 8.4 + 40 = - 3.34
Hence, the root is between — 2.7 and — 2.8.

The third significant figure is found by interpolation. We have/(— 2.70) = 1.45

and /(— 2.80) = — 3.34, so that corresponding to the decrease of 0.10 in the value
of x there is a decrease of 4.79 in the value of the function. We wish to determine
the amount by which x must be decreased from — 2.70 to produce a decrease in the
value of the function from 1.45 to 0, that is, a decrease of 1.45.
Let the required decrease in x be represented by n, so that the value of the func¬
tion is zero when x = — (2.70 + n). By the principle of linear interpolation, we
have the approximation
n 1.45
0.10 “4.79
n = 0.03+ (to one significant figure)

It appears that the root is between — 2.73 and — 2.74.

Using tables, we have

/(- 2.73) = 2(— 20.35) - 7.453 + 8.19 + 40

= - 48.15 + 48.19
= 0.04
/(_ 2.74) = 2(— 20.57) - 7.508 + 8.22 + 40
= - 48.65 + 48.22
= - 0.43

Since /(— 2.73) is closer to 0 than /(— 2.74) is, we conclude that the root
is — 2.73 to the nearest hundredth.
468 Chapter 17

Exercises [A 1]
1. Locate between successive integers the real roots of the equation
x3 + 2 x2 — 11 x -}- 7 = 0.
2. Locate the real root of x3 + % — 5 = 0 between successive integers,
and find its value to the nearest tenth.
3. Locate the negative root of x3 — 3 x2 — 4 x -f 3 = 0 between succes¬
sive integers, and find its value to the nearest tenth.
4. Show that 6 x3 — 28 x2 -j- 19 x — 1 = 0 has two roots with values
between 0 and 1.
5. Find the positive root of x3 + x2 — 20 = 0 to the nearest hundredth.
6. Find the negative root of x3 + x2 + 10 = 0 to the nearest hundredth.
7. Find the positive root-of x3 = 8 x + 6 to the nearest hundredth.
8. Find the positive root of 2 x3 -f x2 — 3 x — 4 = 0 to the nearest hun¬
dredth.
9. Show that x3 — 6 x -}- 3 = 0 has two positive roots. Find each of
them to the nearest hundredth. Deduce the value of the third root.
10. Show that x4 = 100 x — 120 has a root between 4 and 5, and find its
value to the nearest hundredth.
11. Find the positive root of 2 x3 — 3 x2 — 4 x — 5 = 0 to the nearest
hundredth.
12. Does x4 -j- 12 x + 4 = 0 have a positive root? Show that it has two
negative roots, and find the value of each to the nearest hundredth.
13. Find to the nearest hundredth of an inch the amount by which each
edge of a 6-inch cube must be increased to double the volume of the
cube.
14. The dimensions of a rectangular box are 8 in., 10 in., 12 in. Find to
the nearest hundredth of an inch the amount by which each edge must
be increased to double the volume of the box.
15. Two metal cubes with edges differing by 1 in.
are to be cast from 60 cu. in. of metal. Find the
edge of the smaller to the nearest hundredth of
an inch.
16. A cylinder of volume 40 tv cu. in. is to be cut
from a right circular cone of height 12 in. and
radius 6 in., as indicated in the diagram. Show
that there are two possible values for the radius of the cylinder, and
find the smaller value to the nearest hundredth of an inch.
Polynomials 469

Exercises [A_2J
1. Locate between successive integers the roots ofx3 — 2x2 — 9x+7 = 0.
2. Locate the real root of x3 -f 3 x — 29 = 0 between successive integers,
and find its value to the nearest tenth.
3. Find the real root of x3 = 3 x2 — 3 x -f- 3 to the nearest hundredth.
4. Find the negative root of x3 + 3 x2 + 3 * -f 6 = 0 to the nearest
hundredth.

5. Find the negative root of x4 + 8 x = 12 to the nearest hundredth.

6. Find the real root of 2 x3 -f- 5 x = 90 to the nearest hundredth.
7. Find the positive root of 2 x3 = 4 x2 -f- 3 x -f- 6 to the nearest hun¬
dredth.

8. Show that x6 = 5x-f-36 has a root between 1 and 2, and find its
value to the nearest tenth.
9. Show that x3 — 8 x-\- 8.2 = 0 has two roots between 1 and 2. Find
the value of each of these roots to the nearest hundredth, and deduce
the value of the third root of the equation.
10. The altitude of a square pyramid is 1 in. less than the side of its base,
and the volume of the solid is 20 cu. in. Find the side of the base to
the nearest tenth of an inch.
11. Two cubes with edges differing by 2 in. are to be cast from 100 cu. in.
of metal. Find the edge of the smaller cube to the nearest hundredth
of an inch.
12. If the radius of a sphere is 5 in., find to the nearest hundredth of an
inch the altitude of a segment of one base which contains J of the
volume of the sphere. (In a sphere of radius r in., the volume of a
segment of one base of altitude h in. is 7rh2(r — J h) cu. in.)

The Nature of the Roots of a Cubic Equation [B]

There is a general method for solving cubic equations which leads to a
formula for the roots. The mechanical difficulties of the method, and even
of using the formula, are so great that procedures for obtaining roots by
trial or approximation are generally preferred.
Irrational roots and imaginary roots of cubic equations may contain cube
roots of numbers as well as square roots, and their exact forms may be
quite complicated. Determining the nature of the roots of a cubic equation
from its coefficients is correspondingly more difficult than was the case for
a quadratic equation. There is a discriminant for the cubic equation, but
470 Chapter 17

like the formula and for the same reasons it is of little practical value. Hence,
in considering the nature of the roots of a cubic equation, we rely on indirect,
exploratory procedures. The following theorems provide important gen¬
eral information.
^ Theorem 1. If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then f(x) = 0 has exactly n
roots in the complex number system.

This is a fundamental result which we have assumed and shall continue

to assume. The proof of the theorem is too difficult to be considered here.
We have seen that in the case of the quadratic equation the two roots may
be both real or both imaginary, and that when they are real they may be
equal. We have concluded from the study of the cubic function and its
graph that a cubic equation always has one real root and may have three
real roots. Two or more of the real‘roots of an equation may be equal. The
important fact that a cubic equation cannot have one imaginary and two
real roots is demonstrated as a particular case of the following theorem.
^ Theorem 2. If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, and if p T iq is an
imaginary root of f(x) = 0, p and q being real numbers, then p — iq is also a
root of f(x) = 0.

Since (p + iq) -f- (p — iq) = 2 p, and (p + iq) (p — iq) = p2 -f q2, the quad¬
ratic equation having roots p -j- iq and p — iq is x2 — 2 px + p2 + q2 = 0,
that is, (x — p)2 + q2 = 0. We shall show that whenever p + iq is a root of
fix) = 0, fix) has (x — p)2 + q2 as a factor and therefore fix) = 0 also has
p — iq as a root.
Let f{x) be divided by the quadratic expression (x — p)2 -f q2. The re¬
mainder is at most a linear expression in x, and we may represent it by
Ax -f B where A and B are real numbers. The quotient is a polynomial of
degree two less than f(x), and we represent it by Q(x). The division identity
enables us to write f(x) in the form
f{x) = [(x — p)2 + q2~\ • Q(x) + Ax -f B.
When x = p -f iq, we know that (x — p)2 + q2 = 0 and (by hypothesis)
we have /(*) = 0; hence 0 = 0 + A (p + iq) + B.
That is, Ap + B -f iAq = 0.
A complex number is equal to zero only when the real part is zero and the
imaginary part is zero. The above condition is satisfied, therefore, only if
Ap-\-B — 0 and Aq = 0.
It is stipulated that p + iq is an imaginary root of the equation, so that
q cannot be zero. But the product Aq is zero only when one of the factors
is zero, and it follows that A = 0. The condition Ap + B = 0 is then satis¬
fied only if B = 0.
Polynomials 471

It has now been shown that when p + iq is a root of f(x) = 0, the division
of/O) by 0 -pY + q2 leaves remainder zero. Thus, (x - p)2 + q2 is a
factor of f{x) and p — iq is also a root of f{x) — 0.

The above theorem shows that if f(x) is a polynomial, the equation f(x) = 0
cannot have an odd number of imaginary roots. If the equation has imag¬
inary roots, they occur in conjugate pairs. In particular, a cubic equation
has either three real roots or one real and two imaginary roots.

Example. Form a cubic equation with integral coefficients having — 1

and 1 -f iy/2 as two of its roots.
SolutionIf 1 -f- iv 2 is a root of the equation, the conjugate imaginary num¬
ber 1 — iy/2 is also a root. The sum of these two roots is 2 and their product is 3.
Hence, the equation having the two imaginary roots is
x2 — 2 x + 3 = 0.
The required cubic equation is therefore
(x + 1) (x2 — 2 x + 3) = 0.
That is, x^ — x2 d- % -f- 3 — 0.

The following theorem is of a similar nature to Theorem 2, and the result

may be established by an argument along the same lines.

^ Theorem 3. If f(x) is a polynomial with rational coefficients, and if p -f- y/q is

a root of f(x) = 0, p and q being rational, then p — v/q is also a root of
f(x) = 0.

Thus, if a cubic equation with rational coefficients has a root 4 + 2y/3,

it also has a root 4 — 2y/3. The result cannot be extended to other irra¬
tional forms which may occur as roots. If, for instance, a cubic equation
has a root 2 -f-V^3, it is not a valid deduction that the same equation also
has a root 2 — v3.

Roots and Coefficients of a Cubic Equation [B]

We have made considerable use of the fact that if r\, r2 are the roots of
b c
the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then r\ + = — - and r\ • = -•

We now show that similar relationships exist between the roots and co¬
efficients of a cubic equation.
Let fix) — ax3 + bx2 + +
cx d, and let the roots of f(x) =
0 be n, r2, r3.
Then, by the factor theorem, (x — n), (# — ^2), (x — ?z) are factors of fix).
Since f{x) is a cubic polynomial, it can have no other factor containing x,
but the factor a is required to give the correct coefficient to the x3 term.
Hence, a(x — r\){x — r2)(x — rf) is an alternative form oif(x).
472 Chapter 17

Dividing both forms of f(x) by a, we see that

o i b q | c . d
X6 + -xz + -x -f- -
a a a
is an alternative form of
{x — ri)(x — r2)(x — r3),
that is, of
£3 — (fi + r2 + ^3)^2 + (fir2 + r2r3 + r3ri)£ — nr2r3.
The coefficients of like terms must be the same in the alternative forms
oif(x). We therefore have

r\ + r2 -f rz = — that is, 2 f\ —-
a a

r\r2 +i r2r3 +i r3ri = ->

c that is, Sflf2 = --
a a

rir2r3 = —
a
Note. The Greek letter 2 (sigma) is widely used in mathematics to represent the
sum of all terms of a certain group. The type of term being summed is indicated by
placing a member of the group after the 2. If the group consists of the four quantities
x\, X2, £3, X4, 2*i means *i + *2 + £3 + £4, 2 x\2 means *i2 + *22 + X32 -f *42, and
2 *1*2 means *1*2 + *1*3 + #1*4 + #2*3 + £2^4 + *3*4.

For the quartic equation ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0, having roots

r 1, r2, r3, /q, it can be shown that
y ^
2 rir2 = -» v d
2 rxr2r3 =-j
2 r\ —-) r\r2r3^4 =
a a a a
This form of relationship between the roots and the coefficients holds
for any equation f(x) = 0, where f(x) is a polynomial. The expressions for
the sum of the roots and the product of the roots are the most useful. The
other root combinations are usually too complicated to be helpful.

^ In all equations of the polynomial form

ax" T bxn~1 T • • • T k = 0,

the sum of the roots --1 the product of the roots = (— 1 )n -

a a

It is important to note that in an equation of degree n,b is the coefficient

of the term containing xn~x. This is not necessarily the second term‘ap¬
pearing in the equation. It should also be noted that when the equation is of
k
even degree the product of the roots is -» and when the equation is of odd
a
k
degree the product of the roots is-
a
Polynomials 473

Example 1. Find the sum and the product of the roots of the equation
2x4 + 3x2 — 4x — 5 = 0.
Solution: The equation is of degree 4, and the coefficient of x3 is zero.
Hence, the sum of the roots = — - = — - = 0.
a 2
k
The product of the roots = -> since the equation is of even degree.
Hence, the product of the roots is — f.

Example 2. Find the value of k for which the line y = kx — 16 is a tangent

to the curve y = x3.
Solution: The abscissas of the points of intersection of the line and the curve
are given by
x3 = kx — 16
That is, x3-kx-\-16 = 0 ®
If the line is a tangent to the curve, this equation must have two equal roots.
Let the equal roots be r, r.
The sum of the roots of equation ® is zero; hence the third root must be — 2 r.
Using the fact that the product of the roots of equation ® is — 16, we have
r • r • (— 2 r) = — 16
r3 = 8
r= 2 (Only real values are required.)
Thus, 2 must be a root of equation ®, and we have by substitution,
8-26+16 = 0
6= 12
The student should check the result by finding the complete solution of the
equations y = 12 x — 16, y = x3, and by sketching their graphs.

Exercises [B_1]

1. Is it possible for a fourth-degree equation to have just one real root?

2. Write the equation which must be satisfied if a; is a cube root of 1.
What is the sum of the three cube roots of 1?
3. Find the product of a + hi and a — bi. What is the sign of the product
of two conjugate imaginary numbers?
4. Is it possible for the product of the imaginary roots of a polynomial
equation to be negative? Is the fact that the product of all the roots
of an equation is negative sufficient to ensure that the equation has a
negative root?
5. Find the sum and the product of the roots of 2 x3 — 3 x2 + 1 = 0.
6. Find the sum and the product of the roots of 3 x4 + x3 — 4 x = 0.
474 Chapter 17

7. Find the sum and the product of the roots of ax3 -f bx + c = 0.

8. Form the cubic equation having roots 0, 1,-2.
9. (a) Form the quadratic equation ‘having roots 1 + i, 1 — i.
(b) Form the cubic equation having roots 1, 1 + i, 1 — i.
10. Form the cubic equation having roots — 2, i(3 + f), J(3 — i).
11. (a) State the sum of the roots of x3 — 6 x2 + 5 x + 12 = 0.
(b) Show that one of the roots is equal to the sum of the other two.
12. (a) Show that 1 + iV3, 1 — § have the correct sum and product
to be the roots of 2 x3 — 7 x2 + kx — 12 = 0.
(b) If the given values are the roots of the equation, find the value of k.
13. If a cubic equation has a root 2 — i, what other root must it have?
If the sum of the three roots is zero, what is the third root? Form
the equation satisfying the given conditions.
14. Solve 2 x3 — 3 x2-\-2x-\-2 = 0, and check the sum and the product
of the roots. Is this a complete check on the solution?
15. (a) State the product of the roots of 4 x3 — 10 x2 + 6 x — 1 = 0.
(b) Show that one of the roots is equal to the product of the other two.
16. If f(x) = x3 2 x3, show that /(I + i) and /(I — i) are conjugate
imaginary numbers.
17. If f(x) = x3 + ax + b, show that /(l + i) and /(I — i) are conjugate
imaginary numbers. Hence, show that the values of a and b which
make/(l + i) zero also make/(l — i) zero.

18. Form the_ fourth-degree equation with integral coefficients which has
— 1 -j-V^ and -J(l — fV3) as two of its roots.
19. Show that the point (f, f) is common to the line 3 x — 2 y = 3 and
the curve 9 y = 2 x3. By solving the equations together, show that
the line is a tangent to the curve.
20. Show that the line y = 3 x — 1 is a tangent to the curve y = 4 x3.

Exercises [B_2]
1. Which of the following statements are valid?
(a) A cubic equation has at least one real root.
(b) A cubic equation has at least one rational root.
(c) Every equation has at least one real root.
(d) If the product of its roots is negative, an equation has an odd
number of negative roots.
(e) If the product of its roots is positive, a cubic equation has a posi¬
tive root.
Polynomials 475

2. Explain why the four fourth roots of a number must total zero.
3. Find the sum and the product of the roots of 3 x3 — 6 x — 2 = 0.
4. Find the sum and the product of the roots of 2 x4 — 4 x3 — 3 = 0.
5. Find the sum and the product of the roots of ax4 + bx2 + c = 0.
6. Form the cubic equation having roots 2, — 0.
7. (a) Form the quadratic equation having roots 2'+V3, 2 — V3.
(b) Form the cubic equation having roots §, 2 + "V3, 2 — "n/3.
8. If a cubic equation has a root 3 + i, what other root must it have?
If the product of the three roots is — 5, what is the third root? Form
the equation satisfying the given conditions.
9. (a) State the sum of the roots of 4 x3 — 12 x2 11 x — 3 = 0.
(b) Show that one of the roots is equal to the sum of the other two.
10. What are the roots of {x — 2)3 = 0? Use the relationship of roots and
coefficients to write the polynomial form of (x — 2)3.
11. Solve 3 x3 — 5 x2 — x-\- 2 = 0. Check the sum and the product of the
roots. Is this a complete check on the solution?
12. Sketch the graphs of y = x3 and y — 4 — x, and state the number of
real roots of x3 + x = 4.
13. Show, by considering the graphs of y = x3 and y = k — x, that for any
given value of k, x3 + % — k has only one real root.
j -2 + A/2 - 2 - iV2
14. Form the cubic equation having roots — f,

15. Form the fourth-degree equation with integral coefficients which has
i and J(3 — \/5) as two of its roots.
16. Show that the point (J, \) is common to the line 10 x — 4 y = 3 and
the curve y = 2 x3 + x2. By solving the equations together, show that
the line is a tangent to the curve.
17. Find, by substitution, the value of k for which 1 + V3 is a root of
x3 — 6 x = k, and note why 1 — V^3 is also a root of the equation
when k has that value.
18. Find, by substitution, the value of k for which 2 — i is a root of
x3 - l\x=k, and note why 2 + i is also a root of the equation when
k has that value.
19. Show that if f(x) = x3 — £2, then/(l + i) =/( 1 — i)>
20. Find the value of k for which 4 x3 + kx - 27 = 0 has two equal roots.
476 Chapter 17

21. Find the value of k for which y—kx — 2 is a tangent to the curve
y = x3. Illustrate by a graph.
22. In trying to remember a certain cubic equation, a student recalls that
it has no term in x2 and that one of its roots is 1 +V2. Construct
the equation from this information.
23. Construct the cubic equation of the form x3 ■ ■ • + 12 = 0 which has
a root 1 -f iy/3.
24. Show,7 by substitution,
J 3/—
that
3/—
2 v2 — V4 is a root of x3 -\- 12 x= 12.
Show also that 2V2 -f v4 is not a root of the equation.
25. Show that 2 -f V6 is a root of x3 — 6 a;2 12 x — 14 = 0, and that
2 — v6 is not a root of the equation.

26. If two roots of x3 -+- px2 + qx + r = 0 have the same absolute value
but opposite signs, show that pq = r.
27. (a) For the quantities n, r2, r%, show that 2>i2 = (2>i)2 — 2 Srir2.
(b) Find the sum of the squares of the roots of 3 x3 — 4 x2 + 2 x — 6 = 0.
28. If the roots of x3 -\- px-\- q = 0 are ri, r2, r3, show that 12 = — 2 p,
and that Sri3 = — 3 q.

Formation of Cubic Polynomials [B]

The formation of a polynomial to satisfy certain conditions is a problem
which presents greater difficulties as the degree of the polynomial increases.
To obtain a specific cubic polynomial from the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
the four constants a, b, c, d must be determined. Four independent condi¬
tions, leading to equations from which the required values may be found,
must therefore be available. The problem is simplified if the zeros of the
polynomial are known, for in this case the factor theorem enables us to write
the polynomial immediately except for a constant factor. Thus, if f(x) is a
cubic polynomial with zeros ^1, ^2, ^3, then/(V) = k(x — xi)(x — x2)(x — £3),
and k may be determined if the value of the polynomial is known for a
fourth value of x.
The cubic function does not play such an important part in the physical
sciences as the linear and quadratic functions do. It occurs most frequently
in expressions for the volumes of solids. If the dimensions of a rectangular
block are x feet, (x + 2) feet, (x + 3) feet, the volume of the block is
x(x + 2)(jc + 3) cubic feet, and if a square pyramid has base edge x inches and
height (x — 2) inches, the volume of the pyramid is ^ x2(x — 2) cubic inches.
The examples on the next page illustrate the formation of cubic poly¬
nomials to satisfy certain conditions, and the solution of problems involving
cubic functions.
Polynomials
477

Example 1. Determine the cubic polynomial f(x), given that /(0) = 6

and that /(— 1) = /(1) = /(2) = 0.

Solution. The zeros oif(x) are 1, 1, 2, and it follows from the factor theorem
that the polynomial is of the form
f(x) = k(x+ 1)(* — l)(z— 2).
Since /(0) = 6, we have
6 = £(!)(- l)(- 2)
k=3
Hence,/(x) = 3 (# -f~ 1)(x — 1)0- 2) or 3 *3 - 6 x2 - 3 x + 6.

Example 2. A packing case has a square end of side x feet, and the sum
of its three dimensions is 12 ft. Express the volume of the case in terms
of x, and determine graphically the value of x for which the volume is
(a) 45 cu. ft., (b) the largest possible.
Solution: Let the volume of the case be V cubic feet. The dimensions of the
case are # feet, * feet, (12 — 2 x) feet. Hence, we have
V = x2(12-2x), or V=2x2(6-x).
The graph of the function is constructed from the following values:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 10 32 54 64 50 0
The practical aspects of the problem make it clear that x is positive but not
greater than 6.
From the graph we see that
(a) V = 45 when x = 2.6 or 5.1;
(b) V appears to be largest when x = 4.
478 Chapter 17

Exercises[B_1]
1. Express in polynomial form the volume of a rectangular solid with
dimensions x, x — 1, x + 2 units.
2. Express in polynomial form the total volume of two cubes with edges
x units and x -f 1 units.
3. A cube is such that the number of cubic units in its volume is twice
the number of square units in its surface area. Find the number of
linear units in its edge.
4. A metal cube has edges n inches long. Show that if an increase in
temperature lengthens each edge 0.01 in., the corresponding increase
in the volume of the cube is approximately 0.03 n2 cu. in., and the
increase in the surface area of the cube is approximately 0.12 n sq. in.
5. The edges of two rectangular blocks are x, x + 1, x + 2 in., and x + 2,
x-j-3, x-\- 4 in. Find to the nearest hundredth the value of x for
which the volumes of the blocks are in the ratio 1:2.
6. The altitude of a square pyramid is 2 in. less than the edge of its
base. Find the height of the pyramid if its volume is 25 cu. in.
7. The end of a rectangular crate has dimensions x feet, (x + 2) feet, and
the sum of its three dimensions is 16 ft. Show that if the crate is to
have a volume of 120 cu. ft., there are two possible values for x, one
integral and one irrational.
8. Form the cubic polynomial f{x) such that /(— 2) = /(0) =/(2) = 0,
and/(l) = 1. Sketch the graph of the function/.
9. Form the cubic polynomial/(V) such that/(0) = 0,/(2) = 0,/(4) = 16,
/(6) = 144.
10. Form the cubic polynomial/(V) such that/(0) = 0,/(l) = — 2,/(2) = 0,
/(3) = 9.

Exercises [B 2]
1. A cube is such that the number of units in its volume is three times
the number of units in the sum of all its edges. Find the number of
linear units in the edge of the cube.
2. The volume and surface area of a sphere of radius r in. are given by
V = J irr3 and 5 = 4 7rr2 respectively. Find the percentage increase
in V and in 5 when r is increased (a) 10%, (b) 1%.
3. For a sphere of radius r in. the volume of a segment of height h in. is
given by V = tth2(r — % h). If a sphere has radius 4.5 in., find the
height of a segment having volume 9 ir cu. in.
Polynomials 479

4. A rectangular sheet of metal is 15 in. by 12 in. A square of side x in.

is cut from each corner, and the sides of the remainder are turned up
to form an open box of height x in. Express the volume of the box
in terms of x, and show that there are two rational values of x for
which the volume of the box is 162 cu. in.
5. Construct the graph of the volume function of exercise 4 for 0 ^ x ^ 6.
From the graph read an approximate value for the largest possible
volume of the box.

6. The volume of a cylindrical oil tank with hemispherical ends is given

by V = 7i-f2l + § irr3, r being the radius in feet and l the length in feet
of the cylindrical portion of the tank. Find the value of r for which
V= 7 r when l = 12.
7. When one cube is placed on another cube their total height is 6 ft.
Twice the volume of the smaller cube added to the volume of the
larger cube gives a total of 80 cu. ft. Show that there are two possible
values for the edge of the smaller cube, one integral and one irrational.
Find an approximation, correct to three significant figures, to the irra¬
tional value.
8. A cubic function / has zeros — 1, 2, 2, and/(0) = 2. Determine/(x)
and sketch the graph of /.
9. A cubic function / has negative values if, and only if, x > 4. It has
the value zero when x is zero. Sketch the graph of the function. Is
the information sufficient to determine/(x) completely?
10. Form the cubic polynomial /(x) such that /(0) = 0, /(1) = — 3,
/(2) = -8,/(4) = 0.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B_1

1. State the nature of the roots of x4 -f x2 + 2 = 0.

2. Find the sum and the product of the roots of 3 x4 — 2 x2 — x + 2 = 0.

3. Form the cubic equation having roots 2, — 1 + fV3, — 1 — i\/3.

4. Form a cubic polynomial/(x) such that/(0) = 0,/(l) = — 6,/(2) = 0,

/(3) = 30.
5. Divide x4 -f- x3 — x2 + x — 2 by x2 + x — 2.
6. Solve 2 x3 -f x2 — 4 x + 1 = 0.

7. Form the cubic equation having roots 0, — 3,

8. The graph of a cubic function / crosses the x-axis at the origin and at
the points where x — \ and x = — 3. If/(1) = 2, determine/(x).
480 Chapter 17

2 + isTl 2 — i\Fi
9. Form the cubic equation having roots — J,
2 ’ 2
10. Form the fourth-degree equation with integral coefficients which has
1 — i and — 1 + V2 as two of its roots.
11. Find the three cube roots of 1. Show that each imaginary root is the
square of the other.
12. If f(x) = ax3 + bx2 cx + d, find the relationship between the co¬
efficients a, b, c, d when
(a) x — 1 is a factor of/(#),
(b) x + 1 is a factor of fix),
(c) x2 — 1 is a factor of f(x).

13. Show that if k is a root of x3 + bx2 + bx + 1 = 0, then 7 is also a root.

k

14. Show that if k is a root of ax* + bx3 cx2 -f- bx + a = 0, then 7 is also
k
a root.
15. Solve 2 x* — 9 x3 + 14 x2 — 9 x -f- 2 = 0.
16. Show that if x = 1 + V2, then x3 — 3 x2 -f 3 x = 3.
17. Show that if x = y/l + V4, then £3 — 6 £ = 6.
18. If x and y are real, find their values when {x + iy)2 = 3 + 4 i. Write
the square roots of 3 + 4 i.
19. Find the real values of x and y for which (x + iy)2 = 5 + 12 i, and
write the square roots of 5 + 12 i.
20. The parabola y — x2 and the circle x2 + y2-j-4o: + 4y = 0 both pass
through the origin. Show, by sketching their graphs, that they have
just one other point in common. Find the abscissa of this point to
the nearest tenth by solving the equations together.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B-2]

1. Show that a — b is a factor of a2(b — c) -{- b2{c — a) c2(a — b). Find
the other factors.
2. Show that x — y is a factor of (x — y)3 + (y — z)3 + (z — x)3, and find
the other factors.
3. Show that x + y -f z is a factor of x3 -f y3 + z3 — 3 xyz. What may
be deduced about the value of x3 -(- y3 -f z3 when x + y -f z = 0?
4. When f(x) is divided by x — 1 there is a remainder 2, and when f(x)
is divided by x-{- 1 there is a remainder 2. What is the remainder
when/(:r) is divided by x2 — 1? Justify your answer.
Polynomials 481

5. If fix') is a polynomial which when divided by (x — a){x — b) gives a

remainder px + q, show that

, /O) f(b)-b-f(a)
a —b q a —b
6. Show that if (x — k){b\x2 + b2x + b3) -f R is an alternative form of
a\x3 + a2x2 + ^3^ + #4, then
&1 = 01, &2 = 02 + &&l, = #3 + ^2, = 04 +
7. Show that the results of exercise 6 justify the synthetic division pro¬
cedure for dividing a\X3 -f- a2x2 + a3x -f u4 by x — k.
8. Show that the remainder when x5 — 5 x2 -f x + 3 is divided by
x2 — x — 2 is 7 x + 3.
9. Find the values of a and b if x4 + 4 x3 — 8 x2 ax + b is exactly
divisible by x2 + 1.
10. If f(x) = x3 + 2 x2 + 3 x, show that f(p + iq) and f(p — iq) are con¬
jugate imaginary numbers.
11. Show that there are two values of k for which the line 3 x — 2 y = k
is a tangent to the curve 8 y = x3. In each case obtain the coordinates
of the point of tangency and of the point of intersection of the line
and curve. Illustrate graphically.
12. If a(x — 3)3 + b(x — 3)2 + c(x — 3) + d— 7 x3 + 2 x2 — x + 3 is an
identity, show that d is the remainder when 7 x3 -f 2 x2 — x -f 3 is
divided by x — 3, and use synthetic division to obtain the value of d.
Show that if the quotient is divided by x — 3 the remainder is c, and
continue the process to find the values of c, b, and a.
13. If x3 + x2 + 1 is identical with a(x — 3)3 + b(x — 3)2 -f c(x — 3) + d,
use repeated synthetic division, as indicated in exercise 12, to find
the values of a, b, c, d.
14. Express x3 — 2 as a polynomial in powers of x — 2.
15. Show that 2 t3 + 6 t2 + 6 t + 3 is identical with 2{t + l)3 + 1.
16. Show that x3 + 6 x2 + 14 x + 12 is identical with (x -f 2)3 + 2(x + 2).
17. Show that 2(x — 4)3 + 25(x — 4)2 + 104(x — 4) -f 14 is identical with
2 x3 + x2 — 130, and that therefore each root of the equation
2 x3 + 25 x2 + 104 x + 14 = 0 is 4 less than a root of 2 x3 + x2 — 130 = 0.
18. Form an equation with roots 2 less than those of x3 — 6 xJ + 2 x + 4 = 0.
19. Form an equation with roots 1 less than those of 2 x3 + x2 — 3 x — 5 = 0.
20. Form an equation with roots 3 less than those of 2 x3 — 7 x2 + 6 = 0.
21. Show that if the roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are fi, r2, r3, then
the roots of ax3 + kbx2 + k2cx + k3d = 0 are kri, kr2, kr3.
482 Chapter 17

22. Form an equation with roots 10 times as large as those of

x3 — 2 x2 + 5 x — 4 = 0.
23. Form an equation with roots 10 times as large as those of
2 x3 — x — 3 = 0.
24. Form an equation with roots 10 times as large as those of
2 x4 — 3 x3 + x + 2 = 0.
25. (a) Show that 2 x3 + 5 # — 100 = 0 has a root between 3 and 4.
(b) Form an equation f(oc) — 0 with roots 3 less than those of
2 x3 + 5 x — 100 = 0.
(c) Form an equation F(x) = 0 with roots 10 times those of f(x) = 0.
(d) Show that F(x) = 0 has a root between 4 and 5, so that the root
of the original equation is between 3.4 and 3.5.
(e) Form an equation with roots 4 less than those of F(x) = 0, and
repeat steps (c) and (d) to show that the root of the original
equation is 3.46 to the nearest hundredth.
26. Use the method outlined in exercise 25 to show that x3 + 5 x — 100 = 0
has a root 4.28 approximately. This method of solving polynomial
equations was invented by an Englishman named Horner, and it is
known as Horner’s Method.
27. Find the positive root of 4 x3 — x2 — 5 x — 29 = 0 to the nearest
hundredth.
28. Find the positive root of 2 x3 — 5 x2 = 23 to the nearest hundredth.
29. Find the positive root of x4 = 2 x3 + 3 x2 + 6 x -j- 18 to the nearest
hundredth.
30. Use Horner’s method to find the negative root of x3 + x + 20 = 0 to
the nearest hundredth. (Note that x3 + x — 20 = 0 has a positive
root with the same absolute value.)
31. Find the negative root of 2 x3 + x2 + 8 = 0 to the nearest hundredth.

Chapter Review
1. Solve 3 x3 — 5 x2 — 12 x + 20 = 0.
2. Show that 2 + i is a root of #3 — 3 x2 + x + 5 = 0.
3. Sketch the graph of y = x2(x + 3).
4. Factor 2 x3 -f x2 — 4 x — 2.
5. If f{x) = x3 — 5 x, find/(l — V^2) and/(l +'\/2).
6. Solve 2(x3 + 1) = 9 x2.
7. Solve 3 x3 — 5 x2 8 x — 4 = 0.
Polynomials 483

8. Find the value of k for which 2 is a root of 3 x3 — 4 x = k. Using this

value of k, find the other roots of the equation.
9. Find the values of k for which x — 3 is a factor of x3 + k2x2 — 3 kx — 81,
and complete the factoring of the polynomial in each case.
10. Solve completely: 3 x3 — 7 x2 — 4 x + 2 = 0.
11. Construct the graph of fix) = x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x + 5 for — 2 ^ x ^ 3.5.
Read the real roots of /(x) = 0 to the nearest tenth. Read also the
largest integral value of k for which/(x) = k has three real roots.
12. Factor 3 x3 — 5 x2 — 3 x + 5.
13. Sketch the graph of the cubic function / if the graph passes through
the origin and the point (1,-2), and is tangent to the x-axis at (3, 0).
Determine /(x).
14. Show that if n is a positive integer, xn — 1 is divisible by x — 1. Find
the other factor for the case n= 7.

15. If/(x) — ^x , find the values of x for which (a) fix) = 0, (b)/(x) = 1.
x3
Is there a value of /(x) for which x = 0?
16. Find the positive root of x4 + 2 x = 40 to the nearest hundredth.

Chapter Test
1. Solve x4 + x2 — 2 = 0.
2. Find k if — 2 is a root of 2 x3 — 3 x2 + kx — 10 = 0.
3. Evaluate 2x3 + x2 — 4x+2 when x = —
4. Factor x3 — 21 x + 20.
5. Sketch the graph of y = x(x — 2)2.

6. Find the quotient and the remainder when 4 x4 - 5 x2 + 10 is divided

by 2 x — 1.
7. Find the set of solutions of (x — l)3 = 1.
8. If fix) = 2 x + x2 - x3, determine the *set of values of x for which
fix) > 0.
9. If fix) = , is there a value of fix) for which x = - 6? Find the
x+ 6
values of x for which/(x) = 1.
10. Evaluate x3 + x when x = 1 + 2 i.

11. If/(*) = -^—, find/(l - tV3). Is there a value /(2)?

12. Find the real root of x3 + 4 x = 21 to the nearest hundredth.

 '

Successive Differences in Polynomials

In using a table of squares a boy noticed the following arrangement:

Number 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.3 6.3
Square 5.29 10.89 18.49 28.09 39.69
Difference 5.60 7.60 9.60 11.60
Difference 2 2 2
Assuming that this pattern would continue, he used it to find the value of 7.32.
Exercise. Use the pattern to find the values of 7.32 and 8.32. Explain the
pattern by considering n2, (n -f1)2, {n +2)2.
In the following paragraphs we shall see that the pattern illustrated above
is a particular case of a general and rather interesting result.
Let fix) represent a polynomial and let the values of x be restricted to the
set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, • • •}. The numbers found by evaluating /(1) —/(0),
/(2) —/(l), /(3) —/(2), • • • are called the first differences of the polynomial. The
differences between pairs of successive first differences are called second dif¬
ferences, and so on.

Polynomials of the First Degree

Let f\{x) = ax f-b. We have seen that for a linear function defined by
y = ax-\-b, Ay=a-Ax. If Ax = l, then Ay=a. Thus, for the first-
degree polynomial ax -f b the first differences are constant and equal to a.

Polynomials of the Second Degree

Let us consider the differences of the function defined by f2(x) = ax2 -\-bx + c.
The first and second differences are shown in the following table.
First Second
X /2O)
differences differences
0 c
a -\-b
l a -j- b —f- c 2a
3 a -\-b
2 4 a -j-2 b -f- c 2a
5 a +b
3 9 a +3 b 2a
1 a -\-b
4 16 a +4 b -f-c 2a
9 a -f b
5 25 a -f- 5 b -f c
484
 The table of values of f2(x) and their differences shows that the second
differences of the polynomial ax2 + bx+c are constant and equal to la.
As was illustrated by the numbers taken from the table of squares, the values
of x need not be restricted to the integers. Provided that the successive values
of x differ by 1, the second differences of ax2 -\-bx -|-c are constant and equal
to 2 a.

Polynomials of the Third Degree

Let f3(x) = ax3 -\-bx2 -f- cx -\-d. The successive differences of f^{x) are shown
in the following table:
First Second Third
Mx)
differences differences differences
0 d
a —|— b —f— c
1 a -f b -f c -\-d 6 a 4-2 b
7 a +3 b -f-c 6a
2 8a-f 4&-|-2c-f-d 12 a -f2 6
19 a -f-5 b -f-c 6a
3 27 a 9 b -\-3 c -\-d 18^4-26
37 a -f 7 b -f c 6a
4 64 a-\-\6b-\-4c-\-d 24 a -f 2 b
61 a +9 b -\-c
5 \25 a 25 b $ c -\- d
The table of values offo(x) and their differences shows that when Ax = l,
the third differences of the polynomial ax3 -\-bx2 -\- cx -\-d are constant and equal
to 6 a.
In the general case it can be shown that if f{x) is a polynomial of degree n, the
«th differences are constant. Conversely, it can be shown that if a set of ordered
pairs (x, y) are such that Ax = l and the nth differences of the values of y
are constant, then the pairs satisfy a rule y — f{x) where f{x) is a polynomial of
degree n.

.
Example 1 Show that the pairs in the following table satisfy a rule of the
form y = ax2 -f-bx -\-c. Find the rule.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5

y 0 -6 -4 6 24 50
Solution: The first differences of the values of y are:
-6, 2, 10, 18, 26
The second differences are 8, 8, 8, 8
The pairs are therefore consistent with a rule of the form y =ax2-\-bx -f c.
Since Ax = l, the value of the second difference is 2 a.
Hence, 2 a = 8, giving a = 4.
Using the pair (0, 0), we have c =0. Using (1, — 6), we have b = — 10.
The rule which the pairs satisfy is y = 4 x2 — 10 x.
485
 Example 2. Show that the pairs in the following table are consistent with
the supposition that they belong to a cubic function. Determine /(x).
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ax) 0 2 10 30 68 130 222
Solution: The successive differences of/(x) are shown below:
Values of f{x) 0 2 10 30 68 130
First differences 2 8 20 38 62
Second differences 6 12 18 24 30
Third differences 6 6 6 6
The fact that the third differences are constant shows that the pairs are con¬
sistent with the supposition that they belong to a cubic function.
Let /(x) = ax3 bx2 xc -f d. Then, since Ax = l, the value of the third
difference is 6 a. Hence, a = 1.
Using the pair (0, 0), we have d = 0.
Using/(l) =2, and/(2) = 10, we have:
1+b+c=2
8+46+2 c = 10
The solution of this system is b =0, c = 1.
Hence, f(x) = x3 + x.

EXERCISES

1. Make a table of values for s = 40 t — 6 t2, using as values of t the integers

from 0 through 6. Show that the second differences equal — 12.
2. Make a table of values for y = 3 x2 — 5 x, using as values of x the integers
from —2 through 5. Show that the second differences equal 6.
3. Make a table of values for y = x2, using n, n -f 1, n +2, n +3, n +4 as
values of x. Show that the second differences equal 2.
4. Show that the following pairs belong to a quadratic function. Find the
rule which defines the function.
X 0 l 2 3 4 5

y l 3 9 19 33 51
5. Show that the following pairs belong to a quadratic function. Find the
rule which defines the function.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
s 0 9 16 21 24 25
6. Show that the following values are consistent with the supposition that
they belong to a quadratic function. Find the rule which defines the
function and use it to obtain the maximum value of .y.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
s 0 84 136 156 144 100
486
7. The distance d feet required to stop a car traveling at v m.p.h. under
certain conditions is given by the following table.
V 0 10 20 30 40 50
d 0 7.5 25 52.5 90 137.5
(a) Show that the values are consistent with the supposition that the
ordered pairs (v, d) belong to a quadratic function.
(b) Assuming that the quadratic relationship continues to hold, find the
distance required to stop the car when the speed is 60 m.p.h.
8. Make a table of values for y = x3, using n, n + 1, n + 2, n 3, n + 4,
n + 5 as values of x. Show that the third differences equal 6.
9. Show that the following values are consistent with the statement that /
is a cubic function, and determine f(x).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

m 0 — 2
i
0 9 28 60 108
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

fix) 4 5 12 31 68 129 220

10. Show that the following values are consistent with the statement that/is a
cubic function, and determine f(x).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a)
/(*) 0 -3 -8 -9 0 25 72
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b)
Ax) 0 1 5 15 34 65 111

487
 m
LL • J
□□□□

Sequences and Series

Sequences

In the preceding chapters we have studied a number of functions defined

by rules such as y — 4 x + 3, y = sin x, y = x3 — 4 x. Each of the three given
rules defines a function having the set of real numbers as its domain. This
means that a value of the function is obtained when x is replaced by any
real number. In this chapter we shall consider certain functions which have
domains restricted to the set of positive integers. These functions are called
sequences.
Let / be the function defined by the rule
y — 4 x -j- 3, with domain the set of posi¬
tive integers. The following table shows
some of the ordered pairs which belong to/.

X l 2 3 4 5 6 • • •

y 7 11 15 19 23 27 • • •

The graph of / serves to emphasize the 10

fact that the function is defined only
when x is a positive integer. This func¬
tion, which may be regarded as a corre- -—i—i—i—t-
O 1234567 X
pondence between the positive integers
1, 2, 3, 4, • • • and the numbers 7, 11, 15, Part of the graph of/
19, • • • is an example of a sequence.
The values of the function are called the terms of the sequence. Thus,
the first five terms of the sequence defined by the given rule are 7, 11, 15,
19, 23.
Since the domain of every sequence is the set of positive integers, ref¬
erence to the domain is often omitted. It is understood that when a set of
numbers such as 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, • • • is called a sequence, the correspond¬
ence with the positive integers is indicated by the order in which the num¬
bers are written. We refer to 7 as the first term, 11 as the second term, and
so on.
488
Sequences and Series 489

Notation
A number in the domain of a function / is usually represented by x, and
the corresponding value of the function is represented by f(x) or by y. In
a sequence, however, it is customary to emphasize the fact that the domain
is the set of positive integers by using n instead of x as the independent
variable. It is understood that n represents a positive integer. It is also
customary to use a symbol such as tn or wn, rather than /(«), to represent
the corresponding term of the sequence.
We shall use h to indicate the first term of a sequence, h to indicate the
second term, and so on. The symbol tn represents the general or nth. term,
corresponding to any positive integer n. Thus, in defining a sequence we
use a rule in the form tn = 4 n + 3 rather than in the form y — 4 x -j- 3.
Two successive terms of a sequence can be represented by tn and tn+1.
Using this notation, we can express general statements about the terms of a
sequence in a concise form. The statement "every term after the first is
5 times the term which precedes it,” for example, can be written
_ r 4 / >>
l"n-f 1 — O ’ bn-

Rule for a Sequence

A sequence is completely defined when the rule for determining every
term is known. The rule is usually given in one of two ways:

1. A formula for tn in terms of n may be given. The terms of the sequence

are then obtained by replacing n in the formula by 1, 2, 3, • • •.

Example 1. Find the first five terms of the sequence in which

/ - n
n 2w+ 1
Solution: We find ti by replacing n by 1 in the expression for tn.

Hence, t\ = Replacing n by 2, 3, 4, 5 we evaluate t2, h, U, h in

L "T” I O

the same way. The first five terms of the sequence are g, §, f, yt.

?
n
Example 2. Is 0.52 a term of the sequence defined by tn = 2n-\

Solution: The number 0.52 is a term of the sequence if and only if there is a

solution of -———r = 0.52 which is a positive integer.

2« - 1
Solving the equation, we have n — 0.52(2 n — 1)
100 n = 104 n — 52
n=13
We conclude that 0.52 is the thirteenth term of the sequence.
490 Chapter 18

2. A sequence may be defined by a statement of the relationship between

each term and those which precede it. If then a sufficient number of terms
at the beginning of the sequence are known, others can be obtained in order.

Example 3. The first term of a sequence is 12. Each term after the first
is 5 greater than the one preceding it {tn+1 = tn + 5). Find the first five
terms of the sequence.

Solution: We have h = 12,

t-2 — ti 5 = 12 + 5 = 17,
t3 = t2 + 5= 17 + 5 = 22,
and so on.

The first five terms are 12, 17, 22, 27, 32.

Exercises [A]
In exercises 1-16, find the first five terms of each sequence.
1. tn = 3 n 8. tn = 3n
2. tn = 10 n — 9 n*
9-tn =
3. tn = 10 — 2 n n-\- 1

4. tn = n2 + n 10. tn = 12 — 4 n
11. tn=2n- 1
5 / =- 5_
»+l 12. tn = 101-n
6. tn = 4 n + 1 13. t\ = 1 and tn+1 = tn + 3
7. = w3 14. /i = 1 and tn+1 = 3 tn

15. t\ — 1, ^2 — 3, and tn-\-2 — 3 tn-j-1 tn

16. /i = 4, and each new term is half the sum of all the terms preceding it.
n— 1
17. In the sequence for which the nth term tn =
2n
(a) Find the value of n, if any, for which tn — 0.49.
(b) Determine whether tn increases or decreases in value as n increases.
(c) Show that tn cannot exceed \ for any value of n.

n+ 2
18. In the sequence for which the nth term tn =
3 n
(a) Find the value of n, if any, for which tn = 0.4.
(b) Determine whether tn increases or decreases in value as n increases.
(c) Show that tn cannot equal or be less than J for any value of n.

19. If tn — 3 n + 4, find h, t2, h, and tn+1. Express tn+i — tn in its simplest

form.
Sequences and Series 491

20. If — 2 n
tn — 1, find 4, 4, h, and tn+ i. Express 4+i — tn in its simplest
form.

21. If 4 = 10 — 4 w, find 4, t2, t3, and tn+1 . Express 4+i — tn in its sim¬
plest form.

22. If tn = 15 — 2.5 n, find 4, t2, t3, and tn+ i. Express tn+1 — 4 in its sim¬
plest form.

Deducing a Rule for a Sequence

It is common practice to give the first few terms of a sequence and ask
for the value of the next term. We might be asked to supply the next term
of a sequence given the first three terms 1, 3, 5, • • •. In such a situation it
is taken for granted that the obvious pattern of the set of odd numbers is
to be followed. On this assumption the next term would be 7 and the general
term would be tn = 2 n — 1.
Other sequences can, however, be formed having 1, 3, 5 as the first
three terms. Consider, for instance, the sequence having
tn = 2 n — 1 + {n — \){n — 2)(n — 3),
that is,
tn = n3 — 6 n2 + 13 n — 7.
It is readily seen that t\ = 1, t2 = 3, t3 = 5, but the next term 4 is 13 instead
of 7.
In some of the following exercises a few terms of a sequence are given
and you are asked to find an expression for the general term tn. In each case
there is a simple pattern to be observed, leading to a rule expressing tn in
terms of n. We shall understand that other expressions for tn could be
found for each set of given numbers.

Exercises [A1

Find an expression for the nth. term (/„) in each of the following sequences:
1. 1,2, 3,4,5, ■■■ 6. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, - - -

2. 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, • • ■ 7. 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, • • •

3. 2,4, 6, 8, 10, • • • 8. 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, • • •

4 I I I 1 1 i 9. 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, • • •
2> 3> 4> 5) 6) 7) " '

5. 10, 100, 1000, 10000, • • • 10. 9, 99, 999, 9999, 99999, • • •

11 H 4 5. 6 Z
2> 3) 4> 5> 6)

12. (1)(2), (2)(3), (3)(4), (4)(5), (5)(6), • • •

13. (1)(2), (3)(5), (5)(8), (7)(11), (9)(14), • ■ •
14 1 2 3 4 £
1> 3> 5> 7> 9> ’ " '
492 Chapter 18

,
15. Find tn given that it is a linear expression in n with t1 = 5 k = 8.
16. Find tn given that it is a linear expression in n with t\ = 2, fe = — 2.
17. Find /n given that it is a linear expression in w with fo = 8, U = 20.
18. Find tn given that it is a linear expression in n with k = 3, t$ = 0.

Arithmetic Sequence

Consider the sequence determined by the rule t\ = 12, tn+i = tn + 3. The

statement "2n+i = tn-\- 3” means that each term after the first is formed
by adding 3 to the one before it. The first few terms of the sequence are
12, 15, 18, 21, 24, • • •. This is an example of an arithmetic sequence with
common difference 3.
A sequence in which tn is a linear expression in n is such that any two suc¬
cessive terms differ by the same number. For instance, if tn = 5 n + 2, the
terms of the sequence are 7,*12, 17, 22, 27, • • •. Each term exceeds the one
before it by 5.
A sequence having the property that tn+1 — tn is constant for all values of
n is called an arithmetic sequence or arithmetic progression. The constant
value of tn+i — tn is called the common diference of the sequence and is
generally denoted by d. The general term of any arithmetic sequence is a
linear expression in n, and the coefficient of n is the common difference of
the sequence. The first term and the common difference determine an
arithmetic sequence completely.

Example 1. Find tn for the arithmetic sequence 10, 13, 16, • • •.

Solution: The common difference is 3, so tn = 3 n + k. Since t\ = 10 and the
general expression for tn must be satisfied when / = 1, we have
10 = 3 -j- k, so k = 7.
tn = 3 n T 7.

Example 2. If tn = 5 n + 1, show that tn+i — tn = 5.

(

Solution: We have /„ = 5 n-\- 1, and /„+1 = 5(w+ 1) + 1

tn.\.. i — /n = 5w-f-5Tl — (5 n T 1)
=5

General Term of an Arithmetic Sequence

If an arithmetic sequence is formed with first term t\ and common dif¬
ference d, the first few terms may be written
tij t\ T dj t\ -{- 2 d, t\ T 3 d, • • •.
In the third term the coefficient of d is 2, and in the fourth term the co¬
efficient of d is 3. Each term is formed by adding d to the preceding term.
Sequences and Series 493

Hence the coefficient of d increases by 1 each time the number of the term
increases by 1. We can see that we shall have /10 = *x + 9 d, *55 = h + 54 d,
and in general:

^ tn = h + (n— 1 )c/

In elementary work the symbol a is often used to represent the first term
of a sequence. With this notation, the expression for the general term of
an arithmetic sequence is tn = a + (n — 1 )d.

Example 1. Find the 20th term of the arithmetic sequence 4.8, 6.0, • • *.
Solution: Method 1. The given sequence has *i = 4.8, = 6.0.
Since t2 = *i + d, the value of d is 1.2.
Using tn = t\-\- (n— 1 )d, with n = 20, we have:
*20 = *i +19 <* = 4.8+19(1.2)
*20 = 27.6
Method 2. Alternatively, we may use d = 1.2 to write
tn = 1.2 n + k
When n— 1, we have 4.8 = 1.2 + k, giving k = 3.6.
Hence *„=1.2» + 3.6
Replacing n by 20: *20 = 24 + 3.6= 27.6.

Example 2. Find the number of multiples of 7 between 30 and 250.

Solution: Multiples of 7 form an arithmetic sequence with d= 7. Those be¬
tween 30 and 250 have first term 35 and last term 245.
Suppose there are n multiples of 7 between 30 and 250.
They form an arithmetic sequence with *i = 35, d = 7, *n = 245.
Since tn = *i + {n — l)c*,
' 245 = 35 + (^ — 1)7
217 = 7 n
n = 31
Hence there are 31 multiples of 7 between 30 and 250.

Exercises [A-1]

In exercises 1-10 the first three terms of an arithmetic sequence are given.
Find an expression for tn in terms of n, and write the twentieth term for
each sequence.
1. 7, 9, 11, • • • 5. 12, 9, 6, • • • 9. 5, 4.8, 4.6, • • •
2. 2, 4, 6, • • • 6. 9, 13, 17, • • • 10. c, 3 c, 5 c}

3. -1,-2,-3, ••• 7. 1, li li---

4. 5, 10, 15, • • • 8. 1.2, 2.3, 3.4, • • •
494 Chapter 18

11. If tn — 'bn — 5, find fa, t2, t$, fa, t$, and the common difference.
12. If tn = 7 — 2 n, find fa, t2, t$, fa, t?>, and the common difference.
13. If tn = 5 + 8 n, find fa, t\2, and tn+1 — tn.
14. If /n = 4.2 w + 2.8, find fa, fax, and tn+i — tn. Is 70 a term of the
sequence?
15. If tn= 15 — 2.5 n, find fa, fa, and tn+1 — tn. Is — 27 a term of the
sequence?
16. Find the 12th term of the arithmetic sequence 2\, 4, 5^-,
17. Find the 21st term of the arithmetic sequence 0.58, 0.70, 0.82, • • *.
18. Find the 13th term of the arithmetic sequence in which fa = a,
t,2 — CL \ b.

19. Find the 12th term of the arithmetic sequence in which fa = a, t2 — b.

20. Find the nth. term of the arithmetic sequence in which fa = a, £2 = a + d.
21. Is —17.6 a term of the arithmetic sequence 5.4, 3.1, • • •?
22. Find the first term and the common difference of an arithmetic se¬
quence in which t5 = 8, fao = 15.5.
23. Find the fourteenth term of an arithmetic sequence in which fa = 9
and /9 = 3.
24. Find the number of multiples of 7 between 25 and 142.
25. Find the number of multiples of 3 between 31 and 181.
26. Show that all right triangles in which the lengths of the sides are in
arithmetic progression are similar.

Exercises [A 2]
1. Find t\0 and tn in the arithmetic sequence 12, 17, • • •.
2. Find the fortieth term of the sequence 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 2.9, • • *.
3. Find the first five terms of the sequence in which tn = 2 n + 2.
4. Find t\2 in the arithmetic sequence 8, 5, 2, • • *.
5. Find the first term and the common difference of an arithmetic se¬
quence in which fa = — 6 and tn = — 21.
6. Find the fifteenth term of an arithmetic progression in which the first
two terms are x + 2 y, x — by).
7. If ti = 8 and £5 = 3 in an arithmetic sequence, find t2, fa, t±.

8. Find tn for the arithmetic sequence 5, 9, 13, • • •. Is 53 a term of the

sequence?
Sequences and Series 495

9. Find in for the arithmetic progression 9, 6, 3, • • •.

10. In an arithmetic sequence 26 = 18, t\2 = 30, find 2i8.
11. Find the third term of an arithmetic sequence if the second term is
2.7 and the fifth term is 6.9.

12. Find tn for the arithmetic sequence 2.2, 2.5, • • •. Find the value of n
for which tn = 55.

13. If /io — 2(2s) in an arithmetic progression, find t\ in terms of d.

14. Find t8 in the arithmetic sequence which has 26 = 12 and h0 = 32.
15. Find the number of multiples of 6 between 13 and 152.
16. Find tn for the arithmetic sequence 8, 10.5, 13, • • •. Show that
tn h = tn-1 + t2 = tn~2 + 23-

Exercises [B]
2
1. If tn = 3 H—> find ti, t2, 23, t±. Is the sequence arithmetic? Express
n
tn — tn+1 as simply as possible in terms of n.
2. If f(n) = n2 -f- n, find /(0), /(1), /(2), • • •, /(8). Show that the first
differences of the values form an arithmetic sequence, and that the
sum of the terms of this sequence is /(8).
3. If f(n) = 3 n2 — 2 n, find /(0), /(l), • • *, /(6). Show that the first
differences of the values form an arithmetic sequence, and that the
sum of the terms of this sequence is /(6).
4. If f(n) = 15 n — 2 n2, find /(0), /(1), • • •, /(6). Show that the first
differences of the values form an arithmetic sequence, and that the
sum of the terms of this sequence is/(6).

Series
When the sum of a number of terms of a sequence is indicated as

2l + t2 + ts -f • • ' H" tn,

the group of terms is usually referred to as a series. We shall use the symbol
Sn to represent the sum of n terms of such a series.
Thus 53 = 2i, S2 = 2i + t2, S3 = h + h -j- 23, • • • and so on.
The quantities Si, S2, S3, • • • themselves form a sequence which we shall
call the sum-sequence, and our problem is to express the general term Sn of
this sequence in terms of n. Since Sn is formed by adding 2n to Sn~ 1, an
essential requirement of the sum-sequence is that Sn — Sn~ 1 = tn.
For a given sequence the values of 5i,52,53, * * * may be determined and
in some simple cases they may suggest the general form oi Sn.
496 Chapter 18

Example 1. Write the values of Si, S2, S3, S4 for the sequence of positive
odd integers.
Solution: The sequence is 1, 3, 5, 7,. . having tn = 2 n — 1.
Thus S n = l + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2w — 1).
We have
Si = l; 52=1 + 3 = 4; 53=l + 3 + 5 = 9; 54 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16.

Hence the first four terms of the sum-sequence are l2, 22, 32, 42. They suggest
the possibility that Sn = n2.

Example 2. Write the values of Si, S2, S3, S4 for the sequence
1
n(n + 1)
Solution: We have

2 1 2-3 2 1 6 3

3 1 3-4 3 ' 12 4

4 ' 4•5 4 ~ 20 5
Hence the first 4 terms of the sum-sequence are + §, f, f.

It should be noted that in the above examples expressions for Sn have

merely been suggested, not established. The student may be interested in
establishing the suggested results by showing that in each case Sn — S„_i = tn
and Si = t\.
In Example 2, for instance, it is clear that Si = h, and we have
n n— 1
n *0 n -1 —
n+ 1 (n — 1) + 1
n n— 1
n+ 1 n

Sum of an Arithmetic Series

There is no completely general method for obtaining the sum formula for
n terms of a series, and for many series no such formula exists. In the case
of an arithmetic series, however, the fact that the terms have a common
difference provides a means of establishing a general sum formula. The
following example illustrates the point on which the procedure depends.
Sequences and Series 49 7

Example. In the arithmetic series 7 —f-11 -f- 15 -j— * * *, having tn = 4 n + 3,

show that h + ti2 = t2 + tn = t3 + tl0.

Solution: Using tn = 4 n + 3, we have h2 = 51, tn = 47, t10 = 43.

Hence /i + /12 = 58, t2 + /n = 58, h + t10 = 58.
It is clear that 4 + /g, etc., are also equal to 58.

The example indicates how we might arrive at S12 for the series.
We write the usual expression for 612, and below it we write the expres¬
sion with the order of its terms reversed. The value of 2 Si2 is then found
by adding the terms in pairs, as follows:

Si2= 7+11 + 15H-b 43+ 47+ 51

*5*12 = 51 + 47 + 43 + • • • + 15 + 11 + 7
2 S12 — 58 + 58 + 58 + • • ♦ + 58 + 58 + 58
There are 12 terms on the right-hand side, each equal to 58, so we have
2 Si2 =12-58
Si2= 6-58 = 348.
The general arithmetic series with first term h and common difference d
may be written in the form

h + (h + d) + (£1 + 2 d) + • • •.
Also, since tn — tn~ 1 = d, we have tn-1 = tn — d,
tn~2 = tn — 2 d, and so on.
To obtain a compact expression for Sn we use the procedure illustrated
above in finding S\2. Thus, we have:

•Sn = h + (£1 + d) + (t\ + 2 d) + • • • + (tn — d) + tn

Sn= tn + (tn — d) + {tn — 2 d) + • • • + (b + d) + t\
2 Sn — (t\ + tn) + (t\ + tn) + (h + tn) + * * * + (h + tn) + (^1 + tn).

There are n terms, each equal to t\ + tn, on the right-hand side.

Hence 2 Sn = n(h + tn)

This result shows that the sum of n terms of an arithmetic series is the
same as the sum of n terms each of which is the average of the first and the
??th terms.
If we express tn in terms of t\ and d, we have

► Sn = ^[26 + (n- \)d) (2)

as the formula for the sum of n terms of the arithmetic series.

498 Chapter 18

When the first term of the arithmetic series is represented by a, the formula
for the sum of n terms becomes

Sn = ~[2 a + in — l)d]

Result (2) may be rewritten in the form

Sn = ~n2 + (ti -

This form is no less complicated in appearance than the original, but it does
show more clearly that for an arithmetic series Sn is a quadratic expression
of the form An2 + Bn. Since the value of A is one-half the common dif¬
ference of the series and the value of B can be found by using n = 1, this
form of the result is worth noting.

Example 1. An arithmetic series has fa = 8, = 20. Find (a) /20, (b) £20.

Solution: Let the series have common difference d.

Then fa — h + 4 d
20 = 8 + 4 d
d=3
(a) We have fao = fa T 19 d
= 8 + 57
= 65
/yi

(b) Since Sn = 2^1 d" +]>

^20 = -2^[8 + 65]

S,2o = 10[73]
•520 = 730

Example 2. Find Sn for the arithmetic series 9 + 5 + 1 — • • •.

Solution:
Method 1. For the given series d = — 4, and we have
tn= 13 — 4 n.

Using Sn = -(/1 + tn) with t\ — 9 and tn= 13 — 4 n,

Sn = ?(9 + 13 - 4 n) = - 2 n2 + 11 n.

Method 2. Using S„ = An2 + Bn, with A = ^•

The common difference is — 4, so the coefficient of n2 is — 2.

Hence Sn = — 2 n2 + Bn.
But S\ = 9, so by putting n = 1 we have 9 = — 2 + Zb Thus 5=11, and
Sn = — 2 n2 + 11
Sequences and Series 499

Exercises [A1]
1. An arithmetic series has h = 4, = 7. Find /io, Sio-
2. An arithmetic series has h — 6 and common difference 2. Find /i2, Si2.
3. An arithmetic series has h = 5, t2 = 8. Find /n, Sn.
4. Find the first term, the common difference, and tn for a series having
Sn= 2 n2 — 7 n.

5. Find the first term, the common difference, and tn for a series having
Sn = 4 w2 + w.
6. Find the first term, the common difference, and tn for a series having
5„ = 4 w - 3 w2.
7. If /n = 2 w — 1, find Sn and evaluate S2o.
8. If tn = n, find Sn and evaluate Sioo*
9. Find Sio for the arithmetic series 5 + 8 + 11 -f • •
10. Find Si 5 for the arithmetic series 3 + 13 + 23 -f • • •.
11. Find S20 for the arithmetic series 13 + 8 + 3 + • • *.
12. Find Si2 for the arithmetic series — 8 — 2 + 4 + • • *.
13. Find 5io for the arithmetic series 16 + 13.6 + 11.2 + • • •.
14. Find S20 for the arithmetic series — 2.8 — 4.0 — 5.2 — • • •.
15. Find the sum of the positive even integers up to and including 100.
16. Find the sum of the arithmetic series 5 + 4.8 + 4.6 + • • • + 1.2 + 1.0.
17. (a) Find the sum of all positive integers less than 100 which are
divisible by 3.
(b) Find the sum of all positive integers less than 100 which are not
divisible by 3.
18. (a) Find the sum of all positive integers less than 200 which are
divisible by 5.
(b) Find the sum of all positive odd integers less than 200 which are
divisible by 5.
19. In an arithmetic series h — 24, t\2 = 30. Find Si2.
20. In an arithmetic series t± = tg = — 20. Find Sio-
21. Find Sn for the arithmetic series 4 + 7 + 10 H-and determine the
value of n for which the series has sum 175.
22. Find Sn for the arithmetic series 14 + 10 + 6 H-and determine the
value of n for which Sn = — 18.
23. In an arithmetic series h = 2.5, h = 2. Find the value of n for which
Sn — 13.5.
500 Chapter 18

24. In an arithmetic series S12 = 21 and /12 = 10. Find h and h-

25. An arithmetic series contains 20 terms. Show that if t\ = a — b and
t20 = a-\- b, the value of is independent of b.
26. The side of a shed is 9 ft. high at the front, 6 ft. high at the back,
and 12 ft. from back to front. If sup¬
porting poles are placed at 2-foot inter¬
vals from front to back, find the total
length of these supports.
27. The rungs of a ladder decrease from a
width of 2 ft. 4 in. at the bottom to a
width of 1 ft. 8 in. at the top. If there
are 25 rungs, find (a) the difference in length from one rung to the
next, (b) the total length of the 25 rungs.
28. A boy was given an allowance of 25 cents a week beginning on his
sixth birthday. On each birthday following this the weekly allowance
was increased 15 cents, (a) What is the weekly allowance for the year
beginning on his 15th birthday? (b) Taking 52 weeks in each year,
find the total amount of his allowance between his sixth and sixteenth
birthdays. _
29. A gable end is built with 24 bricks
in the lowest row, and one less | | |
brick in each row than in the row 11111
beneath. Find the total number |——|——|——|——|——|——.
of bricks required. I I I I I I

30. (a) Show that the sum of the first n positive integers is n^n ^

(b) Show how the sum of the first n positive even integers can be
deduced from the result obtained in (a).
(c) Deduce expressions for the sum of the first 2 n positive integers
and the sum of the first n positive odd integers.
31. The lowest step of a staircase is 8 in. high, _
and the others each rise 6 in. above the _
one below. If there are 15 steps, find the -
total length of board required to enclose
the two sides of the staircase.
32. A wire rope is wound on a drum. The -------
first 10 turns are each of length 12 ft., the next 10 turns are each of
length 12.4 ft., the next 10 of length 12.8 ft., and so on. Find the
length of rope in 100 turns.
Sequences and Series 501

Exercises [A 2]
1. Find ho in an arithmetic progression having U = 10 and to = 4.
2. Find the sum of the first 15 terms of an arithmetic series if the first
term is 6 and the fifteenth term is — 15.

3. Find the sum of 20 terms of the arithmetic series 12 -f 7 H-.

4. Find the first three terms of an arithmetic progression in which t$ = 6
and to = 0.

5. Find the fifteenth term of the arithmetic sequence x, -§■(# -f- y), ' ' *•
6. Find the sum of the odd integers from 1 through 101.
7. Find ho and Sio for the arithmetic series in which t5 = 8.6 and t8 = 12.2.
8. The first term of an arithmetic series is 4 and the sum of the first 16
terms is 280. Find the common difference.
9. Find the sum of the numbers 3 + 7 + 11 + • • • -f 59 + 63.
10. Find the first term and the common difference of an arithmetic pro¬
gression in which /4 = 3 £ — y and q6 = 7 y — x.
11. Find the first three terms of an arithmetic series in which the tenth
term is — 3 and the sum of the first ten terms is 37-J.
12. Write the first three terms of the series for which tn — 1.5(w+ 1).
Find the number of terms of the series required to make the sum 135.
13. Is — 21 a term of the arithmetic sequence having t\ = 90, £3 = 81?
14. If the first and last terms of an arithmetic series are 5 and 25, show
that the sum of the series varies directly as the number of terms.
15. Find the sum of all two-digit numbers ending in 2 or 8.
16. Find the sum of 24 terms of an arithmetic series of which the first
term is a and the tenth term is 7 a.

\7. How many terms of the series 25 + 19 + 13 + • • • are required to

make the sum — 20?

18. If tn = 4 n + 2, show that Sn = 2 n2 + 4 n. Find n if Sn = 510.

19. A ball rolling down an inclined plane travels, in successive seconds,

k feet, 2.5 k feet, 4 k feet, • • •. Find the distance traveled by the ball
(a) in the ninth second, (b) in the first 15 seconds.

20. A machine for cutting lengths of metal rod is such that when the
pointer on a dial is set at x, each piece cut is x inches longer than the
one before. A mechanic needs 36 such pieces ranging from 24 in. to
38 in. Find the required setting on the dial, and the total length of
the 36 pieces.
502 Chapter 18

The Geometric Sequence

Consider the sequence determined by the rule 4 = 5, tn+1 = 2 • tn. The
statement "4+i = 2 • tn” means that each term after the first is formed by
multiplying the term before it by 2. The first few terms of the sequence are
5,10, 20, 40, 80, • • This is an example of a geometric sequence with common
ratio 2.
4 +1
A sequence having the property that is constant for all values of n
tn
is called a geometric sequence or geometric progression. The constant value of
tn + 1
is called the common ratio of the sequence and is generally denoted by r.
tn
tn+ 1
If = r, then tn+i — r ■ tn and the terms of the sequence may be ex¬
tn
pressed as follows:
4, 4 • r, 4 * r2, h • r3,
The exponent of r is 2 in the third term, 3 in the fourth term. Each term
is formed by multiplying the preceding term by r. Hence the exponent of r
increases by 1 each time the number of the term increases by 1. We can
see that we shall have tio = 4 • r9, £55 = 4 • r54, and in general

tn = tl ’ rn 1
If a is used as a symbol for the first term of the sequence, the expression
for tn becomes tn = a • rn~x.
The sequences formed when r = 1 and when r = — 1 are
{h, h, h, ti, • • •} and {ti, — h, h, — h, • • •}.
Neither of these is of any interest as a geometric sequence, so we exclude
the cases r— 1, r = — 1 from our discussion of geometric sequences and
series. If r = 0, all terms after the first are zero and so no useful sequence
is formed.

Example 1. A geometric sequence has ti = 4 and 4 = — Find (a) the

common ratio, (b) the value of 4.
Solution:
(a) We have 4 = t\ • r3
- | = 4 • r3
r3 = — i
r = — j. [Real numbers only are used in
the sequence.]
(b) To find the value of 4 we use 4 = 4* r6
4 = 4(— i)6
Sequences and Series 503

Example 2. If the sum of $P is invested at x% compound interest, the

amount or value of the investment at the end of k years is given by

A = p(^ 1 + —^ • The sum of $1000 is invested at 4% compound interest.

Use the formula to write the amount of the investment at the end of 1, 2, 3,
n years.
Solution: The value of P in this case is 1000 and the value of x is 4. The formula
for the amount of this investment at the end of k years is
A = 1000(1.04)*.
The amount in dollars at the end of 1, 2, 3, n years is
1000(1.04), 1000(1.04)2, 1000(1.04)3, 1000(1.04)”.

Exercises [A]
1. In a geometric sequence h = 2 and t2 = 6. Find the value of r and
write the next three terms of the sequence.
2. In a geometric sequence h = 6 and t2 = 2. Find the value of r and
write the next three terms of the sequence.
3. In a geometric sequence t\ — 2 and t2 = — 6. Find the value of r and
write- the next three terms of the sequence.
4. Find t8 for the geometric sequence 5, 10, 20, • • *.
5. Find t\o for the geometric sequence 4, — 2, 1, • • *.
6. Find to two significant figures the value of £ig in the geometric se¬
quence 12, 4, f, • • •.
7. If t\ = 10 and r = — f, find t\o to two significant figures.
8. In a geometric sequence, t2 = 4, — 108. Find t8.
9. Find the difference between the tenth terms of an arithmetic sequence
and a geometric sequence for each of which h = 2, £2 = 4.
10. Find the difference between the tenth terms of an arithmetic sequence
and a geometric sequence for each of which t\ = 2, t2 = %.
11. In a geometric sequence t~0 = 2, tn = 128. Find h and the common
ratio.
12. If it is required that h = 256 and t8 = 512 in a geometric sequence,
use logarithms to find the value of r to three significant figures.

13. Show that when k is increased by x% its new value is k(^\ + ^

this quantity is now increased by x%, what is its new value? If the
operation is performed n times in succession starting with k, what is
the final value of the quantity?
504 Chapter 18

14. Show that two successive increases of 10% in the price of an article
are equivalent to a single increase of 21%.

15. Find to the nearest 1% the single percentage increase in the price of
an article which is equivalent to 5 successive increases of 10%.

16. If a sum of $D is invested at 5%, express the amount of the investment

at the end of 1,2, 3, 4, n years (a) if the investment is at simple
interest, (b) if the investment is at compound interest.

17. (a) If $1000 is invested at 5% simple interest for 10 years, how much
does it earn in that time?
(b) If $1000 is invested at 5% compound interest for 10 years, how
much does it earn in that time?

18. Show that the annual amounts of §N invested at x% form an arith¬

metic sequence if invested at simple interest and a geometric sequence
if invested at compound interest.

19. The new element (number 100) has a half-life of 3 hours. This means
that if n grams of it exist at a particular moment, only \ n grams
remain 3 hours later. If 20 grams of the element are made, how much
of it remains 24 hours later?

20. If in nuclear fission one neutron splits an atom causing the release
of two others, each of which splits an atom and produces the release
of two more neutrons, and so on, write the first few terms of the se¬
quence showing the numbers of atoms being split at each stage. If
the interval from one stage to the next is one-millionth of a second,
write an expression for the number of atoms being split at the end of
1 second. If this number were written in the normal manner, ap¬
proximately how many digits would it have?

Sum of a Geometric Series

Consider a geometric series with first term t\ and common ratio r. The
expression for tn is h • rn_1, and if Sn is a symbol for the sum of the first
n terms, we have

Sn = h + ti • r + ti • r2 + • • • + ti • rn~l
Sn = *i(l + r + r2 + r3 H-b rn~x). 0

A compact form for Sn is obtained from the identity:

(1 — r)(l + r -f r2 + • • • + rn~l) = 1 — rn ®

It is a simple matter to verify this identity for any given value of n by

performing the indicated multiplication on the left-hand side.
Sequences and Series 505

The particular cases of statement © for n — 2 and n = 3 have already

been used in the study of factored forms. These cases are:

(l-r)(l + r) = l-r2 (n= 2)

(l-r)(l + r + r2) = l-/*3 (n=3)
We accept statement © as an identity when n is any positive integer.
Since r = 1 has been excluded from the permissible values of r we may
rewrite the statement in the form:

1 + v + f2 + * * * + rn~l = --— •
1 —r
Hence for all permissible values of r, the expression for Sn in © may be
rewritten:
<l(l -f")
Sn =
1 -r

When the symbol a is used to represent the first term of the geometric
series, the formula for the sum is

o a(l - r")
On — -:-•
1 — Y

In computing large powers of the common ratio it is often necessary to

use logarithms.

Example 1. For the geometric series 2 -f- § -f § + • • • find Sn and eval¬

uate S 10-
Solution: The geometric series has t\ = 2 and r— §.

Hence Sn = 2[1 ~ (|~ = 6[1 - (§)»]. log 2 = 0.3010

^ 3
log 3 = 0.4771
When n = 10, 5i0 = 6[1 - (f)10]
= 6(1 — 0.01734) 1.8239
= 6-0.104 _10
= 5.896 log (f)1o= 2.2390

Example 2. A geometric series has ts = 1 and h = Show that Sn is

less than 8 however large n becomes.
Solution: The value of r is found by using the ratio of /g to h.
Since h = hr2 and 16 = tir5, we have
t\r5 1 . . o i i
j^2 = g’ glvm8 r = 8? or r = 2
Since /ir2=l, T = 4.

Therefore S, = 4[? ~ ^ = 8[1 - (i) •]

1 2

For all values of n, (J)n is a positive number \ hence Sn is less than 8 however
large n becomes.
506 Chapter 18

It is of interest to find the difference between 8 and Sn for a large value of n.

We have 8 - 5. = 8 - 8 + 8®* = 8®” = 23 • j;

_1_
— 2n~3

For convenience, let us take n = 103.

Then 8 — Sn — ^753

= 10-30 (approximately)
Thus the difference between 8 and the sum of 103 terms of the series
4+2-f-l + ^-f-...
is a number which is approximately 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001.

Exercises [A_1]
1. Find tio and Sio for the geometric series 1 + 2 + • • •.
2. Find t% and S8 for the geometric series 8 + 4 + • • •.

3. Find t& and S8 for the geometric series 8 — 4 + • • *.

4. Find 59 for the geometric series 9 — 3 + • • *.

5. In a geometric series t2 = 6, t$ = 162. Find S%.

6. Find ho and S10 for the geometric series 10 + 20 + • •

— 1
7. Use synthetic division to show that -— = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1,
x— 1
(x7^ 1).
8. Given that (J)10 = 0.00098 (nearly), find to 3 decimal places the
value of S10 for the geometric series 1 + i + i + • * *•
9. Given that (§)12 = 0.0077 (nearly), find to 3 decimal places the
value of S12 for the geometric series 1 + § + f + • • *.
10. Show that 1 + 2 + 4 + • • • + 2n-2 + 2n_1 = 2n — 1.
11. Show that 1 + 3 -f 9 + • • • + 3n~2 + 3n_1 = ^(Sn — 1).

12. Show that 1 + \ + 7 + • • • + _ ^ - + “w = 2 — ——- •

2 4 2n_2 2n_1 2n~1
13. Show that if a geometric series has r = 2, then Sn = tn+i — h-
14. Show that for any geometric series with common ratio r,
fSn — Sn+l h»
By subtracting Sn from each side, show that

c G+i h
^n — .
r— 1
Sequences and Series 507

15. Find to 3 significant figures the value of Si0 for the geometric series
3 -}- 4.5 + 6.75 + • • *.

16. Find to 3 significant figures the value of S12 for the geometric series
8 — 4 + 2 — • • *.

17. Find to 3 significant figures the value of 59 for the geometric series
6 + 7.2 + 8.64 + • • *.

18. In a geometric series 4 = 4.5, t2 = 3.6. Find to 3 significant figures

the value of S15.
19. If in a geometric series 4 = 5 and 4 = 10, use logarithms to find r
and S10 for the series.
20. A chessboard contains 64 squares. A cent is placed on the first square,
2 cents on the second, 4 cents on the third, and so on, the sums of
money forming a geometric sequence. If all the squares are filled in
this way, find the total value of the money.

Exercises [A-2]
1. Show that 3.375, 2.25, 1.5 form a geometric sequence.
2. Find the third term of the geometric sequence 4.8, 3.6, • • *.
3. Find x if x, x + 3, x + 12 are in geometric progression.
4. Find the eighth term of the geometric sequence 9, — 6, * • *.

5. Find the common ratio of a geometric progression in which 4 = 5

and t% = 80.
6. Find the sum of the first ten terms of the series 8 + 4 + 2 + • • •.

7. Find the first term of a geometric series in which 4 = f, 4 = i-

8. Find to three significant figures the tenth term of the sequence 5, 6,

7.2, •••.
9. Find the sixth term of the series § — 4 + 12-.

10. Find the sum of 31 + 32 + 33 + • • • + 310, given 310 = 59,049.

11. Find Sio for the series 4.8 + 3.6 H-, (a) if it is arithmetic, (b) if it
is geometric.
12. What is the third term of a geometric sequence with first two terms
a, b?
13. Find the common ratio of a geometric sequence in which the sum of
the third and fourth terms is 4 times the sum of the first and second.

14. Find to 3 significant figures the sum of 12 terms of the series

20-12 + 7.2-.
508 Chapter 18

15. A geometric series has h = 10 and h = 20. Find the common ratio
and the sum of the first nine terms, each to 3 significant figures.
16. Determine whether three successive terms of an arithmetic sequence
can also be successive terms of a geometric sequence.
17. A car depreciates in such a way that its value at the end of a year is
70% of its value at the start of the year. Find its value at the end of
5 years if it originally was valued at $2500.
18. Each stroke of an air pump reduces the amount of air in a container
by 25%. What percentage of the air originally in the container re¬
mains in it after 8 strokes of the pump?
19. If the sum of $X is invested at 4% compound interest, what is the
amount of the investment at the end of 1 year; 2 years; n years?

20. (a) If $1000 is invested at 4% compound interest, what is the value

of the investment at the end of n years?
(b) A man invested $1000 at 4% compound interest on the first of
January in each of the years 1955 through 1964. Find the total
value of the investments on December 31, 1964.

Limit of the Sum of a Geometric Series

In obtaining the sum formulas for the arithmetic and the geometric
series we have considered a series to have a definite, though not necessarily
specified, number of terms. A wide and important field in mathematics is
the study of series in which the number of terms is unlimited. Expressions
such as 7r = 4 — — f+f— -,

and
*=1+i+rV 1-2-3 + 1-2-3-4 +
are examples of such series.
To see how such a series may arise in even an elementary situation, con¬
sider the problem of representing the fraction J in the decimal notation.
We have
4= or 0.3, with remainder
1_3 + T§o> or 0.33, with remainder 3^0,

T = A + Too + Tooo, or 0.333, with remainder 30V0,

and so on. More and more terms may be formed in the series
3 3 3
10 ^ 100 + 1000
+ -u
10000
. . . -I-L
10n
©
but at no stage is the transformation of J into the decimal notation complete.
Sequences and Series 509

The series © is a geometric series with h = ^ and r = hence

c _ AD ~ (iit)71]
°n “ ^_i_
That is, Sn = J[1 - ©o)n]

5„ = ---—
3 3 • 10n
Statement © corroborates our earlier observation that there is no value
3 3 3 3
of n for which the series — + — + — + ' ' • + is exactly equal to §,

since there is no value of n for which —-— is zero.

3 • 10n

If we rewrite © in the form - — Sn = —-—» it is apparent that the dif¬

3 3 • 10n
ference between -y and Sn gets smaller as n increases. This difference may
be made less than any prescribed positive value by taking a sufficiently
large value of n. For instance, to show that the difference between and Sn
becomes less than 0.000 000 000 1, we choose n = 10 (or more). For all values
of n greater than or equal to 10, we have

- — S —-—, that is, < 0.000 000000 04.

3 n “ 3 • 1010
More generally, if a positive quantity k is selected, however small, a value
Ni of n may be found such that ^ — Sn < k for all values of n greater than
N\. Under these conditions we say that the limit of Sn as n increases in¬
definitely is -jp

Example. Find Sn for the geometric series 6 +§+ f -f • • *, and examine

its values as n increases indefinitely.
Solution: In the geometric series we have t\ = 6 and r = 5.

Hence, S.= 6[1~ = 8[t - (i)"].

•1 4

Sn=8-£-

The difference between 8 and Sn is given by

8_c = =
0 °n — qn 22n 22n-3

This difference decreases as n increases, and it can be made less than any
prescribed positive value by taking a sufficiently large value of n. For instance, to
make the difference less than 0.000 000 1, take n = 12.
If any positive quantity k is selected, however small, a value A1 of n may be
found such that 8 — Sn < k for all values of n greater than N1. Under these con¬
ditions we say that the limit of Sn as n increases indefinitely is 8.
510 Chapter 18

Formula for the Limit of the Sum

Consider now the geometric series h -f- t\r + t\r2 + hr3 + • • for which
~ h( 1 — rn) h _ hrn
n 1-r 1-r 1-r
h
The value of the term is independent of the number of terms being
1 —r
summed, being determined by the values of h and r. The value of the term
hrn
depends on the value of n. It can be proved that, when r has a value
1 -r
hrn
between 1 and — 1, the absolute value of can be made smaller than
1 —r
any prescribed positive quantity by taking a sufficiently large value of n.
Since the term decreases in absolute value as n increases, we have the follow¬
ing statement.
If a positive quantity k is selected, however small, a value N\oin can be
found such that for all values of n greater than Ah,

the absolute value of < k.

This relationship of Sn to --is expressed by the statement that the limit

1 — r

h
of Sn as n increases indefinitely is
1 -/
A series for which Sn has a limit as n increases indefinitely is said to be
convergent. Thus, every geometric series having a common ratio between
1 and — 1 is convergent. We shall use the symbol A to represent the limit
of Sn as n increases indefinitely in these cases. Hence,

If the absolute value of r is greater than 1, the sum of a geometric series

does not have a limit. The absolute value of the sum of such a series exceeds
any given value if a sufficient number of terms are taken. The series is then
said to be divergent. Any arithmetic series, regardless of the size of the com¬
mon difference, is divergent.
In the wider study of series in mathematics the question whether a series
is convergent or divergent is of great importance. We are not prepared to
examine the question further in this course, but we note that the geometric
series provides (when r is between 1 and — 1) a convergent series which is
used to demonstrate that certain other series are convergent. We should
Sequences and Series 511

perhaps note that a non-geometric series is not necessarily convergent just be¬
cause its terms decrease in size as n increases. It can be shown, for example,
that the sum of the series

2 5 4 n
exceeds any given value for sufficiently large values of n.

Example, (a) Write the first five terms of the sum-sequence for the
geometric series 1 — § + 2% ~ * * *•
(b) Find the limit of the sum as n increases indefinitely.
(c) Find the difference between Sio and the limit 5 of the
sum to two significant figures.
Solution:
(a) The geometric series has t\ = 1 and r = — %.
The first five terms of the series are 1 — § + -£5 ~ He + Ht-
Hence, by combining the terms, we have
S1 = lfS2 = 0.4, S3 = 0.76, S4 = 0.544, S5 = 0.6736.
h
(b) Since r is between 1 and — 1, the sum has a limit given by S
1—r
1
Hence, the limit of the sum = § or 0.625
l-(- t)
t\Yn
(c) The difference between S and Sn is --
v 1—r
(_ 3) 10
The difference between S and S10 is therefore -f—37 = f • (f)10.
1 l 5i
Evaluating this difference by logarithms, we have S — Si 0 — 0.0038, to two
significant figures.

Exercises [A 1]

All series in this set of exercises are geometric.

1. Find the limit of the sum of the series 3 -f 2 + f + • • •.
2. Find the limit of the sum of the series 5 — 2 + 0.8-•.
3. Find the limit of the sum of the series 4 + 3 + • • *.
4. Find the limit of the sum of the series 5 — 4+ • • *.

5. If r = 5, evaluate vn to two significant figures (a) when n= 12,

(b) when n = 30.
6. If a = 4 and r = i, evaluate S~- to two significant figures (a) when
1 —r
n = 15, (b) when n = 33.
7. (a) Find S lor the series 1 + i H-• (b) Find the difference between
S and Si 2 to two significant figures.
512 Chapter 18

8. (a) Find S for the series 2 — 1 -f- \ — • • *. (b) Show that Sio is a little
less than S and that Sn is a little greater than S, but that both
Sio and 5n agree with 5 to three significant figures.
9. Find 5 for the series 5 + 4 + • • *. Is there a value of n such that Sn
exceeds S for this series? Find S20 to three significant figures.
10. Find Si, S2, S3, S4, S5, and S for the series 8 — 2 + \ — • • *.
11. Find Si, S2, S3, S4, S5, and 5 for the series yq + y^o + T600 + • * ••
12. Find the common fraction equivalent to 0.27 (0.272727 • • •).
Solution: 0.27 is the limit of the sum of the series
27 | 27 27
100 + 10000 + 1000000 H '
In this series ti = 27/100, r = 1/100.
h 27/100 27 3
_ _
Hence, 5= 1_1 _
1—r 1 100 99 11
Thus the common fraction equivalent to 0.27 is 3/11.
• •

13. Find the common fraction equivalent to the repeating decimal 0.123
123 123 123
(0.123123 • • •) by finding S for the series — +^ + H-•

14. Find the common fraction equivalent to the repeating decimal 0.45
(0.45555 • • •) by finding 5 for the series yfo + TMo + • • *, and adding
to the value of S. (Note that yfi is not a term of the series.)
• • • •

15. Find the common fraction equivalent to (a) 0.24, (b) 0.527.
16. Find the common fraction equivalent to (a) 0.5, (b) 0.235.
• • • •
17. Find the common fraction equivalent to (a) 0.324, (b) 0.324.

18. Show that the limit of the sum ^ ^ ^ + T + . . . is 10 a^~-

19. Use the result of exercise 18 to write the common fractions equivalent
to 0.12, 0.48, and 1.63.
20. The first term of a geometric series is 4. Find the largest value of r
that may be used if the sum of the series is not to exceed 6 however
many terms are taken.
21. Find the common ratio for a geometric series in which the first term
is 8 and the limit of the sum is 10.
22. Express r in terms of a and S.

23. Show that the limit of the sum of a geometric series has the same sign
as the first term.
Sequences and Series 513

24. A ball is projected from the floor of a room to a height of 10 ft. If

there is no horizontal motion, and if every bounce is § the height of
the preceding bounce, show that the total distance traveled does not
exceed 100 ft. however many bounces are made.
25. If the ball in exercise 24 takes 1.5 seconds to return to the floor after
being projected upward, and if the time for each bounce is yo the
time for the preceding bounce, show that however many bounces are
made the total time does not exceed 15 seconds.
26. An old agreement stated that the rent of a house should be $500 the
first year, and the rent for any year after that should be 95% of the
rent for the preceding year. Find the rent paid for the eleventh year.
Show that the total rent payable under this arrangement does not
exceed $10,000.

Exercises [A_2]
All series in this set of exercises are geometric.

1. Find the limit of the sum of the series -7- — 77-r + t4t — • •
10 10J 1005

2. Find the limit of the sum of the series 4 + 2.4 + 1.44 + * * *•

3. Find 5 for the series 1.2 + 1.0 + • • •.

4. Find 5 for the series 7^- + —77 + 777 + * * ••

1.2 1.2Z 1 .L6

5. If n > 1, find the limit of the sum of n~l + n~2 + w~3 + • • *.

6. If r — 0.9, evaluate rn to two significant figures (a) when n = 10,
(b) when n = 100.
«7l

7. If a = 10 and r = 0.6, evaluate --to two significant figures (a) when

1 — r

n = 15, (b) when n = 30.

8. Find to two significant figures the difference between 5 and 5io for
the series having a = 5 and r — 0.4.
• • • •
9. Find the common fraction equivalent to (#) 0.54, (b) 0.342.
• • •

10. Find the common fraction equivalent to (a) 0.43, > 1.36.
• • •

11. Find the common fraction equivalent to (a) 0.231, (b) 0.213.
12. Find to two significant figures the difference between S and S12 for
the series 4 — 2.4 + 1.44 — • •
13. The first term of a geometric series is 5. find the largest value of r
that may be used if the sum of the series is not to exceed 8 however
many terms are taken.
514 Chapter 18

14. The second term of a geometric series is 4, and the limit of the sum of
the series is 18. Show that there are two possible series, and find the
first three terms of each.
15. Find the common ratio in a geometric series if the limit of the sum
is three times the first term.
16. Show that if the first term of a geometric series is 4, it is not possible
for the limit of the sum to be — 3.

17. For what values of x does the sum of the series 1 + x + x2 + • • • have
a limit? Evaluate the limit when x = 0.8.
/V* /V* A
*/v . vV %“
18. For what values of x does the sum of the series - -f — + — + have

a limit? Express the limit in its simplest form, and evaluate it when
x = 1.5.
19. For what values of x does the sum of the series l + 2^ + 4x2+--*
have a limit? Evaluate the limit when x = J.
20. A ball is dropped from a height of 20 ft. onto a floor from which it
rebounds vertically to a height of 15 ft. If it continues to bounce in
such a way that every bounce is f the height of the preceding bounce,
show that the total distance traveled does not exceed 140 ft. however
many bounces are made.

21. A number of squares are formed, the edge of each square after the
first being 80% of the edge of the preceding square. If the largest
square has edge 6 in., find the limit of the sum of (a) the perimeters of
the squares, (b) the areas of the squares.
22. In the first month of operation an oil well produces n barrels of oil.
After that, the production each month is 90% of that of the preceding
month. Find the limit of the production of the well.
23. If the well of exercise 22 can be operated profitably as long as the
monthly production is above J n, show that the well can be operated
profitably for 14 months.
24. The first term of a geometric series is 4 a and the common ratio is r.
A second series has first term a2 and common ratio r2. If the sum of
each series has the same limit, find r in terms of a.

The Arithmetic Mean

The number x is the arithmetic mean of the numbers a and b if a, x, b form

an arithmetic sequence. The differences between successive terms of the
arithmetic sequence are equal, giving x — a = b — x, that is, x = \{a + b).
Sequences and Series 515

If n numbers a, b, c, • • • are given, their arithmetic mean x is defined by

the statement x = -(a-\-b-\-c-\-•••). Thus, the arithmetic mean of the

n
four numbers 6, 10, 17, 21 is J(6 + 10 -f 17 -f 21) = 13.5.
If the numbers a, x, y, z, b form an arithmetic sequence, the numbers
x, y, z are referred to as arithmetic means between a and b. If n arithmetic
means are to be determined between the given values a and b, the required
common difference can be found from the fact that h = a and tn+2 = b.

Example. Determine the required common difference if there are to be

5 arithmetic means between 2 and 23.
Solution: The complete sequence has 7 terms, and we have t\ = 2, t7 = 23.
Let the common difference be d.
Then 17= t\ T 6 d.
That is, 23 = 2 -f- 6 d
d = 3.5

The Geometric Mean

The number £ is a geometric mean of the numbers a and b if a, x, b form

a geometric sequence. The ratios of successive terms of the geometric se¬

quence are equal, giving - = -> that is, x2 = ab. This relationship gives two
a x
values of x for a given pair of values of a and b, x = yfab and x — — ^s/ab.
In practice, if a and b are positive numbers, the usable value of x is generally
the positive value. We therefore define the geometric mean of the positive
numbers a and b as Vab. It is the quantity known in plane geometry as
the mean proportional of a and b.
If n positive numbers a, b, c, • • • are given, their geometric mean x is
defined by the statement x = ~\/abc • • •. Thus, the geometric mean of 5,
10, 15 is ^5 • 10- 15 = 5^6.
If the numbers a, x, y, z, b form a geometric sequence, the numbers
x, y, z are referred to as geometric means between a and b. If n geometric
means are to be determined between the given values a and b, the required
common ratio can be found from the fact that t\ = a and tn+2 = b.

Example. Determine the required common ratio if there are to be 2

geometric means between 5 and 10.
Solution: The complete sequence has 4 terms, and we have t\ = 5, t± = 10.
Let the common ratio be r.
Then t± = h(r^).
That is, 10 = 5 r3
r= ^2
516 Chapter 18

^ Theorem. If o and b are unequal positive numbers, their arithmetic mean is

greater than their geometric mean.

For all values of a and b, we have (a + b)2 = (a — b)2 + 4 ab.

If a and b are unequal positive numbers, (a — b)2 > 0.

Hence, {a + b)2 > 4 ab_

a-\- b > 2^/ab.

a-±±>'Jab

Thus, the arithmetic mean of a and b is greater than the geometric mean.

Exercises [A]
1. Find the amount by which the arithmetic mean of 3 and 12 exceeds
the geometric mean.
2. Find the amount by which the arithmetic mean of 18 and 50 exceeds
the geometric mean.
3. Find to the nearest hundredth the difference between the arithmetic
mean and the geometric mean of 5 and 15.
4. Find to the nearest hundredth the difference between the arithmetic
mean and the geometric mean of lj and 6j.
5. Find the required common difference if 9 arithmetic means are to be
placed between 6 and 20.
6. Find the three arithmetic means between 6.8 and 14.
7. Find the required common ratio if 5 geometric means are to be placed
between 20 and 160.
8. Find the three geometric means between 40 and 2-J.
9. Find x if the arithmetic mean of 2 and x exceeds the geometric mean
by 4.
10. Find x if the arithmetic mean of 10 and x exceeds the geometric mean
by 5.

Exercises [B]
1. Show that n2 + 1 > 2 n if n 1.
2. Show that for the numbers n, n-\-k, the square of the arithmetic

3. The numbers 4, x, y, 18 are such that x is the arithmetic mean of 4

and y, and y is the geometric mean of x and 18. Find x and y.
Sequences and Series 517

4. The first three numbers of the group 6, x, y, 16 form an arithmetic

sequence, and the last three numbers of the group form a geometric
sequence. Find x and y.

5. Find the value of x for which the geometric mean of x — 2 and x + 4

is x.
3 x—5 2 x-\- 3
6. Find the value of x for which the arithmetic mean of and
~Y T~~
is x.
7. Find, in simplest radical form, the geometric mean of 6, 12, 48.
8. Find the arithmetic mean of the integers from 1 through 10.
9. In summing a group of terms, each of the terms a, b, c is replaced by
N without altering the total. Describe the relationship of N to a, b, c.
10. In multiplying a group of factors, each of the factors a, b, c is replaced
by N without altering the product. Describe the relationship of N
to a, by c. C
11. In the diagram, M is the midpoint of the
hypotenuse of the right' triangle ABC.
CD is the altitude on the hypotenuse.
Name a line segment having one end at ^
C,(a) which is the arithmetic mean of
AD and DB, (b) which is the geometric mean of AD and DB.

12. The number x is the harmonic mean of the numbers a and b if - * -> -
a x b
form an arithmetic sequence. Show that the harmonic mean of a
2 ab
and b is
a+ b
13. The speed one way on a round trip is X m.p.h. and the speed the
other way is Y m.p.h. Show that the average speed in miles per hour
for the round trip is the harmonic mean of X and Y.
14. In the diagram, AB and CD are perpendicular to BC. AC meets BD
at E. Through E a line is drawn perpen¬ D
dicular to BC, meeting AD at X and BC
at Y. If AB contains a units, CD con¬
tains b units, and XY contains x units,
show that x is the harmonic mean of a
and b.
15. If a and b are unequal positive numbers, show that a~ + b~ > 2 ab.
16. If a, b, c are unequal positive numbers, show that
a2 -|- b2 + c2 > ab -}- be + ca.
518 Chapter 18

Miscellaneous Exercises [A]

Series and sequences in these exercises are either arithmetic or geometric.
1. Find to and So for the series 3.2 + 4.3 + 5.4 + • • •.
2. Find the general term tn of the sequence 3, 7, 11, • • •. Find the value
of n for which tn — 383.
3. Find the first three terms of an arithmetic sequence in which /5 = 24
and /15 = — 1.
4. Find the limit of the sum of the series 10 — 6 + 3.6 — • • •.
5. Determine 4 arithmetic means between \\ and — 11.
6. Find the first term of a geometric progression in which /3 = 16 and
to = — 2.
7. Find ti2 for the sequence 62, 50, 38, • • •.
8. Find Sn for the series 1 + 3 + 5 + • • *.
9. Find Sio for the series 9 + 5.6 + 2.2 + • * •.
10. Find the limit of the sum of the series 9 — 3 + 1 — • • •. Find, to
two significant figures, the amount by which Sio differs from this
limit.
11. Find x if the numbers 2 x — 4, 5 # — 9, 5 x + 3, are (a) in arithmetic
progression, (b) in geometric progression.
12. Find t\2 and S12 for the series 5 + 2 — 1 — • • •.
13. How many terms of the series 12 + 9 + 6 + • • • must be taken to
make the sum — 54?
14. Find the smallest positive term of the series 25 + 23.5 + 22 + • • •.
Find also the sum of the positive terms of the series.
15. The numbers 1.5, 3, 6, 12 form a geometric sequence. Use tables to
obtain their logarithms, and verify that the logarithms form an arith¬
metic sequence. Write the next two terms of each sequence, and verify
that the terms of the arithmetic sequence are the logarithms of the
terms of the geometric sequence.
16. A man’s salary starts at $5000 a year, and at the beginning of each
succeeding year his salary is increased by $200. Find the total salary
received in 30 years.
17. Find the sum of all the integers between 1 and 1000 that are divisible
by 3.

18. Find Sn for the series in which = 6 n — 4, and find the value of n
for which Sn = 290.
Sequences and Series 519

19. The value of a machine diminishes each year by 20% of its value at
the beginning of that year. Find the value at the end of 10 years of a
machine originally costing $10,000.

20. The first term of an arithmetic progression is 4. Find the common

difference if, when the second term is increased by 3 and the third
term is multiplied by 2.5, the first three terms are in geometric pro¬
gression.

21. The sum of the first three terms of an arithmetic progression is 30.
The geometric mean of the first and third terms is 8. Find the possible
values of the fourth term of the progression.

22. A set of 20 equidistant parallel lines is cut by a pair of transversals.

The shortest and longest segments intercepted on the parallels be¬
tween the transversals have lengths 6.8 cm. and 15.2 cm. Find the
total length of the segments intercepted on the parallels between the
transversals.

23. A ball makes a series of vertical bounces, the height of each bounce
being § the height of the preceding bounce. The height of the first
bounce is 9 ft. Find the total distance traveled by the ball in the
series of bounces, if the number of bounces is unlimited.

24. If 2 n arithmetic means are placed between a and b, show that their
sum is n(a + b).
25. Archimedes, more than 2000 years ago,
showed that the area contained by the
coordinate axes and the parabola
4 y = 4 — x2 in the first quadrant is the
limit of the sum of the geometric series B'X

1 + i + + * ' *•

Use the result to show that the area of the segment of the parabola
bounded by the curve and the line segment AB is § the area of the
rectangle A BCD.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B]

1. Find the common ratio for a geometric sequence in which

h T W — 1.5(fe T ^3)-
2. A geometric series has common ratio 2. Find n if S211 — 33 Sn-

3. Find the first 5 terms of the series in which 4 = 2n + 2 n. Find ^Sio,

and show that Sn = 2n+1 + (n + 2)(n - 1). (Consider the two parts
of tn separately.)
520 Chapter 18

4. An arithmetic sequence and a geometric sequence both begin 4, n.

Show that the third term of the geometric sequence is larger than the
third term of the arithmetic sequence.
5. Show that if (c-\-a)~l is the arithmetic mean of (& + c)-1 and
(a+ &)-1, then b2 is the arithmetic mean of a2 and c2.

6. If - > - > 7 form an arithmetic sequence, x is the harmonic mean of

a x b
a and b. Show that if a and b are unequal positive numbers, the geo¬
metric mean of a and b is greater than the harmonic mean.
7. If 2 b is the harmonic mean of a -f b and b + c, show that b is the
geometric mean of a and c.
8. If a, b, c, d are positive unequal numbers, show that
-f- b){c + d) > Vabed.
9. If a, b, c are positive unequal numbers, show that
(a + b) {b + c) (c + a) > 8 abc.
1
10. If tn = y find Si, S2, S3, S4, S5, and Sn. What is the limit of
n{n + 1)
Sn as n increases indefinitely?
2
11. If tn — > find Si, S2, S3, S4, S5, and Sn. What is the
(2»- 1)(2»+ 1)
limit of Sn as n increases indefinitely?

The following exercises are based on the Fibonacci sequence, which is

such that h = t2= 1, and tn+2 = tn+1 + tn.
12. Find the first twelve terms of the sequence.

13. Evaluate — > — > —» to three significant figures.

h ho hi
14. Find the positive root of x2 — x — 1 = 0 to 3 significant figures.
15. All terms of a geometric series are positive and each term after the
second is equal to the sum of the two immediately preceding it. Find
the value of the common ratio.
16. It is said that the rectangle most pleasing to the human eye has

dimensions L and W such that Find the ratio for

L W W
such a rectangle.

17. If tn = A=
1 +V5^" _ > evaluate h, k, ^3, h-
VBL
18. If tn has the value given in exercise 17, show that tn+2 — tn+1 + tn.
Sequences and Series 521

Mathematical Induction [B]

Consider a set of ball-bearings A, B, C, D, • • • arranged in a horizontal

groove, as shown. Suppose that an electrically operated device ensures that
when any bearing moves to
the right and makes contact
with another, this second
bearing is propelled to the
right with enough speed to bring it into contact with the next member of
the set. Then if the bearing A is rolled along the groove so as to make
contact with bearing B, every bearing in the set will be propelled to the right.
Two things are necessary if we are to be sure that every bearing will be
propelled to the right: (a) the "chain-reaction” must be started by moving
A to the right so as to make contact with B; (b) there must be a means of
ensuring that the reaction is passed on from each element to the next. If
both conditions are fulfilled, each bearing in turn is brought into contact
with its neighbor and we can be sure that every bearing in the set will be
propelled to the right.
The situation described above provides a physical parallel to the process
known as "Mathematical Induction.” This is a method of investigating
the truth of a statement expressed in terms of n where n is a positive integer.
We shall use P(n) to symbolize such a statement. Thus P(n) might rep¬
resent the proposition "The sum of the first n odd integers is w2.”
Mathematical Induction is based on the property of the positive integers
that if S is any set of positive integers which (a) contains the integer 1, and
(b) contains the integer k + 1 whenever it contains k, then 5 is the set of all
positive integers. The working procedure is expressed in the following
principle.

^ The Principle of Mathematical Induction

If n is a positive integer and P(n) is a statement such that

(a) the statement is true when n = 1,

(fa) the truth of the statement when n = k ensures its truth when n = k + 1,

then P(n) is a true statement for all values of n.

To establish the truth of a statement Bin), it is necessary to do two things:

(a) It must be verified that P (n) is true when n = 1.

(b) It must be shown that the truth of P in) when n = k + 1 is a necessary
consequence of the truth of P in) when n = k.
It is a simple matter to do the verification required in part (a). It is more
difficult to grasp the logic of the proof in part (b). Special attention should
be given to this part of the following example.
522 Chapter 18

"I- YI
Example. Prove that if yi represents a positive integer, then —-— repre-
Ld

sents a positive integer.

Solution:

(a) When n= 1, the proposition states that ^ represents an integer. This

is clearly a true statement.
(b) In this part we must show that the truth of the proposition when yi = k
ensures its truth when yi = k + 1. This means that we must show that
(£+l)2+(6+l)
2
k2 -\- k .
is an integer whenever —-— is an integer. We see that

(£+l)2+(£+l) &2 + 3£ +2 k2 -{■ k

+ (k -f 1).

But k + 1 is an integer, and provided that —-— is an integer, it follows that the
2
(k 1)2 + {k ~h 1) •
sum of the two expressions is an integer. Thus is an integer

whenever is an integer.

Conclusion: Since we have shown that the proposition is true when yi = 1,

and that its truth for yi = k ensures its truth for yi k + 1, then the proposition
—

is true for all values of yi.

The logic of the Principle of Mathematical Induction should be carefully

examined. There are really three stages.
(a) P (n) is verified for yi = 1 or for the lowest usable value of yi.

(b) It is shown that the truth of P (yi) for yi = k ensures the truth of P(«)
for yi = k -f 1.
(c) It is concluded that P(w) is a true statement for all values of yi.

The conclusion is based on a chain of deductions such as the following:

Pin) is true when n—\. (Verified in (a))

P {yi) is true when yi = 2, because it is true when yi — 1.

(Justified in (b))
P(w) is true when yi= 3, because it is true when yi = 2.
(Justified in (b))
P (yi) is true when yi = 4, because it is true when yi= 3.
(Justified in (b))
Clearly the chain can be extended to any value of yi.
Sequences and Series 523

The 2 Notation [B]

The symbol 2 (sigma) is commonly used in mathematics to represent the
6
sum of a number of terms. Thus, ^ x2, where x may be replaced only by a
x= 1

positive integer, means l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 -f 62. The nature of the

terms to be summed is indicated by the expression (x2 in this instance)
following the 2. The numerals at the bottom and top of the 2 show the
values of x for the first and last terms of the series. Thus:
10
V —j— means -h 77 (8 terms)
x-\- \ 456 11
1 1
means 1
2-3
+
3-4
+
• • •
+ n{n + 1) (n terms)
*=i x(x-\- 1) “ 1 • 2

1 n
Example. Prove that ^ for all values of n.
x(x +1) n+ 1

Solution: (a) When n— 1, the proposition becomes ^ This is a

true statement, so the truth of the proposition for n = 1 has been verified.
(b) When n= k, the proposition takes the form

V 1 _ k
x{x + 1) k+ 1

When n = k + 1, the proposition takes the form

*+ i 1 k+ 1
2
^ x(x +1) k+2

It is necessary to show that

k i
ifc+ i
kT 1
> then y
if 2 x(x+l) k+1 *^7 x{x +1) k -}- 2

To do this we note that

k+ 1 - k
1
+
^ x(x + 1) x5], *(* + 1) + 1) (k + 2)
k+ 1
1
Then ^
^ je(a: + 1) = 2
^ *(* +1)
+ (£ + 1) + 2)
1
+
& + 1 ' {k + l)(k -f 2) (Usins 2 X = 1
£(£-h 1) k+ 1
k2 -\-2k-\- \ _k+l
~~(k+l)(k + 2) k-\-2
(c) Since we have verified the proposition for n = 1 and shown that the truth
of the proposition for n = k ensures its truth for n k + 1, then the proposition is
true for all values of n.
524 Chapter 18

Exercises tB]
Use the method of Mathematical Induction to show that the following
propositions are true for all values of n. (n represents a positive integer).
1. l + 3 + 5 + -** + (2w-l) = w2
2. 2 + 4 + 6-f-h2» = w2 + w
3. 1 + 2 + 4H-f- 2n_1 = 2n — 1

4. 10+15 + 204-h 5(n + 1) = 3)

5. 3 + 3r+3r24-b 3 • r"'1 = 3<r"~ ^

6j^x = n(n±Al
x= 1
n
_ n{n -f 1)(2 n + 1)
7-2*2=
x= 1
6
10
n(n-j-1)
8. (a) jr*3 = (b) Evaluate ^ x3.
*= 1 x= 1

9. (a) x(x + 1) = n(nJr 1)(n+ 2). (b) Evaluate ^ x(x + 1).

x= 1

10. (a) i; *(* + 1)(* + 2) = ”(”+l)(«+2)(w + 3)_

*= 1 ^
10

(b) Evaluate ^ x(x + 1)(jc + 2).

*= i

11. (1 + a)n > 1 + na if a > 0, n > 1.

12. n3 — n is a multiple of 6 if n > 1.
n(n — 3)
13. The total number of diagonals of an w-sided polygon is
(Begin by verifying the proposition for n = 4.)
14. 3 n5 -f 5 n3 -f 7 n is a multiple of 15.

The Binomial Series

In our earlier work we have seen that
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2 xa + a2
(x -f a)3 = x3 -f 3 x2a + 3 xa2 + a3
and by further multiplication it may be shown that
(x -f a)4 = oc4 + 4 x3a + 6 x2a2 + 4 xa3 + a4
(x + a)5 = x5 -f- 5 x4a + 10 x3a2 + 10 x2a3 4- 5 xa4 + a5
Sequences and Series 525

If the coefficients in the preceding results are arranged as indicated be¬

low a striking pattern is formed

1 1 coefficients of x + a
12 1 coefficients of {x -\- a)2
13 3 1 coefficients of {x -j- a)3
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
\/\ /\ /\ /\/
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 coefficients of (T-f a)6

Note the manner in which the coefficients in the lowest row can be obtained
by combining those in the row above. The relationship is a general one
from row to row and was first recorded by the French mathematician Pascal.
The above arrangement is known as Pascal's triangle.
A general method of writing (x -f- a)n as a polynomial, n being a positive
integer, is helpful in many parts of mathematics. The particular cases shown
above, with n = 2, 3, 4, 5 suggest that
1. The number of terms in the polynomial form of (x -f a)n is n -f 1.
2. The polynomial may be written with first term xn, last term an.
3. The exponent of x in any term is one less than the exponent of x in the
preceding term, and the exponents of x and a in any one term total n.
The general formula for writing {x-\- d)n as a series of terms is as follows:

^ If n is a positive integer,
/ . v , . n(n —1) _9 9 . n(n — 1 )(n — 2) „
(x + a)n = xn + nxn + ——— xn 2a2 -j- :—-—i xn 3a3
1 • 2 1-2-3
+ • • • + nxa'1-1 + an.

The polynomial of (w+ 1) terms on the right side is known as the Bi¬
nomial Expansion, or the Binomial Series. The statement that the propo¬
sition is true for all values of n, n being a positive integer, is called the
Binomial Theorem. A proof by Mathematical Induction is possible, but
the algebra is very complicated, and we shall accept the result without proof.
The terms of the general Binomial Series have a somewhat complex ap¬
pearance but they actually follow a simple pattern. Let us examine the
fourth term, which is expressed as

n(n- 1)0~ 2)xn-a . '

If n = 10, the expression becomes -®'^x7a3, or 120 x7a3. The main point

to grasp is the pattern of the coefficient. The numerator of the coefficient

is the product of three integers, n{n— 1 ){n — 2), which becomes 10-9-8
526 Chapter 18

when n = 10. The denominator is the product of the first three positive
integers, 1-2-3, which is abbreviated to 3! and read "factorial 3.” We
might consider 3 as the key number for the fourth term.
The fifth term is given by
n(n- \){n- 2)(w- 3)„n_,
-x'1 4a4.
1•2 • 3 -4
10-9-8-7
If n = 10, the expression becomes ——-—-——x6u4, or 210 x6u4. The key

number for the fifth term is 4.

In the (r + l)th term the key number is r, and the term may be written
n(n- 1)Q- 2) - - - (n- r + 1) r r
r\ x a ,

the numerator of the coefficient being the product of r factors.

Example 1. Write the sixth term of the Binomial Series for (x — 2)9.
Solution: Comparing (x — 2)9 with (x + a)n, we see that n is replaced by 9 and
a by — 2. The key number for the sixth term is 5, and the term may be written:
2
9-V7 ■v*
*4(— 2)5
1-XVV\
= (126)(- 32)x4 = - 4032 x4

Example 2. Write and simplify the first four terms in the expansion of 1
(1 + x)12.
Solution: Comparing (1 + x)12 with (x + a)n, we see that n= 12 and that
x, a have been replaced by 1, x respectively. Since x is the second term in the
binomial, we shall obtain a series in ascending powers of x. We have:
12-11 12 • 11• 10
(i + x)12 = i12 +12 - (l)11* + ^^r(i)10*2 + fry, s-a)9*3 + •••
1
= 1 + 12 x + 66 x2 + 220 x3 -\-. f
This form of expansion is very useful for obtaining approximations to the
value of (1 + x)n when x is small. In Example 2, for instance, if we let
x = .01, we see that
(1.01)12 = 1 + .12 + .0066 + .00022+
= 1.127 to the nearest thousandth

Exercises lA]
i
1. Write the series form of (1 + x)5.
2. Write the series form of (x + h)6. r;

■
3. Write the series form of (1 — x)4. [Consider [1 + (— x)]4.]
Sequences and Series
527
4. Write the series form of (1 + f a)4.

5. Evaluate 213 from the series form of (1 4 20)3.

6. Evaluate (1.01) to the nearest hundredth from the series form of

(1 + .01)4.
7. If h is so small that h2 and higher powers may be omitted, show that
1+4 h may be used as an approximation for (1 + A)4.
8. Show that an increase of 1% in the length of the edge of a cube pro¬
duces an increase of 3.0% (to two significant figures) in the volume
of the cube.
9. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of (1 + x)9.

10. Evaluate (1.002)9 to 5 decimal places.

11. Evaluate (.99)5 to 4 decimal places.
12. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of (x 4 2)12.

13. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of (1 — - Y°.

\ xJ

14. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of

15. If Ax is small, show that the value of (x + Ax)n — xn is approximately

n • xn~l • Ax.

The Series (1 4 x)" when n is a Rational Number[B]

When n is a positive integer, the statement
n(n — 1) 2 rt{n— l)(n — 2)
(14*)n = i +n.*_p -x2 + x3 + • • • + njcn_1 + xn
2! 3!
is true for all values of x. In other words, the statement is an identity.
There are n + 1 terms in the polynomial on the right side, and with any
given value of x the sum of the n 4 1 terms is equal to (1 4 x)n.
The question naturally arises as to the relationship between the value of
(1 + x)n and the series
n(n- 1) n(n — l)(n —
14/ix4 x24 1-2-3
1 • 2
when n is a negative integer or a fraction. Since the series contains only
powers of x which are positive integers, the term xn does not appear in the
series when n is a negative integer or a fraction. Also, the pattern

—n ~ ~ 2) does not contain a factor of the numerator which is zero,

1-2-3
however many factors are taken. Hence the number of terms in the series
is unlimited.
528 Chapter 18

When the number of terms in a series is unlimited, the concept of the

sum of the series is useful only when the sum approaches a limit as the num¬
ber of terms is increased. If the sum does approach a limit as the number
of terms is increased indefinitely, the series is said to be convergent and the
value of the limit is called the sum of the series.
It can be shown that if | x | < 1, the series

n(n — 1) 2 n{n — 1 )(n — 2)

1 + nx + -x2 + x3 +
1 2• 1-2-3

is convergent and the limit of the sum is (1 + x)n. We shall accept this
result without proof.

Example 1. Evaluate v 1.04 to four decimal places.

Solution:
Vl.04 = (1 -f- xwhere x = 0.04.

(1 + x)i = 1 + i x + ~ 2) *3 + • • • for I * 1 < 1.

(1.04)i = 1 + £(.04) - £(.0016) + ^(.000064) • • •
= 1 + .02 - .0002 + .000004-
= 1.0198 to four decimal places.

Example 2. Show the relationship between (1 + x) 1 and the series

1 — x + x2 — x3 + • • • -f- (— x)n + • • • when | x | < 1.
Solution:
(a) Using the Binomial Theorem we have:

(1 + x)-1 = 1 + (- l)x+ (~ j *'7 2)

;(- *)2 +( 3),(~ x)3 +
= 1 — x + x2 — x3 + -- -
(b) The series 1 — x + x2 — x3 + • • • is a Geometric Series with first term 1 and
common ratio — x. Hence if | x | < 1, the limit of the sum is given by
h __1
5= = (! + *) 1
1—r 1+ x

(c) We have (1 + x) 1 = and by carrying out the division,

1 + x
i (—
—— = 1 — X + x2 — x3 + • • • + (— x)* + -——
1 -f X X+ 1

/_ qA k +1

If I I < 1, the absolute value of the term -—1-—— can be made as small as
x
x+ 1
we choose by taking a sufficiently large value of k. Note however that if | x | > 1,

the absolute value of -—V-;— increases as k increases. In this case, the expres-
x+ 1
sion (1 + x)-1 does have a value but there is no limit for the sum of the series.
Sequences and Series 529

Exercises [B1

1. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of (a) (1 + x)?, (b) (1 + x)~\
2 . Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of (a) (1 -|- x)%, (b) (1 + x)~2.
3. Show that if | x | < 1, (1 - x)~l = 1 -f % + x2 + £3 + x4 H-. What
may be deduced about the limit of the sum of 1 -f x + x2 + • • • -f
as n increases indefinitely?

4. Evaluate (1.01)-'2 to 4 significant figures. (Use + when

x = 0.01.)
1
5. to 4 significant figures. (Use (1 x) 2 when
EvaluatC (0.99)*
x = — 0.01.)
6. Show that if x is sufficiently small, 1 + \ x is approximately equivalent
to VTT^. Use the result to write \/l.04 to 3 significant figures.

7. If x is small enough so that x2 may be omitted, find an approximation

to V1+ x. Use the result to write the cube root of 1060 to 3 signif¬
icant figures.

8. Evaluate \/l28 to three decimal places.

9. Obtain the linear expression in x which is approximately equivalent

to (1 — 3 x)'3 for small values of x. Use the result to find the value
2

of (0.997)to three decimal places.

10. Show that 3VIl = (100 — 1)* = 10 • (1 — 0.01)*. Use the result to
obtain y/Tl to 4 significant figures.
1 -3 1-3-5
11. Show that V2 =
1 + i + 4-8 + 4-8-12
12. If the expansion of (1 + x)n where n is a positive integer is written
(1 + x)n = 1 + CiX + C2X2 + C3X3 + • • • + Cnxn,

show that (a) 1 + c\ + C2 + c% + • • ■ + °n = 2n;

(b) 1 + C2 + c± + • • • = Ci + C3 + C5 + • • ••

13. Find the values of x and n for which the expansion of (1 + a) takes

the form l + ; + + r n Vq + ' Use the result t0 obtain

6 6-12 o • 12 • lo
the limit of the sum of the series.

14. Find the values of x and n for which the expansion of (1 x) takes
4 11 1-4-7
,1-4-7 1 1 ■ * •. Use the result to
the form 1+^ + 7
y 1 34 1 • 2 • 3
obtain the limit of the sum of the series.
530 Chapter 18

Chapter Review
Series and sequences in these exercises are either arithmetic or geometric.

1. Find fa and Sn for the series 2 + 6 + 10 + • • •.

2. Find to three significant figures the sum of 10 terms of 9 + 6 -f 4 + • • *.

3. Find the limit of the sum of the series in exercise 2.

4. A geometric sequence has fa = 12, fa = 3. Find fa.

5. If Sn = 3 n2 -f 2 n, find the first three terms of the series.
6. Find the sum of all the positive integers less than 100 that are not
divisible by 2 or 3.

7. Find to three significant figures the sum of the first 9 terms of the
series 5 + 2 0.8 -f • • *.

8. Find the limit of the sum of the series in exercise 7.

9. Show that the arithmetic mean of 10 and 20 exceeds the geometric
mean by about 6%.
10. Write the equation satisfied by x and y if 3, x, y form an arithmetic
sequence. Write the equation satisfied by x and y if x, y, 8 form a
geometric sequence. Find the values of x and y which satisfy both
conditions.

11. Show that the logarithms of the terms of the sequence a, ar, ar2, • • •
form an arithmetic sequence with common difference log r. Use
log 6 = 0.778 and log 9 = 0.954 to obtain log 13.5 to three decimal
places.

12. If the first, second, and fourth terms of an arithmetic sequence form
a geometric sequence, show that the common difference of the arith¬
metic sequence must equal its first term.

13. The sum of 25 terms of an arithmetic series is 100 a, a being the first
term. Find the common difference in terms of a.
x
+X+ + x)2 +
14. Find the limit of the sum of the series 1 -f
1 (1
x is positive.
15. Find to 3 decimal places the value of (1.02)10.

16. Write the first 4 terms in the expansion of (a + b)10.

17. Write the series form of (2 + ^ x)A.

12
18. Find in simplest form the first 4 terms of ^
Sequences and Series 531

Chapter Test
Series and sequences in these exercises are either arithmetic or geometric.
1. Find t\o and Sio for the series 4 + 10 + 16 -f • • •.
2. Find t8 for the sequence 6f, 4j, 3, • • •.
3. Find x if the sequence 3, x, § x is (a) arithmetic, (b) geometric.
4. How many terms of the series 3 + 6 + 9 H-must be taken to make
the sum 165?
5. An arithmetic sequence has h = 12, /5 = 9. Find tg.

6. Find the limit of the sum of the series 6 — 4 + f — • • •.

7. A geometric series has h = 4, t& = ^. Find 5s.
8. Find S12 for the series in which in = 5 n + 3.
9. Find Sn for the series 1 + 2 + 4 + • • *.
10. Find Sn for the series 2 + 4 + 6 + • •
11. The value of a machine diminishes each year by 25% of its value at
the beginning of that year. Find the value at the end of 10 years of a
machine originally costing $12,000.
12. Find in simplest form the first four terms of (1 + x)10.
 trigonometric Addition Formulas

In the earlier chapters in which trigonometric functions were studied,

each element of the domain of one of the functions was thought of as the
measure of an angle. It is convenient to think of the domain in this way
when the functions are used for purposes of measurement in triangles. In
more advanced portions of mathematics, however, it is desirable to treat
the domain of a trigonometric function as a subset of the real numbers. A
trigonometric function is then a set of ordered pairs of real numbers without
any direct association with the concept of an angle. The ordered pairs can
be developed in the following manner.

A Circular Number Scale

Consider a circle of radius 1 unit with its center at the origin of a co¬
ordinate system. Let A be the point at which this circle meets the #-axis.
The circle is to be used as a number scale with A the zero point of the scale.
The counterclockwise direction from A is chosen as the positive direction on
the scale and the clockwise direction from A is then the negative direction.

In setting up the circular number scale we rely on an intuitive understand¬

ing of the "length” of an arc. We assume that in the positive direction
from A there is a point P\ on the circle such that the length of the arc AP\
is equal to the length of OA. The point Pi is labeled + 1 on the circular
scale. The point which marks the end of an arc of equal length in the negative
532
Trigonometric Addition Formulas 533

direction is labeled 1. We further assume that if z is any real number

there is an arc AK of the unit circle whose length measured from A is equal

to z. The point K is labeled with the number z, and for convenience we

shall refer to z as the circle number of K.
The main difference between the circular number scale and the standard
scale on a straight line is that our circular scale has a finite length of 2 tv
units. When z > 2 7r, the arc AK must be thought of as one or more com¬
plete circumferences in addition to some portion of the circumference. The
number z is then associated with a point which has already been labeled

with a number between 0 and 2 7r. Thus the number 2 7r + 1 is associated

5 Jr
with Pi, which is also the point for z= 1. The number -y is associated

with the point B which is the point for — and also, using the negative direc¬

tion on the scale, for — —— • The point A is associated with the numbers 0,

2 7r, — 2 7r, • • Each point of the circle is in this way associated with its
own particular subset of the real numbers. Each real number, however,
is associated with just one point of the circle.
534 Chapter 19

Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers

Let P be the point on the unit circle which is labeled with the real number
z. In the coordinate system in which the
circle is constructed P has coordinates rep¬
resented by (x, y). Thus to each circle num¬
ber z there corresponds a number y, and the
set of ordered pairs (z, y) is called the sine
function. Also, to each z there corresponds
a value of x, and the set of ordered pairs
(z, x) is called the cosine function. The rules
defining the functions are written
y = sin z, x = cos z

The sine and cosine of the following special values of z can be readily ob¬
tained.

z = 0. P is at A with coordinates (1,0).

^ sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1

z = — • P is at B with coordinates (0, 1), since the arc length is one-quarter

- of the circumference.

sin — = 1, cos —= 0

z = 7T. P is at C with coordinates (— 1,0), since the arc length is one-half

of the circumference.

sin 7T = 0, COS 7T — — 1

Two general results which we shall need

later in the chapter can be seen from the
symmetry of the circle about the diameter
through A. Let the circle number z\ be
associated with P\(xi, yf) and let the circle
number — z\ be associated with P2&2, yz).
Then X2 — x\, y2 = — yi-

Hence

cos (— zi) = cos z\ and sin (— z\) = — sin z\.

Trigonometric Addition Formulas
535

The remaining trigonometric functions are defined in terms of sin z and

COS z.

sin z y
tan z = (X5* 0)
cos z X

cos z X
cot z = (y^ 0)
sin z y
1 i
CSC z = —
iy* 0)
sin z y
1 l
sec z = —
(X5* 0)
cos z X

Example 1. Find tan - •

Solution: Let the point with circle number j be P. Then P is the midpoint of

the arc AB. The geometry of the circle then shows that P is on the bisector of

ZBOA. If the coordinates of P are (xi, y\) it follows that x\ — y\. Hence,

tanJ = Zl = 2l=1.
4 #i yi

Example 2. Show that, for any real number z, cos2z -f sin2z = 1.

Solution: Every real number z corresponds to a point P with coordinates (x, y)
on the unit circle:
The equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = 1.
But x = cos z and y = sin z, so we have cos2z -f- sin2z = 1.

Exercises

1. Write the values of (a) sin —(b) cos

2. Write the values of (a) sec 0, (b) tan 0.

3. Write the values of (a) sin 2 7r, (b) cos 2 7r.
536 Chapter 19

• 7T /i \ 3 TT
4. Write the values of (a) sin -> (b) cos —— ■
4 4
5 TV
5. Write the values of (a) tan 7r, (b) sec

6. Write the set of values of z such that cos z = — 1.

7. Write the set of values of z such that sin z = 0.
8. Write the set of values of z such that sin z = 1.
9. If 0 < 2 < 2 7r, find z if sin z = — 1.
10. Is the statement "sin (2 tv + z) = sin z” true for all values of z?
11. Show that, for all values of 2 such that x ^ 0, sec2z = 1 -f- tan2z.
12. Sketch the graph of y = sin z, 0 ^ z = 2 tv.

13. Write the value of z sin z when (a) z = — > (b) z = tv.
Zd

7r ^
14. Write the value of z tan z when (a) z = — > (b) z =

Circular Measure

It is often convenient to associate a unit of angle measure with the

circular number scale discussed in the preceding section. If P\ (Figure 1) is
the point on the scale with circle number 1, the central angle AO Pi is the
new unit of angle measure. This unit is called a radian, and the number of
radians in the measure of an angle is called the circular measure of the angle.

The measures of central angles in a given circle have the same ratio as the
lengths of their arcs. Hence, if P is the point on the unit circle having circle
number z, then Z A OP has a measure of z radians (Figure 2).
Trigonometric Addition Formulas 537

In a circle of radius r units, the central angle of an arc of length r units

is 1 radian. If 5 is the length of an arc AB with central angle 6 radians, we
have

^ s = rd

It is accepted in geometry that the number

of units of area in a sector of a circle is given
by one-half the product of the radius and the
arc length. Thus, if the sector bounded by
the arc AB and radii OA, OB has K units of
area, we have

K = \ rs

or, since s = rd,

► K = lr26
The simplicity of the two rules for length of arc and area of a sector illus¬
trates the convenience of the radian as a unit.

Radians and Degrees

It will be helpful to see the relationship between a radian and the famil¬
iar units of angle measure such as a degree and a right angle.
Let a circle with radius r and center at the origin meet the y-axis at B.
Then if s is the length of the arc AB, we

7T radians = 180 degrees

It follows that
1 ftD
► 1 radian =- degrees = 57.30 degrees (approximately)
7r

1 deqree = ——— radians = 0.01745 radians (approximately)

* 180
538 Chapter 19

In using circular measure of angles it is customary to omit the word

"radians” and merely use the number as the measure of the angle. Thus if

an angle has a circular measure of — radians, the angle may be written as ^

7T # # TP
and its sine as sin - • This is equivalent to using the sine of the number - •

The relationship of radians to degrees, however, enables us to associate the

7T 5 7T .
values of expressions such as sin — > tan —- with the more familiar symbols
3 6
sin 60°, tan 150°.

Example 1. An angle has a measure of 120°. What is its circular measure?

Solution: The circular measure corresponding to 180 degrees is tv radians.
If the circular measure corresponding to 120 degrees is x radians, then
x 120 2

7T 180~ 3*
2 7T
The circular measure of the angle is —— •

Example 2. A wheel is rotating at a rate of 4 radians per second. Find

the distance traveled in 1 second by a point P on the wheel which is 1.5 ft.
from the center.
Solution: In 1 second the wheel turns through 4 radians.
Therefore in 1 second the 'point P travels along an arc of length s, where
s = rd — (1.5) (4) = 6.
P travels a distance of 6 ft.

Example 3. State the value of x sin x when x = 7 •

6
1
—•
Solution: sin 7 = sin 30° =
o 2
7T . 7T 7T 1 _ 7T
’ * 6 Sm ~6 2
~ 12 *

Exercises tA]
1. Write in terms of tv the circular measure of (a) 45°, (b) 60°, (c) 90°,
(d) 150°, (e) 135°, (£) 240°, (g) 270°.
2. Express the following circular measures in degrees:

(»)§ (b)l (c)l (d)^ (e)T (f)T'

3.Write the value of (a) sin - > (b) tan - > (c) sin -> (d) cos -•
Trigonometric Addition Formulas 539

4. Write the value of (a) cos 7r, (b) tan 3 7T 5 7r 5 7T

> (c) sin > (d) sec
4 ~6 ~ 3

(c) tan (d) csc(— 7r).

6. Write the value of (a) csc^— , (b) tan (c) cos y (d) sin 5 7T

7. Solve for 0 ^ 6 < 2 it: (a) 2 sin 6 — 1 = 0, (b) sin 6 = cos 0

8. Solve for 0 ^ d < 2 7r: (a) 3 tan20 =1, (b) 2 cos20 = cos 6

9. A circle, center 0, has radius 6 in. A and B are points on the circle
and the measure of Z AOB is 2 radians. Find (a) the length of the
arc A B, (b) the area of the sector A OB.
10. (a) Find the circular measure of the central angle of an arc 18 in.
long in a circle of radius 12 in.
(b) Use the fact that 1 radian = 57° 18' to express the measure of the
angle in degrees and minutes.
11. In a circle of radius 10 in. the central angle of an arc AB is 2.4 radians.
Find the length of the arc.
12. An arc of a circle has length equal to one-third of the radius. Find
the central angle of the arc in degrees and minutes.
2 7r
13. Evaluate: x cos x when (a) x = -y (b) x = 1.
3

14. Evaluate: S*n— when (a) x = (b) x = 0.1.

x 2
15. (a) Find the number of degrees and minutes in an angle whose cir¬
cular measure is yq.

(b) Evaluate S^n— when x = yq.

x
16. (a) Find the number of minutes in an angle of radian.

(b) Evaluate S^n - when x = too-

x
3 7T
17. Evaluate: sin 6 cos d when (a) 6 = (b) 6 = w.

18. Evaluate: cos2# — sin20 when (a) 6 = — > (b) 6 = ^ •

19. Evaluate: 2 tan 6 w|ien 0_ , (b) 6 = — •

1 — tan2t7 o 0

20. If y = 2 sm-, find y when (a) x = ^> (b) x = y

3 X L o
540 Chapter 19

Addition Formulas
A common error made by beginners in algebra is to suppose that {a -f b)2
and a2 + b2 are symbols for the same number. Not much progress can be
made in the mechanics of algebra until it is recognized that the correct
representation for (a + b)2 in the form of a polynomial is a2 + 2 ab + b2. In
the study of any function/, one of the important questions is "What is the
relationship of b) to/(a) and/(&)?” As was illustrated by the "square”
function, it is not usually true that f{a + b) =f(a) +/(6). In the case of
F(x) = 2X, for example, we have
F(a + b) = 2a+b = 2a-2b = F(a) • F(b).
(— H—) = 1 and
7T 7r\

3 6/
7r 7T V3+ 1 7T . 7T 7r 7T
that sin — + sin — = Hence, sin( — + — ) 5^ sin — + sin — > and we

now seek formulas for writing expressions such as sin (a: + /?), cos (a — /?) in
terms of sin a:, cos a, sin /?, cos (3. In developing the key formula we use
the expression for the distance between two points in a coordinate system
and the fact that the coordinates of a point on the unit circle can be written
(cos 6, sin 6).
I. cos (a 13) =cos a cos (3 -f-sin a sin /?.
— Let Pi, P2 be points on the
unit circle with coordinates (cos a, sin a), (cos /3, sin (3).
If d is the distance between points (xi, y\) and (#2, y2), then
d2 = (xi — x2)2 + (y 1 — yz)2.
Hence
(P1P2)2 = (cos a — cos |d)2 + (sin a — sin /3)2
= cos2a: — 2 cos OL cos 13 + cos2j3 + sin2a — 2 sin a sin (3 + sin2/3
= (sin2a + cos2a) + (sin2/? -f cos2/3) — 2 (cos a cos 0 + sin a sin /?)
= 2 — 2(cos a cos (3 + sin a sin f$) ®
If in A P1OP2 we let Z P1OP2 = 7,
it can be verified that for all values
of a and /?, cos (« — /?) = cos 7.
Using the law of cosines, we have:
(P1P2)2 = 12+ l2 - 2 • 1 • 1 • cos 7
= 2 — 2 cos 7
= 2 — 2 cos(a — /?) ©
From expressions © and © we
deduce that for all values of a
and /?

► cos [a — (3) = cos ol cos /3 + sin a sin /?

 Trigonometric Addition Formulas
541
n. cos (a +0) = cos o cos 0 - sin o sin 0. We have seen, on page 534
that cos( 0) - cos 0 and sin(- 0) = - sin 0. By replacing 0 by (- 0) in
formula I, we have for all values of a and (3:

cos (a — (— /3)) = cos a cos (— (3) -f sin a sin (— (3)

^ cos [ol -f (3) = COS a cos /3 — sin a sin /3

III. sin (a: T ft) — sin « cos p -f cos a sin fi. If in formula I we replace a

by - and $ by 0, we have for all values of d:

C°S (~ - e] = COS | cos e + sin j sin 6

=0• cos 0 + 1 • sin 0
= sin 0
7r
Replacing 0 by — d^j in sin 0 = cos (— — 0 ) t we have

sin(^-0
COs|f" (-2-e
= cos 0

Now in formula I we replace aby and we have:

C°S ((f a)
~~ ~ = cos (f — cos P + sin — <*J sin P>

or

c°s — (a + 0)^ = cos — a^j cos (3 + sin ^ — aj sin

^ sin [ol + /3) = sin qj cos P + cos o: sin /3

IV. sin (a — (3) = sin a cos p — cos a sin p. This result follows from
formula III by replacing P by — p.
Thus:
sin (a -{- (— P)) = sin a cos(— P) -f cos a sin(— P)

^ sin [ol — P) = sin a cos P — cos a sin /3

Example 1. Show that for all values of 0: cos(270° + 0) = sin 0.

Solution: Using formula II, we see that for all values of 0:

cos (270° + 0) = cos 270° cos 0 — sin 270° sin 0

= 0 • cos 0 — (— 1) sin 0
= sin 0
542 Chapter 19

Example 2. Simplify: sin 80° cos 10° + cos 80° sin 10°.
Solution: We may write formula III as:
sin a cos (3 + cos a sin /3 = sin (a + (3)
Hence, replacing a by 80° and (3 by 10°:
sin 80° cos 10° + cos 80° sin 10° = sin 90° = 1

Example 3. Find cos 15° in exact form.

Solution: We may write 15° as (60° — 45°), and formula I then gives:
cos (60° — 45°) = cos 60° cos 45° + sin 60° sin 45°
_ 1 V 2 . V3 V2
~ 2 2
‘ 2
+ 2 ’

cos 15° = i(V2 + V6)

Exercises [A 1]
1. Show that for all values of 0:
(a) sin(180° — 0) = sin 0. (b) cos(270° — 0) = — sin 0.
2. Show that for all values of 0:

(a) sin^ + 0J = cos 0. (b) cos(7r + 0) = — cos 0.

3. Simplify: sin(30° + %) + sin(30° — x).

4. Simplify: cos^j- + O^J + cos^j- — *

5. Simplify: sin^ + 0^ + sin^ — 0^ •

3 7r '3 TV
6. Simplify: cosj —- +01 + cos — 0 )•

7. Evaluate: cos 40° cos 20° — sin 40° sin 20°.

8. Evaluate: sin 36° cos 24° + cos 36° sin 24°.
9. Write as a single term: sin 25° cos 10° — cos 25° sin 10°.
10. Write as a single term: cos 2 x cos x + sin 2 x sin x.
11. Write as a single term: sin (a + /3) cos (3 — cos (a + (3) sin /3.
sin (a? + f$) + sin (a — ft)
12. Simplify
cos a cos 13

cos^~ + 0^ + cos 0
13. Simplify
sin(+ 0) — sin 0
Trigonometric Addition Formulas 543

14. Show that for all values of 9:

15. Show that if cos a 5^ 0, cos /3 ^ 0, then ^ = 1 — tan a tan B.

cos a cos p
16. If A and B are acute angles and sin A = f, cos B = -fj, find sin (A + B)
without using tables.
17. If A and B are obtuse angles and sin A = §, cos B = — y§, find
cos (A + B) without using tables.
18. In A ABC, show that sin C = sin A cos B + cos A sin B. Find sin C
if cos A = -5^-, cos B = %.
19. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: 2 sin(30° + x) = 3 cos x.
20. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: 2 sin x = cos(45° — x).
21. Find sin 15° in simplest radical form.
22. Find cos 105° in simplest radical form.

Exercises [A 2]

1. Show that for all values of 0:

(a) cos^~~ + O^J = sin 6, (b) sin(7r -fi 6) = — sin 6.

2. Show that for all values of 0:

(a) cos(180° — 6) = — cos 6, (b) sin(270° — 6) = — cos 6.

3. Show that if n is an integer:

(a) sin[(2 n + l)7r + 0] = — sin 6, (b) cos(2 mr — d) = cos 9.

4. Simplify:
(a) cos(30° + x) + cos(30° — x); (b) sin (45° + %) + sin (45° — x).

5. Simplify:
7r
(a) cosfe 9) + cos( - + 9 ); (b) sin(7r + 9) + sin (7r — 9).

6. Evaluate: cos 70° cos 40° + sin 70° sin 40°.

7. Evaluate: sin 45° cos 15° — cos 45° sin 15°.
8. Simplify: sin(0 — a) cos a + cos(0 — a) sin a.
9. Simplify: cos(rr + y) cos x + sin (a; -j- y) sin x.
cos(s + y) + cospr — y)
10. Simplify:
cos x cos y

11. Simplify: cos A cos B [tan A + tan B].

544 Chapter 19

12. Find sin 75° in simplest radical form.

13. Show that for all values of 6:

= 1.

sin 20° cos 20°

14. Simplify:
sin 10° cos 10°'
cos A — 2 cos(60° + A)
15. Simplify:
sin A + 2 sin(60° — A)

In exercises 16-20 solve for x in the set 0° ^ x < 360°:

16. 2 sin(x + 10°) = 1
17. sin(# -f- 45°) = 2 cos x
18. sin(60° — x) = 2 sin x
19. 2 cos(ir — 45°) = 1
20. cos(60° + x) + cos(60° — x) = 3 sin x
21. Find cos 165° in simplest radical form.

22. Show that if cos a ^ 0, cos 0, then S*n ^ = tan a — tan

cos a cos p
p.
Addition Formulas for Tangent
If cos(o: + /3) 0, we have

tan(a + « = s“M
cos (a + p)
_ sin a? cos ft + cos a sin /3
cos a cos — sin a sin (3
sin a cos (3 cos a sin ft
cos a cos cos a cos (3
provided cos 0, cos /3 ^ 0
cos a cos /3 _ sin a sin
cos a cos cos a cos j8
tan a + tan /3
1 — tan a tan
Thus for all values of a and (3 for which the values of tan a, tan ft
tan (a: + (3) are defined:
► tan(a
, .
+ 0) =
tan a + tan (3
r-— ■"
1 — tan ol tan p

In the same way it can be shown that

tan ol — tan /3
tan(o: — (3) =
1 + tan ol tan /3
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
545

Example 1. Express tan^ - d^j in terms of tan 6.

tan -7 — tan 6
Solution: tang-0 4
7r
1 + tan — tan 6

1 — tan 6 t 1
since tan — = 1
1 + tan 6 ’

tan/^ — d\ + tan 6
Example 2. Simplify-^—-—L-...
1 — tan^ — d^j tan 6

Solution: We have J:an a + tan P _ tan^a _|_ ^

1 — tan a tan p v

Replacing a. by — 0^ and /3 by 0,

tan(^ — d) + tan 6 ..
-V3, ,-= tan(fe-«U*V tan | = V3.
1 — tan^ — tan 0 ' ' '

[A]
Exercises

1. If tan 6 = evaluate tan^ + 0^*

2. If tan 0 = evaluate tan^ — 0^.

3. If tan a = J and tan ft = §, evaluate tan (a -f /3).

* ^ , tan 30° + tan 15°
1 — tan 30 tan 15
, 5 7T , 7T
tan ^ ~ tan -
5. Evaluate:
1 + tan 4“r • tan 77
12 12
6 . If tan (a: 4- &) = 1 and tan a = 5, find tan /3.
7. If tan (a: — /3) = 1 and tan (3 = find tan a.

8. If tan^ — 0^ = ^ > find tan 0.

9. If tan^ +^ = 2, find tan 0.

546 Chapter 19

1A ,.r tan 2 6 — tan 6

10. Simplify: --—--•
1 -+- tan 2 6 tan 6

tan( ^ — 6J + tan^ + 6
11. Simplify:
1 — tan(^ — 0\- tan^ + 6

12. Show that if tan (A -f B) = tan A + tan B, then either tan A = 0

or tan B = 0.

Double-Angle Formulas

I. Formula for sin 2 A. When B = A, the formula for sin (A + B) becomes

sin 2 A = sin(A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2 sin A cos A
Thus we have, for all values of A:

sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A or sin A cos A = \ sin 2 A

sin 2 A
Example 1. Simplify:
2 sin A
sin 2 A 2 sin A cos A
Solution:
2 sin A 2 sin A
= cos A

Example 2. Evaluate: sin ^-7 cos 7-7-

F 12 12
Solution: We have sin A cos A = \ sin 2 A,
5 7T
If we replace A by -jy» this gives

. 5 7T 5 7T 1 . 5 7T

sm 12 C0S 12 2 Sm 6
1 . 5 7T 1
since sin -7- = -
= 4’

II. Formula for cos 2 A. When B = A, the formula for cos(^4 + B) be¬
comes:
cos 2 A = cos(^l + A) = cos yl cos A — sin A sin A = cosM — sin2yl
The fact that sinM = 1 — cosM and that cosM = 1 — sinM enables us
to write the formula for cos 2 A in a variety of forms.

cos 2 A = cos2A — sin2A

cos 2 A = 2 cos2A — 1 or cos2A = |(1 -f- cos 2 A)
cos 2 A = 1 — 2 sin2A or sin2A = |(1 — cos 2 A)
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
54 7

Example 1. Simplify: —— .
sin 2 A

Solution: — cos 2 A =_2 sin2^

sm 2 A 2 sin A cos A
- s'n A
cos A
= tan d

Example 2. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: cos 2 x + cos * = 0.

Solution: cos 2 x -j- cos x = 0
2 cos2# — 1 + cos x = 0
2 cos2x -j- cos x — 1 = 0
(2 cos x — 1) (cos x + 1) = 0
cos x = -J cos x = — 1
x = 60°, 300° x = 180°
The set of solutions is {60°, 300°, 180°}.

Example 3. Evaluate cos2 — — sin2 — •

8 8
Solution: We have cos2v4 — sin2^4 = cos 2 A.
TV
When A is replaced by — > this gives
8
O'* 7T • O'® TV 7T
cosz — — sinz — COS —
8 8 4
V2

III. Formula for tan 2 ^4. When B = A, the formula for tan(^4 -f- B) be¬
comes :
tan A H~ tan A 2 tan A
tan 2 A = tan(^4 + A) =
1 — tan A • tan A 1 — taxi2 A
Then, for all values of A for which tan 2 A and tan A are defined, we
have:
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 — tan2A

Example 1. If tan A = J, find tan 2 A.

2 tan A
Solution: tan 2 A =
1 - tan2v4
548 Chapter 19

Example 2. Show that tan 2 A tan A + 1 = sec 2 A.

Solution: or
tan 2 A tan A + 1 tan 2 A tan ^4 + 1
2 tan A fi , « _ sin 2 yl sin d. ^
= 1 - tan*i '(tan A) + 1 cos 2 .4 cos d.
2 tan2di -f- 1 — tan2^4 _ sin 2 A sin A ~t~ cos 2 A cos A
1 — tan2d cos 2 A cos A
_ 1 -f tan2vl _ cos(2 A — A)
1 — tan2yl cos 2 A cos A
_ cos2d + sin2d. _ cos A
cos2d — sin2d cos 2 A cos A
1 1
cos 2 A cos 2 A
= sec 2 A = sec 2 A

Exercises [A 1]

1. (a) If cos A = §, find cos 2 A. (b) If cos 2 A = find cos A.

2. (a) If sin A = §, find cos 2 A. (b) If cos 2 A = f, find sin .4.
3. If 6 is an angle in the first quadrant, and sin 6 = f, find sin 2
4. If tan A = §, find tan 2 4.
5. Evaluate: 2 sin 15° cos 15°.

6. Evaluate: cos2 15° — sin2 15°.

2 tan ^
6
7. Evaluate: (a) (b) 1 - 2 sin2 165'
1 — tan2 —
o
/i \ • 7T 7T
8. Evaluate: (a) 2 cos2^ — ^ (b) sin-cos-.

9. Simplify: (a) 2 sin \ x cos \ x,

(b) 2 cos2 \ x — 1.
10. Simplify: (a) cos2 J x — sin2 J x,
(b) cos2 \ x + sin2 ^ x,
(c) (cos \ x + sin J x)2.
+ cos 6
11. Show that for all values of 6: cos -
2
. 9 , /l cos 0
12. Show that for all values of 6 ■ sm 2 = ±\/—
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
549
Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°:
13. cos 2 x = cos x 15. 5 sin rr = 3 — cos 2 x
14. sin 2 x = sin x 16. cos A x = 1 — 3 cos 2 x
Prove the following identities:
sin A A A
17. —-t = tan — 19. esc 2 A -j- cot 2 ^4 = cot A
1 -f* cos A 2
sin 3 6 cos 3 6 tan 2 6 tan 6 . _ .
18. 20. 7-77-7-n = Sm 2 6
sin 6 cos 6 tan 2 6 — tan 6

Simplify:
sin 2 6
1 + sin^ - 2 #^
1 - cos 2 6
24.
22. cos2^ — 0^ — sin2^ — 6^j
2? 1 — tan2#
1 -f tan2#
Exercises [A 2]
A
1. If cos A =\, find (a) cos 2 A, (b) cos —

2. If cos ^4 = f, find (a) sin 2 A, (b) sin — •

Zd

3. If 6 is an angle in the first quadrant and cos 6 = find sin 2 6.

4. If tan 6 = find tan 2 6.
5. Evaluate: (a) 2 sin 22\° cos 22J°, (b) 1 — 2 sin215°.

2 tan
8
6. Evaluate: (a) cos2 165° — sin2 165°, (b)
1 — tan2 ^
8
7. Evaluate: (a) sin ~ cos > (b) 2 cos2 ~ — 1 •
12 12 8
8. Solve for 0 ^ 6 < 2 tv : 2 cos 2 6=1.

9. Simplify: (a) 2 sin —■ cos ^ >

(b) sin(2 a — $) cos /3 + cos(2 a — fi) sin (3.

10. Solve for 0 ^ 6 < 2 tv : tan 2 0=1.
11. (a) Sketch the graph of y = sin 2 x, 0 ^ x ^ 2 7r.
tO|M

(b) Write the values of x in the set 0 = x = 2 t for which sin 2 x =

550 Chapter 19

12. Simplify: tan ^4(1 + cos 2 A).

13. Simplify: cot ^4 — 2 cot 2 A.

14. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: cos 2 x -f- 5 sin x = 3.

15. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: 5 cos 2 # = 4 sin 2 # — 5.
16. Show that, if sin x ^ 0, there are no values of x such that
sin 2 x = 3 sin x.
17. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: tan 2 x = 3 tan x.
18. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: 3 cos x — 2 cos 2 x = 2.
19. Classify the following statements as (1) true for all values of x,
(2) true for some values of x and false for others, or (3) false for all
values of x:
(a) J sin 2 x = sin x cos x (d) cos2 ^ — sin2 ^ = cos x
At A

(b) cos2 2 x -j- sin2 2 x > 1 (e) cos 2 x = cos x

(c) 2 sin 2 x = 1 (£) tan x -f cot x = 1
tan jr
20. Prove the identity: = cos d.
tan Q — tan ^ 6

Sums to Products
The formulas for sin(a+ ft) and sin(o: — /3) provide us with a means of
expressing the sum of two sine values as a single term. The process depends
upon the fact that any two given numbers can be written as the sum and
the difference of two other numbers. For example, the numbers 50 and 20
can be written as (35 + 15) and (35 — 15). Thus, we have:
sin 50° + sin 20° = sin(35° + 15°) + sin(35° - 15°)
= sin 35° cos 15° + cos 35° sin 15° + sin 35° cos 15° — cos 35° sin 15°
= 2 sin 35° cos 15°
In the general case, we have:
sin (a + 0) + sin (a — /3) = sin a cos j8 + cos a sin /3 + sin a cos ft — cos a sin ft
= 2 sin a cos ft
Hence, for all values of a and ft:
sin(a + ft) + sin(a — ft) = 2 sin a cos ft ®
In using formula ® it is helpful to replace a + ft by x and a — ft by y.

It follows that a = X and ft = ■— • The formula then becomes:

A, A

sin x -p sin y = 2 sin

2
cos
2
©
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
551
Example 1. Write sin 40° + sin 20° as a single term.
Solution: Using formula © with x = 40° and y = 20°, we have

sin 40° + sin 20° = 2 sin 30° cos 10°

= cos 10°

Formula ® can also be used to write the product of a sine value and a
cosine value as the sum of two sine values. Wben using the formula for this
purpose it is convenient to write it in the form:

sin a cos (3 = i[sin(o: + (3) + sin (a - (3)] ©

Example 2. Write sin 2 6 cos 6 as the sum of two terms.

Solution: Using formula © with a = 2 6 and 0 = 6, we have:

sin 2 6 cos 6 = f (sin 3 d + sin 6).

Formulas for the difference of two sine values and for the sum and the
difference of two cosine values can be developed by using the following
results, which hold for all values of a and /3:

sin(a + f3) — sin(o: — /3) = 2 cos a sin /3.

cos(a + /3) + cos(a — /3) = 2 cos a cos jS.
cos(a: + j3) — cos(a — j8) = — 2 sin o: sin /3.

The student should check these statements and verify that they may be
written in the forms given in the summary below:

^ Summary

sin x
„ . *+ y x— y
sin y — 2 sin —-— cos —-—;

sin a cos /3 = |[sin(o: + /3) + sin(a: — /?)].

x-\- y . x — y
sin x — sin y = l cos —-— sin - ;

cos ol sin (3 = |[sin(a T fi) — sin(a — (3)].

, n x+ y x— y
cos x cos y = 2 cos —- cos ~ ;

cos a cos /? = |[cos (a + (3) + cos(a — (3)].

_ . x+ y . x — y
cos x — cos y = — 2 sin —- sin ~ ;

sin a sin = — |[cos(a: + (3) — cos(a: — (3)].

Example 3. Express cos 4 6 cos 2 6 as the sum of two terms.

Solution: cos 4 6 cos 2 6 = ^[cos(4 6 + 2 6) -f- cos(4 d — 2 6)].
= \ cos 6 6 4- 2 cos ^ @
552 Chapter 19

Example 4. Express sin(2 x + 60°) — sin 2 x as a single term.

Solution:

sin(2 x + 60°) — sin 2 x = 2 cos

l^2x_+ 60°) + 2 x\ _._/(2
. 1(2 x + 60°) -2%
2 -) -a— )
= 2 cos(2 x -f 30°) sin 30° = cos(2 x + 30°)

Example 5. Solve for 0° ^ 6 < 360°: sin(0 -f 20°) cos(0 — 10°) =

Solution:
sin(0 + 20°) cos(6 - 10°) = J 2 6 + 10° = 30°, 150°, 390°, 510()°
J[sin(2 Q + 10°) + sin 30°] = \ 2 6 = 20°, 140°, 380°, 500‘iO
sin(2 6 + 10°) + i = 1 6= 10°, 70°, 190°, 250'
sin(2 6 + 10°) = 7
The set of solutions is {10°, 70°, 190°, 250°}.

Exercises [A]
Simplify each expression in exercises 1-7:
1. (a) sin 70° + sin 20°; (b) cos 70° — cos 10°.
2. (a) sin 110° — sin 20°; (b) cos 140° -f- cos 40°.
3. (a) sin 105° cos 75°; (b) cos 75° cos 15°.

4. (a) cos + cos (b) sin 777 — sin 77 •

12 12 12 12
4 7r
5. (a) 2 sin cos ^; (b) 2 sin ^ sin ^

6. (a) cos(^ + d"j + cos^ + > (t>) sin^ + d^j — sin 6.

sin 5 6 + sin 6. cos 3 x + cos x

7. (a) (b)
sin 3 6 v_/ cos 2 x
8. Write (a) cos 3 6 cos 6, (b) sin 5 6 cos 3 6, as the sum of two terms.
n f N cos(x -f 60°) + cos x ,, \ sinOr + 30°) + sin x
9. Evaluate: (a) —1---. (b) — . -
cos(£ + 30 ) sm(:r -f 15 )
10. Write as a single term and find the maximum value of
(a) sin(x + 60°) — sin x, (b) cos(:r + 60°) -f- cos x.
/ \ sin(^i + 2 h) — sin X\ /LN cosixi + 2 h) — cos X\
11. Simplify: (a) —1-——Lt-> (b)-v —L.-
sm h sin h
12. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° sin(:r + 60°) — sin x = 0.6.
13. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° cos(# + 30°) + cos x = 1.
14. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° 2 cos x cos(30° — x) = 1.
15. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360° sin(£ + 20°) cos(# — 10°) =
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
553

The sine function is the set of ordered pairs defined by y = sin x with
domain the set of real numbers. A portion of the graph of the function is
shown in the diagram. Some of the ordered pairs which belong to the
function are

The second number in each pair is the sine of the first number or of the
angle represented by the first number.
It often happens that we are given the second number of one of these pairs
and have to find the first number. We may, for example, know that the
sine of an angle is ^ and wish to find the angle. In
dealing with such situations it is convenient to form
a new relation by interchanging the first and second
numbers in the ordered pairs of the sine function.
The new pairs formed from those listed above are:

1 5 7TN

3 7rN
-1,
If we let x represent the first number in one of
the newly formed pairs, the second number y is such
that sin y — x. In order to express y explicitly in
terms of x, we need a symbol to represent the phrase
"the angle (y) whose sine is x.” However, the new
set of ordered pairs is not a function and there are
many values of y which might be paired with a par¬
ticular value of x. We therefore restrict the set of
values of y in such a way that the symbol represent¬
ing "the angle whose sine is x” has just one meaning.
554 Chapter 19

y = sin 1 x. Consider the rule y = sin #

with —- ^ # = — • This rule defines a func-

2 2
tion whose graph is shown in figure 1. The
effect of the restricted domain is to provide
just one value of # to be paired with any-
given value of y in the set — 1 ^ y ^ 1. For
1 7T Fig.l
example, if y — ~ > % = ~ • If we write this
2 6

pair in the order 7 ^ we see that the second number is the angle measure
\2 6
or real number whose sine is equal to the first number. We symbolize this
statement by y = sin-1#. This is read "y is the inverse-sine of #.”
The rule y = sin-1# defines a function which we refer to as the inverse-sine
function. The domain of the inverse-sine function is — 1 ^ # ^ 1, and the
7r
range of the function is — — = y = — •

When # is a number in the given domain, the symbol sin-1# represents

just one number in the range. The number represented by sin-1# is the
circular measure of the angle which has its sine equal to #. Thus, we have:

sin-1 ^ sin-1 0 = 0, sin-1(— 1) = —

2 6 2
7r
The graphs of y = sin #, # ^ — t and y = sin 1 # are shown on the
2 2

same axes in figure 2. They illustrate the fact that the graph of a function
and the graph of its inverse function are reflections in the line y = x. (See
Sidelight 9.)

y — cos-1#. A modified cosine function may be defined as the set of

ordered pairs (#, cos #) with domain restricted to 0 ^ # ^ 7r. The function
Trigonometric Addition Formulas 555

defined in this way has an inverse called the inverse-cosine function. This
inverse function is defined by y = cos-1 x, with domain —1 ^ x ^ 1, range

For a given value of x such that \x \ ^ 1, the symbol cos-1 # represents

one specific number which is not less than 0 and not greater than tt. We
associate the number with the circular measure of the angle which has its
cosine equal to x. If x > 0, the angle is in the first quadrant, and if x < 0,
the angle is in the second quadrant. Thus:
, yfl 7T _J 1\
cos" c°s->(-i) = 2 7T
2 _ 4
y — tan-1 x. A modified tangent function may be defined as the set of
7r 7j-
ordered pairs (x, tan x) with domain restricted to — — < x < — • The func¬

tion defined in this way has an inverse function called the inverse-tangent
function. This inverse function is defined by y = tan-1 x, with domain the
7T 7T
set of real numbers and range —- < y < — •

v = tan x, — — < x < —

* 2 2
556 Chapter 19

For a given value of x in the set of real numbers the symbol tan 1 x repre¬

sents one specific number between — ^ and -f We associate this number

with the circular measure of the angle which has its tangent equal to x.
Thus:
tan-1l=^> tan-1(— V3) = —

Example 1. Give the value of (a) sin 1^— ^ -); (b) cos
V2'
Solution:
7r 7T
(a) If y = sin-1 x, then — — = y = —•

When x<0, — and since sin^— ^ we have

V2\ 7T
sin -if — -4
4
(b) If y = cos 1 x, then 0 ^ y ^ tt.
7T . 3 tt V2
When x < 0, — < y ^ 7r, and since cos —— = — -yG we have

V2\ 3 7T
cos -if-

Example 2. Find sin (cos 1 §).

7r
Solution: If 0 < x < 1, then 0 < cos 1 x < —
Z
7T
Let cos 1 f = a; then cos a = § and 0 < a < —
Zt

Hence sin a = f,
4
so we have sin (cos 1 f) = 4
F

Example 3. Express tan 1 J -f tan 1 \ as a single term.

Solution:

Let tan 1 \ = so that tan a = \ and 0 < a < — *

and tan-1 5 = (3, so that tan jd = 5 and 0 < /3 <

4

Then tan (a + 0) = ---g 4 f and a + 0 < ^

l — 2o • a:
4 z
.6
tan(a-f /3) = 7

a + (3 = tan-1 f.
tan-1 J -f- tan-1 J = tan-1 f
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
557

The differences in the ranges of the inverse trigonometric functions should

be carefully noted.
7r
(Figure 1). - - ^ sin-1 x^O when - ls*sO,

7T
0 ^ sin-1 x ^ — when 0 ^ x ^ 1.

(Figure 2). 0 cos 1 x ^ — when 0 ^ x ^ 1.

7T
cos-1 x ^ 7T when — 1 ^ x ^ 0.
2
(Figure 3). - ^ < tan-1 x ^ 0 when x ^ 0.

0 = tan 1 x < — when x = 0.

2
These particular ranges are selected because of their convenience in the
calculus.
It would be possible to define inverse functions for the secant, cosecant,
and cotangent functions with restricted domains. We shall not consider
them at this time.

Exercises [A]
Write the value of each of the expressions in exercises 1-10

1. (a) sin -l (b) cos-1(— i) (c) tan l0

&

2. (a) cos-1 1 (b) sin-1(— i) (c) tan-1 V3

3. (a) sin-1 1 (b) cos-1 0 (c) sin-1(~ 1)
4. (a) sin (sin-1 J) (b) sin (cos-x(— J))
5. (a) tan(tan-1 2) (b) tan(sin-1(— i))
558 Chapter 19

7. (a) cos^ — sin 1; (b) sin(7r — sin 1 J).

8. (a) sin^- sin"1 (b) cos(7r — cos-1 J).

9. (a) sinfsin-1 1 + sin-^— 1)] (b) cosmos-1 1 + cos_1(— 1)]

10. (a) sin^sin-1 ^ + sin-1 (b) tan^ + tan"1 ^

7T
11. Show that sin 1 x = — — cos 1 x for — 1 ^ x ^ 1.
2
12. Show that cos_1(— x) = w — cos-1 x for — 1 ^ x ^ 1.
1 1 7T
13. Show that tan-1 - + tan-1 - = — •
2 3 4
14. Show that tan(2 tan-1 -|) =
15. Show that cos(2 sin-1 J) =
16. (a) Show that tan (tan-1 2 + tan-1 3) = — 1.
(b) Does tan-1 2 + tan-1 3 = tan_1(— 1)?
17. If | x | ^ 1, does sin-1 (sin x) = sin (sin-1 x) for every value of x?
18. Does tan(tan-1 x) = x when x is any real number?

19. If tan-1 x -f- tan-1 y = —> show that y = ---•

4 1 +x

20. If sin-1 x + sin-1 y = show that x2 3 4 5 6 7 + y2 = 1.

Miscellaneous Exercises [B]

7r / 7j* # 7r\
1. Without using tables, evaluate cos — ( cos — + sin — )•
8 \ 8 8/

2. If tan 0=7 and tan 20 = --a - > find c in terms of a and b.

b b—c
sin 2 x + sin 4 x + sin 6 x + sin 8 x
3. Simplify:
cos 2 x + cos 4 x + cos 6 as + cos 8 x
cos 3 x — cos 7 x
4. Simplify:
2 sm 5 x — sin 7 as — sin 3 a;
5. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: tan(45° + x) = 1 sin 2 x.
6. Solve for 0 ^ 0 < 2 7r: cos 3 0 — sin 3 0 = cos 0 — sin 0.
7. Find the set of values of 0 between 0 and 2 7r such that
2 cos20 — sin 0 ^ 1.
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
559
8. Find x if tan-1 2 x = 2 cos-1 x.
9. Show that if A + B + C = t, then:

sin 2 ,4 + sin 2 5 + sin 2 C = 4 sin A sin B sin C.

10. Show that if ,4 + 5 + 0 = -^, then:
sin 2 ^ + sin 2 5 + sin 2 C = 4 cos A cos 5 cos C.
11. (a) Show that for all x: cos 3 * = 4 cos3* — 3 cos x.

(b) Show that — is a solution of cos 3 * + cos 2 * = 0.

(c) Show that cos ^ ^ .

5 4
12. The functions / and g are such that /(0) = 1, g(0) = 0, and for all
values of * and y,
f(x - y) =/(*) -f(y) + g(x) • g(y),
g(x -y) = g(x) •f(y) -/(*) • g(y).
Show that for all values of x,
(a) }2{x) + g2(x) = 1, (b) /(2 *) =/2(*) - g2(*), (c) g(2 x) = 2 fix) • g(*).
13. Show that 3 + 4 i can be written in the form 5(cos a + i sin a), where
0 < a < \ tv. Express a in the form tan-1 k.

14. Show that 1 + i\/~2> can be written in the form r(cos 6 + i sin d), where
0 < 6 < J 7T. Find r and d.

15. Show that the reciprocal of rTcos 0\ + i sin 6A is — (cos 6i — i sin B\).
ri
16. (a) Show that (cos 6 + i sin 6)2 = cos 2 6 + i sin 2 6.
(b) Prove by induction that if n is a positive integer, then
(cos 6 + i sin 0)n = cos nO + i sin nd.
17. (a) Find the acute angle A such that, for all values of *,
5 sin(* + A) = 3 sin * + 4 cos *.
(b) Solve for 0° = * < 360°: 3 sin * + 4 cos * = 2.5.
18. (a) Find the acute angle A such that, for all values of *,
Vl3 sin(x — A) = 3 sin * — 2 cos *.
(b) State the maximum value of 3 sin * — 2 cos *, and find the smallest
positive value of * for which the expression reaches its maximum
value.
19. (a) Find the maximum value of 6 cos * + 3 sin *.
(b) Solve for 0° = * < 360°: 6 cos * + 3 sin * = 5.
20. (a) Find the minimum value of 3 sin * — cos *.
(b) Solve for 0° = * < 360°: 3 sin * — cos x = 2.
560 Chapter 19

21. In the diagram, AB is a chord of the circle of

radius r units, and the central angle AOB T
contains 6 radians. Express the area of each
of the following figures in terms of r and 6:
(a) A OAB] (b) sector OAB] (c) A OAT.
Assuming that
O r A
area A OAB < area sector OAB < area AO A T,

approaches 1 as 6 approaches 0, show that

sin(^i -f Ax) — sin(^i — Ax) ,

—------ approaches cos x\ as Ax approaches 0.

Chapter Review
1. Write the circular measures of angles of (a) 225°, (b) 120°, (c) 270°.

cos d + sink— + 6) sin 6.

6. Evaluate: (a) cos2 — — sin2 — > (b) x sec x if x = tt.

w 12 12 w
7. Sketch on the same axes the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x,
0 ^ x ^ 2 7r. State the values of x between 0 and 2 7r for which
sin x = cos x..

8. If 6 = cos-1 find sin

5 2
9. If cos(:r + y) = 0 and y = tan-1 2, find tan x.
10. Evaluate: sin(2 sin-1 f).
11. (a) Express tan 2 6 in terms of cos 2 d.
(b) If cos 6 = f, evaluate cos 2 6 and tan 2 6.
12. Sketch the graph of y = cos 2 x, 0 ^ x ^ 2 7r. State the values of x
between 0 and 2 tv for which cos 2 x = -J.
TV TV
13. Show that for all values of 6: sin( — -f 6 — — 6) + sin2# = -
V6 6 / 4
Trigonometric Addition Formulas
561
1 + sin A — cos 2 A
14. Simplify:
cos A + sin 2 A
15. Solve for 0° =§ x < 360°: cos 2 x + cos x + 1 = 0.
16. Solve for 0° =§ x < 360°: 2 sin x + sec x = 2 cos x.
sin 3 ^4 — sin A
17. Simplify:
2 sin ^4
18. Simplify: -2j>) + sin2y_
cos(x — 2 y) -f cos 2 y
19. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: cos(x + 60°) + cos x = 1.
20. Find x if cos-1 2 x — sin-1 x.

Chapter Test
1. Write the circular measure of angles of (a) 150°, (b) 315'

2. Write the value of (a) sin (b) cos (c) tan

3. Simplify: sin(2 x + y) cos y — cos(2 x + y) sin y.

1 + cos 2 6
4. Simplify:
sin 2 6

5. If 2 tan^ + oj = 3, find tan 6.

7T
6. Evaluate: (a) cos 45° cos 15° — sin 45° sin 15°; (b) cos cos
X Zj 12 *

7. Evaluate: tan(2 tan-1 J).

8. Simplify: (1 + cot20)(l — cos 2 Q).
9. If 6 = cos-1 evaluate cos ^ 0.
10. If 4 cos 2 0 = 3 sin 2 0, find the value of tan 6.
11. Sketch on the same axes the graphs of y = sin 2 x and y — tan x,

State the values of * in the given set for which

sin 2 x = tan a;.

12. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: sin 2 x -f cos x = 0.
sin(2 x + y) — sin y
13. Simplify: —7-—, /-r~i-
cos(2 x + y) + cos y
14. Solve for 0° == x < 360°: cos 2 * -f 5 cos x + 3 = 0.

15 If 1 - cos 2 e _ k nd 0 < 0 < I, express 0 in terms of k.

1 + cos 2 6 2
562 Review Exercises

Cumulative Review Exercises

GROUP 1 [through Chapter 12]

0.5 x
1. Find the value of x if = 0.4.
0.8
a
2. How many jars, each holding - pints, are needed to hold n pints?

3. Solve: J(3 x — -J) + 4(4 x -f- 3) = 4(6 x + 5).

4. Find k if the point (— 3, k) is on the line 3 x + 4 y = 1.
5. Solve: (a) 4 — 3 x < 10, (b) | 2x + 3 | = 9.
6. Solve for x and y: x-\- 2 y = 3 y — 1 = 2 # + 4.
1
7. Find to two significant figures the value of
V3+V2
8. Find the value of x if 2y/x = 8.
c , , , 2 5 113 1
9. Solve for x and y:-= ->-= -•
x y 2 x y 5
10. Evaluate 4 x~~* when x = 9.

11. If S = ——— f solve for w2.

w3 — w2
12. Show that (1 +'n/21)(3 +'\/21)(6 — V2I) is a rational number.

13. Simplify x | -f y-—+ 1, and find the value of x for which the

value of the expression is zero.

14. If y varies inversely as the square of x, and if y = 4 when x = 2.5,
find y when x — 1.25.
15. Solve: (a) (2 x — 1)(# + 2) = 0, (b) (2 x— 1)(# + 2) = 7.
16. Find the equation of the line with slope \ passing through (3, 0).
17. If x — \fi> — y/2, show that x4 = 10 x2 — 1.
18. Determine the linear expression/^) such that/(l) = l,/(2) = — 3.
19. If x + y = 10, y + z = 15, z + x = 13, show that x + y + z = 19.
20. Factor 3 x3 — 2 x2 — 3x-\-2.
21. If c =
3 13 2
and a?b* = cshow that ab4 = 1.

22. If f{x) = (———r-

\x — 3 x — 2)\ x
V
1 ——+ - ...\, state the values of x for
3 x — 1/
which f{x) does not have a value. Show that, for all other values of x,
3
Review Exercises
563
23. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the roots of 2 x2 — 4 x = 5.
24. The vertices of a right triangle are (0, 0), (2 a, 0), (0, 2 ft). Show that
the length of the median bisecting the hypotenuse is half the length
of the hypotenuse.

25. Two cars travel a distance of 60 miles. One averages 6 m.p.h. more
than the other, and takes 20 minutes less for the 60 miles. Find the
average speed of the slower car.

GROUP 2 tthrou9h Chapter 12]

1. Evaluate ~ X when x = — §.
x—2 3

2. Factor: (a) — 1, (b) #3 — 1, (c) x4 — 1.

3. Divide 3 — V6 by V3 — V2.

4. Find t if — has the same value as

t 200
x+y_ 5
5. If y = ^, find the value of -•
x—y 2 y

6. Solve for x and y: , - -f-- = 4.6.

y 5 x y
7. Find the equation of the line parallel to 3 x — 2 y = 0 and having
^-intercept 4.
2 — xs
8. Simplify: (--— -5- ( X —
\x 2— Xj \ X

9. If t varies as y/x, what is the effect on the value of t of doubling the

value of x?
10. What is the slope of a line perpendicular to 2 x — 3y = 4?
11. Find x in simplest radical form if 1 -f xy/2 = y/2 — x.
12. Solve: (a) 2 x2 = 5 x, (b) 2 x2 = 5 x + 3.
13. Write the converse of the following statement:

"K? = ^ then ^ ^
bT d b — d

Show that the converse is valid.

14. Solve the system of equations: x+y+2=2
x+y—z=4
2* + y + 3z= 1
(3 .

X —

4 x~5
564 Review Exercises

16. Solve: (a) | 2 x — 5 | = 7, (b) 3 x — 4 ^ 8.

17. If c2 — a2 — b2 — 2 ab, show that either a + 6 + c = 0 or c = a-\- b.
1 3
18. Solve:
x+ 1 1 —x 4
19. If x = 2 / — 1, and y = 4 t2 — 2 /, express y in terms of
20. Solve: 1 + 2 V# = V# + 5.
21. Show that (0, 3), (4, 0), (— 6, — 5) are the vertices of a right triangle,
and find the area of the triangle.
22. Factor: (a) x3 — 4 x, (b) (a + b)3 — 4(a + b).
23. Show that 1 — J\/2 is a root of 2 #2 — 4 # + 1 = 0.
24. A’s speed of typing is 150% of B’s speed. If they work together on a
job of typing, show that it will take them 40% of the time it would
take B alone.

25. Solve a+_x _j_ b + X _ ^ £ -n j-erms 0f a ancf ^ £rsf setting

b+x a-\- x 2
a+x_ ,
— f•
b+x
GROUP 3 ^through Chapter 13]

1. Factor 3 x2 — 3 x + a — ax.
2. Evaluate 2 x~^ when x = 2.

3. Simplify — .
2V3-3

4- If/W = y^|^.find/(0.23).

5. Find the values of x for which 3 x~2 = 12.

6. If f(x) = 3 x — 2, find the change in the value of f(x) when the value
of x is increased by 2.5.
7. Find the equation of the line through (0, — 2) having slope 3.
Ooi , . ^ , m— 2 x m + 4: x ~
o. Solve tor x in terms of m:-= 2.
m-\- x m—x
9. Find the value of k for which — 2 is a root of 3 x2 + kx = 6.
10. State the set of solutions of each of the following inequalities:
(a) 3 + 2 x > 0, (b) 2 - x > 0, (c) (3 + 2 x)(2 -x)>0.
11. Solve 2 x2 — 3 x = 4, giving roots to the nearest hundredth. Check
by finding the sum and the product of the roots.
12. Find the maximum value of the expression 5 — 4 x — 2 x2.
Review Exercises
565

13. Form the quadratic equation having roots --+ , -_l—3.

2 2
14. State the sum of the roots of 3 x2 — 8 x k — 0, and find the value
of k when one root is three times the other.

15. If f{x) = x2 -f 3 x 3 mix2 + 1), find the values of m for which

(a) the roots of f(x) = 0 are equal, (b) the roots of f(%) = 0 are real
and unequal.

GROUP 4 [through Chapter 13]

1. Find the slope and the ^-intercept for the line 2 x + 3 y = 6.

2. Find the equation of the line through (— 2, 3) and (1,9).
3. Find the equation of the line through (2, — 1) perpendicular to
3 x + 2 y — 0.

4. Simplify:
1 ocf
2 8
5. Find the values of x for which 2 x~% = 8.

6. What fractional part of is \/§?

7. Find the value of k for which the point (2, k) lies on the parabola
y = 2 x2 — 4#-|-5. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry
of the curve?

8. Simplify: (x + y)-1 • -—-t-p—

x 1
9. Solve for x: x2 — a2 = bx — ha.
10. If f(x) = 2 x2 - 6 x + 5, (a) solve fix) = 5, (b) find the minimum
value oifix).

11. Divide 2 i\/5 by 5 + i\/5.

12. Find a positive integral value of m for which the roots of the equation
3 x2 + 6 x + m = 0 are real and unequal.
13. Find the smallest integral value of x for which the expression
3 x2 — 2 x — 8 has a negative value.
14. Sketch, on the same axes, the graphs of y = 4 — x, and y = xi4 — x).

15. A farmer makes 3 sides of a rectangular enclosure from 400 ft. of

fence, using a wall for the fourth side. If the sides perpendicular to
the wall are x feet long, find (a) the values of x for which the area of
the enclosure is 15,000 sq. ft., (b) the maximum area of the enclosure.
566 Review Exercises

GROUP 5 tthrou9h Chapter 13]

a
1. If x + 2 y = a + 2 h, show that - = ~•
x—2y a—2 b y b

'2 x
2. Simplify:
x4
x2 4- 2 x-\~ 4 x2 — 2 x-\~ 4
3 Evaluate when x = 2.5.
x3 — 8 x3 + 8
4. If # -f y = 5, y + z = 7, z + £ = 8, show that £ + y + 2 = 10, and find
the values of x, y, z.
5. Determine the linear expression f(x) such that/(l) = 4 and/(4) = — 2.
6 . Show that if the point {x, y) is the same distance from (3, 1) as it is
from (5, — 1), then x — y— 4.
ci a % 3 3x — 2y . x+y
7. Solve the equations: - = — > -= 1--—•
4 y 2 4 3
8 . Evaluate x(x — 1) when x = ^-(1 +\/3).
9. Find to the nearest hundredth the roots of x2 — 1.2 x = 2.4.
10. For the parabola y = 3x2jr'2.x — 8 find (a) the y-intercept, (b) the
^-intercepts, (c) the coordinates of the vertex. Sketch the curve.
11. Show that no rational number exceeds its reciprocal by 1, but that
two real numbers have this property. Show that the product of the
two real numbers is —1.
12. Determine the quadratic polynomial f(x) such that /(0) = 0 and
/(2) =/(4) = 16.
13. If a man drives M miles at an average speed of 30 m.p.h. and another
M miles at an average speed of 50 m.p.h., find his average speed for
the 2 M miles.
14. Show that if k is rational and not equal to 1, the equation
{k — \)x2 + kx + 1 = 0
has two rational roots.

GROUP 6 tthrou9h Chapter 14]

1. Simplify: (a; + y)2 — 3(:r + y)(x — y) — 4(x — y)2.

2. The speed of a boat in still water is x m.p.h. It travels 4 x miles up
a river in which the speed of the current is 2 m.p.h., and returns to
its starting point. Express the total time for the round trip in terms

of x, and show that the average speed is m.p.h.

Review Exercises
567
x — 2.4 x + 2.4
3. Solve:
x T 2.6 # — 7.6
4. If 3 x + 2 y 10, find the change in the value of y corresponding to
an increase of 6 in the value of x.
5. Show that the line through (1, — 1) and (— 1,5) is concurrent with
the lines 2 x — y + 1 = 0 and x — 3 y + 4 = 0.
6. Sketch the graphs of x2 + 2 y2 = 16 and x2 - y2 = 9 on the same axes
7. Solve the system of equations: 3 x2 — 2xy — 4 x = 8
3x+2 y=4
8. Find the center and radius of the circle x2 -f y2 — 2 x — 4 y = 20.
9. Find the coordinates of the points common to the line 3 x — 4 y = 20
and the circle x2 -f y2 — 2 a — 4 y = 20. Describe the position of the
line with respect to the curve.
10. li x2 — y2 — 3 x + 3 y = 0, express y in terms of x. Sketch the graph
of the relationship.
11. Solve the system of equations: x2 + xy = 6, y2 — 2 xy = 7.
12. Find the value of k for which the line y = k is a tangent to the parabola
y = 3 x2 — 8 x.
3 + iV3 3-iV3
13. Form the quadratic equation having roots
2 ’ 2
14. The values of a quadratic function / are positive for all values of x
except those between 0 and — 4. The minimum value of the function
is — 8. Determine/(x).

xT2
15. if/(*) = express/(x) in simplest form, and state the
x 1
4 — x2
+x—2
values of x, if any, for which f(x) = 0.

GROUP 7 tthr0U8h ChaPter 14J

1. If y varies inversely as the square of x, and y— 5.0 when x— 2.4,

find y when x = 1.2.
2. Verify that 2 - V~3 is a square root of 7 - 4V3, and write the other
square root.
1
Vl + x —
3. Simplify:
VT+ x
Vl +x
568 Review Exercises

4. If A is (4, 3) and B is (— 2, — 5), find (a) the slope of AB, (b) the
length of AB.
5. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB in exercise 4.
6. Find the center of the circle which passes through the points (0, 0),
(6,0), (4,4).

7. If x~^y = , show that - =

x—y a—2 y 2

8. If f{x) = 2 x2 — 3 #, evaluate *

9. Solve the system of equations: 2 x — 3y = 4, 4y2 — 2 xy = 5.

10. Construct the graph of x2 — 6 x + y2 = 7.
11. Solve the system of equations: xy = 6 = (x + 3)(y — 1).
12. If x2 6 xy + 9 y2 = 4, show (by factoring) that the graph is a pair
of straight lines.
13. Solve the system of equations: x2 + y2 = 4, (x — 3)2 + y2 = 7.
14. State the length of the common chord of the circles in exercise 13,
and find the angle subtended by the common chord at the center of
the smaller circle.
15. If h= 144/ — 16 t2, find the maximum value of h.

GROUP 8 tthrou9h Chapter 16]

1. If y varies directly as y/x, and y = 2.5 when x= 2.5, find y when

x = 10.
2. Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines 4 x — 3 y = 0,
y = 2 x — 6, and the #-axis.
i _ i
0 0. ... x? — x 2
5. Simplify: -— •
2 aT*
4. Use the slopes of the lines, and trigonometric tables, to show that the
lines 2 x — y+l = 0 and x — 3y + 4 = 0 intersect at 45°.
5. Divide 5 — 2\^3 by 4 — 2V3.
6. Show that the line x — 2 y = 3 and the curve x2 — 4 y2 = 9 have only
one point in common. Is the line a tangent to the curve? Illustrate
the situation by sketching the graphs of the equations.
7. Without tables give the value of (a) sin 120°, (b) tan 225°, (c) cos 180°,
(d) sec 315°.
8. A ABC has a — 10 in., b = 6 in., ZC = 120°. Find c.
Review Exercises
569

9. The diagonals of a parallelogram intersect at an angle of 45°. The

lengths of the diagonals are 12 in. and 15 in. Find the area of the
parallelogram.

10. A ABC has A A — 45°, ZB = 60°, a = 8 in. Find b.

11. Solve for 0° ^ * < 360°: 2 sin x - cos x = 0.

12. If sin 6 = §, evaluate ——s ^ .

1 — sin 6
tan 6 — tan 6 sin 6
13. Simplify:
sec 6 — tan 6
14. Solve for 0° ^ 6 < 360°: cos2# — sin2# = 0.

15. Prove the identity: (cOS + sirifl)(cos 0 - sin 8) = ^

esc # — 2 sin #

GROUP 9 tthrouBh Chapter 17]

1. Without tables give the value of (a) cos 240°, (b) sin 270°, (c) tan 150°,
(d) esc 225°.
2. A ABC has a = 8 in., b = 10 in., c = 14 in. Find Z C.
3. If tan # = § and cos d < 0, find the value of sin 0.
4. A has area 24 sq. in. If a = 10 in., b= 8 in., find Z C.

5. Simplify: sec 6 — tan 6 sin 6.

6. Solve for 0° ^ 9 < 360°: 2 sin2# +3 cos 6 = 0.

7. A ABC has b = 50 in., c= 100 in., ZC= 60°. Find Zi.

8. Divide 2 x4 — 5 x3 — 7 x — 6 by x — 3.

9. Find the value of k for which x + 2 is a factor of #3 + 3 x2 — 5 x — k,

and write the other factor of the expression.

10. Solve 2 x4 — 5 x2 — 18 = 0.
11. Sketch the graph of y = (#+ 1)(# — 2)2, and state the set of values
of x for which y ^ 0.

12. If /(*) = ’ find/(2 + 2 i).

13. Show that x3 — 3a:2 — 2a: + 3 = 0 has three real roots.

14. Find the largest root of x3 — 3 x2 — 2 x + 3 = 0 to the nearest hun¬
dredth.
15. A cubic function F is positive for - 1 < x < 1 and for * > 3, but for
no other values of *. If F(0) = 6, (a) sketch the graph of F, (b) deter¬
mine F(x), (c) find the other two values of * for which F(x) = 6.
570 Review Exercises

GROUP io [thr0uflh Chap,er17-1

1. Factor 8 x3 — 27.
2. Find the coordinates of the points common to the graphs of y = x3
and y= 7 # + 6.
3. If /(#) = (x + 4)2 — 2(x + 3)2 + (x + 2)2, find the values of x, if any,
for which (a) /(#) = x2, (b) f(x) = 0, (c) f(x) = 2.
4. Find the coordinates of the points which are common to the line
2 x — 3 y = 1 and the ellipse 4 x2 + 9 y2 = 25.
5. The area of a rectangle is 100 sq. ft. If the length were increased by
3 ft. and the width decreased by 2 ft., the area would be decreased
by 5 sq. ft. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
6. Find the values of k for which the roots of (# — 1) (jc — 3) = k are
imaginary.
7. Show that (— 4, 3), (— 2, — 1), (10, 5) are the vertices of a right tri¬
angle. Verify that the length of the median bisecting the hypotenuse
is half the length of the hypotenuse.
8. Solve for 0° ^ x < 360°: 5 sec2# =7 — 3 tan x.
esc 6 — 2 sin 6
9. Simplify:
cos 46 — sin40

10. Sketch the graph of y = x(l + #)(3 — x).

11. Construct the ellipse 4 x2 + 9 y2 = 25 on a scale of 1 in. to 1 unit.
Find to the nearest tenth the coordinates of the points in which the
ellipse is met by the line y = x + 1.
12. Solve: 2 x3 — 3 x2 — x — 2 = 0.
13. Show that 2 x — 1 is a factor of 4 x6 — x4 + 6 x2 + 5 x — 4.
14. If f{x) = 2 x3 + 3 x2 — 5 x, find /(1.5), and show that there are two
other rational values of x for which f(x) =/( 1.5).
15. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the positive root of x4 + 3 x = 48.

GROUP 11 trough Chapter 18]

1. Solve for x in terms of a: x2 — x — a2 + a = 0.

2. Evaluate-- when a = 4.
a~l + a2
3. Show that there is no value of x for which - ^ -- has the same value
x2 — 4
2 6
aS #2 — 3 # + 2 x2 ~h x — 2
Review Exercises 571

4. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the roots of 2 *2 — 2.4 x — 1.65 = 0.

5. A rectangle is n feet long and c feet wide. Find, in terms of n and c,
the increase in length required to keep the area unchanged when the
width is decreased by 2 ft.

6. An arithmetic series has t5 = 14 and tn = 29. Find Sn.

7. Find the limit of the sum of the geometric series 3 + 24-.
8. Find Sio for the geometric series 16 — 8 + 4 — • • •.
9. Find h for a geometric sequence in which h = 4 and h = —
10. Solve the system of equations: 3 a; + 2 y = 4, x2 — 2 ary + 4 y2 = 1.
11. A machine is bought for $6,500. In the course of each year it loses
30% of its value at the start of the year. Find its value when it has
been in use 10 years.
12. Show that the points which are common to the curves x2 — xy + y2 = 3
and x2 — y2 = 3 lie on either the x-axis or the line y = \ x.
13. Find Sn for a series in which tn = 3 n + 2. Find the number of terms
required to make the sum of the series equal to 258.
14. Find the values of x for which 2 x, 2 a; + 4, 3 a; + 1 form a geometric
sequence.
15. Solve: 2 x3 — 5 x = 6.

GROUP 12 tthrou9h Chapter 18]

1. Factor x — y — 3 a;2 + 3 y2.

2. Show that V2 x+ 6 + 2^/x — 1 = 0 has no solution.
3. Find the limit of the sum of the geometric series 2 — f + f — • • •.

4. Simplify: (j^) “■

5. Show that i is a root of 2 x3 - 3 *2 + 5 z - 2 = 0, and find the other

roots.
6. Show that (0, 0), (- 2, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1) are the vertices of a parallelo¬
gram, and find the point of intersection of the diagonals.
7. If y varies directly as t and inversely as \/x, and if y = 8 when t — 5
and x = 9, find x when / = 10 and y = .
8. A boy walks at 4 m.p.h. and bicycles at 12 m.p.h. Find his average
speed (a) if he walks for 1 hour and bicycles for 1 hour, (b) if he walks
1 mile and bicycles 1 mile.
9. Show that 0.6 is a good approximation to a root of x3 + 3 x = 2. Is
the actual root greater or less than 0.6?
572 Review Exercises

10. Find t\o in an arithmetic series for which t\ = 2 and S& = 22.
11. Find the equation of the common chord of the circles x2y2 — 9
and (x — 3)2 + (y — 3)2 = 9.
12. Find ti, /20, and S20 for a series in which /n = 14 — 4 n.
13. (a) If a, b, c are in geometric sequence, express c in terms of a and b.
(b) Three numbers are in arithmetic sequence with common difference
4. If the first number is diminished by 1, the second number in¬
creased by 1, and the third number increased by 12, the three
new numbers are in geometric sequence. Find the original numbers.
14. Write the first 5 terms of a sequence in which t\ = 2 and tn+1 = 2 tn — 1.
15. Verify that, for the sequence in exercise 14, tn = 2n~1 + 1, and find
the sum of the first 10 terms of the sequence.

General Review Exercises [A]

1. Find, to the nearest hundredth, the roots of 3 x2 — 4.92 x = 12.75.

2. Find a value of x for which (1 +

3. Factor: 2 x4 + 5 x3 — 5 x — 2.
x
100, = 1.5.

4. Solve the system of equations: 2 x — y = 5, x2 — xyy2 = 13.

5. Determine the quadratic expression/^) if/(0) = 0,/(l) = 7,/(3) = 51.
6. Show that the points common to the circle x2 + y2 = 74 and the line
x — y = 2 lie on the hyperbola xy = 35.
7. Find the values of a and b if x4 + 4 x3 — 8 x2 + ax + b is divisible by
x2 — 1.
8. Find t\ in an arithmetic series for which S7 = 28 and h = 11.5.
9. Find Sn for the geometric series 3 -f 2j + • • •. Is there a value of n
for which Sn = 18? Is there a fixed value, less than 18, which Sn does
not exceed as n increases indefinitely?
10. Find the value of x for which 10x = 2.
11. Find the value of x for which 2X = 10.
12. Show that there is a root of xz = x + 12 between 2 and 3, and find it
to the nearest tenth.
13 . Find the sum of 20 terms of the series 1 — 3 + 5 — 7 -(- • • •, in which
tn = (— l)n_1 • (2 n — 1).
14. Show that 2 x — a is a factor of 4 x3 — 3 a2x + a3, and complete the
factoring of the cubic function.
15. Find the value of k if y = x + k is a tangent to the parabola 10 y = x2.
Review Exercises 573

16. L is a linear expression in E such that L = 27.2 when £=10 and

L = 52.2 when £ = 15. Find £ when L = 0.
17. Show that the equations rr2 + 3 xy = 7 and rry + 4 y2 = 18 may be
combined to gixe x -f 2 y = 5 and a -f 2 y = — 5. Use the result to
solve the original equations.
18. Show that 2 x2 — 9 x + 10.25 is positive for all real values of x.
19. If y = 4.5 x1-2, express log y in terms of log x. Describe the graph
which would be obtained by plotting points whose coordinates are
corresponding values of log x and log y.
20. Find the minimum value of x2 + 6 x -f 15.
21. Show that x+2y = 3isa tangent to the hyperbola x2 — 3 y2 -f 27 = 0,
and find the coordinates of the point of tangency.
22. Show that x4 — 16 x2 — 3 # + 30 = 0 has four real roots between — 4
and 4.
23. Solve: x2(a + 1) = a2(x + 1).
24. Evaluate x3 + y3 if x + y = 90 and xy = 1125.
25. If x? + y^ = a?, show that (x — y)2 = a(2 x + 2 y — a).
26. Solve: 3 x3 + x2 + 4 x — 4 = 0.
27. Solve the system of equations: x2 + xy — 6, 3 xy + 4 y2 = — 5.
28. A quadratic function / has a minimum value of — 2 when x = 2. If
/(1) = — 1, determine/(x).
29. Find the value of k for which x2 — (2 k + \)x + k2 2 = 0 has roots
in the ratio 2:1.
30. Solve the system of equations: 3a:4-2yH-5 = 0,3a'“ — 4xy + y2 — 0.

31. Find the values of k for which 2 x + ky = 10 is a tangent to the circle

x2 + y2 = 20.
32. Find the positive root of *3 + 3 z2 + 3 x - 36 = 0 to the nearest
hundredth.
33. Find z and y if they are positive numbers such that the result of
increasing x by y% is 12, and the result of increasing y b> x% is 22.

34. In the diagram AC — 22 in., AP= 8 in.,

CQ = 12 in. If AB = x in., find the value,
or values, of x for which Z PBQ is a right
angle. (PA and QC _L AC.)
35. (a) Express the sum of the reciprocals of
a and b as a single fraction.
(b) Find the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of x2 — px + q = 0.
574 Review Exercises

General Review Exercises [B]

1. Show that if the cube of an even number is diminished by 1, the result
is divisible by the odd number next below the even number.
2. Explain why n3 — n is divisible by 6 for every integral value of n.

3. If x = show that x3 — 3 x = k + Find the positive root

k
of x3 — 3 x = 2.5 in exact form, and use tables to obtain the value to
three significant figures.
x2 — t
4. lif{x) =-y show that there are two real, unequal values of x
x
such that/(#) = k for every real value of k.
5. If n is a positive integer, show that the following product has a value
less than
1 1 1 1
i - - ii i - 1 - 1 1 -
n, w+l/V n-\-2) \ 2n—\)\ 2n,
6. A rectangular wooden block has dimensions n, w + 3, 2 n-\-2, inches,
where n is an integer. The surface of the block is painted, and the
block is then cut into 1-inch cubes by cuts parallel to the faces. If
the number of cubes with paint on one or more faces is equal to the
number of cubes with no paint on them find n.

7. Show that if x = V^4 -f- >/l5 -j- V4 — \/15^ then x3 = 3 x + 8.

8. A rectangular box has a base 8 in. by 5 in. Find its minimum height
if it is to contain four spheres of radius 2.5 in. with its top closed.
n{n + 1) 2 n(n — 1) 2
9. Show that is identical with n3. Hence,
2 2
show that the cube of any integer can be expressed as the difference
of the squares of two integers.
10. Show that the remainder cannot be 2 when the square of an integer
is divided by 3.
11. An approximate formula for evaluating n\, when n is large, is

V2 7tyi • • Using 7r = 3.142, e = 2.718, evaluate the formula for

n = 8, and show that it differs from the correct value of 8! by about 1 %.

12. If a, b, c are numbers satisfying the relationship xyz = x2 + y2 + z2,
show that the numbers ab — c, a, b also satisfy the relationship. Hence,
starting with a = 3, b = 3, c = 3, derive four other sets of integers
having the property that the product of the three integers is equal to
the sum of their squares.
Review Exercises
575
13. There are three discs denoted by A, B, C. One disc is red, one is blue
and one is white Deduce the color of A, B,C respectively from the
fact that one, and only one, of the following statements is true: (1) A is
red; (2) B is not red; (3) C is not blue.

H' miuhecfirSt f°Ur termS °f a SeqUence having the following properties.

(1) The first two terms are integers. (2) The sum of the first n terms
equals the product of the first n terms for all values of n.

15. Using each of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 once, and only once,

it is required to form a group of one-digit or two-digit numbers with
sum equal to 100. Show that this is not possible, but that such a
group may be formed if the digit 1 is used twice.

General Short Question Review

1. Divide 6 by 2V3.

2. Find x if ^-i-2 = 1.
i 2
3. Divide 4^ by 4^.

4. Simplify —-
/y* ^1
x 2

5. Factor x3 — 2 x2 — 3 x + 6.

6. Write the equation of a line with slope 2 and y-intercept - 1.

7. Evaluate 4^ + (— 2)-3.
8. Divide 2n+2 by 2n_1.

9. Simplify

10. Find the slope of the line joining (3, 2) and (— 1,4).

11. Simplify ——-

/V* 4.
+ _4_
—
/y»
2 2 ■a'

12. What are the coordinates of the points at which the graph of
y = 3 x — 2 x2 crosses the £-axis?
13. Express the reciprocal of 2 — i in the form a + bi.
14. What is the slope of a line which is perpendicular to the line
y = 2 x + 3?
15. The line joining (— 3, 2) to (1, k) is parallel to the line ^ + 2y-fl=0.
Find k.

16. For what values of n does (3n)2 have the same value as 3{n'}?
576 Review Exercises

17. Write the quadratic equation in x which has roots 0 and —

18. Simplify 11 "

ify (;
2 A 2
19. Write the next term in the arithmetic sequence 3, — 1.2, • • •.
20. Write the quadratic equation in x which has roots J + § i andj — § i.
21. Find the length of the line segment joining (— 1,2) and (2, — 4).
22. Write the expression for the distance of the point (x, y) from the origin.
23. If logio a = 1.2 and logio b= 1.8, find the value of ab.
24. Write the next term in the geometric sequence 5, 7.5, • • •.

25. Simplify (l-^(±-i).

26. If y = x3, show that log y varies directly as log x.

27. If y = 5 x — 3 and x takes values 1, 2, 3, * * *, what is the difference
between successive values of y?
28. Find the coordinates of the points at which the parabola x2 + 4 y = 4
meets the coordinate axes.
29. Write the general form of the equation which expresses the fact that
y varies inversely as the square of x.
30. Find the limit of the sum of the geometric series 2 + 1.5 + • • •.

31. Simplify i+
i

2.25 — x
32. Find x if = 0.

9,1

33. What is the nature of the roots of the equation 3 x2 + 7 £ + 5 = 0?

34. Find the coordinates of the points at which the circle with equation
x2-hy2 + 2x — 4y — 5 = 0 meets the y-axis.
35. Find the length of the perpendicular from (3, 5) to the line y = x.
36. If f{x) = 2 x2 — 3 x, find/(— 1.5).
37. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x + y = 9.
38. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x2 + y2 = 9.
39. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x + y2 = 9.
40. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x2 — y2 = 9.
41. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x2 + 4 y2 = 9.
42. Name and sketch the graph of 4 x2 + y = 9.
Review Exercises
577
43. Name and sketch the graph of y2 — 4 x2 = 9.
44. What is the sum of the roots of *3 — 3 * — 4 = 0?
45. What is the product of the roots of the equation of exercise 44?
46. Locate between successive integers the positive root of the equation
x3 — 3 x — 4 = 0.
47. If a = Vb, what is the value of ?
log b
48. Does the parabola y = x2 7 x 12.5 meet the #-axis? Give a reason
for your answer.
49. Does the equation x4 + 2x + 3 = 0 have a rational root? Give a
reason for your answer.
50. Factor x3 + x — 2.
51. If f{x) = 2 x3 — 3 x2 -f- 2 x, find/(l.5).
52. State the number of real roots of x4 — 6 x2 — 27 = 0.
53. Is the graph of y = 2 x4 — 3 x2 symmetrical about (a) the #-axis,
(b) the y-axis? Give a reason for your answer.
54. Find the sum and the product of the roots of the equation
3 x4 — 2:r3 + 4#+l = 0.
55. If y = 4 x3, express log y in terms of log x.
56. Find k if the point (— 2, k) is on the line 3 x + 4 y = 6.

57. If the point (2 -f Ax, 3 + Ay) is on the line 2 x — y = 1, find the value
Of^.
Ax
58. Find the area of the smallest rectangle with sides parallel to the axes
which contains all points of the ellipse 9 x2 + 4 y2 = 36.

59. Given x2 — 3 y2 = 36, find those values of x for which there are real
values of y.

60. Under what condition is ——— the limit of the sum of the geometric
1 —x
series 14-^ + x2 + ^3 + **-?

61. What is the sum of the three cube roots of 27?

62. If 10^ = 5, then x = logio 5. What is the value of 10logio5?
63. If y = 3 x — 10, find Ay when Ax = 2.5.
64. If x + iy = (3 + i)2, find x and y.
65. Does 2x3 + 3x — 37 = 0 have a negative root? Give a reason for
your answer.
578 Review Exercises

66. Find the remainder when x5 — 5 x2 — 8 is divided by x — 2.

67. Sketch the graph of y = (x — l)(x — 3)(x — 5).
68. State the values of x for which 4 — 3 x — x2 is positive.
4 a2 —9
69. Evaluate —-— when a = 1.565.
2 <z + 3
70. Find the coordinates of points common to x + y = 3 and x2 + y2 = 9.
71. Find the value of logs 4 + logs 2.
72. Simplify (2 + a/3)3 + (2 — V3)3.
73. Find k if the roots of 3 x2 — 4 x + & = 0 are equal.
74. Find the radius of the circle x2 + 8 x + y2 = 0.
75. Find the coordinates of the center of the circle of exercise 74.
76. If /(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx -f d, sketch the graph of / for the case in
which a is positive and f(x) = 0 has one negative and two positive
roots.
77. If the graph of y =f(x) is tangent to the x-axis, what is known about
the roots of f(x) = 0?
78. If b2 — 4 ac— 25, is ax2 + bx + c factorable? Give a reason for your
answer.
79. Find the minimum value of (x + l)2 — 4.
80. Write the equation of the locus of points equidistant from the x-axis
and the line y = 4.
81. Write the equation of the locus of points for which the ordinate ex¬
ceeds the abscissa by 2. Sketch this locus.
82. Write the equation of the locus of points which are 3 units from the
origin: (a) in a one-dimensional coordinate system, (b) in a two-
dimensional coordinate system, (c) in a three-dimensional coordinate
system.
83. What is the value of log 40 — log f ?
84. If logio 5 = a, express logio 2 in terms of a.
Ay
85. If = 2 for all corresponding values of x and y, and y — 2 when

x = 2, express y in terms of x.
86. Find the distance between the points (1, 1.5) and (2.5, 3.5).
87. Does the line x + y = 6 meet the circle x2 + y2 = 16?
88. What are the slopes of the asymptotes of x2 — 4 y2 = 16?
89. Determine whether J is a root ofV3 + 2x = 3-l-V2x.
Review Exercises
579
90. If y ^ x x2, find the value of x for which y reaches a maximum
value.

91. Give the coordinates of the points in which y = 1 -f- - meets (a) the
x
#-axis, and (b) the y-axis.
92. Do the graphs of 3x-5y+25 = 0 and 16 x2 + 25 y2 - 400 = 0
intersect? Give the reason for your answer.
93. Write the converse of the statement: "If a = b, then a3 = b3” Is
this converse valid?
94. Find the rational root of 2 x3 + 3 x2 -f- 3 x + 1 = 0.
95. If the product of the roots of a cubic equation is negative, how many
negative real roots may the equation have?
96. If a > 2 b and 2 c > 3 a, is it valid to deduce that c > 3 b?
97. Solve for x: 3X = 6.
98. If one leg of a right triangle in a coordinate system has slope §, what
is the slope of the other leg?
99. A culture of penicillin is prepared on a glass plate. It grows in such a
manner that the area of the plate covered by the culture is doubled
every 45 minutes. If the culture just covers the plate at 3:15 p.m.,

at what time did it cover one-half the plate?

100. Express y in terms of x if 1-°^ - = 2.

log x
101. Find the equation of a circle with its center at the origin and passing
through the point (3, 1).
102. Find the value of k for which y = k is tangent to y = x2 — 6 x.

103. How many real roots has the equation x4 + 5 x2 + 6 = 0?

104. Find k if — 2 is a root of the equation x4 — 3 x3 — 5 x2 + k = 0.
105. If 2 + i is a root of 3 x3 - 10 *2 + ax + b = 0, what is the real root
of this equation?
106. If V = 7i-r2h, what is the effect on V of doubling the values of r and h?
107. The volume of a sphere varies as r3, r being the radius. Compare the
volumes of two spheres having radii in the ratio 3 to 2.

108. When an 8" water pipe is under repair, how many 4" pipes should be
used to give the same delivery of water?

109. In a certain machine the power (P) and the load (L) are related by
the equation P = 0.1 L + 2.4. What increase is required in P when
L is increased by 25 units?
580 Review Exercises

110. If f(x) = 3 x2 — 5 x, find the values of x for which f{x) = 12.

x+2
111. If/0) = state the values of x for which (a) f{x) = 0, and
x2 — 1
(b) f(x) has no value.
112. Describe the set of lines obtained when the value of k varies (a) if
y = 2 x -f k, and (b) if y = kx -j- 2.
113. Show that two of the three lines 2 x — 3 y + 5 = 0, 6 y = 4 # + 15,
3 x-\-2y = 11 are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
third.
114. Find k if the equation (&+ \)x2 + \2 x-\-3 k = 0 has equal roots.
115. Find k if the line kx — y — 3 = 0 is tangent to the parabola
y = x2 — 4 x + 6.
116. The area of a triangle is 40 sq. in. and two of its sides have lengths
of 10 in. and 16 in. Find the size of the angle formed by the two
sides.

117. If cos 6 = find the value of tan 6 without using tables.

118. Find a value of x between 0 and 7r such that cot

119. Evaluate (a) sec ^ + cos 7r, (b) tan ^cos-1

120. Solve for 0 ^ 6 < 2 7r: 4 cos2 6 = 3.

121. If sin B = y find tan 2 B.

122. Evaluate sin 105° — sin 15° without using tables.

123. If tan 6 = -> express sec 2 6 in terms of a and b.

a

124. Simplify sin x cos ^ — xj + cos x sin ^ *

125. Evaluate cos [ 2 cos 1

Tables

PAGE
Explanation of Tables 532

TABLE

1. Squares 584
2. Square Roots 586
3. Cubes 590

4. Natural Sines 592

5. Natural Cosines 594
6. Natural Tangents 596
7. Natural Cotangents 598
8. Natural Secants 600
9. Natural Cosecants 602

10. Logarithms 604

11. Logarithmic Sines 608
12. Logarithmic Cosines 610
13. Logarithmic Tangents 612
14. Logarithmic Cotangents 614
15. Logarithmic Secants 616
16. Logarithmic Cosecants 618

17. Degrees to Radians 620

581
Explanation of Tables

All tables are uniform in arrangement and are used in the same manner.
Thus each table is entered in the left-hand column—the column headed
"N” or "Angle,” and to obtain a value between the intervals of the table,
one uses the corrections given in the columns headed "Differences.”

Example from Table 1. Find the square of 3.047.

Solution. Enter Table 1 (page 584) at 3.0 in the "N” column. In the
row containing 3.0 go to the column headed "4” where you see the num¬
ber 9.242. Keeping a finger of your left hand under 9.242 and remaining in
the same row, go to the column of differences headed by "7.” The number
43 found here represents .043, and .043 is to be added to 9.242, giving the
answer 9.285.

Example from Table 2. Find the square root of 567.3.

Solution. Since 567.3 is between 202 and 302 its square root must begin
with the digit 2. Hence we enter Table 2 on page 587 at 5.6 in the "N”
column. In the row containing 5.6 go to the first column headed "7,” where
you see the number 2.381. Keeping a finger of your left hand under 2.381
and remaining in the same row, go to the column of differences headed by
"3.” The number "1” found here stands for .001 and this is added to 2.381
to obtain 2.382, and then the decimal point is placed between 3 and 8 to
obtain the answer 23.82.

Example from Table 5. Find cos 39° 28'.

Solution. Enter Table 5 (page 594) at 39° in the "Angle” column. In
the row containing 39° go to the column headed "24'” where you see the
number .7727. Keeping a finger of your left hand under .7727 and remaining
in the same row, go to the column of differences headed by "4'.” The num¬
ber "7” found here stands for .0007 and is the correction to .7727 to get
cos 39° 28'. But notice in the table that the cosine of the angle decreases as the
angle increases. Thus cos 39° 28' < cos 39° 24'. Therefore the correction of
.0007 is to be subtracted horn .7727, giving .7720. (Notice the word "subtract”
at the top of the differences columns.) Hence cos 39° 28' = 0.7720.
The student should note that corrections are subtractive also in the tables
of cotangents and cosecants.
582
Tables 583

Example from Table 6. Find the value of tan 71° 44'.

Solution. Enter Table 6 on page 597 at 71° in the left-hand column headed
"Angle.” In the row containing 71° go to the column headed ”42'” where
you see the number ".0237” in boldface type. The boldface type means
that tan 71°42r is 3.0237 instead of 2.0237. The integral parts of these
numbers are recorded only in the O' column and apply to each number in
a row until a change is signaled by the boldface type.
To find the value of tan 71° 44' we must add to 3.0237 the "difference”
corresponding to an increase of 2' in the angle. In many parts of the tables
the "differences” are given, but they are based on average values for a
complete row. These average values are sufficiently accurate when the
differences in a given row are nearly constant. If the differences change
significantly from one end of a given row to the other, as they do in this
part of the table, the use of the average value would be inaccurate in some
cases. The required difference must, therefore, be computed from the fig¬
ures in the main part of the table.
The process of finding the value of tan 71° 44' from the given value of
tan 71° 42' and the given value of tan 71° 48' is called interpolation. The
process is illustrated below.

Interpolation.
_ tan 71° 42'= 3.0237
.0172
71 ° /M ' — __<“3
tan 71° 44' = x
tan 71° 48' = 3.0415

We assume that ratios of differences are equal:

x - 3.0237 _ 2
0.0178 6
whence x — 3.0237 = 0.0059
x = 3.0237 + 0.0059
x = 3.0296.

Tables 1,2, 4-17 which follow are from Weeks, A. W., and Funkhouser,
H. Gray, Plane Trigonometry with Four-Place Tables, 2nd Edition. Copy¬
right 1953, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, New Jersey.
 1. SQUARES
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 S 4 8 6 7 8 9

1.0 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.061 1.082 1.103 1.124 1.145 1.166 1.188 2 4 6 8 10 13 15 17 19
l.l 1.210 1.232 1.254 1.277 1.300 1.323 1.346 1.369 1.392 1.416 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 21
1.2 1.440 1.464 1.488 1.513 1.538 1.563 1.588 1.613 1.638 1.664 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1.3 1.690 1.716 1.742 1.769 1.796 1.823 1.850 1.877 1.904 1.932 3 5 8 11 13 16 19 22 24
1.4 1.960 1.988 2.016 2.045 2.074 2.103 2.132 2.161 2.190 2.220 3 6 9 12 14 17 20 23 26

1.5 2.250 2.280 2.310 2.341 2.372 2.403 2.434 2.465 2.496 2.528 3 6 9 12 15 19 22 25 28
1.6 2.560 2.592 2.624 2.657 2.690 2.723 2.756 2.789 2.822 2.856 3 7 10 13 16 20 23 26 30
1.7 2.890 2.924 2.958 2.993 3.028 3.063 3.098 3.133 3.168 3.204 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
1.8 3.240 3.276 3.312 3.349 3.386 3.423 3.460 3.497 3.534 3.572 4 711 15 18 22 26 30 33
1.9 3.610 3.648 3.686 3.725 3.764 3.803 3.842 3.881 3.920 3.960 4 812 16 19 23 27 31 35

2.0 4.000 4.040 4.080 4.121 4.162 4.203 4.244 4.285 4.326 4.368 4 812 16 20 25 29 33 37
2.1 4.410 4.452 4.494 4.537 4.580 4.623 4.666 4.709 4.752 4.796 4 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 39
2.2 4.840 4.884 4.928 4.973 5.018 5.063 5.108 5.153 5.198 5.244 4 9 13 18 22 27 31 36 40
2.3 5.290 5.336 5.382 5.429 5.476 5.523 5.570 5.617 5.664 5.712 5 9 14 19 23 28 33 38 42
2.4 5.760 5.808 5.856 5.905 5.954 6.003 6.052 6.101 6.150 6.200 510 15 20 24 29 34 39 44

2.5 6.250 6.300 6.350 6.401 6.452 6.503 6.554 6.605 6.656 6.708 5 10 15 20 25 31 36 41 46
2.6 6.760 6.812 6.864 6.917 6.970 7.023 7.076 7.129 7.182 7.236 511 16 21 26 32 37 42 48
2.7 7.290 7.344 7.398 7.453 7.508 7.563 7.618 7.673 7.728 7 784 5 1116 22 28 33 38 44 49
2.8 7.840 7.896 7.952 8.009 8.066 8.123 8.180 8.237 8.294 8.352 612 17 23 29 34 40 46 51
2.9 8.410 8.468 8.526 8.585 8.644 8.703 8.762 8.821 8.880 8.940 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 47 53

3.0 9.000 9.060 9.120 9.181 9.242 9.303 9.364 9.425 9.486 9.548 612 18 24 31 37 43 49 55
3.1 9.610 9.672 9.734 9.797 9.860 9.923 9.986 6 13 19 25 31 38 44 50 57
3.1 10.05 10.11 10.18 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
3.2 10.24 10.30 10.37 10.43 10.50 10.56 10.63 10.69 10.76 10.82 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
3.3 10.89 10.96 11.02 11.09 11.16 11.22 11.29 11.36 11.42 11.49 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
3.4 11.56 11.63 11.70 11.76 11.83 11.90 11.97 12.04 12.11 12.18 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6

3.5 12.25 12.32 12.39 12.46 12.53 12.60 12.67 12.74 12.82 12.89 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
3.6 12.96 13.03 13.10 13.18 13.25 13.32 13.40 13.47 13.54 13.62 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
3.7 13.69 13.76 13.84 13.91 13.99 14.06 14.14 14.21 14.29 14.36 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
3.8 14.44 14.52 14.59 14.67 14.75 14.82 14.90 14.98 15.05 15.13 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
3.9 15.21 15.29 15.37 15.44 15.52 15.60 15.68 15.76 15.84 15.92 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

4.0 16.00 16.08 16.16 16.24 16.32 16.40 16.48 16.56 16.65 16.73 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
4.1 16.81 16.89 16.97 17.06 17.14 17.22 17.31 17.39 17.47 17.56 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
4.2 17.64 17.72 17.81 17.89 17.98 18.06 18.15 18.23 18.32 18.40 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.3 18.49 18.58 18.66 18.75 18.84 18.92 19.01 19.10 19.18 19.27 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.4 19.36 19.45 19.54 19.62 19.71 19.80 19.89 19.98 20.07 20.16 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

4.5 20.25 20.34 20.43 20.52 20.61 20.70 20.79 20.88 20.98 21.07 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.6 21.16 21.25 21.34 21.44 21.53 21.62 21.72 21.81 21.90 22.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 22.09 22.18 22.28 22.37 22.47 22.56 22.66 22.75 22.85 22.94 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.8 23.04 23.14 23.23 23.33 23.43 23.52 23.62 23.72 23.81 23.91 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.9 24.01 24.11 24.21 24.30 24.40 24.50 24.60 24.70 24.80 24.90 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5.0 25.00 25.10 25.20 25.30 25.40 25.50 25.60 25.70 25.81 25.91 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.1 26.01 26.11 26.21 26.32 26.42 26.52 26.63 26.73 26.83 26.94 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.2 27.04 27.14 27.25 27.35 27.46 27.56 27.67 27.77 27.88 27.98 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.3 28.09 28.20 28.30 28.41 28.52 28.62 28.73 28.84 28.94 29.05 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
5.4 29.16 29.27 29.38 29.48 29.59 29.70 29.81 29.92 30.03 30.14 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 j

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9|

Move the decimal point two places in N2 for each place that it is moved in N.

584
 1. SQUARES (Continued)
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5.5 30.25 30.36 30.47 30.58 30.69 30.80 30.91 31.02 31.14 31.25 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
5.6 31.36 31.47 31.58 31.70 31.81 31.92 32.04 32.15 32.26 32.38 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
5.7 32.49 32.60 32.72 32.83 32.95 33.06 33.18 33.29 33.41 33.52 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
5.8 33.64 33.76 33.87 33.99 34.11 34.22 34.34 34.46 34.57 34.69 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
5.9 34.81 34.93 35.05 35.16 35.28 35.40 35.52 35.64 35.76 35.88 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11

6.0 36.00 36.12 36.24 36.36 36.48 36.60 36.72 36.84 36.97 37.09 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
6.1 37.21 37.33 37.45 37.58 37.70 37.82 37.95 38.07 38.19 38.32 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
62 38.44 38.56 38.69 38.81 38.94 39.06 39.19 39.31 39.44 39.56 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
6.3 39.69 39.82 39.94 40.07 40.20 40.32 40.45 40.58 40.70 40.83 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
6.4 40.96 41.09 41.22 41.34 41.47 41.60 41.73 41.86 41.99 42.12 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12

6.5 42.25 42.38 42.51 42.64 42.77 42.90 43.03 43.16 43.30 43.43 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
6.6 43.56 43.69 43.82 43.96 44.09 44.22 44.36 44.49 44.62 44.76 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
6.7 44.89 45.02 45.16 45.29 45.43 45.56 45.70 45.83 45.97 46.10 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
6.8 46.24 46.38 46.51 46.65 46.79 46.92 47.06 47.20 47.33 47.47 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
6.9 47.61 47.75 47.89 48.02 48.16 48.30 48.44 48.58 48.72 48.86 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13

7.0 49.00 49.14 49.28 49.42 49.56 49.70 49.84 49.98 50.13 50.27 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
7.1 50.41 50.55 50.69 50.84 50.98 51.12 51.27 51.41 51.55 51.70 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
7.2 51.84 51.98 52.13 52.27 52.42 52.56 52.71 52.85 53.00 53.14 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
7.3 53.29 53.44 53.58 53.73 53.88 54.02 54.17 54.32 54.46 54.61 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
7.4 54.76 54.91 55.06 55.20 55.35 55.50 55.65 55.80 55.95 56.10 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

7.5 56.25 56.40 56.55 56.70 56.85 57.00 57.15 57.30 57.46 57.61 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
7.6 57.76 57.91 58.06 58.22 58.37 58.52 58.68 58.83 58.98 59.14 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
7.7 59.29 59.44 59.60 59.75 59.91 60.06 60.22 60.37 60.53 60.68 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
7.8 60.84 61.00 61.15 61.31 61.47 61.62 61.78 61.94 62.09 62.25 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
7.9 62.41 62.57 62.73 62.88 63.04 63.20 63.36 63.52 63.68 63.84 2 3 5 6 810 11 13 14

8.0 64.00 64.16 64.32 64.48 64.64 64.80 64.96 65.12 65.29 65.45 2 3 5 6 810 11 13 14
8.1 65.61 65.77 65.93 66.10 66.26 66.42 66.59 66.75 66.91 67.08 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
8.2 67.24 67.40 67.57 67.73 67.90 68.06 68.23 68.39 68.56 68.72 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
8.3 68.89 69.06 69.22 69.39 69.56 69.72 69.89 70.06 70.22 70.39 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
8.4 70.56 70.73 70.90 71.06 71.23 71.40 71.57 71.74 71.91 72.08 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15

8.5 72.25 72.42 72.59 72.76 72.93 73.10 73.27 73.44 73.62 73.79 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
8.6 73.96 74.13 74.30 74.48 74.65 74.82 75.00 75.17 75.34 75.52 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
8.7 75.69 75.86 76.04 76.21 76.39 76.56 76.74 76.91 77.09 77.26 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 1416
8.8 77.44 77.62 77.79 77.97 78.15 78.32 78.50 78.68 78.85 79.03 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
8.9 79.21 79.39 79.57 79.74 79.92 80.10 80.28 80.46 80.64 80.82 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16

9.0 81.00 81.18 81.36 81.54 81.72 81.90 82.08 82.26 82.45 82.63 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
9.1 82.81 82.99 83.17 83.36 83.54 83.72 83.91 84.09 84.27 84.46 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 15 16
9.2 84.64 84.82 85.01 85.19 85.38 85.56 85.75 85.93 86.12 86.30 2 4 6 7 911 13 15 17
9.3 86.49 86.68 86.86 87.05 87.24 87.42 87.61 87.80 87.98 88.17 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
9.4 88.36 88.55 88.74 88.92 89.11 89.30 89.49 89.68 89.87 90.06 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17

9.5 90.25 90.44 90.63 90.82 91.01 91.20 91 39 91.58 91.78 91.97 2 4 6 8 10 11 13 15 17
9.6 92.16 92.35 92.54 92.74 92.93 93.12 93.32 93.51 93.70 93.90 2 4 6 81012 14 15 17
9.7 94.09 94.28 94.48 94.67 94.87 95.06 95.26 95.45 95.65 95.84 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
9.8 96.04 96.24 96.43 96.63 96.83 97.02 97.22 97.42 97.61 97.81 2 4 6 810 12 14 16 18
98.60 98.80 99.00 99.20 99.40 99.60 99.80 2 4 6 810 12 14 16 18
9.9 98.01 98.21 98.41

Li 0 1 2 3
Move the decimal point
4
two
5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3

places in N2 for each place that it is moved in V.

4 5 6 7 8 9

585
 2. SQUARE ROOTS. 1.00-5.49
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.0 1.000 1.005 1.010 1.015 1.020 1.025 1.030 1.034 1.039 1.044 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1.1 1.049 1.054 1.058 1.063 1.068 1.072 1.077 1.082 1.086 1.091 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1.2 1.095 1.100 1.105 1.109 1.114 1.118 1.122 1.127 1.131 1.136 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 44
1.3 1.140 1.145 1.149 1.153 1.158 1.162 1.166 1.170 1.175 1.179 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
1.4 1.183 1.187 1.192 1.196 1.200 1.204 1.208 1.212 1.217 1.221 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4

1.5 1.225 1.229 1.233 1.237 1.241 1.245 1.249 1.253 1.257 1.261 0 1 1 2 22 3 3 4
1.6 1.265 1.269 1.273 1.277 1.281 1.285 1.288 1.292 1.296 1.300 0 1 1 2 22 3 3 4
1.7 1.304 1.308 1.311 1.315 1.319 1.323 1.327 1.330 1.334 1.338 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
1.8 1.342 1.345 1.349 1.353 1.356 1.360 1.364 1.367 1.371 1.375 0 1 1 12 2 3 3 3
1.9 1.378 1.382 1.386 1.389 1.393 1.396 1.400 1.404 1.407 1.411 Oil 12 2 3 3 3

2.0 1.414 1.418 1.421 1.425 1.428 1.432 1.435 1.439 1.442 1.446 0 1 1 12 2 2 3 3
2.1 1.449 1.453 1.456 1.459 1.463 1.466 1.470 1.473 1.476 1.480 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
2.2 1.483 1.487 1.490 1.493 1.497 1.500 1.503 1.507 1.510 1.513 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
2.3 1.517 1.520 1.523 1.526 1.530 1.533 1.536 1.539 1.543 1.546 0 1 1 12 2 2 3 3
2.4 1.549 1.552 1.556 1.559 1.562 1.565 1.568 1.572 1.575 1.578 0 1 1 12 2 2 3 3

2.5 1.581 1.584 1.587 1.591 1.594 1.597 1.600 1.603 1.606 1.609 Oil 12 2 2 3 3
2.6 1.612 1.616 1.619 1.622 1.625 1.628 1.631 1.634 1.637 1.640 0 1 1 12 2 2 2 3
2.7 1.643 1.646 1.649 1.652 1.655 1.658 1.661 1.664 1.667 1.670 0 1 1 12 2 2 2 3
2.8 1.673 1.676 1.679 1.682 1.685 1.688 1.691 1.694 1.697 1.700 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
2.9 1.703 1.706 1.709 1.712 1.715 1.718 1.720 1.723 1.726 1.729 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3

3.0 1.732 1.735 1.738 1.741 1.744 1.746 1.749 1.752 1.755 1.758 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
3.1 1.761 1.764 1.766 1.769 1.772 1.775 1.778 1.780 1.783 1.786 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
3.2 1.789 1.792 1.794 1.797 1.800 1.803 1.806 1.808 1.811 1.814 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.3 1.817 1.819 1.822 1.825 1.828 1.830 1.833 1.836 1.838 1.841 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.4 1.844 1.847 1.849 1.852 1.855 1.857 1.860 1.863 1.865 1.868 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

3.5 1.871 1.873 1.876 1.879 1.881 1.884 1.887 1.889 1.892 1.895 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.6 1.897 1.900 1.903 1.905 1.908 1.910 1.913 1.916 1.918 1.921 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.7 1.924 1.926 1.929 1.931 1.934 1.936 1.939 1.942 1.944 1.947 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.8 1.949 1.952 1.954 1.957 1.960 1.962 1.965 1.967 1.970 1.972 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3.9 1.975 1.977 1.980 1.982 1.985 1.987 1.990 1.992 1.995 1.997 0 1 1 112 2 2 2

4.0 2.000 2.002 2.005 2.007 2.010 2.012 2.015 2.017 2.020 2.022 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.1 2.025 2.027 2.030 2.032 2.035 2.037 2.040 2.042 2.045 2.047 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.2 2.049 2.052 2.054 2.057 2.059 2.062 2.064 2.066 2.069 2.071 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.3 2.074 2.076 2.078 2.081 2.083 2.086 2.088 2.090 2.093 2.095 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.4 2.098 2.100 2.102 2.105 2.107 2.110 2.112 2.114 2.117 2.119 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

4.5 2.121 2.124 2.126 2.128 2.131 2.133 2.135 2.138 2.140 2.142 00 1 111 2 2 2
4.6 2.145 2.147 2.149 2.152 2.154 2.156 2.159 2.161 2.163 2.166 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.7 2.168 2.170 2.173 2.175 2.177 2.179 2.182 2.184 2.186 2.189 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.8 2.191 2.193 2.195 2.198 2.200 2.202 2.205 2.207 2.209 2.211 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
4.9 2.214 2.216 2.218 2.220 2.223 2.225 2.227 2.229 2.232 2.234 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

5.0 2.236 2.238 2.241 2.243 2.245 2.247 2.249 2.252 2.254 2.256 00 1 111 2 2 2
5.1 2.258 2.261 2.263 2.265 2.267 2.269 2.272 2.274 2.276 2.278 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
5.2 2.280 2.283 2.285 2.287 2.289 2.291 2.293 2.296 2.298 2.300 00 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
5.3 2.302 2.304 2.307 2.309 2.311 2.313 2.315 2.317 2.319 2.322 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
5.4 2.324 2.326 2.328 2.330 2.332 2.335 2.337 2.339 2.341 2.343 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Move the decimal point one place in \/n for every two places that it is moved in N.

586
 2. SQUARE ROOTS. 5.50-9.99 (Continued)
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 A
5 6 7 8 9
12 3 4 6 6 7 8 9

5.5 2.345 2.347 2.349 2.352 2.354 2.356 2.358 2.360 2.362 2.364 00 1 111 1 2 2
5.6 2.366 2.369 2.371 2.373 2.375 2.377 2.379 2.381 2.383 2.385 00 1 111 1 2 2
5.7 2.387 2.390 2.392 2.394 2.396 2.398 2.400 2.402 2.404 2.406 00 1 111 1 2 2
5.8 2.408 2.410 2.412 2.415 2.417 2.419 2.421 2.423 2.425 2.427 00 1 111 1 2 2
5.9 2.429 2.431 2.433 2.435 2.437 2.439 2.441 2.443 2.445 2.447 00 1 111 1 2 2

6.0 2.449 2.452 2.454 2.456 2.458 2.460 2.462 2.464 2.466 2.468 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.1 2.470 2.472 2.474 2.476 2.478 2.480 2.482 2.484 2.486 2.488 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.2 2.490 2.492 2.494 2.496 2.498 2.500 2.502 2.504 2.506 2.508 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.3 2.510 2.512 2.514 2.516 2.518 2.520 2.522 2.524 2.526 2.528 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.4 2.530 2.532 2.534 2.536 2.538 2.540 2.542 2.544 2.546 2.548 00 1 111 1 2 2

6.5 2.550 2.551 2.553 2.555 2.557 2.559 2.561 2.563 2.565 2.567 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.6 2.569 2.571 2.573 2.575 2.577 2.579 2.581 2.583 2.585 2.587 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.7 2.588 2.590 2.592 2.594 2.596 2.598 2.600 2.602 2.604 2.606 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.8 2.608 2.610 2.612 2.613 2.615 2.617 2.619 2.621 2.623 2.625 00 1 111 1 2 2
6.9 2.627 2.629 2.631 2.632 2.634 2.636 2.638 2.640 2.642 2.644 00 1 111 1 2 2

7.0 2.646 2.648 2.650 2.651 2.653 2.655 2.657 2.659 2.661 2.663 00 1 111 1 2 2
7.1 2.665 2.666 2.668 2.670 2.672 2.674 2.676 2.678 2.680 2.681 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.2 2.683 2.685 2.687 2 689 2.691 2.693 2.694 2.696 2.698 2.700 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.3 2.702 2.704 2.706 2.707 2.709 2.711 2.713 2.715 2.717 2.718 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.4 2.720 2.722 2.724 2.726 2.728 2.729 2.731 2.733 2.735 2.737 00 1 111 1 1 2

7.5 2.739 2.740 2.742 2.744 2.746 2.748 2.750 2.751 2.753 2.755 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.6 2.757 2.759 2.760 2.762 2.764 2.766 2.768 2.769 2.771 2.773 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.7 2.775 2.777 2.778 2.780 2.782 2.784 2.786 2.787 2.789 2.791 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.8 2.793 2.795 2.796 2.798 2.800 2.802 2.804 2.805 2.807 2.809 00 1 111 1 1 2
7.9 2.811 2.812 2.814 2.816 2.818 2.820 2.821 2.823 2.825 2.827 00 1 111 1 1 2

8.0 2.828 2.830 2.832 2.834 2.835 2.837 2.839 2,841 2.843 2.844 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.1 2.846 2.848 2.850 2.851 2.853 2.855 2.857 2.858 2.860 2.862 00 1 111 11 2
8.2 2.864 2.865 2.867 2.869 2.871 2.872 2.874 2.876 2.877 2.879 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.3 2.881 2.883 2.884 2.886 2.888 2.890 2.891 2.893 2.895 2.897 0 0 1 111 1 1 2
8.4 2.898 2.900 2.902 2.903 2.905 2.907 2.909 2.910 2.912 2.914 00 1 111 1 1 2

8.5 2.915 2.917 2.919 2.921 2.922 2.924 2.926 2.927 2.929 2.931 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.6 2.933 2.934 2.936 2.938 2.939 2.941 2.943 2.944 2.946 2.948 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.7 2.950 2.951 2.953 2.955 2.956 2.958 2.960 2.961 2.963 2.965 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.8 2.966 2.968 2.970 2.972 2.973 2.975 2.977 2.978 2.980 2.982 00 1 111 1 1 2
2.995 2.997 2.998 00 1 111 1 1 2
8.9 2.983 2.985 2.987 2.988 2.990 2.992 2.993

3.005 3.007 3.008 3.010 3.012 3.013 3.015 000 111 1 1 1

9.0 3.000 3.002 3.003
3.022 3.023 3.025 3.027 3.028 3.030 3.032 000 111 1 1 1
9.1 3.017 3.018 3.020
3.038 3.040 3.041 3.043 3.045 3.046 3.048 000 111 1 1 1
9.2 3.033 3.035 3.036
3.055 3.056 3.058 3.059 3.061 3.063 3.064 000 1 11 1 1 1
9.3 3.050 3.051 3.053
3.079 3.081 000 111 111
9.4 3.066 3.068 3.069 3.071 3.072 3.074 3.076 3.077

3 092 3.094 3.095 3.097 000 111 1 1 1

9.5 3.082 3.084 3.085 3.087 3.089 3.090
3.108 3.110 3.111 3.113 0 0 0 1 1 1 111
9.6 3.098 3.100 3.102 3.103 3 105 3.106
3.124 3.126 3.127 3.129 0 0 0 111 111
9.7 3.114 3.116 3.118 3.119 3.121 3.122
3.140 3.142 3.143 3.145 0 0 0 111 111
9.8 3.130 3.132 3.134 3.135 3.137 3.138
3 156 3.158 3.159 3.161 0 0 0 111 111
9.9 3.146 3.148 3.150 3.151 3.153 3.154
o e ft
o 74 £ 9 12 3
N 0 1 2 3 4 O

Move the decimal point one place in Vn for every two places that it is moved in N.

587
 2. SQUARE ROOTS. 10.0-54.9 (Continued)
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 3 4 5 6 8 9
7

10 3.162 3.178 3.194 3.209 3.225 3.240 3.256 3.271 3.286 3.302 235 689 11 12 14
11 3.317 3.332 3.347 3.362 3.376 3.391 3.406 3.421 3.435 3.450 134 679 10 12 13
12 3.464 3.479 3.493 3.507 3.521 3.536 3.550 3.564 3.578 3.592 134 678 10 11 13
13 3.606 3.619 3.633 3.647 3.661 3.674 3.688 3.701 3.715 3.728 134 578 10 11 12
14 3.742 3.755 3.768 3.782 3.795 3.808 3.821 3.834 3.847 3.860 134 578 9 11 12

15 3.873 3.886 3.899 3.912 3.924 3.937 3.950 3.962 3.975 3.987 134 568 9 10 11
16 4.000 4.012 4.025 4.037 4.050 4.062 4.074 4.087 4.099 4.111 124 567 9 10 11
17 4.123 4.135 4.147 4.159 4.171 4.183 4.195 4.207 4.219 4.231 124 567 8 10 11
18 4.243 4.254 4.266 4.278 4.290 4.301 4.313 4.324 4.336 4.347 123 567 8 9 10
19 4.359 4.370 4.382 4.393 4.405 4.416 4.427 4.438 4.450 4.461 123 567 8 9 10

20 4.472 4.483 4.494 4.506 4.517 4.528 4.539 4.550 4.561 4.572 123 467 8 9 10
21 4.583 4.593 4.604 4.615 4.626 4.637 4.648 4.658 4.669 4.680 123 456 8 9 10
22 4.690 4.701 4.712 4.722 4.733 4.743 4.754 4.764 4.775 4.785 123 456 7 8 9
23 4.796 4.806 4.817 4.827 4.837 4.848 4.858 4.868 4.879 4.889 123 456 7 8 9
24 4.899 4.909 4.919 4.930 4.940 4.950 4.960 4.970 4.980 4.990 123 456 7 8 9

25 5.000 5.010 5.020 5.030 5.040 5.050 5.060 5.070 5.079 5.089 123 456 7 8 9
26 5.099 5.109 5.119 5.128 5.138 5.148 5.158 5.167 5.177 5.187 123 456 7 8 9
27 5.196 5.206 5.215 5.225 5.235 5.244 5.254 5.263 5.273 5.282 12 3 456 7 8 9
28 5.292 5.301 5.310 5.320 5.329 5.339 5.348 5.357 5.367 5.376 123 456 7 7 8
29 5.385 5.394 5.404 5.413 5.422 5.431 5.441 5.450 5.459 5.468 123 455 6 7 8

30 5.477 5.486 5.495 5.505 5.514 5.523 5.532 5.541 5.550 5.559 123 445 6 7 8
31 5.568 5.577 5.586 5.595 5.604 5.612 5.621 5.630 5.639 5.648 123 345 6 7 8
32 5.657 5.666 5.675 5.683 5.692 5.701 5.710 5.718 5.727 5.736 12 3 345 6 7 8
33 5.745 5.753 5.762 5.771 5.779 5.788 5.797 5.805 5.814 5.822 123 345 6 7 8
34 5.831 5.840 5.848 5.857 5.865 5.874 5.882 5.891 5.899 5.908 123 345 6 7 8

35 5.916 5.925 5.933 5.941 5.950 5.958 5.967 5.975 5.983 5.992 122 345 6 7 8
36 6.000 6.008 6.017 6.025 6.033 6.042 6.050 6.058 6.066 6.075 122 345 6 7 7
37 6.083 6.091 6.099 6.107 6.116 6.124 6.132 6.140 6.148 6.156 122 345 6 7 7
38 6.164 6.173 6.181 6.189 6.197 6.205 6.213 6.221 6.229 6.237 122 345 6 6 7
39 6.245 6.253 6.261 6.269 6.277 6.285 6.293 6.301 6.309 6.317 122 345 6 6 7

40 6.325 6.332 6.340 6.348 6.356 6.364 6.372 6.380 6.387 6.395 122 345 6 6 7
41 6.403 6.411 6.419 6.427 6.434 6.442 6.450 6.458 6.465 6.473 122 345 5 6 7
42 6.481 6.488 6.496 6.504 6.512 6.519 6.527 6.535 6.542 6.550 122 345 5 6 7
43 6.557 6.565 6.573 6.580 6.588 6.595 6.603 6.611 6.618 6.626 122 345 5 6 7
44 6.633 6.641 6.648 6.656 6.663 6.671 6.678 6.686 6.693 6.701 122 345 5 6 7

45 6.708 6.716 6.723 6.731 6.738 6.745 6.753 6.760 6.768 6.775 1 1 2 344 5 6 7
46 6.782 6.790 6.797 6.804 6.812 6.819 6.826 6.834 6.841 6.848 1 1 2 344 5 6 7
47 6.856 6.863 6.870 6.877 6.885 6.892 6.899 6.907 6.914 6.921 1 1 2 344 5 6 7
48 6.928 6.935 6.943 6.950 6.957 6.964 6.971 6.979 6.986 6.993 1 1 2 344 5 6 6
49 7.000 7.007 7.014 7.021 7.029 7.036 7.043 7.050 7.057 7.064 1 1 2 344 5 6 6

50 7.071 7.078 7.085 7.092 7.099 7.106 7.113 7.120 7.127 7.134 1 12 344 5 6 6
51 7.141 7.148 7.155 7.162 7.169 7.176 7.183 7.190 7.197 7.204 1 1 2 344 5 6 6
52 7.211 7.218 7.225 7.232 7.239 7.246 7.253 7.259 7.266 7.273 1 12 334 5 6 6
53 7.280 7.287 7.294 7.301 7.308 7.314 7.321 7.328 7.335 7 342 1 1 2 334 5 5 6
54 7.348 7.355 7.362 7.369 7.376 7.382 7.389 7.396 7.403 7.409 112 334 5 5 6

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 3 4 6 6 7 8 9

Move the decimal point one place in "\/n for every two places that it is moved in N.

588
 2. SQUARE ROOTS. 55.0-99.9 (Continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6 Differences
0 8 9
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I 7.416 1 7.423 7.436 7.443 7.450 7.457 7.463
7.483 7.490 7.470 7.477 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
7.503 7.510 7.517 7.523 7.530
7.550 | 7.556 7.537 7.543 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
7.570 7.576 7.583 7.589 7.596
7.616 7.622 7.603 7.609 1 1 2 I 3 3 4 5 5 6
7.635 7.642 7.649 7.655 7.662
7.681 7.688 7.668 7.675 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
7.701 7.707 7.714 7.720 7.727
7.733 7.740 1 1 2 33 4 4 5 6
7.746 7.752 7.765 7.772 7.778 7.785 7.791 7.797
7.810 7.817 7.804 112
7.829 7.836 7.842 7.849 7.855 7.861
7.874 7.880 7.868 112
7.893 7.899 7.906 7.912 7.918 7.925
7.937 7.944 7.931 112
7.956 7.962 7.969 7.975 7.981 7.987
8.000 8.006 7.994 112
8.019 8.025 8.031 8.037 8.044 8.050
8.056 112
8.062 8.068 8.081 8.087 8.093 8.099 8.106 8.112
8.118 112
8.124 8.130 8.142 8.149 8.155 8.161 8.167 8.173
8.179 112
8.185 8.191 8.198 8.204 8.210 8.216 8.222 8.228 8.234 8.240
112
18.246 8.252 8.258 8.264 8.270 8.276 8.283 8.289 8 295 8.301
112
8.307 8.313 8.319 8.325 8.331 8.337 8.343 8.349 8.355 8.361
112
8.367 8.373 8.379 8.385 8.390 8.396 8.402 8.408
8.414 8.420 112 45 5
8.426 8.432 8.438 8.444 8.450 8.456 8.462 8.468
8.473 1 8.479 ! 1 1 2 4 55
18.485 8.491 8.497 8.503 8.509 8.515 8.521 8.526 8.532
8.538 1 1 2
18.544 8.550 8.556 8.562 8.567 8.573 8.579 8.585
8.591 8.597 1 1 2
8.602 8.608 8.614 8.620 8.626 8.631 8.637 8.643 8.649
8.654 1 1 2

8.660 8.666 8.672 8.678 8.683 8.689 8.695 8.701 8.706 8.712
1 1 2
8.718 8.724 8.729 8.735 8.741 8.746 8.752 8.758 8.764
8.769 1 1 2
8.775 8.781 8.786 8.792 8.798 8.803 8.809 8.815 8.820 8.826 112
8.832 8.837 8.843 8.849 8.854 8.860 8.866 8.871 8.877 8.883 112
8.888 8.894 8.899 8.905 8.911 8.916 8.922 8.927 8.933 8.939 112

18.944 8.950 8.955 8.961 I 8.967 8.972 8.978 8.983 8.989 8.994 112
9.000 9.006 9.011 9.017 9.022 9.028 9.033 9.039 9.044 9.050 112
9.055 9.061 9.066 9.072 9.077 9.083 9.088 9.094 9.099 9.105 112
9.110 9.116 9.121 9.127 9.132 9.138 9.143 9.149 9.154 9.160 112
9.165 9.171 9.176 9.182 9.187 9.192 9.198 9.203 9.209 9.214 112

9.220 9.225 9.230 9.236 9.241 9.247 9.252 9.257 9.263 9.268 112
9.274 9.279 9.284 9.290 9.295 9.301 9.306 9.311 9.317 9.322 112
9.327 9.333 9.338 9.343 9.349 9.354 9.359 9.365 9.370 9.375 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.381 9.386 9.391 9.397 9.402 9.407 9.413 9.418 9.423 9.429 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.434 9.439 9.445 9.450 | 9.455 9.460 9.466 9.471 9.476 9.482 1 1 2 2 3 3

9.487 9.492 9.497 9.503 I 9.508 9.513 9.518 9.524 9.529 9.534 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.539 9.545 9.550 9.555 9.560 9.566 9.571 9.576 9.581 9.586 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.592 9.597 9.602 9.607 9.612 9.618 9.623 9.628 9.633 9.638 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.644 9.649 9.654 9.659 9.664 9.670 9.675 9.680 9.685 9.690 1 1 2 2 3 3
9.695 9.701 9.706 9.711 9.716 9.721 9.726 9.731 9.737 9.742 1 1 2 2 3 3

9.747 9.752 9.757 9.762 9.767 9.772 9.778 9.783 9.788 9.793 11 1 2
9.798 9.803 9.808 9.813 9.818 9.823 9.829 9.834 9.839 9.844 1 1 2
9.849 9.854 9.859 9.864 9.869 9.874 9.879 9.884 9.889 9.894 1 1 2
9.899 9.905 9.910 9.915 9.920 9.925 9.930 9.935 9.940 9.945 011
9.950 I 9.955 | 9.960 9.965 9.970 9.975 9.980 9.985 9.990 9.995 10 1 1

0 “ 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Move the decimal point one place in ~s/n for every two places that it is moved in N.

589
 3. CUBES
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
123 456789

1.0 1.000 1.030 1.061 1.093 1.125 1.158 1.191 1.225 1.260 1.295
l.l 1.331 1.368 1.405 1.443 1.482 1.521 1.561 1.602 1.643 1.685
1.2 1.728 1.772 1.816 1.861 1.907 1.953 2.000 2.048 2.097 2.147
1.3 2.197 2.248 2.300 2.353 2.406 2.460 2.515 2.571 2.628 2.686
1.4 2.744 2.803 2.863 2.924 2.986 3.049 3.112 3.177 3.242 3.308

1.5 3.375 3.443 3.512 3.582 3.652 3.724 3.796 3.870 3.944 4.020
1.6 4.096 4.173 4.252 4.331 4.411 4.492 4.574 4.657 4.742 4.827
1.7 4.913 5.000 5.088 5.178 5.268 5.359 5.452 5.545 5.640 5.735
1.8 5.832 5.930 6.029 6.128 6.230 6.332 6.435 6.539 6.645 6.751
1.9 6.859 6.968 7.078 7.189 7.301 7.415 7.530 7.645 7.762 7.881

2.0 8.000 8.121 8.242 8.365 8.490 8.615 8.742 8.870 8.999 9.129
2.1 9.261 9.394 9.528 9.664 9.800 9.938 10.08 10.22 10.36 10.50
2.2 10.65 10.79 10.94 11.09 11.24 11.39 11.54 11.70 11.85 12.01
2.3 12.17 12.33 12.49 12.65 12.81 12.98 13.14 13.31 13.48 13.65
2.4 13.82 14.00 14.17 14.35 14.53 14.71 14.89 15.07 15.25 15.44

2.5 15.63 15.81 16.00 16.19 16.39 16.58 16.78 16.97 17.17 17.37
2.6 17.58 17.78 17.98 18.19 18.40 18.61 18.82 19.03 19.25 19.47
2.7 19.68 19.90 20.12 20.35 20.57 20.80 21.02 21.25 21.48 21.72
2.8 21.95 22.19 22.43 22.67 22.91 23.15 23.39 23.64 23.89 24.14 Use
2.9 24.64 interpolation
24.39 24.90 25.15 25.41 25.67 25.93 26.20 26.46 26.73

3.0 27.00 27.27 27.54 27.82 28.09 28.37 28.65 28.93 29.22 29.50
3.1 29.79 30.08 30.37 30.66 30.96 31.26 31.55 31.86 32.16 32.46
3.2 32.77 33.08 33.39 33.70 34.01 34.33 34.65 34.97 35.29 35.61
3.3 35.94 36.26 36.59 36.93 37.26 37.60 37.93 38.27 38.61 38.96
3.4 39.30 39.65 40.00 40.35 40.71 41.06 41.42 41.78 42.14 42.51

3.5 42.88 43.24 43.61 43.99 44.36 44.74 45.12 45.50 45.88 46.27
3.6 46.66 47.05 47.44 47.83 48.23 48.63 49.03 49.43 49.84 50.24
3.7 50.65 51.06 51.48 51.90 52.31 52.73 53.16 53.58 54.01 54.44
3.8 54.87 55.31 55.74 56.18 56.62 57.07 57.51 57.96 58.41 58.86
3.9 59.32 59.78 60.24 60.70 61.16 61.63 62.10 62.57 63.04 63.52

4.0 64.00 64.48 64.96 65.45 65.94 66.43 66.92 67.42 67.92 68.42
4.1 68.92 69.43 69.93 70.44 70.96 71.47 71.99 72.51 73.03 73.56
4.2 74.09 74.62 75.15 75.69 76.23 76.77 77.31 77.85 78.40 78.95
4.3 79.51 80.06 80.62 81.18 81.75 82.31 82.88 83.45 84.03 84.60
4.4 85.18 85.77 86.35 86.94 87.53 88.12 88.72 *89.31 89.92 90.52

4.5 91.13 91.73 92.35 92.96 93.58 94.20 94.82 95.44 96.07 96.70
4.6 97.34 97.97 98.61 99.25 99.90 100.5 101.2 101.8 102.5 103.2
4.7 103.8 104.5 105.2 105.8 106.5 107.2 107.9 108.5 109.2 109.9 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
4.8 110.6 111.3 112.0 112.7 113.4 114.1 114.8 115.5 116.2 116.9 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
4.9 117.6 118.4 119.1 119.8 120.6 121.3 122.0 122.8 123.5 124.3 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

5.0 125.0 125.8 126.5 127.3 128.0 128.8 129.6 130.3 131.1 131.9 2 4 5 6 6 7
5.1 132.7 133.4 134.2 135.0 135.8 136.6 137.4 138.2 139.0 139.8 2 4 5 6 6 7
5.2 140.6 141.4 142.2 143.1 143.9 144.7 145.5 146.4 147.2 148.0 2 4 5 6 6 7
5.3 148.9 149.7 150.6 151.4 152.3 153.1 154.0 154.9 155.7 156.6 2 4 5 6 7 8
5.4 157.5 158.3 159.2 160.1 161.0 161.9 162.8 163.7 164.6 165.5 2 4 5 6 7 8
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

590
 3. CUBES (Continued)
N 4 5 Differences
6 8 9
112 3 4 5 (5 7 8 9
168.2 1 170.0 171.0 171.9 172.8 173.7
177.5 7J123 4 5 6 6 7 8
179.4 180.4 181.3 182.3 183.3
187.1 2 123 4 5 6 7 8 9
189.1 190.1 191.1 192.1 193.1
197.1 y 123 4 5 6 7 8 9
199.2 200.2 201.2 202.3 203.3
3J 123 4 5 6 7 8 9
207.5 209.6 210.6 211.7 212.8 213.8
9 123 4 5 6 7 810
218.2 220.3 221.4 222.5 223.6 224.8 ol 123 4 5 7
229.2 231.5 8 910
232.6 233.7 234.9 236.0 2 123
240.6 4 6 7 8 910
243.0 244.1 245.3 246.5 247.7 9J 123 5 6 7 8 911
252.4 254.8 256.0 257.3 258.5 259.7 9 124 5 6 7 81011
264.6 267.1 268.3 269.6 270.8 272.1 4 134 5 6 8 91011
277.2 279.7 281.0 282.3 283.6 284.9 2 134 5 6 8 9 1012
290.1 292.8 294.1 295.4 296.7 298.1 4j 134 5 7 8 9 11 12
303.5 306.2 307.5 308.9 310.3 311.7 0 134 5 7 8 10 11 12
317.2 320.0 321.4 322.8 324.2 325.7 1 134 6 7 8 10 11 13
331.4 334.3 335.7 337.2 338.6 340.1 5 134 6 7 9 10 12 13
345.9 348.9 350.4 351.9 354.9 ill 34 6 7 9 10 12 13
360.9 364.0 365.5 367.1 370.1 7 235 6 8 9 11 12 14
376.4 379.5 381.1 382.7 385.8 M235 6 8 9 11 13 14
392.2 395.4 397.1 398.7 401.9 3j235 6 810 11 13 14
408.5 411.8 413.5 415.2 418.5 2 235 7 810 12 13 15
425.3 428.7 430.4 432.1 435.5 M2 3 5 7 910 12 14 15
442.5 445.9 447.7 449.5 453.0 ? 235 7 910 12 14 16
463.7 465.5 467.3 470.9 r 245 7 9 11 13 14 16
481.9 483.7 485.6 489.3 M 246 7 911 13 15 17
498.7 500.6 502.5 504.4 506.3 508.2 246 810 11 13 15 17

517.8 519.7 521.7 523.6 525.6 527.5 >246 810 12 14 16 18

537.4 539.4 541.3 543.3 545.3 547.3 246 810 12 14 16 18
557.4 559.5 561.5 563.6 565.6 567.7 246 810 12 14 16 18
578.0 580.1 582.2 584.3 586.4 588.5 246 810 13 15 17 19
599.1 601.2 603.4 605.5 607.6 609.8 246 911 13 15 17 19

620.7 622.8 625.0 627.2 629.4 631.6 247 911 13 15 18 20

642.7 645.0 647.2 649.5 651.7 654.0 247 911 13 16 18 20
665.3 667.6 669.9 672.2 674.5 676.8 257 911 14 16 18 21
688.5 690.8 693.2 695.5 697.9 700.2 257 912 14 1619 21
712.1 714.5 716.9 719.3 721.7 724.2 257 10 12 14 17 19 22

736.3 738.8 741.2 743.7 746.1 748.6 257 10 12 15 17 20 22

761.0 763.6 766.1 768.6 771.1 773.6 358 10 13 15 18 20 23
786.3 788.9 791.5 794.0 796.6 799.2 358 10 13 15 18 21 23
812.2 814.8 817.4 820.0 822.7 825.3 358 1013 16 18 21 24
838.6 841.2 843.9 846.6 849.3 852.0 358 1113 16 19 2124

865.5 868.3 871.0 873.7 876.5 879.2 358 1114 16 19 22 25

893.1 895.8 898.6 901.4 904.2 907.0 368 1114 17 20 22 25
921.2 924.0 926.9 929.7 932.6 935.4 369 11 14 17 20 23 26
949.9 952.8 955.7 958.6 961.5 964.4 369 1215 17 20 23 26
979.1 982.1 985.1 988.0 | 991.0 994.0 369 12 15 18 21 24 27
N 6 8 9
00

11 2 3 4 5 6

591
 4. NATURAL SINES
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' i' 2' s' 4' 5'

0° .0000 .0017 .0035 .0052 .0070 .0087 .0105 .0122 .0140 .0157 3 6 9 12 15
1 .0175 .0192 .0209 .0227 .0244 .0262 .0279 .0297 .0314 .0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 .0349 .0366 .0384 .0401 .0419 .0436 .0454 .0471 .0488 .0506 3 6 9 12 15
3 .0523 .0541 .0558 .0576 .0593 .0610 .0628 .0645 .0663 .0680 3 6 9 12 15
4 .0698 .0715 .0732 .0750 .0767 .0785 .0802 .0819 .0837 .0854 3 6 9 12 14

5 .0872 .0889 .0906 .0924 .0941 .0958 .0976 .0993 .1011 .1028 3 6 9 12 14
6 .1045 .1063 .1080 .1097 .1115 .1132 .1149 .1167 .1184 .1201 3 6 9 12 14
7 .1219 .1236 .1253 .1271 .1288 .1305 .1323 .1340 .1357 .1374 3 6 9 12 14
8 .1392 .1409 .1426 .1444 .1461 .1478 .1495 .1513 .1530 .1547 3 6 9 12 14
9 .1564 .1582 .1599 .1616 .1633 .1650 .1668 .1685 .1702 .1719 3 6 9 11 14
O
iH
O

.1736 .1754 .1771 .1788 .1805 .1822 .1840 .1857 .1874 .1891 3 6 9 11 14
11 .1908 .1925 .1942 .1959 .1977 .1994 .2011 .2028 .2045 .2062 3 6 9 11 14
12 .2079 .2096 .2113 .2130 .2147 .2164 .2181 .2198 .2215 .2233 3 6 9 11 14
13 .2250 .2267 .2284 .2300 .2317 .2334 .2351 .2368 .2385 .2402 3 6 8 11 14
14 .2419 .2436 .2453 .2470 .2487 .2504 .2521 .2538 .2554 .2571 3 6 8 11 14

15 .2588 .2605 .2622 .2639 .2656 .2672 .2689 .2706 .2723 .2740 3 6 8 11 14
16 .2756 .2773 .2790 .2807 .2823 .2840 .2857 .2874 .2890 .2907 3 6 8 11 14
17 .2924 .2940 .2957 .2974 .2990 .3007 .3024 .3040 .3057 .3074 3 6 8 11 14
18 .3090 .3107 .3123 .3140 .3156 .3173 .3190 .3206 .3223 .3239 3 6 8 11 14
19 .3256 .3272 .3289 .3305 .3322 .3338 .3355 .3371 .3387 .3404 3 5 8 11 14

20° .3420 .3437 .3453 .3469 .3486 .3502 .3518 .3535 .3551 .3567 3 5 8 11 14
21 .3584 .3600 .3616 .3633 .3649 .3665 .3681 .3697 .3714 .3730 3 5 8 11 14
22 .3746 .3762 .3778 .3795 .3811 .3827 .3843 .3859 .3875 .3891 3 5 8 11 13
23 .3907 .3923 .3939 .3955 .3971 .3987 .4003 .4019 .4035 .4051 3 5 8 11 13
24 .4067 .4083 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4163 .4179 .4195 .4210 3 5 8 11 13

25 .4226 .4242 .4258 .4274 .4289 .4305 .4321 .4337 .4352 .4368 3 5 8 11 13
26 .4384 .4399 .4415 .4431 .4446 .4462 .4478 .4493 .4509 .4524 3 5 8 10 13
27 .4540 .4555 .4571 .4586 .4602 .4617 .4633 .4648 .4664 .4679 3 5 8 10 13
28 .4695 .4710 .4726 .4741 .4756 .4772 .4787 .4802 .4818 .4833 3 5 8 10 13
29 .4848 .4863 .4879 .4894 .4909 .4924 .4939 .4955 .4970 .4985 3 5 8 10 13

30° .5000 .5015 .5030 .5045 .5060 .5075 .5090 .5105 .5120 .5135 3 5 8 10 13
31 .5150 .5165 .5180 .5195 .5210 .5225 .5240 .5255 .5270 .5284 2 5 7 10 12
32 .5299 .5314 .5329 .5344 .5358 .5373 .5388 .5402 .5417 .5432 2 5 7 10 12
33 .5446 .5461 .5476 .5490 .5505 .5519 .5534 .5548 .5563 .5577 2 5 7 10 12
34 .5592 .5606 .5621 .5635 .5650 .5664 .5678 .5693 .5707 .5721 2 5 7 10 12

35 .5736 .5750 .5764 .5779 .5793 .5807 .5821 .5835 .5850 .5864 2 5 7 9 12
36 .5878 .5892 .5906 .5920 .5934 .5948 .5962 .5976 .5990 .6004 2 5 7 9 12
37 .6018 .6032 .6046 .6060 .6074 .6088 .6101 .6115 .6129 .6143 2 5 7 9 12
38 .6157 .6170 .6184 .6198 .6211 .6225 .6239 .6252 .6266 .6280 2 5 7 9 11
39 .6293 .6307 .6320 .6334 .6347 .6361 .6374 .6388 .6401 .6414 2 4 7 9 11

40° .6428 .6441 .6455 .6468 .6481 .6494 .6508 .6521 .6534 .6547 2 4 7 9 11
41 .6561 .6574 .6587 .6600 .6613 .6626 .6639 .6652 .6665 .6678 2 4 7 9 11
42 .6691 .6704 .6717 .6730 .6743 .6756 .6769 .6782 .6794 .6807 2 4 6 9 11
43 .6820 .6833 .6845 .6858 .6871 .6884 .6896 .6909 .6921 .6934 2 4 6 8 11
44 .6947 .6959 .6972 .6984 .6997 .7009 .7022 .7034 .7046 .7059 2 4 6 8 10
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

592
 4. NATURAL SINES (Continued)
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 21 ' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
1' 2' s' 4' 5'
45° .7071 .7083 .7096 .7108 .7120 .7133 .7145 .7157 .7169 .7181 2 4 6 8 10
46 .7193 .7206 .7218 .7230 .7242 .7254 .7266 .7278 .7290 .7302 2 4 6 8 10
47 .7314 .7325 .7337 .7349 .7361 7373 .7385 .7396 .7408 .7420 2 4 6 8 10
48 .7431 .7443 .7455 .7466 .7478 .7490 .7501 .7513 .7524 .7536 2 4 6 8 10
49 .7547 .7559 .7570 .7581 .7593 .7604 .7615 .7627 .7638 .7649 2 4 6 8 9
50° .7660 .7672 .7683 .7694 .7705 .7716 .7727 .7738 .7749 .7760 2 4 6 7 9
51 .7771 .7782 .7793 .7804 .7815 .7826 .7837 .7848 .7859 .7869 2 4 5 7 9
52 .7880 .7891 .7902 .7912 .7923 .7934 .7944 .7955 .7965 .7976 2 4 5 7 9
53 .7986 .7997 .8007 .8018 .8028 .8039 .8049 .8059 .8070 .8080 2 3 5 7 9
54 .8090 .8100 .8111 .8121 .8131 .8141 .8151 .8161 .8171 .8181 2 3 5 7 8

55 .8192 .8202 .8211 .8221 .8231 .8241 .8251 .8261 .8271 .8281 2 3 5 7 8
56 .8290 .8300 .8310 .8320 .8329 .8339 .8348 .8358 .8368 .8377 2 3 5 6 8
57 .8387 .8396 .8406 .8415 .8425 .8434 .8443 .8453 .8462 .8471 2 3 5 6 8
58 .8480 .8490 .8499 .8508 .8517 .8526 .8536 .8545 .8554 .8563 2 3 5 6 8
59 .8572 .8581 .8590 .8599 .8607 .8616 .8625 .8634 .8643 .8652 1 3 4 6 7

60° .8660 .8669 .8678 .8686 .8695 .8704 .8712 .8721 .8729 .8738 1 3 4 6 7
61 .8746 .8755 .8763 .8771 .8780 .8788 .8796 .8805 .8813 .8821 1 3 4 6 7
62 .8829 .8838 .8846 .8854 .8862 .8870 .8878 .8886 .8894 .8902 1 3 4 5 7
63 .8910 .8918 .8926 .8934 .8942 .8949 .8957 .8965 .8973 .8980 1 3 4 5 6
64 .8988 .8996 .9003 .9011 .9018 .9026 .9033 .9041 .9048 .9056 1 3 4 5 6

65 .9063 .9070 .9078 .9085 .9092 .9100 .9107 .9114 .9121 .9128 1 2 4 5 6
66 .9135 .9143 .9150 .9157 .9164 .9171 .9178 .9184 .9191 .9198 1 2 3 5 6
67 .9205 .9212 .9219 .9225 .9232 .9239 .9245 .9252 .9259 .9265 1 2 3 4 6
68 .9272 .9278 .9285 .9291 .9298 .9304 .9311 .9317 .9323 .9330 1 2 3 4 5
69 .9336 .9342 .9348 .9354 .9361 .9367 .9373 .9379 .9385 .9391 1 2 3 4 5

70° .9397 .9403 .9409 .9415 .9421 .9426 .9432 .9438 .9444 .9449 1 2 3 4 5
71 .9455 .9461 .9466 .9472 .9478 .9483 .9489 .9494 .9500 .9505 1 2 3 4 5
72 .9511 .9516 .9521 .9527 .9532 .9537 .9542 .9548 .9553 .9558 1 2 3 4 4
73 .9563 .9568 .9573 .9578 .9583 .9588 .9593 .9598 .9603 .9608 1 2 2 3 4
74 .9613 .9617 .9622 .9627 .9632 .9636 .9641 .9646 .9650 .9655 1 2 2 3 4

75 .9659 .9664 .9668 .9673 .9677 .9681 .9686 .9690 .9694 .9699 1 1 2 3 4
76 .9703 .9707 .9711 .9715 .9720 9724 .9728 .9732 .9736 .9740 1 1 2 3 3
77 .9744 .9748 .9751 .9755 .9759 .9763 .9767 .9770 .9774 .9778 1 1 2 3 3
78 .9781 .9785 .9789 .9792 .9796 .9799 .9803 .9806 .9810 .9813 1 1 2 2 3
79 .9816 .9820 .9823 .9826 .9829 .9833 .9836 .9839 .9842 .9845 1 1 2 2 3
o
00
O

.9848 .9851 .9854 .9857 .9860 .9863 .9866 .9869 .9871 .9874 0 1 1 2 2
81 .9877 .9880 .9882 .9885 .9888 .9890 .9893 .9895 .9898 .9900 0 1 1 2 2
82 .9903 .9905 .9907 .9910 .9912 .9914 .9917 .9919 .9921 .9923 0 1 1 2 2
83 .9925 .9928 .9930 .9932 .9934 .9936 .9938 .9940 .9942 .9943 0 1 1 1 2
84 .9945 .9947 .9949 .9951 .9952 .9954 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 0 1 1 1 1

85 .9962 .9963 .9965 .9966 .9968 .9969 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974 0 0 1 1 1
.9978 .9979 .9980 .9981 .9982 .9983 .9984 .9985 0 0 1 1 1
86 .9976 .9977
87 .9986 .9987 .9988 .9989 .9990 .9990 .9991 .9992 .9993 .9993
88 .9994 .9995 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998 .9998
89 .9998 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' a' S' 4' s'

593
 5. NATURAL COSINES SUBTRACT
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 12 ' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0° 1.0000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999
1 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9996 .9996 .9995 .9995
2 .9994 .9993 .9993 .9992 .9991 .9990 .9990 .9989 .9988 .9987
3 .9986 .9985 .9984 .9983 .9982 .9981 .9980 .9979 .9978 .9977 0 0 1 1 1
4 .9976 .9974 .9973 .9972 .9971 .9969 .9968 .9966 .9965 .9963 0 0 1 1 1

5 .9962 .9960 .9959 .9957 .9956 .9954 .9952 .9951 .9949 .9947 0 1 1 1 1
6 .9945 .9943 .9942 .9940 .9938 .9936 .9934 .9932 .9930 .9928 0 1 1 1 2
7 .9925 .9923 .9921 .9919 .9917 .9914 .9912 .9910 .9907 .9905 0 1 1 2 2
8 .9903 .9900 .9898 .9895 .9893 .9890 .9888 .9885 .9882 .9880 0 1 1 2 2
9 .9877 .9874 .9871 .9869 .9866 .9863 .9860 .9857 .9854 .9851 0 1 1 2 2
O
o

.9848 .9845 .9842 .9839 .9836 .9833 .9829 .9826 .9823 .9820 1 1 2 2 3
11 .9816 .9813 .9810 .9806 .9803 .9799 .9796 .9792 .9789 .9785 1 1 2 2 3
12 .9781 .9778 .9774 .9770 .9767 .9763 .9759 .9755 .9751 .9748 1 1 2 3 3
13 .9744 .9740 .9736 .9732 .9728 .9724 .9720 .9715 .9711 .9707 1 1 2 3 3
14 .9703 .9699 .9694 .9690 .9686 .9681 .9677 .9673 .9668 .9664 1 1 2 3 4

15 .9659 .9655 .9650 .9646 .9641 .9636 .9632 .9627 .9622 .9617 1 2 2 3 4
16 .9613 .9608 .9603 .9598 .9593 .9588 .9583 .9578 .9573 .9568 1 2 2 3 4
17 .9563 .9558 .9553 .9548 .9542 .9537 .9532 .9527 .9521 .9516 1 2 3 4 4
18 .9511 .9505 .9500 .9494 .9489 .9483 .9478 .9472 .9466 .9461 1 2 3 4 5
19 .9455 .9449 .9444 .9438 .9432 .9426 .9421 .9415 .9409 .9403 1 2 3 4 5

20° .9397 .9391 .9385 .9379 .9373 .9367 .9361 .9354 .9348 .9342 1 2 3 4 5
21 .9336 .9330 .9323 .9317 .9311 .9304 .9298 .9291 .9285 .9278 1 2 3 4 5
22 .9272 .9265 .9259 .9252 .9245 .9239 .9232 .9225 .9219 .9212 1 2 3 4 6
23 .9205 .9198 .9191 .9184 .9178 .9171 .9164 .9157 .9150 .9143 1 2 3 5 6
24 .9135 .9128 .9121 .9114 .9107 .9100 .9092 .9085 .9078 .9070 1 2 4 5 6

25 .9063 .9056 .9048 .9041 .9033 .9026 .9018 .9011 .9003 .8996 1 3 4 5 6
26 .8988 .8980 .8973 .8965 .8957 .8949 .8942 .8934 .8926 .8918 1 3 4 5 6
27 .8910 .8902 .8894 .8886 .8878 .8870 .8862 .8854 .8846 .8838 1 3 4 5 7
28 .8829 .8821 .8813 .8805 .8796 .8788 .8780 .8771 .8763 .8755 1 3 4 6 7
29 .8746 .8738 .8729 .8721 .8712 .8704 .8695 .8686 .8678 .8669 1 3 4 6 7

30° .8660 .8652 .8643 .8634 .8625 .8616 .8607 .8599 .8590 .8581 1 3 4 6 7
31 .8572 .8563 .8554 .8545 .8536 .8526 .8517 .8508 .8499 .8490 2 3 5 6 8
32 .8480 .8471 .8462 .8453 .8443 .8434 .8425 .8415 .8406 .8396 2 3 5 6 8
33 .8387 .8377 .8368 .8358 .8348 .8339 .8329 .8320 .8310 .8300 2 3 5 6 8
34 8290 .8281 .8271 .8261 .8251 .8241 .8231 .8221 .8211 .8202 2 3 5 7 8

35 .8192 .8181 .8171 .8161 .8151 .8141 .8131 .8121 .8111 .8100 2 3 5 7 8
36 .8090 .8080 .8070 .8059 .8049 .8039 .8028 .8018 .8007 .7997 2 3 5 7 9
37 .7986 .7976 .7965 .7955 .7944 .7934 .7923 .7912 .7902 .7891 2 4 5 7 9
38 .7880 .7869 .7859 .7848 .7837 .7826 .7815 .7804 .7793 .7782 2 4 5 7 9
39 .7771 .7760 .7749 .7738 .7727 .7716 .7705 .7694 .7683 .7672 2 4 6 7 9

40° .7660 .7649 .7638 .7627 .7615 .7604 .7593 .7581 .7570 .7559 2 4 6 8 9
41 .7547 .7536 .7524 .7513 .7501 .7490 .7478 .7466 .7455 .7443 2 4 6 8 10
42 .7431 .7420 .7408 .7396 .7385 .7373 .7361 .7349 .7337 .7325 2 4 6 8 10
43 .7314 .7302 .7290 .7278 .7266 .7254 .7242 .7230 .7218 .7206 2 4 6 8 10
44 .7193 .7181 .7169 .7157 .7145 .7133 .7120 .7108 .7096 .7083 2 4 6 8 10

0' 6' 12' 18' 21 ' 30' 36' 12 ' 48' 54' l' a' 3' 4' s'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

594
595
 6. NATURAL TANGENTS
Differences
Angle O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54 l' a' 3' 4' *'

0° 0.0000 .0017 .0035 .0052 .0070 .0087 .0105 .0122 .0140 .0157 3 6 9 12 15
1 0.0175 .0192 .0209 .0227 .0244 .0262 .0279 .0297 .0314 .0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 0.0349 .0367 .0384 .0402 .0419 .0437 .0454 .0472 .0489 .0507 3 6 9 12 15
3 0.0524 .0542 .0559 .0577 .0594 .0612 .0629 .0647 .0664 .06S2 3 6 9 12 15
4 0.0699 .0717 .0734 .0752 .0769 .0787 .0805 .0822 .0840 .0857 3 6 9 12 15

5 0.0875 .0892 .0910 .0928 .0945 .0963 .0981 -.0998 .1016 .1033 3 6 9 12 15
6 0.1051 .1069 .1086 .1104 .1122 .1139 .1157 .1175 .1192 .1210 3 6 9 12 15
7 0.1228 .1246 .1263 .1281 .1299 .1317 .1334 .1352 .1370 .1388 3 6 9 12 15
8 0.1405 .1423 .1441 .1459 .1477 .1495 .1512 .1530 .1548 .1566 3 6 9 12 15
9 0.1584 .1602 .1620 .1638 .1655 .1673 .1691 .1709 .1727 .1745 3 6 9 12 15
o
O

0.1763 .1781 .1799 .1817 .1835 .1853 .1871 .1890 .1908 .1926 3 6 9 12 15
11 0.1944 .1962 .1980 .1998 .2016 .2035 .2053 .2071 .2089 .2107 3 6 9 12 15
12 0.2126 .2144 .2162 .2180 .2199 .2217 .2235 .2254 .2272 .2290 3 6 9 12 15
13 0.2309 .2327 .2345 .2364 .2382 .2401 .2419 .2438 .2456 .2475 3 6 9 12 15
14 0.2493 .2512 .2530 .2549 .2568 .2586 .2605 .2623 .2642 .2661 3 6 9 12 16

15 0.2679 .2698 .2717 .2736 .2754 .2773 .2792 .2811 .2830 .2849 3 6 9 13 16
16 0.2867 .2886 .2905 .2924 .2943 .2962 .2981 .3000 .3019 .3038 3 6 9 13 16
17 0.3057 .3076 .3096 .3115 .3134 .3153 .3172 .3191 .3211 .3230 3 6 10 13 16
18 0.3249 .3269 .3288 .3307 .3327 .3346 .3365 .3385 .3404 .3424 3 6 10 13 16
19 0.3443 .3463 .3482 .3502 .3522 .3541 .3561 .3581 .3600 .3620 3 7 10 13 16

20° 0.3640 .3659 .3679 .3699 .3719 .3739 .3759 .3779 .3799 .3819 3 7 10 13 17
21 0.3839 .3859 .3879 .3899 .3919 .3939 .3959 .3979 .4000 .4020 3 7 10 13 17
22 0.4040 .4061 .4081 .4101 .4122 .4142 .4163 .4183 .4204 .4224 3 7 10 14 17
23 0.4245 .4265 .4286 .4307 .4327 .4348 .4369 .4390 .4411 .4431 3 7 10 14 17
24 0.4452 .4473 .4494 .4515 .4536 .4557 .4578 .4599 .4621 .4642 4 7 11 14 18

25 0.4663 .4684 .4706 .4727 .4748 .4770 .4791 .4813 .4834 .4856 4 7 11 14 18
26 0.4877 .4899 .4921 .4942 .4964 .4986 .5008 .5029 .5051 .5073 4 7 11 15 18
27 0.5095 .5117 .5139 .5161 .5184 .5206 .5228 .5250 .5272 .5295 4 7 11 15 18
28 0.5317 .5340 .5362 .5384 .5407 .5430 .5452 .5475 .5498 .5520 4 8 11 15 19
29 0.5543 .5566 .5589 .5612 .5635 .5658 .5681 .5704 .5727 .5750 4 8 12 15 19
o
CO
o

0.5774 .5797 .5820 .5844 .5867 .5890 .5914 .5938 .5961 .5985 4 8 12 16 20
31 0.6009 .6032 .6056 .6080 .6104 .6128 .6152 .6176 .6200 .6224 4 8 12 16 20
32 0.6249 .6273 .6297 .6322 .6346 .6371 .6395 .6420 .6445 .6469 4 8 12 16 20
33 0.6494 .6519 .6544 .6569 .6594 .6619 .6644 .6669 .6694 .6720 4 8 13 17 21
34 0.6745 .6771 .6796 .6822 .6847 .6873 .6899 .6924 .6950 .6976 4 9 13 17 21

35 0.7002 .7028 .7054 .7080 .7107 .7133 .7159 .7186 .7212 .7239 4 9 13 18 22
36 0.7265 .7292 .7319 .7346 .7373 .7400 .7427 .7454 .7481 .7508 5 9 14 18 23
37 0.7536 .7563 .7590 .7618 .7646 .7673 .7701 .7729 .7757 .7785 5 9 14 18 23
38 0.7813 .7841 .7869 .7898 .7926 .7954 .7983 .8012 .8040 .8069 5 9 14 19 24
39 0.8098 .8127 .8156 .8185 .8214 .8243 .8273 .8302 .8332 .8361 5 10 15 20 24
o
O

0.8391 .8421 .8451 .8481 .8511 .8541 .8571 .8601 .8632 .8662 5 10 15 20 25
41 0.8693 .8724 .8754 .8785 .8816 .8847 .8878 .8910 .8941 .8972 5 10 16 21 26
42 0.9004 .9036 .9067 .9099 .9131 .9163 .9195 .9228 .9260 .9293 5 11 16 21 27
43 0.9325 .9358 .9391 .9424 .9457 .9490 .9523 .9556 .9590 .9623 6 11 17 22 28
44 0.9657 .9691 .9725 .9759 .9793 .9827 .9861 .9896 .9930 .9965 6 11 17 23 29

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' l' a' 3' 4' 6'

596
6. NATURAL TANGENTS (Continued)

597
 7. NATURAL COTANGENTS SUBTRACT
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 42 ' 48' 54'
1' 2 3' 5'
' 4'

0° oo 573.0 286.5 191.0 143.2 114.6 95.49 81,85 71.62 63.66 Interpolation
1 57.29 52.08 47.74 44.07 40.92 38.19 35.80 33.69 31.82 30.14 not accurate
2 28.64 27.27 26.03 24.90 23.86 22.90 22.02 21.20 20.45 19.74
3 19.08 18.46 17.89 17.34 16.83 16.35 15.89 15.46 15.06 14.67
4 14.30 13.95 13.62 13.30 13.00 12.71 12.43 12.16 11.91 11.66

5 11.43 11.20 10.99 10.78 10.58 10.39 10.20 10.02 9.845 9.677
6 9.514 9.357 9.205 9.058 8.915 8.777 8.643 8.513 8.386 8.264
7 8.144 8.028 7.916 7.806 7.700 7.596 7.495 7.396 7.300 7.207
8 7.115 7.026 6.940 6.855 6.772 6.691 6.612 6.535 6.460 6.386
9 6.314 6.243 6.174 6.107 6.041 5.976 5.912 5.850 5.789 5.730
O
©

5.6713 .6140 .5578 .5026 .4486 .3955 .3435 .2924 .2422 .1929
11 5.1446 .0970 .0504 .0045 .9694 .9152 .8716 .8288 .7867 .7453
12 4.7046 .6646 .6252 .5864 .5483 .5107 .4737 .4373 .4015 .3662
13 4.3315 .2972 .2635 .2303 .1976 .1653 .1335 .1022 .0713 .0408 TT-ja
14 4.0108 .9812 .9620 .9232 .8947 .8667 .8391 .8118 .7848 .7583 interpolation

15 3.7321 .7062 .6806 .6554 .6305 .6059 .5816 .5576 .5339 .5105
16 3.4874 .4646 .4420 .4197 .3977 .3759 .3544 .3332 .3122 .2914
17 3.2709 .2506 .2305 .2106 .1910 .1716 .1524 .1334 .1146 .0961
18 3.0777 .0595 .0415 .0237 .0061 .9887 .9714 .9544 .9376 .9208
19 2.9042 .8878 .8716 .8556 .8397 .8239 .8083 .7929 .7776 .7625

20° 2.7475 .7326 .7179 .7034 .6889 .6746 .6605 .6464 .6325 .6187
21 2.6051 .5916 .5782 .5649 .5517 .5386 .5257 .5129 .5002 .4876
22 2.4751 .4627 .4504 .4383 .4262 .4142 .4023 .3906 .3789 .3673
23 2.3559 .3445 .3332 .3220 .3109 .2998 .2889 .2781 .2673 .2566
24 2.2460 .2355 .2251 .2148 .2045 .1943 .1842 .1742 .1642 .1543

25 2.1445 .1348 .1251 .1155 .1060 .0965 .0872 .0778 .0686 .0594 16 31 47 63 78
26 2.0503 .0413 .0323 .0233 .0145 .0057 .9970 .9883 .9797 .9711 15 29 44 58 73
27 1.9626 .9542 .9458 .9375 .9292 .9210 .9128 .9047 .8967 .8887 14 27 41 55 68
28 1.8807 .8728 .8650 .8572 .8495 .8418 .8341 .8265 .8190 .8115 13 26 38 51 64
29 1.8040 .7966 .7893 .7820 .7747 .7675 .7603 .7532 .7461 .7391 12 24 36 48 60

30° 1.7321 .7251 .7182 .7113 .7045 .6977 .6909 .6842 .6775 .6709 11 23 34 45 56
31 1.6643 .6577 .6512 .6447 .6383 .6319 .6255 .6191 .6128 .6066 11 21 32 43 53
32 1.6003 .5941 .5880 .5818 .5757 .5697 .5637 .5577 .5517 .5458 10 20 30 40 50
33 1.5399 .5340 .5282 .5224 .5166 .5108 .5051 .4994 .4938 .4882 10 19 29 38 48
34 1.4826 .4770 .4715 .4659 .4605 .4550 .4496 .4442 .4388 .4335 9 18 27 36 45

35 1.4281 .4229 .4176 .4124 .4071 .4019 .3968 .3916 .3865 .3814 9 17 26 34 43
36 1.3764 .3713 .3663 .3613 .3564 .3514 .3465 .3416 .3367 .3319 8 16 25 33 41
37 1.3270 .3222 .3175 .3127 .3079 .3032 .2985 .2938 .2892 .2846 8 16 24 31 39
38 1.2799 .2753 .2708 .2662 .2617 .2572 .2527 .2482 .2437 .2393 8 15 23 30 38
39 1.2349 .2305 .2261 .2218 .2174 .2131 .2088 .2045 .2002 .1960 7 14 22 29 36
O
©

1.1918 .1875 .1833 .1792 .1750 .1708 .1667 .1626 .1585 .1544 7 14 21 28 34
41 1.1504 .1463 .1423 .1383 .1343 .1303 .1263 .1224 .1184 .1145 7 13 20 26 33
42 1.1106 .1067 .1028 .0990 .0951 .0913 .0875 .0837 .0799 .0761 6 13 19 25 32
43 1.0724 .0686 .0649 .0612 .0575 .0538 .0501 .0464 .0428 .0392 6 12 18 25 31
44 1.0355 .0319 .0283 .0247 .0212 .0176 .0141 .0105 .0070 .0035 6 12 18 24 30

0' 6' 12' 18' 1 34' 30' 36' 42 ' 48' 54' 1 1' 2' 3' 4/ 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

598
 7. NATURAL COTANGENTS (Continued) subtract
OUDlKAUi

Angle 0' 6' 12 18' 24 30 36' 42

Differences
' ' ' ' 48 ' 54 '
1' 2 ' 3' 4' 6'
45° 1.0000 .9966 .9930 .9896 .9861 .9827 .9793 .9759 .9726 .9691 6 11 17 23 2Q
46 0.9657 .9623 .9590 .9556 .9523 .9490 .9457 .9424 .9391 .9358 6 11 17 22 2ft
47 0.9325 .9293 .9260 .9228 .9195 .9163 .9131 .9099 .9067 .9036 5 11 16 21 27
48 0.9004 .8972 .8941 .8910 .8878 .8847 .8816 .8785 .8754 .8724 5 10 16 21 2fi
49 0.8693 .8662 .8632 .8601 .8571 .8541 .8511 .8481 .8451 .8421 5 10 15 20 25
50° 0.8391 .8361 .8332 .8302 .8273 .8243 .8214 .8185 .8156 .8127 5 10 15 20 24
51 0.8098 .8069 .8040 .8012 .7983 .7954 .7926 .7898 .7869 .7841 5 9 14 19 24
52 0.7813 .7785 .7757 .7729 .7701 .7673 .7646 .7618 .7590 .7563 5 9 14 18 23
53 0.7536 .7508 .7481 .7454 .7427 .7400 .7373 .7346 .7319 .7292 5 9 14 18 23
54 0.7265 .7239 .7212 .7186 .7159 .7133 .7107 .7080 .7054 .7028 4 9 13 18 22
55 0.7002 .6976 .6950 .6924 .6899 .6873 .6847 .6822 .6796 .6771 4 9 13 17 21
56 0.6745 .6720 .6694 .6669 .6644 .6619 .6594 .6569 .6544 .6519 4 8 13 17 21
57 0.6494 .6469 .6445 .6420 .6395 .6371 .6346 .6322 .6297 .6273 4 8 12 16 20
58 0.6249 .6224 .6200 .6176 .6152 .6128 .6104 .6080 .6056 .6032 4 8 12 16 20
59 0.6009 .5985 .5961 .5938 .5914 .5890 .5867 .5844 .5820 .5797 4 8 12 16 20
o
©
©

0.5774 .5750 .5727 .5704 .5681 .5658 .5635 .5612 .5589 .5566 4 8 12 15 19
61 0.5543 .5520 .5498 .5475 .5452 .5430 .5407 .5384 .5362 .5340 4 8 11 15 19
62 0.5317 .5295 .5272 .5250 .5228 .5206 .5184 .5161 .5139 .5117 4 7 11 15 18
63 0.5095 .5073 .5051 .5029 .5008 .4986 .4964 .4942 .4921 .4899 4 7 11 15 18
64 0.4877 .4856 .4834 .4813 .4791 .4770 .4748 .4727 .4706 .4684 4 7 11 14 18

65 0.4663 .4642 .4621 .4599 .4578 .4557 .4536 .4515 .4494 .4473 4 7 11 14 18
66 0.4452 .4431 .4411 .4390 .4369 .4348 .4327 .4307 .4286 .4265 3 7 10 14 17
67 0.4245 .4224 .4204 .4183 .4163 .4142 .4122 .4101 .4081 .4061 3 7 10 14 17
68 0.4040 .4020 .4000 .3979 .3959 .3939 .3919 .3899 .3879 .3859 3 7 10 13 17
69 0.3839 .3819 .3799 .3779 .3759 .3739 .3719 .3699 .3679 .3659 3 7 10 13 17
o
r*
O

0.3640 .3620 .3600 .3581 .3561 .3541 .3522 .3502 .3482 .3463 3 7 10 13 16
71 0.3443 .3424 .3404 .3385 .3365 .3346 .3327 .3307 .3288 .3269 3 6 10 13 16
72 0.3249 .3230 .3211 .3191 .3172 .3153 .3134 .3115 .3096 .3076 3 6 10 13 16
73 0.3057 .3038 .3019 .3000 .2981 .2962 .2943 .2924 .2905 .2886 3 6 9 13 16
74 0.2867 .2849 .2830 .2811 .2792 .2773 .2754 .2736 .2717 .2698 3 6 9 13 16

75 0.2679 .2661 .2642 .2623 .2605 .2586 .2568 2549 2530 2512 3 6 9 12 16
76 0.2493 .2475 .2456 .2438 .2419 .2401 .2382 .2364 .2345 .2327 3 6 9 12 15
77 0.2309 .2290 .2272 .2254 .2235 .2217 .2199 .2180 .2162 .2144 3 6 9 12 15
78 0.2126 .2107 .2089 .2071 .2053 .2035 .2016 .1998 .1980 .1962 3 6 9 12 15
79 0.1944 .1926 .1908 .1890 .1871 .1853 .1835 .1817 .1799 .1781 3 6 9 12 15
o
00
©

0.1763 .1745 .1727 .1709 .1691 .1673 .1655 .1638 .1620 .1602 3 6 9 12 15
81 0.1584 .1566 .1548 .1530 .1512 .1495 .1477 .1459 .1441 .1423 3 6 9 12 15
82 0.1405 .1388 .1370 .1352 .1334 .1317 .1299 .1281 .1263 .1246 3 6 9 12 15
83 0.1228 .1210 .1192 .1175 .1157 .1139 .1122 .1104 .1086 .1069 3 6 9 12 15
84 0.1051 .1033 .1016 .0998 .0981 .0963 .0945 .0928 .0910 .0892 3 6 9 12 15

85 0.0875 .0857 .0840 .0822 .0805 .0787 .0769 .0752 .0734 .0717 3 6 9 12 15
86 0.0699 .0682 .0664 .0647 .0629 .0612 .0594 .0577 .0559 .0542 3 6 9 12 15
87 0.0524 .0507 .0489 .0472 .0454 .0437 .0419 .0402 .0384 .0367 3 6 9 12 15
88 0.0349 .0332 .0314 .0297 .0279 .0262 .0244 .0227 .0209 .0192 3 6 9 12 15
89 0.0175 .0157 .0140 .0122 .0105 .0087 .0070 .0052 .0035 .0017 3 6 9 12 15

O' 6' 12 ' 18' 24 ' 30' 36' 42 ' 48' 54 ' l' 2' 3' 4' 5'

The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

599
 8. NATURAL SECANTS
Differences

00
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 54' l' 2' r 4 ' #'
0° 1.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001
1 1.0002 .0002 .0002 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0006
2 1.0006 .0007 .0007 .0008 .0009 .0010 .0010 .0011 .0012 .0013
3 1.0014 .0015 .0016 .0017 .0018 .0019 .0020 .0021 .0022 .0023 0 0 i 1 1
4 1.0024 .0026 .0027 .0028 .0030 .0031 .0032 .0034 .0035 .0037 0 0 i 1 1

5 1.0038 .0040 .0041 .0043 .0045 .0046 .0048 .0050 .0051 .0053 0 1 i 1 1
6 1.0055 .0057 .0059 .0061 .0063 .0065 .0067 .0069 .0071 .0073 0 1 i 1 2
7 1.0075 .0077 .0079 .0082 .0084 .0086 .0089 .0091 .0093 .0096 0 1 i 2 2
8 1.0098 .0101 .0103 .0106 .0108 .0111 .0114 .0116 .0119 .0122 0 1 i 2 2
9 1.0125 .0127 .0130 .0133 .0136 .0139 .0142 .0145 .0148 .0151 0 1 i 2 2
o
iH
O

1.0154 .0157 .0161 .0164 .0167 .0170 .0174 .0177 .0180 .0184 1 1 2 2 3
11 1.0187 .0191 .0194 .0198 .0201 .0205 .0209 .0212 .0216 .0220 1 1 2 2 3
12 1.0223 .0227 .0231 .0235 .0239 .0243 .0247 .0251 .0255 .0259 1 1 2 3 3
13 1.0263 .0267 .0271 .0276 .0280 .0284 .0288 .0293 .0297 .0302 1 1 2 3 4
14 1.0306 .0311 .0315 .0320 .0324 .0329 .0334 .0338 .0343 .0348 1 2 2 3 4

15 1.0353 .0358 .0363 .0367 .0372 .0377 .0382 .0388 .0393 .0398 1 2 3 3 4
16 1.0403 .0408 .0413 .0419 .0424 .0429 .0435 .0440 .0446 .0451 1 2 3 4 4
17 1.0457 .0463 .0468 .0474 .0480 .0485 .0491 .0497 .0503 .0509 1 2 3 4 5
18 1.0515 .0521 .0527 .0533 .0539 .0545 .0551 .0557 .0564 .0570 1 2 3 4 5
19 1.0576 .0583 .0589 .0595 .0602 .0608 .0615 .0622 .0628 .0635 1 2 3 4 5
O
**
O

1.0642 .0649 .0655 .0662 .0669 .0676 .0683 .0690 .0697 .0704 1 2 3 5 6
21 1.0711 .0719 .0726 .0733 .0740 .0748 .0755 .0763 .0770 .0778 1 2 4 5 6
22 1.0785 .0793 .0801 .0808 .0816 .0824 .0832 .0840 .0848 .0856 1 3 4 5 7
23 1.0864 .0872 .0880 .0888 .0896 .0904 .0913 .0921 .0929 .0938 1 3 4 6 7
24 1.0946 .0955 .0963 .0972 .0981 .0989 .0998 .1007 .1016 .1025 1 3 4 6 7

25 1.1034 .1043 .1052 .1061 .1070 .1079 .1089 .1098 .1107 .1117 2 3 5 6 8
26 1.1126 .1136 .1145 .1155 .1164 .1174 .1184 .1194 .1203 .1213 2 3 5 6 8
27 1.1223 .1233 .1243 .1253 .1264 .1274 .1284 .1294 .1305 .1315 2 3 5 7 9
28 1.1326 .1336 .1347 .1357 .1368 .1379 .1390 .1401 .1412 .1423 2 4 5 7 9
29 1.1434 .1445 .1456 .1467 .1478 .1490 .1501 .1512 .1524 .1535 2 4 6 8 9

30° 1.1547 .1559 .1570 .1582 .1594 .1606 .1618 .1630 .1642 .1654 2 4 6 8 10
31 1.1666 .1679 .1691 .1703 .1716 .1728 .1741 .1753 .1766 .1779 2 4 6 8 10
32 1.1792 .1805 .1818 .1831 .1844 .1857 .1870 .1883 .1897 .1910 2 4 7 9 11
33 1.1924 .1937 .1951 .1964 .1978 .1992 .2006 .2020 .2034 .2048 2 5 7 9 12
34 1.2062 .2076 .2091 .2105 .2120 .2134 .2149 .2163 .2178 .2193 2 5 7 10 12

35 1.2208 .2223 .2238 .2253 .2268 .2283 .2299 .2314 .2329 .2345 3 5 8 10 13
36 1.2361 .2376 .2392 .2408 .2424 .2440 .2456 .2472 .2489 .2505 3 5 8 11 13
37 1.2521 .2538 .2554 .2571 .2588 .2605 .2622 .2639 .2656 .2673 3 6 8 11 14
38 1.2690 .2708 .2725 .2742 .2760 .2778 .2796 .2813 .2831 .2849 3 6 9 12 15
39 1.2868 .2886 .2904 .2923 .2941 .2960 .2978 .2997 .3016 .3035 3 6 9 12 16
O
o

1.3054 .3073 .3093 .3112 .3131 .3151 .3171 .3190 .3210 .3230 3 7 10 13 16
41 1.3250 .3270 .3291 .3311 .3331 .3352 .3373 .3393 .3414 .3435 3 7 10 14 17
42 1.3456 .3478 .3499 .3520 .3542 .3563 3585 .3607 .3629 .3651 4 7 11 14 18
43 1.3673 .3696 .3718 .3741 .3763 .3786 .3809 .3832 .3855 .3878 4 8 11 15 19
44 1.3902 .3925 .3949 .3972 .3996 .4020 .4044 .4069 .4093 .4118 4 8 12 16 20

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2 ' 2' 4' 6'

600
 8. NATURAL SECANTS (Continued)
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 34' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
l' 2' 3' 4' 5'
45° 1.4142 .4167 .4192 .4217 .4242 .4267 .4293 .4318 .4344 .4370 4 8 13 17 21
46 1.4396 .4422 .4448 .4474 .4501 .4527 .4554 .4581 .4608 .4635 4 9 13 18 22
47 1.4663 .4690 .4718 .4746 .4774 .4802 .4830 .4859 .4887 .4916 5 9 14 19 23
48 1.4945 .4974 .5003 .5032 .5062 .5092 .5121 .5151 .5182 .5212 5 10 15 20 25
49 1.5243 .5273 .5304 .5335 .5366 .5398 .5429 .5461 .5493 .5525 5 10 16 21 26
O
it*
©

1.5557 .5590 .5622 .5655 .5688 .5721 .5755 .5788 .5822 .5856 6 11 17 22 28
51 1.5890 .5925 .5959 .5994 .6029 .6064 .6099 .6135 .6171 .6207 6 12 18 23 29
52 1.6243 .6279 .6316 .6353 .6390 .6427 .6464 .6502 .6540 .6578 6 12 19 25 31
53 1.6616 .6655 .6694 .6733 .6772 .6812 .6852 .6892 .6932 .6972 7 13 20 26 33
54 1.7013 .7054 .7095 .7137 .7179 .7221 .7263 .7305 .7348 .7391 7 14 21 28 35

55 1.7434 .7478 .7522 .7566 .7610 .7655 .7700 .7745 .7791 .7837 7 15 22 30 37
56 1.7883 .7929 .7976 .8023 .8070 .8118 .8166 .8214 .8263 .8312 8 16 24 32 40
57 1.8361 .8410 .8460 .8510 .8561 .8612 .8663 .8714 .8766 .8818 8 17 25 34 42
58 1.8871 .8924 .8977 .9031 .9084 .9139 .9194 .9249 .9304 .9360 9 18 27 36 45
59 1.9416 .9473 .9530 .9587 .9645 .9703 .9762 .9821 .9880 .9940 10 19 29 39 49

60° 2.0000 .0061 .0122 .0183 .0245 .0308 .0371 .0434 .0498 .0562 10 21 31 42 52
61 2.0627 .0692 .0757 .0824 .0890 .0957 .1025 .1093 .1162 .1231 11 22 34 45 56
62 2.1301 .1371 .1441 .1513 .1584 .1657 .1730 .1803 .1877 .1952 12 24 36 48 61
63 2.2027 .2103 .2179 .2256 .2333 .2412 .2490 .2570 .2650 .2730 13 26 39 52 65
64 2.2812 .2894 .2976 .3060 .3144 .3228 .3314 .3400 .3486 .3574 14 28 43 57 71

65 2.3662 .3751 .3841 .3931 .4022 .4114 .4207 .4300 .4395 .4490
66 2.4586 .4683 .4780 .4879 .4978 .5078 .5180 .5282 .5384 .5488
67 2.5593 .5699 .5805 .5913 .6022 .6131 .6242 .6354 .6466 .6580
68 2.6695 .6811 .6927 .7046 .7165 .7285 .7407 .7529 .7653 .7778
69 2.7904 .8032 .8161 .8291 .8422 .8555 .8688 .8824 .8960 .9099
o
O

2.9238 .9379 .9521 .9665 .9811 .9957 .0106 .0266 .0407 .0661
71 3.0716 .0872 .1030 .1190 .1352 .1515 .1681 .1848 .2017 .2188
72 3.2361 .2535 .2712 .2891 .3072 .3255 .3440 .3628 .3817 .4009
73 3.4203 .4399 .4598 .4799 .5003 .5209 .5418 .5629 .5843 .6060
74 3.6280 .6502 .6727 .6955 .7186 .7420 .7657 .7897 .8140 .8387
Use
75 3.8637 .8890 .9147 .9408 .9672 .9939 .0211 .0486 .0766 .1048 internnlfttinn
76 4.1336 .1627 .1923 .2223 .2527 .2837 .3150 .3469 .3792 .4121
77 4.4454 .4793 .5137 .5486 .5841 .6202 .6569 .6942 .7321 .7706
78 4.8097 .8496 .8901 .9313 .9732 .0159 .0693 .1034 .1484 .1942
79 5.2408 .2883 .3367 .3860 .4362 .4874 .5396 .5928 .6470 .7023

5.996 6.059 6.123 6.188 6.255 6.323

80° 5.759 5.816 5.875 5.935
6.392 6.464 6.537 6.611 6.687 6.765 6.845 6.927 7.011 7.097
81
7.185 7.276 7.368 7.463 7.561 7.661 7.764 7.870 7.979 8.091
82
8.324 8.446 8.571 8.700 8.834 8.971 9.113 9.259 9.411
83 8.206
9.728 9.895 10.07 10.25 10.43 10.63 10.83 11.03 11.25
84 9.567

85 11.47 11.71 11.95 12.20 12.47 12.75 13.03 13.34 13.65 13.99
86 14 34 14 70 15.09 15.50 15.93 16.38 16.86 17.37 17.91 18.49
87 19.11 19.77 20.47 21.23 22.04 22.93 23.88 24.92 26.05 27.29 Interpolation
88 28.65 30.16 31.84 33.71 35.81 38.20 40.93 44.08 47.75 52.09 not accurate
89 57.30 63.66 71.62 81.85 95.49 114.6 143.2 191.0 286.5 573.0

0' 6' 12' 18' 34' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' l' 3' 1 4' 1 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

601
 9. NATURAL COSECANTS SUBTRACT
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12 ' 18 ' 24 ' 30' 36' 42 ' 48 ' 54' l' 2' 4'
3' 5'

0° 00 573.0 286.5 191.0 143.2 114.6 95.49 81.85 71.62 63.66 Interpolation
1 57.30 52.09 47.75 44.08 40.93 38.20 35.81 33.71 31.84 30.16 not accurate
2 28.65 27.29 26.05 24.92 23.88 22.93 22.04 21.23 20.47 19.77
3 19.11 18.49 17.91 17.37 16.86 16.38 15.93 15.50 15.09 14.70
4 14.34 13.99 13.65 13.34 13.03 12.75 12.47 12.20 11.95 11.71

5 11.47 11.25 11.03 10.83 10.63 10.43 10.25 10.07 9.895 9.728
6 9.567 9.411 9.259 9.113 8.971 8.834 8.700 8.571 8.446 8.324
7 8.206 8.091 7.979 7.870 7.764 7.661 7.561 7.463 7.368 7.276
8 7.185 7.097 7.011 6.927 6.845 6.765 6.687 6.611 6.537 6.464
9 6.392 6.323 6.255 6.188 6.123 6.059 5.996 5.935 5.875 5.816
o
O

5.7588 .7023 .6470 .5928 .5396 .4874 .4362 .3860 .3367 .2883
11 5.2408 .1942 .1484 .1034 .0593 .0159 .9732 .9313 .8901 .8496
12 4.8097 .7706 .7321 .6942 .6569 .6202 .5841 .5486 .5137 .4793
13 4.4454 .4121 .3792 .3469 .3150 .2837 .2527 .2223 .1923 .1627 TTo~
14 4.1336 .1048 .0765 .0486 .0211 .9939 .9672 .9408 .9147 .8890
interpolation
15 3.8637 .8387 .8140 .7897 .7657 .7420 .7186 .6955 .6727 .6502
16 3.6280 .6060 .5843 .5629 .5418 .5209 .5003 .4799 .4598 .4399
17 3.4203 .4009 .3817 .3628 .3440 .3255 .3072 .2891 .2712 .2535
18 3.2361 .2188 .2017 .1848 .1681 .1515 .1352 .1190 .1030 .0872
19 3.0716 .0561 .0407 .0256 .0106 .9957 .9811 .9666 .9521 .9379
O
©

2.9238 .9099 .8960 .8824 .8688 .8555 .8422 .8291 .8161 .8032
21 2.7904 .7778 .7653 .7529 .7407 .7285 .7165 .7046 .6927 .6811
22 2.6695 .6580 .6466 .6354 .6242 .6131 .6022 .5913 .5805 .5699
23 2.5593 .5488 .5384 .5282 .5180 .5078 .4978 .4879 .4780 .4683
24 2.4586 .4490 .4395 .4300 .4207 .4114 .4022 .3931 .3841 .3751

25 2.3662 .3574 .3486 .3400 .3314 .3228 .3144 .3060 .2976 .2894 14 28 43 57 71
26 2.2812 .2730 .2650 .2570 .2490 .2412 .2333 .2256 .2179 .2103 13 26 39 52 65
27 2.2027 .1952 .1877 .1803 .1730 .1657 .1584 .1513 .1441 .1371 12 24 36 48 61
28 2.1301 .1231 .1162 .1093 .1025 .0957 .0890 .0824 .0757 .0692 11 22 34 45 56
29 2.0627 .0562 .0498 .0434 .0371 .0308 .0245 .0183 .0122 .0061 10 21 31 42 52

30° 2.0000 .9940 .9880 .9821 .9762 .9703 .9645 .9587 .9530 .9473 10 19 29 39 49
31 1.9416 .9360 .9304 .9249 .9194 .9139 .9084 .9031 .8977 .8924 9 18 27 36 45
32 1.8871 .8818 .8766 .8714 .8663 .8612 .8561 .8510 .8460 .8410 8 17 25 34 42
33 1.8361 .8312 .8263 .8214 .8166 .8118 .8070 .8023 .7976 .7929 8 16 24 32 40
34 1.7883 .7837 .7791 .7745 .7700 .7655 .7610 .7566 .7522 .7478 7 15 22 30 37

35 1.7434 .7391 .7348 .7305 .7263 .7221 .7179 .7137 .7095 .7054 7 14 21 28 35
36 1.7013 .6972 .6932 .6892 .6852 .6812 .6772 .6733 .6694 .6655 7 13 20 26 33
37 1.6616 .6578 .6540 .6502 .6464 .6427 .6390 .6353 .6316 .6279 6 12 19 25 31
38 1.6243 .6207 .6171 .6135 .6099 .6064 .6029 .5994 .5959 .5925 6 12 18 23 29
39 1.5890 .5856 .5822 .5788 .5755 .5721 .5688 .5655 .5622 .5590 6 11 17 22 28

40° 1.5557 .5525 .5493 .5461 .5429 .5398 .5366 .5335 .5304 .5273 5 10 16 21 26
41 1.5243 .5212 .5182 .5151 .5121 .5092 .5062 .5032 .5003 .4974 5 10 15 20 25
42 1.4945 .4916 .4887 .4859 .4830 .4802 .4774 .4746 .4718 .4690 5 9 14 19 23
43 1.4663 .4635 .4608 .4581 .4554 .4527 .4501 .4474 .4448 .4422 4 9 13 18 22
44 1.4396 .4370 .4344 .4318 .4293 .4267 .4242 .4217 .4192 .4167 4 8 13 17 21

0' 6' 12 ' 18' 24 ' 30' 36' 42 ' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4/
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

602
603
 10. LOGARITHMS

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.00 0.0000 .0004 .0009 .0013 .0017 .0022 .0026 .0030 .0035 .0039 .0043
1.01 .0043 .0048 .0052 .0056 .0060 .0065 .0069 .0073 .0077 .0082 .0086
1.02 .0086 .0090 .0095 .0099 .0103 .0107 .0111 .0116 .0120 .0124 .0128
1.03 .0128 .0133 .0137 .0141 .0145 .0149 .0154 .0158 .0162 .0166 .0170
1.04 .0170 .0175 .0179 .0183 .0187 .0191 .0195 .0199 .0204 .0208 .0212

1.05 .0212 .0216 .0220 .0224 .0228 .0233 .0237 .0241 .0245 .0249 .0253
1.06 .0253 .0257 .0261 .0265 .0269 .0273 .0278 .0282 .0286 .0290 .0294
1.07 .0294 .0298 .0302 .0306 .0310 .0314 .0318 .0322 .0326 .0330 .0334
1.08 .0334 .0338 .0342 .0346 .0350 .0354 .0358 .0362 .0366 .0370 .0374
1.09 .0374 .0378 .0382 .0386 .0390 .0394 .0398 .0402 .0406 .0410 .0414

1.10 0.0414 .0418 .0422 .0426 .0430 .0434 .0438 .0441 .0445 .0449 .0453
1.11 .0453 .0457 .0461 .0465 .0469 .0473 .0477 .0481 .0484 .0488 .0492
1.12 .0492 .0496 .0500 .0504 .0508 .0512 .0515 .0519 .0523 .0527 .0531
1.13 .0531 .0535 .0538 .0542 .0546 .0550 .0554 .0558 .0561 .0565 .0569
1.14 .0569 .0573 .0577 .0580 .0584 .0588 .0592 .0596 .0599 .0603 .0607

1.15 .0607 .0611 .0615 .0618 .0622 .0626 .0630 .0633 .0637 .0641 .0645
1.16 .0645 .0648 .0652 .0656 .0660 .0663 .0667 .0671 .0674 .0678 .0682
1.17 .0682 .0686 .0689 .0693 .0697 .0700 .0704 .0708 .0711 .0715 .0719
1.18 .0719 .0722 .0726 .0730 .0734 .0737 .0741 .0745 .0748 .0752 .0755
1.19 .0755 .0759 .0763 .0766 .0770 .0774 .0777 .0781 .0785 .0788 .0792

1.20 0.0792 .0795 .0799 .0803 .0806 .0810 .0813 .0817 .0821 .0824 .0828
1.21 .0828 .0831 .0835 .0839 .0842 .0846 .0849 .0853 .0856 .0860 " .0864
1.22 .0864 .0867 .0871 .0874 .0878 .0881 .0885 .0888 .0892 .0896 .0899
1.23 .0899 .0903 .0906 .0910 .0913 .0917 .0920 .0924 .0927 .0931 .0934
1.24 .0934 .0938 .0941 .0945 .0948 .0952 .0955 .0959 .0962 .0966 .0969

1.25 .0969 .0973 .0976 .0980 .0983 .0986 .0990 .0993 .0997 .1000 .1004
1.26 .1004 .1007 .1011 .1014 .1017 .1021 .1024 .1028 .1031 .1035 .1038
1.27 .1038 .1041 .1045 .1048 .1052 .1055 .1059 .1062 .1065 .1069 .1072
1.28 .1072 .1075 .1079 .1082 .1086 .1089 .1092 .1096 .1099 .1103 .1106
1.29 .1106 .1109 .1113 .1116 .1119 .1123 .1126 .1129 .1133 .1136 .1139

1.30 0.1139 .1143 .1146 .1149 .1153 .1156 .1159 .1163 .1166 .1169 .1173
1.31 .1173 .1176 .1179 .1183 .1186 .1189 .1193 .1196 .1199 .1202 .1206
1.32 .1206 .1209 .1212 .1216 .1219 .1222 .1225 .1229 .1232 .1235 .1239
1.33 .1239 .1242 .1245 .1248 .1252 .1255 .1258 .1261 .1265 .1268 .1271
1.34 .1271 .1274 .1278 .1281 .1284 .1287 .1290 .1294 .1297 .1300 .1303

1.35 .1303 .1307 .1310 .1313 .1316 .1319 .1323 .1326 .1329 .1332 .1335
1.36 .1335 .1339 .1342 .1345 .1348 .1351 .1355 .1358 .1361 .1364 .1367
1.37 .1367 .1370 .1374 .1377 .1380 .1383 .1386 .1389 .1392 .1396 .1399
1.38 .1399 .1402 .1405 .1408 .1411 .1414 .1418 .1421 .1424 .1427 .1430
1.39 .1430 .1433 .1436 .1440 .1443 .1446 .1449 .1452 .1455 .1458 .1461

1.40 0.1461 .1464 .1467 .1471 .1474 .1477 .1480 .1483 .1486 .1489 .1492
1.41 .1492 .1495 .1498 .1501 .1504 .1508 .1511 .1514 .1517 .1520 ,1523
1.42 .1523 .1526 .1529 .1532 .1535 .1538 .1541 .1544 .1547 .1550 .1553
1.43 .1553 .1556 .1559 .1562 .1565 .1569 .1572 .1575 .1578 .1581 .1584
1.44 .1584 .1587 .1590 .1593 .1596 .1599 .1602 .1605 .1608 .1611 .1614

1.45 .1614 .1617 .1620 .1623 .1626 .1629 .1632 .1635 .1638 .1641 .1644
1.46 .1644 .1647 .1649 .1652 .1655 .1658 .1661 .1664 .1667 .1670 .1673
1.47 .1673 .1676 .1679 .1682 .1685 .1688 .1691 .1694 .1697 .1700 .1703
1.48 .1703 .1706 .1708 .1711 .1714 .1717 .1720 .1723 .1726 .1729 .1732
1.49 .1732 .1735 .1738 .1741 .1744 .1746 .1749 .1752 .1755 .1758 .1761

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

604
605
 10. LOGARITHMS (Continued)
Differences
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.0 .0000 .0043 .0086 .0128 .0170 .0212 .0253 .0294 .0334 .0374
1.1 .0414 .0453 .0492 .0531 .0569 .0607 .0645 .0682 .0719 .0755
1.2 .0792 .0828 .0864 .0899 .0934 .0969 .1004 .1038 .1072 .1106
1.3 .1139 .1173 .1206 .1239 .1271 .1303 .1335 .1367 .1399 .1430
1.4 .1461 .1492 .1523 .1553 .1584 .1614 .1644 .1673 .1703 .1732 To avoid interpolation
in the first 10 lines use
1.5 .1761 .1790 .1818 .1847 .1875 .1903 .1931 .1959 .1987 .2014 table on preceding page.
1.6 .2041 .2068 .2095 .2122 .2148 .2175 .2201 .2227 .2253 .2279
1.7 .2304 .2330 .2355 .2380 .2405 .2430 .2455 .2480 .2504 .2529
1.8 .2553 .2577 .2601 .2625 .2648 .2672 .2695 .2718 .2742 .2765
1.9 .2788 .2810 .2833 .2856 .2878 .2900 .2923 .2945 .2967 .2989

2.0 .3010 .3032 .3054 .3075 .3096 .3118 .3139 .3160 .3181 .3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
2.1 .3222 .3243 .3263 .3284 .3304 .3324 .3345 .3365 .3385 .3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.2 .3424 .3444 .3464 .3483 .3502 .3522 .3541 .3560 .3579 .3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
2.3 .3617 .3636 .3655 .3674 .3692 .3711 .3729 .3747 .3766 .3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
2.4 .3802 .3820 .3838 .3856 .3874 .3892 .3909 .3927 .3945 .3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16

2.5 .3979 .3997 .4014 .4031 .4048 .4065 .4082 .4099 .4116 .4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
2.6 .4150 .4166 .4183 .4200 .4216 .4232 .4249 .4265 .4281 .4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
2.7 .4314 .4330 .4346 .4362 .4378 .4393 .4409 .4425 .4440 .4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
2.8 .4472 .4487 .4502 .4518 .4533 .4548 .4564 .4579 .4594 .4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.9 .4624 .4639 .4654 .4669 .4683 .4698 .4713 .4728 .4742 .4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

3.0 .4771 .4786 .4800 .4814 .4829 .4843 .4857 .4871 .4886 .4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
3.1 .4914 .4928 .4942 .4955 .4969 .4983 .4997 .5011 .5024 .5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
3.2 .5051 .5065 .5079 .5092 .5105 .5119 .5132 .5145 .5159 .5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3.3 .5185 .5198 .5211 .5224 .5237 .5250 .5263 .5276 .5289 .5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
3.4 .5315 .5328 .5340 .5353 .5366 .5378 .5391 .5403 .5416 .5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11

3.5 .5441 .5453 .5465 .5478 .5490 .5502 .5514 .5527 .5539 .5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
3.6 .5563 .5575 .5587 .5599 .5611 .5623 .5635 .5647 .5658 .5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
3.7 .5682 .5694 .5705 .5717 .5729 .5740 .5752 .5763 .5775 .5786 12 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.8 .5798 .5809 .5821 .5832 .5843 .5855 .5866 .5877 .5888 .5899 12 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.9 .5911 .5922 .5933 .5944 .5955 .5966 .5977 .5988 .5999 .6010 12 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

4.0 .6021 .6031 .6042 .6053 .6064 .6075 .6085 .6096 .6107 .6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
4.1 .6128 .6138 .6149 .6160 .6170 .6180 .6191 .6201 .6212 .6222 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.2 .6232 .6243 .6253 .6263 .6274 .6284 .6294 .6304 .6314 .6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 .6335 .6345 .6355 .6365 .6375 .6385 .6395 .6405 .6415 .6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.4 .6435 .6444 .6454 .6464 .6474 .6484 .6493 .6503 .6513 .6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4.5 .6532 .6542 .6551 .6561 .6571 .6580 .6590 .6599 .6609 .6618 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.6 .6628 .6637 .6646 .6656 .6665 .6675 .6684 .6693 .6702 .6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 .6721 .6730 .6739 .6749 .6758 .6767 .6776 .6785 .6794 .6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.8 .6812 .6821 .6830 .6839 .6848 .6857 .6866 .6875 .6884 .6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
4.9 .6902 .6911 .6920 .6928 .6937 .6946 .6955 .6964 .6972 .6981 12 3 4 4 5 6 7 8

5.0 .6990 .6998 .7007 .7016 .7024 .7033 .7042 .7050 .7059 .7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.1 .7076 .7084 .7093 .7101 .7110 .7118 .7126 .7135 .7143 .7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.2 .7160 .7168 .7177 .7185 .7193 .7202 .7210 .7218 .7226 .7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
5.3 .7243 .7251 .7259 .7267 .7275 .7284 .7292 .7300 .7308 .7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
5.4 .7324 .7332 .7340 .7348 .7356 .7364 .7372 .7380 .7388 .7396 12 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

606
607
 11. LOGARITHMIC SINES
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 12' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0° — 00 3.242 3.543 3.719 3.844 3.941 2.020 2.087 2.145 2.196 Interpolation
1 2.2419 .2832 .3210 .3558 .3880. .4179 .4459 .4723 .4971 .5206 not accurate
2 2.5428 .5640 .5842 .6035 .6220 .6397 .6567 .6731 .6889 .7041
3 2.7188 .7330 .7468 .7602 .7731 .7857 .7979 .8098 .8213 .8326
4 2.8436 .8543 .8647 .8749 .8849 .8946 .9042 .9135 .9226 .9315

5 2.9403 .9489 .9573 .9655 .9736 .9816 .9894 .9970 .0046 .0120 Use
6 1.0192 .0264 .0334 .0403 .0472 .0539 .0605 .0670 .0734 .0797 interDolation
7 1.0859 .0920 .0981 .1040 .1099 .1157 .1214 .1271 .1326 .1381
8 1.1436 .1489 .1542 .1594 .1646 .1697 .1747 .1797 .1847 .1895
9 1.1943 .1991 .2038 .2085 .2131 .2176 .2221 .2266 .2310 .2353
O
O

1.2397 .2439 .2482 .2524 .2565 .2606 .2647 .2687 .2727 .2767 7 14 20 27 34
11 1.2806 .2845 .2883 .2921 .2959 .2997 .3034 .3070 .3107 .3143 6 12 19 25 31
12 1.3179 .3214 .3250 .3284 .3319 .3353 .3387 .3421 .3455 .3488 6 11 17 23 28
13 1.3521 .3554 .3586 .3618 .3650 .3682 .3713 .3745 .3775 .3806 5 11 16 21 26
14 1.3837 .3867 .3897 .3927 .3957 .3986 .4015 .4044 .4073 .4102 5 10 15 20 24

15 1.4130 .4158 .4186 .4214 .4242 .4269 .4296 .4323 .4350 .4377 5 9 14 18 23
16 1.4403 .4430 .4456 .4482 .4508 .4533 .4559 .4584 .4609 .4634 4 9 13 17 21
17 1.4659 .4684 .4709 .4733 .4757 .4781 .4805 .4829 .4853 .4876 4 8 12 16 20
18 1.4900 .4923 .4946 .4969 .4992 .5015 .5037 .5060 .5082 .5104 4 8 11 15 19
19 1.5126 .5148 .5170 .5192 .5213 .5235 .5256 .5278 .5299 .5320 4 7 11 14 18
oo
*0

1.5341 .5361 .5382 .5402 .5423 .5443 .5463 .5484 .5504 .5523 3 7 10 14 17
21 1.5543 .5563 .5583 .5602 .5621 .5641 .5660 .5679 .5698 .5717 3 6 10 13 16
22 1.5736 .5754 .5773 .5792 .5810 .5828 .5847 .5865 .5883 .5901 3 6 9 12 15
23 1.5919 .5937 .5954 .5972 .5990 .6007 .6024 .6042 .6059 .6076 3 6 9 12 15
24 1.6093 .6110 .6127 .6144 .6161 .6177 .6194 .6210 .6227 .6243 3 6 8 11 14

25 T.6259 .6276 .6292 .6308 .6324 .6340 .6356 .6371 .6387 .6403 3 5 8 11 13
26 1.6418 .6434 .6449 .6465 .6480 .6495 .6510 .6526 .6541 .6556 3 5 8 10 13
27 1.6570 .6585 .6600 .6615 .6629 .6644 .6659 .6673 .6687 .6702 2 5 7 10 12
28 1.6716 .6730 .6744 .6759 .6773 .6787 .6801 .6814 .6828 .6842 2 5 7 9 12
29 1.6856 .6869 .6883 .6896 .6910 .6923 .6937 .6950 .6963 .6977 2 4 7 9 11

30° 1.6990 .7003 .7016 .7029 .7042 .7055 .7068 .7080 .7093 .7106 2 4 6 9 11
31 1.7118 .7131 .7144 .7156 .7168 .7181 .7193 .7205 .7218 .7230 2 4 6 8 10
32 1.7242 .7254 .7266 .7278 .7290 .7302 .7314 .7326 .7338 .7349 2 4 6 8 10
33 1.7361 .7373 .7384 .7396 .7407 .7419 .7430 .7442 .7453 .7464 2 4 6 8 10
34 1.7476 .7487 .7498 .7509 .7520 .7531 .7542 .7553 .7564 .7575 2 4 6 7 9

35 T.7586 .7597 .7607 .7618 .7629 .7640 .7650 .7661 .7671 .7682 2 4 5 7 9
36 1.7692 .7703 .7713 .7723 .7734 .7744 .7754 .7764 .7774 .7785 2 3 5 7 9
37 1.7795 .7805 .7815 .7825 .7835 .7844 .7854 .7864 .7874 .7884 2 3 5 7 8
38 1.7893 .7903 .7913 .7922 .7932 .7941 .7951 .7960 .7970 .7979 2 3 5 6 8
39 1.7989 .7998 .8007 .8017 .8026 .8035 .8044 .8053 .8063 .8072 2 3 5 6 8
o
O

1.8081 .8090 .8099 .8108 .8117 .8125 .8134 .8143 .8152 .8161 1 3 4 6 7
41 1.8169 .8178 .8187 .8195 .8204 .8213 .8221 .8230 .8238 .8247 1 3 4 6 7
42 1.8255 .8264 .8272 .8280 .8289 .8297 .8305 .8313 .8322 .8330 1 3 4 6 7
43 1.8338 .8346 .8354 .8362 .8370 .8378 .8386 .8394 .8402 .8410 1 3 4 5 7
44 1.8418 .8426 .8433 .8441 .8449 .8457 .8464 .8472 .8480 .8487 1 3 4 5 6

0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 12' 48' 54' 1' a' 3/ 4' 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

608
 11. LOGARITHMIC SINES (Continued)

12' 18' 24' 30' 36'| 42' Differences

48' 54'
a' 4' 8'
.8510 •8517 .8525 •8532 .85401.8547 .8555 •8562 1 | 2
.8584 •8591 .8598 •8606 .8613 .8620 .8627 •8634 1 2
.8655 •8662 .8669 •8676 .8683 .8690 .8697 •8704 1 2
.8724 •8731 .8738 •8745 .8751 .8758 .8765 •8771 1 2
.8791 •8797 .8804 •8810 .8817 .8823 .8830 •8836 1 I 2
.8855 .8862 .8868 •8874 .8880 .8887 .8893 .8899 1
.8917 .8923 .8929 •8935 .8941 .8947 .8953 .8959 1
.8977 .8983 .8989 •8995 .9000 .9006 .9012 .9018 1
.9035 .9041 .9046 .9052 .9057 .9063 .9069 .9074 1
9091 .9096 .9101 •9107 .9112 .9118 .9123 .9128 1
1.9134 .9139 .9144 .9149 .9155 •9160 .9165 .9170 .9175 .9181 1
1.9186 .9191 .9196 ! .9206 .9211 .9216 .9221 .9226 .9231 1
1.9236 .9241 .9246 .9255 .9260 .9265 .9270 .9275 .9279 1
1.9284 .9289 .9294 .9303 .9308 •9312 .9317 .9322 .9326 1
1.9331 1.9335 .9340 .9349 .9353 .9358 .9362 .9367 .9371 1
1.9375 1.9380 .9384 .9393 .9397 .9401 .9406 .9410 .9414
61 1 I 1
1.9418 .9422 .9427 .9435 .9439 .9443 .9447 .9451 •9455 1 1
62 1.9459 .9463 .9467 .9475 .9479 .9483 .9487 .9491 .9495 1 1
63 1.9499 .9503
J 64 1.9537 .9540
.9506
.9544
.9514
.9551
.9518
.9555
.9522 .9525 .9529 .9533
.9558 .9562 .9566 .95691
1
1
1
1
65 1580 .9587 .9590 .9594 .9597 .9601 .96041 1 1
66 )614 .9621 .9624 .9627 .9631 .9634 .9637 1 1
67 )647 .9653 .9656 .9659 .9662 .9666 .9669 1 1
68 >678 .9684 .9687 .9690 .9693 .9696 .9699 01
69 1707 .9713 .9716 .9719 .9722 .9724 .9727 0 1
70< 1.9730 .9733 .9735 .9741 .9743 .9746 .9749 .9751 .97541 0
71 1.9757 .9759 .9762 .9767 .9770 .9772 .9775 .9777 .9780 0 1
72 1.9782 .9785 .9787 .9792 .9794 .9797 .9799 .9801 .9804 0 | 1
73 1.9806 .9808 .9811 .9815 .9817 .9820 .9822 .9824 .9826 0
74 1.9828 .9831 .9833 .9837 .9839 .9841 .9843 .9845 .98471 0

75 853 .9857 .9859 .9861 .9863 .9865 .9867 0

76 873 .9876 .9878 .9880 .9882 .9884 .9885 0
77 891 9894 .9896 .9897 .9899 .9901 .9902 0
78 907 9910 .9912 .9913 .9915 .9916 .9918 0
79 922 9925 .9927 .9928 .9929 .9931 .9932 I 0 | 0

80° 936 .9937 .9939 .9940 .9941 .9943 .9944 .9945 0 10

81 949 .9950 .9951 .9952 .9953 .9954 .9955 .9956 0 0
82 960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964 .9965 .9966 .9967| 0 0
83 969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974 .9975 .9975
84 978 .9978 .9979 .9980 .9981 .9981 .9982 .9983

85 )85 .9985 .9986 .9987 .9987 .9988 .9988 .9989

86 )90 .9991 .9991 .9992 .9992 .9993 .9993 .9994
87 )95 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9997 .9997
88 )98 .9998 .9998 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999
89 ►00 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000
12' 18' 1 24' 30' 36' | 43' 48' 54' 1i' a' s' 4' s'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

609
 12. LOGARITHMIC COSINES SUBTRACT
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0° 0.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .9999
1 1.9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998
2 1.9997 .9997 .9997 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9995 .9995 .9994
3 1.9994 .9994 .9993 .9993 .9992 .9992 .9991 .9991 .9990 .9990
4 1.9989 .9989 .9988 .9988 .9987 .9987 .9986 .9985 .9985 .9984

5 1.9983 .9983 .9982 .9981 .9981 .9980 .9979 .9978 .9978 .9977
6 1.9976 .9975 .9975 .9974 .9973 .9972 .9971 .9970 .9969 .9968
7 1.9968 .9967 .9966 .9965 .9964 .9963 .9962 .9961 .9960 .9959 0 0 0 1 1
8 1.9958 .9956 .9955 .9954 .9953 .9952 .9951 .9950 .9949 .9947 0 0 1 1 1
9 1.9946 .9945 .9944 .9943 .9941 .9940 .9939 .9937 .9936 .9935 0 0 1 1 1
O
O

1.9934 .9932 .9931 .9929 .9928 .9927 .9925 .9924 .9922 .9921 0 0 1 1 1
11 1.9919 .9918 .9916 .9915 .9913 .9912 .9910 .9909 .9907 .9906 0 1 1 1 1
12 1.9904 .9902 .9901 .9899 .9897 .9896 .9894 .9892 .9891 .9889 0 1 1 1 1
13 1.9887 .9885 .9884 .9882 .9880 .9878 .9876 .9875 .9873 .9871 0 1 1 1 2
14 1.9869 .9867 .9865 .9863 .9861 .9859 .9857 .9855 .9853 .9851 0 1 1 1 2

15 1.9849 .9847 .9845 .9843 .9841 .9839 .9837 .9835 .9833 .9831 0 1 1 1 2
16 1.9828 .9826 .9824 .9822 .9820 .9817 .9815 .9813 .9811 .9808 0 1 1 1 2
17 1.9806 .9804 .9801 .9799 .9797 .9794 .9792 .9789 .9787 .9785 0 1 1 2 2
18 1.9782 .9780 .9777 .9775 .9772 .9770 .9767 .9764 .9762 .9759 0 1 1 2 2
19 1.9757 .9754 .9751 .9749 .9746 .9743 .9741 .9738 .9735 .9733 0 1 1 2 2
oo
*5

1.9730 .9727 .9724 .9722 .9719 .9716 .9713 .9710 .9707 .9704 0 1 1 2 2
21 1.9702 .9699 .9696 .9693 .9690 .9687 .9684 .9681 .9678 .9675 0 1 1 2 2
22 1.9672 .9669 .9666 .9662 .9659 .9656 .9653 .9650 .9647 .9643 1 1 2 2 3
23 1.9640 .9637 .9634 .9631 .9627 .9624 .9621 .9617 .9614 .9611 1 1 2 2 3
24 1.9607 .9604 .9601 .9597 .9594 .9590 .9587 .9583 .9580 .9576 1 1 2 2 3

25 1.9573 .9569 .9566 .9562 .9558 .9555 .9551 .9548 .9544 .9540 1 1 2 2 3
26 1.9537 .9533 .9529 .9525 .9522 .9518 .9514 .9510 .9506 .9503 1 1 2 3 3
27 1.9499 .9495 .9491 .9487 .9483 .9479 .9475 .9471 .9467 .9463 1 1 2 3 3
28 1.9459 .9455 .9451 .9447 .9443 .9439 .9435 .9431 .9427 .9422 1 1 2 3 3
29 1.9418 .9414 .9410 .9406 .9401 .9397 .9393 .9388 .9384 .9380 1 1 2 3 4
o
CO
©

1.9375 .9371 .9367 .9362 .9358 .9353 .9349 .9344 .9340 .9335 1 1 2 3 4
31 1.9331 .9326 .9322 .9317 .9312 .9308 .9303 .9298 .9294 .9289 1 2 2 3 4
32 1.9284 .9279 .9275 .9270 .9265 .9260 .9255 .9251 .9246 .9241 1 2 2 3 4
33 1.9236 .9231 .9226 .9221 .9216 .9211 .9206 .9201 .9196 .9191 1 2 3 3 4
34 1.9186 .9181 .9175 .9170 .9165 .9160 .9155 .9149 .9144 .9139 1 2 3 3 4

35 1.9134 .9128 .9123 .9118 .9112 .9107 .9101 .9096 .9091 .9085 1 2 3 4 5
36 1.9080 .9074 .9069 .9063 .9057 .9052 .9046 .9041 .9035 .9029 1 2 3 4 5
37 1.9023 .9018 .9012 .9006 .9000 .8995 .8989 .8983 .8977 .8971 1 2 3 4 5
38 1.8965 .8959 .8953 .8947 .8941 .8935 .8929 .8923 .8917 .8911 1 2 3 4 5
39 1.8905 .8899 .8893 .8887 .8880 .8874 .8868 .8862 .8855 .8849 1 2 3 4 5
O
©

1.8843 .8836 .8830 .8823 .8817 .8810 .8804 .8797 .8791 .8784 1 2 3 4 5
41 1.8778 .8771 .8765 .8758 .8751 .8745 .8738 .8731 .8724 .8718 1 2 3 4 6
42 1.8711 .8704 .8697 .8690 .8683 .8676 .8669 .8662 .8655 .8648 1 2 3 5 6
43 1.8641 .8634 .8627 .8620 .8613 .8606 .8598 .8591 .8584 .8577 1 2 4 5 6
44 1.8569 .8562 .8555 .8547 .8540 .8532 .8525 .8517 .8510 .8502 1 2 4 5 6

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

610
61 1
 13. LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS
Differences
Angle O' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0° — 00 3.242 3.543 3.719 3.844 3.941 2.020 2.087 2.145 2.196 Interpolation
1 2.2419 .2833 .3211 .3559 .3881 .4181 .4461 .4725 .4973 .5208 not accurate
2 2.5431 .5643 .5845 .6038 .6223 .6401 .6571 .6736 .6894 .7046
3 2.7194 .7337 .7475 .7609 .7739 .7865 .7988 .8107 .8223 .8336
4 2.8446 .8554 .8659 .8762 .8862 .8960 .9056 .9150 .9241 .9331

5 2.9420 .9506 .9591 .9674 .9756 .9836 .9915 .9992 .0068 .0143 TTao
6 1.0216 .0289 .0360 .0430 .0499 .0567 .0633 .0699 .0764 .0828 interpolation
7 1.0891 .0954 .1015 .1076 .1135 .1194 .1252 .1310 .1367 .1423
8 1.1478 .1533 .1587 .1640 .1693 .1745 .1797 .1848 .1898 .1948
9 1.1997 .2046 .2094 .2142 .2189 .2236 .2282 .2328 .2374 .2419

10° 1.2463 .2507 .2551 .2594 .2637 .2680 .2722 .2764 .2805 .2846 7 14 21 28 35
11 1.2887 .2927 .2967 .3006 .3046 .3085 .3123 .3162 .3200 .3237 6 13 19 26 32
12 1.3275 .3312 .3349 .3385 .3422 .3458 .3493 .3529 .3564 .3599 6 12 18 24 30
13 1.3634 .3668 .3702 .3736 .3770 .3804 .3837 .3870 .3903 .3935 6 11 17 22 28
14 1.3968 .4000 .4032 .4064 .4095 .4127 .4158 .4189 .4220 .4250 5 10 16 21 26

15 1.4281 .4311 .4341 .4371 .4400 .4430 .4459 .4488 .4517 .4546 5 10 15 20 25
16 1.4575 .4603 .4632 .4660 .4688 .4716 .4744 .4771 .4799 .4826 5 9 14 19 23
17 1.4853 .4880 .4907 .4934 .4961 .4987 .5014 .5040 .5066 .5092 4 9 13 18 22
18 1.5118 .5143 .5169 .5195 .5220 .5245 .5270 .5295 .5320 .5345 4 8 13 17 21
19 1.5370 .5394 .5419 .5443 .5467 .5491 .5516 .5539 i .5563 .5587 4 8 12 16 20

20° 1.5611 .5634 .5658 .5681 .5704 .5727 .5750 .5773 .5796 .5819 4 8 12 15 19
21 1.5842 .5864 .5887 .5909 .5932 .5954 .5976 .5998 .6020 .6042 4 7 11 15 19
22 1.6064 .6086 .6108 .6129 .6151 .6172 .6194 .6215 .6236 .6257 4 7 11 14 18
23 1.6279 .6300 .6321 .6341 .6362 .6383 .6404 .6424 .6445 .6465 3 7 10 14 17
24 1.6486 .6506 .6527 .6547 .6567 .6587 .6607 .6627 .6647 .6667 3 7 10 13 17

25 1.6687 .6706 .6726 .6746 .6765 .6785 .6804 .6824 .6843 .6863 3 7 10 13 16
26 1.6882 .6901 .6920 .6939 .6958 .6977 .6996 .7015 .7034 .7053 3 6 9 13 16
27 1.7072 .7090 .7109 .7128 .7146 .7165 .7183 .7202 .7220 .7238 3 6 9 12 15
28 1.7257 .7275 .7293 .7311 .7330 .7348 .7366 .7384 .7402 .7420 3 6 9 12 15
29 1.7438 .7455 .7473 .7491 .7509 .7526 .7544 .7562 .7579 .7597 3 6 9 12 15

30° 1.7614 .7632 .7649 .7667 .7684 .7701 .7719 .7736 .7753 .7771 3 6 9 12 14
31 1.7788 .7805 .7822 .7839 .7856 .7873 .7890 .7907 .7924 .7941 3 6 9 11 14
32 1.7958 .7975 .7992 .8008 .8025 .8042 .8059 .8075 .8092 .8109 3 6 8 11 14
33 1.8125 .8142 .8158 .8175 .8191 .8208 .8224 .8241 .8257 .8274 3 5 8 11 14
34 1.8290 .8306 .8323 .8339 .8355 .8371 .8388 .8404 .8420 .8436 3 5 8 11 14

35 1.8452 .8468 .8484 .8501 .8517 .8533 .8549 .8565 .8581 .8597 3 5 8 11 13
36 1.8613 .8629 .8644 .8660 .8676 .8692 .8708 .8724 .8740 .8755 3 5 8 11 13
37 1.8771 .8787 .8803 .8818 .8834 .8850 .8865 .8881 .8897 .8912 3 5 8 10 13
38 1.8928 .8944 .8959 .8975 .8990 .9006 .9022 .9037 .9053 .9068 3 5 8 10 13
39 1.9084 .9099 .9115 .9130 .9146 .9161 .9176 .9192 .9207 .9223 3 5 8 10 13
Oo

1.9238 .9254 .9269 .9284 .9300 .9315 .9330 .9346 .9361 .9376 3 5 8 10 13
41 1.9392 .9407 .9422 .9438 .9453 .9468 .9483 .9499 .9514 .9529 3 5 8 10 13
42 1.9544 .9560 .9575 .9590 .9605 .9621 .9636 .9651 .9666 .9681 3 5 8 10 13
43 1.9697 .9712 .9727 .9742 .9757 .9772 .9788 .9803 .9818 .9833 3 5 8 10 13
44 1.9848 .9864 .9879 .9894 .9909 .9924 .9939 .9955 .9970 .9985 3 5 8 10 13

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

612
 13. LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS (Continued)

51
52
53
54

55
56
57
58
59

60‘
61
62
63
64

65
66
67
68
69

70c
71
72
73
74

75
76
77
78
79

80°
81
82
83
84

85
86
87
88
89

The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

613
 14. LOGARITHMIC COTANGENTS SUBTRACT

Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0° + 00 2.758 2.457 2.281 2.156 2.059 1.980 1.913 1.855 1.804

Ill LvipulclUUll
1 1.7581 .7167 .6789 .6441 .6119 .5819 .5539 .5275 .5027 .4792
2 1.4569 .4357 .4155 .3962 .3777 .3599 .3429 .3264 .3106 .2954
3 1.2806 .2663 .2525 .2391 .2261 .2135 .2012 .1893 .1777 .1664
4 1.1554 .1446 .1341 .1238 .1138 .1040 .0944 .0850 .0759 .0669

5 1.0580 .0494 .0409 .0326 .0244 .0164 .0085 .0008 .9932 .9857 TTao
6 0.9784 .9711 .9640 .9570 .9501 .9433 .9367 .9301 .9236 .9172
111 U/ipuiaUuD
7 0.9109 .9046 .8985 .8924 .8865 .8806 .8748 .8690 .8633 .8577
8 0.8522 .8467 .8413 .8360 .8307 .8255 .8203 .8152 .8102 .8052
9 0.8003 .7954 .7906 .7858 .7811 .7764 .7718 .7672 .7626 .7581

10° 0.7537 .7493 .7449 .7406 .7363 .7320 .7278 .7236 .7195 .7154 7 14 21 28 35
11 0.7113 .7073 .7033 .6994 .6954 .6915 .6877 .6838 .6800 .6763 6 13 19 26 32
12 0.6725 .6688 .6651 .6615 .6578 .6542 .6507 .6471 .6436 .6401 6 12 18 24 30
13 0.6366 .6332 .6298 .6264 .6230 .6196 .6163 .6130 .6097 .6065 6 11 17 22 28
14 0.6032 .6000 .5968 .5936 .5905 .5873 .5842 .5811 .5780 .5750 5 10 16 21 26

15 0.5719 .5689 .5659 .5629 .5600 .5570 .5541 .5512 .5483 .5454 5 10 15 20 25
16 0.5425 .5397 .5368 .5340 .5312 .5284 .5256 .5229 .5201 .5174 5 9 14 19 23
17 0.5147 .5120 .5093 .5066 .5039 .5013 .4986 .4960 .4934 .4908 4 9 13 18 22
18 0.4882 .4857 .4831 .4805 .4780 .4755 .4730 .4705 .4680 .4655 4 8 13 17 21
19 0.4630 .4606 .4581 .4557 .4533 .4509 .4484 .4461 .4437 .4413 4 8 12 16 20

20° 0.4389 .4366 .4342 .4319 .4296 .4273 .4250 .4227 .4204 .4181 4 8 12 15 19
21 0.4158 .4136 .4113 .4091 .4068 .4046 .4024 .4002 .3980 .3958 4 7 11 15 19
22 0.3936 .3914 .3892 .3871 .3849 .3828 .3806 .3785 .3764 .3743 4 7 11 14 18
23 0.3721 .3700 .3679 .3659 .3638 .3617 .3596 .3576 .3555 .3535 3 7 10 14 17
24 0.3514 .3494 .3473 .3453 .3433 .3413 .3393 .3373 .3353 .3333 3 7 10 13 17

25 0.3313 .3294 .3274 .3254 .3235 .3215 .3196 .3176 .3157 .3137 3 7 10 13 16
26 0.3118 .3099 .3080 .3061 .3042 .3023 .3004 .2985 .2966 .2947 3 6 9 13 16
27 0.2928 .2910 .2891 .2872 .2854 .2835 .2817 .2798 .2780 .2762 3 6 9 12 15
28 0.2743 .2725 .2707 .2689 .2670 .2652 .2634 .2616 .2598 .2580 3 6 9 12 15
29 0.2562 .2545 .2527 .2509 .2491 .2474 .2456 .2438 .2421 .2403 3 6 9 12 15

30° 0.2386 .2368 .2351 .2333 .2316 .2299 .2281 .2264 .2247 .2229 3 6 9 12 14
31 0.2212 .2195 .2178 .2161 .2144 .2127 .2110 .2093 .2076 .2059 3 6 9 11 14
32 0.2042 .2025 .2008 .1992 .1975 .1958 .1941 .1925 .1908 .1891 3 6 8 11 14
33 0.1875 .1858 .1842 .1825 .1809 .1792 .1776 .1759 .1743 .1726 3 5 8 11 14
34 0.1710 .1694 .1677 .1661 .1645 .1629 .1612 .1596 .1580 .1564 3 5 8 11 14

35 0.1548 .1532 .1516 .1499 .1483 .1467 .1451 .1435 .1419 .1403 3 5 8 11 13
36 0.1387 .1371 .1356 .1340 .1324 .1308 .1292 .1276 .1260 .1245 3 5 8 11 13
37 0.1229 .1213 .1197 .1182 .1166 .1150 .1135 .1119 .1103 .1088 3 5 8 10 13
38 0.1072 .1056 .1041 .1025 .1010 .0994 .0978 .0963 .0947 .0932 3 5 8 10 13
39 0.0916 .0901 .0885 0870 .0854 .0839 .0824 .0808 .0793 .0777 3 5 8 10 13
O
O

0.0762 .0746 .0731 .0716 .0700 .0685 .0670 .0654 .0639 .0624 3 5 8 10 13
41 0.0608 .0593 .0578 .0562 .0547 .0532 .0517 .0501 .0486 .0471 3 5 8 10 13
42 0.0456 .0440 .0425 .0410 .0395 .0379 .0364 .0349 .0334 .0319 3 5 8 10 13
43 0.0303 .0288 .0273 .0258 .0243 .0228 .0212 .0197 .0182 .0167 3 5 8 10 13
44 0.0152 .0136 .0121 .0106 .0091 .0076 .0061 .0045 .0030 .0015 3 5 8 10 13

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' l' 2' 3' 4' 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

614
615
 15. LOGARITHMIC SECANTS
Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
l' 2' 3' 4' 5'

0° 0.0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0001
1 0.0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002
2 0.0003 .0003 .0003 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0006
3 0.0006 .0006 .0007 .0007 .0008 .0008 .0009 .0009 .0010 .0010
4 0.0011 .0011 .0012 .0012 .0013 .0013 .0014 .0015 .0015 .0016

5 0.0017 .0017 .0018 .0019 .0019 .0020 .0021 .0022 .0023

.0022
6 0.0024 .0025 .0025 .0026 .0027 .0028 .0029 .0030 .0031 .0032
7 0.0032 .0033 .0034 .0035 .0036 .0037 .0038 .0039 .0040 .0041 0 0 0 1 1
8 0.0042 .0044 .0045 .0046 .0047 .0048 .0049 .0050 .0051 .0053 0 0 1 1 1
9 0.0054 .0055 .0056 .0057 .0059 .0060 .0061 .0063 .0064 .0065 0 0 1 1 1
O
tH
O

0.0066 .0068 .0069 .0071 .0072 .0073 .0075 .0076 .0078 .0079 0 0 1 1 1
11 0.0081 .0082 .0084 .0085 .0087 .0088 .0090 .0091 .0093 .0094 0 1 1 1 1
12 0.0096 .0098 .0099 .0101 .0103 .0104 .0106 .0108 .0109 .0111 0 1 1 1 1
13 0.0113 .0115 .0116 .0118 .0120 .0122 .0124 .0125 .0127 .0129 0 1 1 1 2
14 0.0131 .0133 .0135 .0137 .0139 .0141 .0143 .0145 .0147 .0149 0 1 1 1 2

15 0.0151 .0153 .0155 .0157 .0159 .0161 .0163 .0165 .0167 .0169 0 1 1 1 2
16 0.0172 0174 .0176 .0178 .0180 .0183 .0185 .0187 .0189 .0192 0 1 1 1 2
17 0.0194 .0196 .0199 .0201 .0203 .0206 .0208 .0211 .0213 .0215 0 1 1 2 2
18 0.0218 .0220 .0223 .0225 .0228 .0230 .0233 .0236 .0238 .0241 0 1 1 2 2
19 0.0243 .0246 .0249 .0251 .0254 .0257 .0259 .0262 .0265 .0267 0 1 1 2 2
O
N
©

0.0270 .0273 .0276 .0278 .0281 .0284 .0287 .0290 .0293 .0296 0 1 1 2 2
21 0.0298 .0301 .0304 .0307 .0310 .0313 .0316 .0319 .0322 .0325 0 1 1 2 2
22 0.0328 .0331 .0334 .0338 .0341 .0344 .0347 .0350 .0353 .0357 1 1 2 2 3
23 0.0360 .0363 .0366 .0369 .0373 .0376 .0379 .0383 .0386 .0389 1 1 2 2 3
24 0.0393 .0396 .0399 .0403 .0406 .0410 .0413 .0417 .0420 .0424 1 1 2 2 3

25 0.0427 .0431 .0434 .0438 .0442 .0445 .0449 .0452 .0456 .0460 1 1 2 2 3
26 0.0463 .0467 .0471 .0475 .0478 .0482 .0486 .0490 .0494 .0497 1 1 2 3 3
27 0.0501 .0505 .0509 .0513 .0517 .0521 .0525 .0529 .0533 .0537 1 1 2 3 3
28 0.0541 .0545 .0549 .0553 .0557 .0561 .0565 .0569 .0573 .0578 1 1 2 3 3
29 0.0582 .0586 .0590 .0594 .0599 .0603 .0607 .0612 .0616 .0620 1 1 2 3 4
o
W
©

0.0625 .0629 .0633 .0638 .0642 .0647 .0651 .0656 .0660 .0665 1 1 2 3 4
31 0.0669 .0674 .0678 .0683 .0688 .0692 .0697 .0702 .0706 .0711 1 2 2 3 4
32 0.0716 .0721 .0725 .0730 .0735 .0740 .0745 .0749 .0754 .0759 1 2 2 3 4
33 0.0764 .0769 .0774 .0779 .0784 .0789 .0794 .0799 .0804 .0809 1 2 3 3 4
34 0.0814 .0819 .0825 .0830 .0835 .0840 .0845 .0851 .0856 .0861 1 2 3 3 4

35 0.0866 .0872 .0877 .0882 .0888 .0893 .0899 .0904 .0909 .0915 1 2 3 4 5
36 0.0920 .0926 .0931 .0937 .0943 .0948 .0954 .0959 .0965 .0971 1 2 3 4 5
37 0.0977 .0982 .0988 .0994 .1000 .1005 .1011 .1017 .1023 .1029 1 2 3 4 5
38 0.1035 .1041 .1047 .1053 .1059 .1065 .1071 .1077 .1083 .1089 1 2 3 4 5
39 0.1095 .1101 .1107 .1113 .1120 .1126 .1132 .1138 .1145 .1151 1 2 3 4 5
O
©

0.1157 .1164 .1170 .1177 .1183 .1190 .1196 .1203 .1209 .1216 1 2 3 4 5
41 0.1222 .1229 .1235 .1242 .1249 .1255 .1262 .1269 .1276 .1282 1 2 3 4 6
42 0.1289 .1296 .1303 .1310 .1317 .1324 .1331 .1338 .1345 .1352 1 2 3 5 6
43 0.1359 .1366 .1373 .1380 .1387 .1394 .1402 .1409 .1416 .1423 1 2 4 5 6
44 0.1431 .1438 .1445 .1453 .1460 .1468 .1475 .1483 .1490 .1498 1 2 4 5 6

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' 2' a' 4' 5'

616
 15. LOGARITHMIC SECANTS (Continued)

—
Angle Differences
0' 6' 12

V
18' 21

CO
o
' ' 36' 12 ' 48' 54'
1' 2' S' 4' 5'
45° 0.1505 .1513 .1520 .1528 .1536 .1543 .1551 .1559 .1567 .1574 1 3 4 5 fi
46 0.1582 .1590 .1598 .1606 .1614 .1622 .1630 .1638 .1646 .1654 1 3 4 7
47 0.1002 .1670 .1678 .1687 .1695 .1703 .1711 .1720 .1728 .1736 1 3 4 A 7
48 0.1745 .1753 .1762 .1770 .1779 .1787 .1796 .1805 .1813 .1822 1 3 4 6 7
49 0.1831 .1839 .1848 .1857 .1866 .1875 .1883 .1892 .1901 .1910 1 3 4 6 7
50° 0.1919 .1928 .1937 .1947 .1956 .1965 .1974 .1983 .1993 .2002 2 3 5 6 8
51 0.2011 .2021 .2030 .2040 .2049 .2059 .2068 .2078 .2087 .2097 2 3 5 6 8
52 0.2107 .2116 .2126 .2136 .2146 .2156 .2165 .2175 .2185 .2195 2 3 5 7 8
53 0.2205 .2215 .2226 .2236 .2246 .2256 .2266 .2277 .2287 .2297 2 3 5 7 9
54 0.2308 .2318 .2329 .2339 .2350 .2360 .2371 .2382 .2393 .2403 2 4 5 7 9
55 0.2414 .2425 .2436 .2447 .2458 .2469 .2480 .2491 .2502 .2513 2 4 6 7 9
56 0.2524 .2536 .2547 .2558 .2570 .2581 .2593 .2604 .2616 .2627 2 4 6 8 10
57 0.2039 .2651 .2662 .2674 .2686 .2698 .2710 .2722 .2734 .2746 2 4 6 8 10
58 0.2758 .2770 .2782 .2795 .2807 .2819 .2832 .2844 .2856 .2869 2 4 6 8 10
59 0.2882 .2894 .2907 .2920 .2932 .2945 .2958 .2971 .2984 .2997 2 4 6 9 11
60° 0.3010 .3023 .3037 .3050 .3063 .3077 .3090 .3104 .3117 .3131 2 4 7 9 11
61 0.3144 .3158 .3172 .3186 .3199 .3213 .3227 .3241 .3256 .3270 2 5 7 9 12
62 0.3284 .3298 .3313 .3327 .3341 .3356 .3371 .3385 .3400 .3415 2 5 7 10 12
63 0.3430 .3444 .3459 .3474 .3490 .3505 .3520 .3535 .3551 .3566 3 5 8 10 13
64 0.3582 .3597 .3613 .3629 .3644 .3660 .3676 .3692 .3708 .3724 3 5 8 11 13

65 0.3741 .3757 .3773 .3790 .3806 .3823 .3839 .3856 .3873 .3890 3 6 8 11 14
66 0.3907 .3924 .3941 .3958 .3976 .3993 .4010 .4028 .4046 .4063 3 6 9 12 15
67 0.4081 .4099 .4117 .4135 .4153 .4172 .4190 .4208 .4227 .4246 3 6 9 12 15
68 0.4204 .4283 .4302 .4321 .4340 .4359 .4379 .4398 .4417 .4437 3 6 10 13 16
69 0.4457 .4477 .4496 .4516 .4537 .4557 .4577 .4598 .4618 .4639 3 7 10 14 17

70° 0.4059 .4680 .4701 .4722 .4744 .4765 .4787 .4808 .4830 .4852 4 7 11 14 18
71 0.4874 .4896 .4918 .4940 .4963 .4985 .5008 .5031 .5054 .5077 4 8 11 15 19
72 0.5100 .5124 .5147 .5171 .5195 .5219 .5243 .5267 .5291 .5316 4 8 12 16 20
73 0.5341 .5366 .5391 .5416 .5441 .5467 .5492 .5518 .5544 .5570 4 9 13 17 21
74 0.5597 .5623 .5650 .5677 .5704 .5731 .5758 .5786 .5814 .5842 5 9 14 18 23

75 0.5870 .5898 .5927 .5956 .5985 .6014 .6043 .6073 .6103 .6133 5 10 15 20 24
76 0.0103 .6194 .6225 .6255 .6287 .6318 .6350 .6382 .6414 .6446 5 11 16 21 26
77 0.0479 .6512 .6545 .6579 .6613 .6647 .6681 .6716 .6750 .6786 6 11 17 23 28
78 0.0821 .6857 .6893 .6930 .6966 .7003 .7041 .7079 .7117 .7155 6 12 19 25 31
79 0.7194 .7233 .7273 .7313 .7353 .7394 .7435 .7476 .7518 .7561 7 14 20 27 34

80° 0.7003 .7647 .7690 .7734 .7779 .7824 .7869 .7915 .7962 .8009
81 0.8057 .8105 .8153 .8203 .8253 .8303 .8354 .8406 .8458 .8511
82 0.8564 .8619 .8674 .8729 .8786 .8843 .8901 .8960 .9019 .9080
Use
83 0.9141 .9203 .9266 .9330 .9395 .9461 .9528 .9597 .9666 .9736
interpolation
84 0.9808 .9880 .9954 .0030 .0106 .0184 .0264 .0346 .0427 .0611

85 1.0597 .0685 .0774 .0865 .0958 .1054 .1151 .1251 .1353 .1457
86 1.1564 .1674 .1787 .1902 .2021 .2143 .2269 .2398 .2532 .2670
87 1.2812 .2959 .3111 .3269 .3433 .3603 .3780 .3965 .4158 .4360 #
interpolation
88 1.4572 .4794 .5029 .5277 .5541 .5821 .6120 .6442 .6790 .7168
not accurate
89 1.7581 1.804 1.855 1.913 1.980 2.059 2.156 2.281 2.457 2.758

O' 6' 12' 18' 21 ' 30' 36' 12 ' 48' 54' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'

The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

617
 16. LOGARITHMIC COSECANTS SUBTRACT

Differences
Angle 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
1' l' 3' 4' 5'

0° +00 2.758 2.457 2.281 2.156 2.059 1.980 1.913 1.855 1.804 Interrelation
1 1.7581 .7168 .6790 .6442 .6120 .5821 .5541 .5277 .5029 .4794 not accurate
2 1.4572 .4360 .4158 .3965 .3780 .3603 .3433 .3269 .3111 .2959
3 1.2812 .2670 .2532 .2398 .2269 .2143 .2021 .1902 .1787 .1674
4 1.1564 .1457 .1353 .1251 .1151 .1054 .0958 .0865 .0774 .0685

5 1.0597 .0511 .0427 .0345 .0264 .0184 .0106 .0030 .9964 .9880 TTqo
6 0.9808 .9736 .9666 .9597 .9528 .9461 .9395 .9330 .9266 .9203 interpolation
7 0.9141 .9080 .9019 .8960 .8901 .8843 .8786 .8729 .8674 .8619
8 0.8564 .8511 .8458 .8406 .8354 .8303 .8253 .8203 .8153 .8105
9 0.8057 .8009 .7962 .7915 .7869 .7824 .7779 .7734 .7690 .7647
Oo
h*

0.7603 .7561 .7518 .7476 .7435 .7394 .7353 .7313 .7273 .7233 7 14 20 27 34
11 0.7194 .7155 .7117 .7079 .7041 .7003 .6966 .6930 .6893 .6857 6 12 19 25 31
12 0.6821 .6786 .6750 .6716 .6681 .6647 .6613 .6579 .6545 .6512 6 11 17 23 28
13 0.6479 .6446 .6414 .6382 .6350 .6318 .6287 .6255 .6225 .6194 5 11 16 21 26
14 0.6163 .6133 .6103 .6073 .6043 .6014 .5985 .5956 .5927 .5898 5 10 15 20 24

15 0.5870 .5842 .5814 .5786 .5758 .5731 .5704 .5677 .5650 .5623 5 9 14 18 23
16 0.5597 .5570 .5544 .5518 .5492 .5467 .5441 .5416 .5391 .5366 4 9 13 17 21
17 0.5341 .5316 .5291 .5267 .5243 .5219 .5195 .5171 .5147 .5124 4 8 12 16 20
18 0.5100 .5077 .5054 .5031 .5008 .4985 .4963 .4940 .4918 .4896 4 8 11 15 19
19 0.4874 .4852 .4830 .4808 .4787 .4765 .4744 .4722 .4701 .4680 4 7 11 14 18
O
O

0.4659 .4639 .4618 .4598 .4577 .4557 .4537 .4516 .4496 .4477 3 7 10 14 17
21 0.4457 .4437 .4417 .4398 .4379 .4359 .4340 .4321 .4302 .4283 3 6 10 13 16
22 0.4264 .4246 .4227 .4208 .4190 .4172 .4153 .4135 .4117 .4099 3 6 9 12 15
23 0.4081 .4063 .4046 .4028 .4010 .3993 .3976 .3958 .3941 .3924 3 6 9 12 15
24 0.3907 .3890 .3873 .3856 .3839 .3823 .3806 .3790 .3773 .3757 3 6 8 11 14

25 0.3741 .3724 .3708 .3692 .3676 .3660 .3644 .3629 .3613 .3597 3 5 8 11 13
26 0.3582 .3566 .3551 .3535 .3520 .3505 .3490 .3474 .3459 .3444 3 5 8 10 13
27 0.3430 .3415 .3400 .3385 .3371 .3356 .3341 .3327 .3313 .3298 2 5 7 10 12
28 0.3284 .3270 .3256 .3241 .3227 .3213 .3199 .3186 .3172 .3158 2 5 7 9 12
29 0.3144 .3131 .3117 .3104 .3090 .3077 .3063 .3050 .3037 .3023 2 4 7 9 11
oo
CO

0.3010 .2997 .2984 .2971 .2958 .2945 .2932 .2920 .2907 .2894 2 4 6 9 11
31 0.2882 .2869 .2856 .2844 .2832 .2819 .2807 .2795 .2782 .2770 2 4 6 8 10
32 0.2758 .2746 .2734 .2722 .2710 .2698 .2686 .2674 .2662 .2651 2 4 6 8 10
33 0.2639 .2627 .2616 .2604 .2593 .2581 .2570 .2558 .2547 .2536 2 4 6 8 10
34 0.2524 .2513 .2502 .2491 .2480 .2469 .2458 .2447 .2436 .2425 2 4 6 7 9

35 0.2414 .2403 .2393 .2382 .2371 .2360 .2350 .2339 .2329 .2318 2 4 5 7 9
36 0.2308 .2297 .2287 .2277 .2266 .2256 .2246 .2236 .2226 .2215 2 3 5 7 9
37 0.2205 .2195 .2185 .2175 .2165 .2156 .2146 .2136 .2126 .2116 2 3 5 7 8
38 0.2107 .2097 .2087 .2078 .2068 .2059 .2049 .2040 .2030 .2021 2 3 5 6 8
39 0.2011 .2002 .1993 .1983 .1974 .1965 .1956 .1947 .1937 .1928 2 3 5 6 8
O
O

0.1919 .1910 .1901 .1892 .1883 .1875 .1866 .1857 .1848 .1839 1 3 4 6 7
41 0.1831 .1822 .1813 .1805 .1796 .1787 .1779 .1770 .1762 .1753 1 3 4 6 7
42 0.1745 .1736 .1728 .1720 .1711 .1703 .1695 .1687 .1678 .1670 1 3 4 6 7
43 0.1662 .1654 .1646 .1638 .1630 .1622 .1614 .1606 .1598 .1590 1 3 4 5 7
44 0.1582 .1574 .1567 .1559 .1551 .1543 .1536 .1528 .1520 .1513 1 3 4 5 6

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' 1' a' S' 4' 5'
The heavy type indicates that the integer changes.

618
 16 LOGARITHMIC COSECANTS (Continued) '
sci> tract
SUBTRACT

Differences
Anfle 0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 12' 18' 54'
1' %' 8' 4' 5'
45° 0.1505 .1498 .1490 .1483 .1475 .1468 .1460
.1453 .1445 .1438 1 2 4 o A
0
46 0.1431 .1423 .1416 .1409 .1402 .1394 .1387
.1380 .1373 .1366 1 2 4 K A
O
47 0.1359 .1352 .1345 .1338 .1331 .1324 .1317 u
.1310 .1303 .1296 1 2 K A
48 0.1289 .1282 .1276 .1269 .1262 .1255 .1249 V u
.1242 .1235 .1229 1 2 A A
u
49 0.1222 .1216 .1209 .1203 .1196 .1190 .1183
.1177 .1170 .1164 1 2 3 4 5
o

0.1157 .1151 .1145 .1138 .1132 .1126 .1120 .1113 .1107 .1101 1 2 3 4 k
1

M 0.1095 .1089 .1083 .1077 .1071 .1065 .1059 .1053 .1047 .1041 1 2 3 4 p;
i 52 0.1035 .1029 .1023 .1017 .1011 .1005 .1000 .0994 .0988 .0982 1 2 3 4 K
53 0.0977 .0971 .0965 .0959 .0954 .0948 .0943 .0937 .0931 .0926 1 2 3 4 K
54 0.0920 .0915 .0909 .0904 .0899 .0893 .0888 .0882 .0877 .0872 1 2 3 4 5
55 0.0866 .0861 .0856 .0851 .0845 .0840 .0835 .0830 .0825 .0819 1 2 3 3 4
56 0.0814 .0809 .0804 .0799 .0794 .0789 .0784 .0779 .0774 .0769 1 2 3 3 4
57 0.0764 .0759 .0754 .0749 .0745 .0740 .0735 .0730 .0725 .0721 1 2 2 3 4
58 0.0716 .0711 .0706 .0702 .0697 .0692 .0688 .0683 .0678 .0674 1 2 2 3 4
59 0.0669 .0665 .0660 .0656 .0651 .0647 .0642 .0638 .0633 .0629 1 1 2 3 4
60° 0.0625 .0620 .0616 .0612 .0607 .0603 .0599 .0594 .0590 .0586 1 1 2 3 4
61 0.0582 .0578 .0573 .0569 .0565 .0561 .0557 .0553 .0549 .0545 1 1 3
2 3
62 0.0541 .0537 .0533 .0529 .0525 .0521 .0517 .0513 .0509 .0505 1 1 2 3 3
i 63 0.0501 .0497 .0494 .0490 .0486 .0482 .0478 .0475 .0471 .0467 1 1 2 3 3
64 0.0463 .0460 .0456 .0452 .0449 .0445 .0442 .0438 .0434 .0431 1 2 2
1 3
1 65 0.0427 .0424 .0420 .0417 .0413 .0410 .0406 .0403 .0399 .0396 1 1 2 2 3
66 0.0393 .0389 .0386 .0383 .0379 .0376 .0373 .0369 .0366 .0363 1 2 2
1 3
67 0.0360 .0357 .0353 .0350 .0347 .0344 .0341 .0338 .0334 .0331 1 1 2 2 3
68 0.0328 .0325 .0322 .0319 .0316 .0313 .0310 .0307 .0304 .0301 0 1 1 2 2
69 0.0298 .0296 .0293 .0290 .0287 .0284 .0281 .0278 .0276 .0273 0 1 1 2 2
•a
Oo

0.0270 .0267 .0265 .0262 .0259 .0257 .0254 .0251 .0249 .0246 0 1 1 2 2
71 0.0243 .0241 .0238 .0236 .0233 .0230 .0228 .0225 .0223 .0220 0 1 1 2 2
72 0.0218 .0215 .0213 .0211 .0208 .0206 .0203 .0201 .0199 .0196 0 1 1 2 2
73 0.0194 .0192 .0189 .0187 .0185 .0183 .0180 .0178 .0176 .0174 0 1 1 1 2
74 0.0172 .0169 .0167 .0165 .0163 .0161 .0159 .0157 .0155 .0153 0 1 1 1 2

75 0.0151 .0149 .0147 .0145 .0143 .0141 .0139 .0137 .0135 .0133 0 1 1 1 2
76 0.0131 .0129 .0127 .0125 .0124 .0122 .0120 .0118 .0116 .0115 0 1 1 1 2
77 0.0113 .0111 .0109 .0108 .0106 .0104 .0103 .0101 .0099 .0098 0 1 1 1 1
78 0.0096 .0094 .0093 .0091 .0090 .0088 .0087 .0085 .0084 .0082 0 1 1 1 1
79 0.0081 .0079 .0078 .0076 .0075 .0073 .0072 .0071 .0069 .0068 0 0 1 1 1

80° 0.0066 .0065 .0064 .0063 .0061 .0060 .0059 .0057 .0056 .0055 0 0 1 1 1
81 0.0054 .0053 .0051 .0050 .0049 .0048 .0047 .0046 .0045 .0044 0 0 1 1 1
82 0.0042 .0041 .0040 .0039 .0038 .0037 .0036 .0035 .0034 .0033 0 0 0 1 1
83 0.0032 .0032 .0031 .0030 .0029 .0028 .0027 .0026 .0025 .0025
84 0.0024 .0023 .0022 .0022 .0021 .0020 .0019 .0019 .0018 .0017

85 0.0017 .0016 .0015 .0015 .0014 .0013 .0013 .0012 .0012 .0011
86 0.0011 .0010 .0010 .0009 .0009 .0008 .0008 .0007 .0007 .0006
87 0.0006 .0006 .0005 .0005 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0003 .0003
88 0.0003 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001
89 0.0001 .0001 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000

0' 6' 12' 18' 21' 30' 36' 12' 48' 54' 1' *' 8' 8'

619
 17. DEGREES TO RADIANS
Degs. 0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' Differences

0° 0.0000 0.0017 0.0035 0.0052 0.0070 0.0087 0.0105 0.0122 0.0140 0.0157
1 0.0175 0.0192 0.0209 0.0227 0.0244 0.0262 0.0279 0.0297 0.0314 0.0332
2 0.0349 0.0367 0.0384 0.0401 0.0419 0.0436 0.0454 0.0471 0.0489 0.0506
3 0.0524 0.0541 0.0559 0.0576 0.0593 0.0611 0.0628 0.0646 0.0663 0.0681 Since differ¬
4 0.0698 0.0716 0.0733 0.0750 0.0768 0.0785 0.0803 0.0820 0.0838 0.0855 ences are con¬
stant the fol¬
5 0.0873 0.0890 0.0908 0.0925 0.0942 0.0960 0.0977 0.0995 0.1012 0.1030 lowing propor-
6 0.1047 0.1065 0.1082 0.1100 0.1117 0.1134 0.1152 0.1169 0.1187 0.1204 tional parts
7 0.1222 0.1239 0.1257 0.1274 0.1292 0.1309 0.1326 0.1344 0.1361 0.1379 may be used
8 0.1396 0.1414 0.1431 0.1449 0.1466 0.1484 0.1501 0.1518 0.1536 0.1553 throughout
9 0.1571 0.1588 0.1606 0.1623 0.1641 0.1658 0.1676 0.1693 0.1710 0.1728 the table:
o
©

0.1745 0.1763 0.1780 0.1798 0.1815 0.1833 0.1850 0.1868 0.1885 0.1902
11 0.1920 0.1937 0.1955 0.1972 0.1990 0.2007 0.2025 0.2042 0.2059 0.2077 V 3
12 0.2094 0.2112 0.2129 0.2147 0.2164 0.2182 0.2199 0.2217 0.2234 0.2251
13 0.2269 0.2286 0.2304 0.2321 0.2339 0.2356 0.2374 0.2391 0.2409 0.2426
2' 6
14 0.2443 0.2461 0.2478 0.2496 0.2513 0.2531 0.2548 0.2566 0.2583 0.2601 3' 9

15 0.2618 0.2635 0.2653 0.2670 0.2688 0.2705 0.2723 0.2740 0.2758 0.2775 4' 12
16 0.2793 0.2810 0.2827 0.2845 0.2862 0.2880 0.2897 0.2915 0.2932 0.2950
17 0.2967 0.2985 0.3002 0.3019 0.3037 0.3054 0.3072 0.3089 0.3107 0.3124 5' 15
18 0.3142 0.3159 0.3176 0.3194 0.3211 0.3229 0.3246 0.3264 0.3281 0.3299
19 0.3316 0.3334 0.3351 0.3368 0.3386 0.3403 0.3421 0.3438 0.3456 0.3473

20° 0.3491 0.3508 0.3526 0.3543 0.3560 0.3578 0.3595 0.3613 0.3630 0.3648
21 0.3665 0.3683 0.3700 0.3718 0.3735 0.3752 0.3770 0.3787 0.3805 0.3822
22 0.3840 0.3857 0.3875 0.3892 0.3910 0.3927 0.3944 0.3962 0.3979 0.3997
23 0.4014 0.4032 0.4049 0.4067 0.4084 0.4102 0.4119 0.4136 0.4154 0.4171
24 0.4189 0.4206 0.4224 0.4241 0.4259 0.4276 0.4294 0.4311 0.4328 0.4346

25 0.4363 0.4381 0.4398 0.4416 0.4433 0.4451 0.4468 0.4485 0.4503 0.4520
26 0.4538 0.4555 0.4573 0.4590 0.4608 0.4625 0.4643 0.4660 0.4677 0.4695
27 0.4712 0.4730 0.4747 0.4765 0.4782 0.4800 0.4817 0.4835 0.4852 0.4869
28 0.4887 0.4904 0.4922 0.4939 0.4957 0.4974 0.4992 0.5009 0.5027 0.5044
29 0.5061 0.5079 0.5096 0.5114 0.5131 0.5149 0.5166 0.5184 0.5201 0.5219

30° 0.5236 0.5253 0.5271 0.5288 0.5306 0.5323 0.5341 0.5358 0.5376 0.5393
31 0.5411 0.5428 0.5445 0.5463 0.5480 0.5498 0.5515 0.5533 0.5550 0.5568
32 0.5585 0.5603 0.5620 0.5637 0.5655 0.5672 0.5690 0.5707 0.5725 0.5742
33 0.5760 0.5777 0.5794 0.5812 0.5829 0.5847 0.5864 0.5882 0.5899 0.5917
34 0.5934 0.5952 0.5969 0.5986 0.6004 0.6021 0.6039 0.6056 0.6074 0.6091

35 0.6109 0.6126 0.6144 0.6161 0.6178 0.6196 0.6213 0.6231 0.6248 0.6266
36 0.6283 0.6301 0.6318 0.6336 0.6353 0.6370 0.6388 0.6405 0.6423 0.6440
37 0.6458 0.6475 0.6493 0.6510 0.6528 0.6545 0.6562 0.6580 0.6597 0.6615
38 0.6632 0.6650 0.6667 0.6685 0.6702 0.6720 0.6737 0.6754 0.6772 0.6789
39 0.6807 0.6824 0.6842 0.6859 0.6877 0.6894 0.6912 0.6929 0.6946 0.6964
O
o

0.6981 0.6999 0.7016 0.7034 0.7051 0.7069 0.7086 0.7103 0.7121 0.7138
41 0.7156 0.7173 0.7191 0.7208 0.7226 0.7243 0.7261 0.7278 0.7295 0.7313
42 0.7330 0.7348 0.7365 0.7383 0.7400 0.7418 0.7435 0.7453 0.7470 0.7487
43 0.7505 0.7522 0.7540 0.7557 0.7575 0.7592 0.7610 0.7627 0.7645 0.7662
44 0.7679 0.7697 0.7714 0.7732 0.7749 0.7767 0.7784 0.7802 0.7819 0.7837

45° 0.7854 0.7871 0.7889 0.7906 0.7924 0.7941 0.7959 0.7976 0.7994 0.8011

0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
180° = 7r radians = 3.1416 radians.

620
Degs. 0' 6'
42' 48' 54' Differences
45° 0.7854 0.7871 0.7889 0.7906 0.7924 0.7941
46 0.7959 0.7976 0.7994 0.801]
0.8029 0.8046 0.8063 0.8081 0.8098 0.8116 0.8133 0.815] 0.8168 0.8186
47 0.8203 0.8221 0.8238 0.8255 0.8273 0.8290 0.8308 0.8325 0.8343
48 0.8378 0.8395 0.8360
0.8412 0.84301 0.8447 0.8465 0.8482
49 0.8500 0.8517 0.8535
0.8552 0.8570 0.8587 0.8604 0.8622 0.8639 0.8657 0.8674 0.8692 0.8709
o
*0
©

0.8727 0.8744 0.8762 0.8779 0.8796 0.8814 0.8831 3.8849 0.8866 0.8884
51 0.8901 0.8919 0.8936 0.8954 10.8971 0.8988 0.9006 3.9023 0.9041
52 0.9076 0.9058
0.9093 0.9111 0.9128 0.9146 0.9163 0.9180
53 3.9198 0.9215 0.9233
0.9250 0.9268 0.9285 0.9303 10.9320 0.9338 0.9355 3.9372 0.9390 0.9407
54 0.9425 0.9442 0.9460 0.9477 0.9495 0.9512 0.9529 3.9547 0.9564 0.9582
55 0.9599 0.9617 0.9634 0.96521 0.9669 0.9687 0.9704 0.9721 0.9739 0.9756
56 0.9774 0.9791 0.9809 0.98261 0.9844 0.9861 0.9879 l' 3
0.9896 0.9913 0.9931
57 0.9948 0.9966 0.9983 1.0001 1.0018 1.0036 1.0053 .0071 1.0088 1.0105
58 1.0123 1.0140 1.0158 1.0175 1.0193 1.0210 1.0228 2' 6
1.0245 1.0263 1.0280
59 1.0297 1.0315 1.0332 1.0350 1.0367 1.0385 1.0402 1.0420 1.0437 1.0455 3' 9
o
©
O

1.0472 1.0489 1.0507 1.0524 1.0542 1.0559 1.0577 1.0594 1.0612 1.0629 4' 12
61 1.0647 1.0664 1.0681 1.0699 1.0716 1.0734 1.0751 1.0769 1.0786 1.0804
62 1.0821 1.0838 1.0856 1.0873 1.0891 5' 15
1.0908 1.0926 1.0943 1.0961 1.0978
63 1.0996 1.1013 1.1030 1.1048 1.1065 1.1083 1.1100 1.1118 1.1135 1.1153
64 1.1170 1.1188 1.1205 1.1222 1.1240 1.1257 1.1275 1.1292 1.1310 1.1327

65 1.1345 1.1362 1.1380 1.1397 1.1414 1.1432 1.1449 1.1467 1.1484 1.1502
66 1.1519 1.1537 1.1554 1.1572 1.1589 1.1606 1.1624 1.1641 1.1659 1.1676
67 1.1694 1.1711 1.1729 1.1746 1.1764 1.1781 1.1798 1.1816 1.1833 1.1851
68 1.1868 1.1886 1.1903 1.1921 1.1938 1.1956 1.1973 1.1990 1.2008 1.2025
69 1.2043 1.2060 1.2078 1.209511.2113 1.2130 1.2147 1.2165 1.2182 1.2200
o
©

1.2217 1.2235 1.2252 1.2270 1.2287 1.2305 1.2322 1.2339 1.2357 1.2374
71 1.2392 1.2409 1.2427 1.2444 [ 1.2462 1.2479 1.2497 1.2514 1.2531 1.2549
72 1.2566 1.2584 1.2601 1.2619 1.2636 1.2654 1.2671 1.2689 1.2706 1.2723
73 1.2741 1.2758 1.2776 1.2793 1.2811 1.2828 1.2846 1.2863 1.2881 1.2898
74 1.2915 1.2933 1.2950 1.29681 1.2985 1.3003 1.3020 1.3038 1.3055 1.3073

75 1.3090 1.3107 1.3125 1.3142 1.3160 1.3177 1.3195 1.3212 1.3230 1.3247
76 1.3265 1.3282 1.3299 1.3317 1.3334 1.3352 1.3369 1.3387 1.3404 1.3422
77 1.3439 1.3456 1.3474 1.3491 1.3509 1.3526 1.3544 1.3561 1.3579 1.3596
78 1.3614 1.3631 1.3648 1.36661 1.3683 1.3701 1.3718 1.3736 1.3753 1.3771
79 1.3788 1.3806 1.3823 1.38401 1.3858 1.3875 1.3893 1.3910 1.3928 1.3945

80° 1.3963 1.3980 1.3998 1.4015 1.4032 1.4050 1.4067 .4085 1.4102 1.4120
81 1.4137 1.4155 1.4172 1.4190 1.4207 1.4224 1.4242 .4259 1.4277 1.4294
82 1.4312 1.4329 1.4347 1.4364 [ 1.4382 .4399 1.4416 .4434 1.4451 1.4469
83 1.4486 1.4504 1.4521 1.4539 1.4556 .4573 .4591 .4608 1.4626 1.4643
84 1.4661 1.4678 1.4696 1.4713 1.4731 1.4748 1.4765 .4783 1.4800 1.4818

85 1.4835 1.4853 1.4870 1.488811.4905 1.4923 1.4940 .4957 .4975 1.4992

86 1.5010 1.5027 1.5045 1.5062 1.5080 1.5097 1.5115 .5132 .5149 1.5167
87 1.5184 1.5202 1.5219 1.5237 1.5254 1.5272 1.5289 .5307 .5324 1.5341
88 1.5359 1.5376 1.5394 .5411 1.5429 1.5446 1.5464 .5481 .5499 1.5516
89 1.5533 1.5551 1.5568 .5586 1.5603 1.5621 1.5638 .5656 1.5673 1.5691
o
©
©

1.5708 1.5725 1.5743 .5760 1.5778 1.5795 1.5813 1.5830 1.5848 1.5865

O'
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54'
360° = 27r radians = 6.2832 radians.

621
 Index
PAGE PAGE
Abscissa. 183, 406 "Bar” notation.234
Absolute value. 23 Base
equations involving. 23 in exponent notation.211
of expressions.79, 80 in logarithmic notation . . . 226, 239
of trigonometric functions .... 430 Bearing(s) .256
Addition Binomial(s). 52
of complex numbers.338 cubes of. 67
of fractions.87-88 Binomial series. 524-528
of vectors. 427-428
Addition axioms for rational num¬ Cartesian coordinate system . . 183, 264
bers .3, 4 Center-radius form of equation . . 374
Additive inverse.4, 364 Centigrade scale.126
Algebra of sets. 99 Characteristic of a logarithm ... 230
Analytic geometry. See Coordinate Checking solutions.18, 29
geometry Circle. 367-369,397-398
Angle (s).405 equation of center-radius form . . 374
of depression.252 equation of general form .... 375
of elevation.252 Circle number.533
quadrantal. 406, 431 Circular measure . 536-538
reference.' 409, 430 Circular number scale.532
special.412 "Closed,” meaning of . 2
in standard position.406 Closure.1-2
Approximation(s) complex numbers.364
decimal.139 integers. 2
to V3. 143-144 natural numbers. 2
of roots of cubic equations . 465-467 rational numbers .3, 4
Arithmetic mean.514-515, 516 Common chord of circles.376
Arithmetic sequence.492 Common denominator, steps for
Associative axiom .... 4, 12, 99, 146 finding. 88
Asymptote(s). 388-389 Common unit of measure.119
Axioms. 3 Communications {Ulus.).363
for algebra of sets. 99 Commutative axiom . . . 4, 12, 99, 146
for inequalities .21-22 Complement of set. 99
for irrational numbers . . . 146, 152 Completing the square .... 328-329
for rational numbers. 4 Complex fraction. 90
for rotations of a square. 12 Complex numbers .... 336-337, 428
for square roots.138 addition of.338
principle of substitution .... 7 division of. 340-341
Axis equality of.338
major .385 formal development of . . . 364-366
minor.385 multiplication of.339
of symmetry.317, 323 order of size of.342
x-.182 subsets of.337
y-.182 subtraction of.338
622
Index
623
PAGE
PAGE
Computation in triangles.416 Cotangent. 258, 535
Computers (Ulus.). x tables.598, 614
Concave downward.327 Course.256
Concave upward.327 Cube(s)
Congruences .72-74 of binomial. 67
theorems for . 73 sum and difference of. 67-68.
Conic sections. 397-399 table. 590*
Conjugate imaginary numbers . . . 339 Cube roots.44^
Constant. 14 Cubic equation.101
of proportionality.193 roots of
of variation.193 and coefficients of ... . 471-473
Converse of a statement. 18 nature of. 469-471
Coordinate (s) rational. 455, 457^59
of intersection of two lines. . 284-285 real.452
of a midpoint.266 solution of. 101, 452-453, 457-459, 465
of points.182 Cubic expression.100
Coordinate axes .183 Cubic function. 448-450
Coordinate geometry . 264-297, 367-399 characteristics of.452
asymptote. 388-389 Cubic polynomials, formation of 476—477
Cartesian coordinate system ... 183
circle . . . 367-369, 374-375, 397-398 Decimal
conic sections. 397-399 repeating.139
distance between two points terminating.139
264-265,266 Degree
ellipse. 382-385,397-398 angle.537
hyperbola. 386-387, 397-398 of equation. 16
inclination. 270-2 71 of monomial . 62
intercepts. 280, 383, 386 table, conversion to radians . . . 620
midpoint of line segment . . 265-266 Descartes.183
parabola. 321-323. 397-398 Determinants.: 47-48
parallel lines. 273-274 diagonal of. 47
parameter . 379-380 second-order. 47
perpendicular lines. 273-274 Direction of a vector .426
point of intersection .... 284-285 Directrix of a parabola.321
point-slope equation .... 280-281 Discriminant.346
proofs of geometric theorems 277-278 Displacements.427
rectangular hyperbola.390 Distance between two points . 264-265
slope. 268-270, 279 formula for.266
straight line. 279-281 Distributive axiom .... 4, 12, 99, 152
summary.390 Division. 5
symmetry about a point . . 450-451 of complex numbers .... 340-341
tangent to a curve. 378-379 of fractions. 85
Coordinate plane.183 synthetic. 460-462
Coordinate system. 183, 264 Division identity .455
Corner point.209 Domain .189
Cosecant. 258,433 of cosecant function.433
tables. 602, 618 of inverse function.298
Cosine function . 249-251, 408-409, 534 of quadratic function.315
addition formulas. 540-541 of tangent function .433
graph of.412-414
• SS5 Einstein’s formula. 225
inverse.000
tables.594, 610 Electron microscope (illus.) . . . . 210
624 Index

PAGE PAGE
Element of a set. . . . . 25 Extreme value of quadratic function 327
Ellipse. 382-385, 398 methods of finding.. 328--329
major axis of.. . . . 385
minor axis of.. . . . 385 Factor(s). 51
Empty set.. . . . 26 common. 52
Equality distributed. 52
of complex numbers . . ,. . . . 338 multiplying by — 1. 79
properties of.. . . . 6 rearrangement of . 4
reflexive.. . . . 6 summary of forms. 64
symmetric.. . . . 6 Factor Theorem. 456
transitive.. .. . . . 6 Factorial form. 246
Equation (s).. . . . 14 Factoring. 50-68, 445
changing form of . . . . ... 50 checking . 65
of a circle. ... 368 common factor. 52
conditional.. . . 15,51 cubes, sum and difference of . . 67-68
consistent.. . . . 284 general quadratic trinomial . 60
cubic . . . 101,452-453, 457-458, 465 homogeneous forms . . . . 62
degree of .. . . 16, 100 patterns used in ... . 52 , 56-57', 68
dependent .. . . 28,284 squares, difference of ... . 62
determinants and . . . . . . 47-48 trinomials as squares . . . . 56
equivalent.. 16, 17, 354 Fahrenheit scale. 126
exponential.. . . . 244 Family of lines. 379
fractional.. . 104-105 Focus of parabola. 321
graph of.. . 185-187 Force . 426
homogeneous.. . 394-395 Formulas. 114--125
identity .. . . 15,51 applications of
inconsistent.. . . 28,284 amount. 128
linear .16, 2 "i'-46, 279-280 angles of regular polygon . • • 128
of a locus. . . 367, 390 area under parabola . . . 519
quadratic Boyle’s Law. 197
100, 157-165, 332--333, 345-350 compound interest . . . . 246
roots of . . 15, 157-160, 162-164, distance of falling object • • 127
452, 455, 457-459, 469-473 Einstein’s formula . . . . 225
solution of . 16-17, 28-30 , 47-48, energy lost in collision . .> • «. 95
100-105, 157-165, 169-172,452- interest . 127
453, 457, 459, 465 length of a rod. 291
systems of . 27-49, 370-372, 392-393 limit of sum. 510
in three variables.... . . . . 35 profit. 125
trigonometric. . . . . 440 radian. »■ . . 537
Error, relative. . . . . 140 resistance of wire. 200
Exponent . . . 211-243 selling price. 126
laws of.211--212, 217-218 surface of a cube. 142
Exponential equations . . . . . . 244 temperature scales . . . 126
Exponential form of solution . . . . 228 temperature of water mixtures . 94
Expression volume of hollow column , . . 126
absolute value of ... . . . 79,80 deductions from.. 123--125
algebraic. . . . . 14 solving. . 114--116
binomial. . . . . 53 trigonometric addition . . . 540--551
cubic. . . . . 100 Fraction(s). . . 76-92
irrational. . . 169-170 addition and subtraction of . . 87-88
quadratic. . . . . 100 common denominator of. . 88
Extraneous value. . . . . 170 complex. 90
Index 625

PAGE PAGE
defined. 76 straight line.187
denominator of . . . 76 of tangent function .... 432-433
division of. 85 of trigonometric functions
lowest terms . . . . 77 412-415, 432-434, 553-558
multiplication of . . . 83-84 y = ax2 + bx + c.327
numerator of . . . . 76 y = log6:r.241
order of size of . . . 78 y=2x.217
principle pertaining to 77 Graphical representation of vectors
Function (s) . . . .189 426-428
cosecant . . . . 258,433
cosine. 249, 408-409, 412-415 Harmonic mean. . . 517
cotangent . . . . 258, 434 Homogeneous forms. . . 62
cubic. . 448-450, 452-453 equations of second-degree . 394-395
graph of . . . .189 Horner’s method. . . 482
inverse .... . 298-300 Hyperbola. 386--390, 398
inverse trigonometric .... 553-557 rectangular. 198, 390
linear .... . 192-193, 289-290
quadratic . . . . 315-362 Identity (Identities). . 15, 51
secant .... .258 additive. . 4, 364
sine. 249, 408-409, 412-415 in algebra of sets . . . 99
tangent .... . . . . 250,432-433 multiplicative. . 4, 365
trigonometric . 249-250, 429-431, 535 trigonometric. 435-436
value of ... .190 "If-then” statements. . 10, 18
Functional notation . 292-293 Imaginary numbers. . . 337
Inclination. 270-271
Geological exploration {illus.) . . . 248 Indirect proof. . . 176
Geometric aspects of the linear equa- Induction, mathematical . . . 521-522
tion .... . 279-280 Inequality (Inequalities) . . . . . 20
Geometric representation axioms for. . 21-22
of ordered pairs .183 solving. . 21-22
of real numbers .181 solving quadratic. 334-335
of vectors . . . . 426-428 transitive property of ... . . 23
Geometric sequence .502 Initial side of an angle .... . . 405
Geometry, coordinate. See Coordi¬ Integers.
nate geometry general results about . 131-132
Geometry, proofs of theorems from 277-278 positive, as exponents . . 211
Graph(s).185-189 Intercepts of a line . . . . . 280
of cosecant function . . 433 Interpolation, linear . . . . 466
of cosine function . . 414 Intersection
of cubic equation 448-450 of circle and line . . . . . 370
189, 299 in linear programming . . 208
of function . . .
334-335 of sets . . . 98
of inequalities . .
299-300 of two lines. 284-285
of inverse function
of inverse trigonometric function Inverse
553-557 additive. . 4,364
multiplicative . . . . 4, 84, 365
of linear function.192-193
Inverse function . . . . 298-300
patterns of.187-188
existence of. . . 300
of quadratic functions . 316-319, 327
graph of. . . 299
of a relation.188-189
ranges. . . 557
of a sentence.186
trigonometric . . . . 553-557
of sine function.414, 415
Irrational equations . . 169-172
solving equations with . . . 332-334
626 Index

PAGE PAGE
Irrational numbers.. . 137-177 Mean
defined.. . . . 144 arithmetic. 514-515, 516
in radical form .. . 145-153 geometric. . 515-516
theorem concerning V3 . . . . . 176 harmonic. ... 517
Measurement
Law(s) circular. . 536-538
of cosines.. . 420-421 in right triangles. . 249-262
of logarithms. . . 241-243 Mercury, project (illus.) . . . . . 413
of sines. . . 418-419 Meteorology (illus.) . . . . ... 178
Line(s) Midpoint of line segment . . . . . 265
family of. . . . . 379 formula for. ... 266
intercepts of . . . . . 280 Minimum value of quadratic function
intersection of two . . . . . 284-285 327, 355
parallel. 264, 273-275 Modulus. ... 72
perpendicular. 264, 273-275 Monomial . ... 51
point-slope equation of . . . . . 280 degree of. ... 62
slope of. . . . . 279 Multiplication
tangent to curve .... . . 378-379 of complex numbers . . .. . . . 339
Line segment of fractions. . . 83-84
direction of. . . . . 406 Multiplication axioms for rational
length of. . . . . 406 numbers... . . . 4
midpoint of. . . . . 265 Multiplicative identity . . . . . 4, 365
formula for. . . . . 266 Multiplicative inverse. . . .. . . 4, 84
Linear equations. . . . . 16 for complex numbers . . . . . . 365
geometric aspects of . . . . . . 279
systems of. . . . 27-49 Newton’s Law of Gravitation ... 204
dependent . . . . . 28 Notation
inconsistent. . . . . 28 bar .. . . . 234
solving by addition or subtrac- delta. . . . . 269
tion. . . . . 28 empty set.. . . 26, 97
solving by determinants . . 47-48 factorial form.. . . . 246
solving by substitution . . . . 28 functional., . . . 292
in three variables. . . . . . . 35 sequence. . . . . 489
Linear function. . . 289-290 set. 25-26, 97-98
Linear interpolation . . . . . . . 466 sigma (2). . . 472,523
Linear programming . . . . . 207-209 standard form.. . . . 223
Locus, equations of ... . . 367-399 subscript.. . . . 185
Logarithm (s). . . 211-246 trigonometric inverses . . . . 554
to bases other than 10 . . . 239-240 vector . . . . . 426
defined. . . . . 226 Null set . . . . . 26
laws of. . . 241-243 Number(s)
summary. . . 235-237 circle. . . . . 533
tables. . . 604-619 classifications of ... . . . . . 342
tables, use of. . . . . 227 complex. 336--342, 364-366
use of. . . 260-261 of form Va ± V& . . . . . . . 152
Logarithmic form of solution ... 228 imaginary. . . . . 337
Lowest terms of a fraction. . . . . 77 integers . . 2, 131-132
irrational. . 137-177
Magnitude. . . . . 426 natural. . . . . 2
Mantissa. . . . . 230 rational. . . 1-11, 143
Maximum value of quadratic function real.144--145, 181-182
327, 355 reciprocal. . . . 84-85
Index 62 7
PAGE PAGE
Number line .... 144-145, 181-182 number of roots of ... . . . 470
circular.532 rational roots of. . . 459
Number systems roots and coefficients of . . 471-472
complex numbers. . 336-337,364-365 Power(s). . . 211
integers. 2 of ten used as number base 222-223
natural numbers. 2 Prime expression. . . 51
rational numbers . 3 Principal square root.137
real numbers.144-145 Problems, word
analysis of. 37
One-to-one correspondence applications of
of real numbers to number line 145, 182 Einstein’s formula.225
of real numbers and points in plane 264 falling body.204
of vectors and ordered pairs . . . 428 friction force.203
Order of size. 20 illumination from a lamp . . . 204
of complex numbers.342 linear programming.... 207-209
of fractions. 78 Newton’s Law of Gravitation . 204
Ordered pair(s) . 28, 179, 183, 298-299 pendulum. 205, 239
as a relation.188 radio signal strength.203
sets of.180 surface area of a sphere .... 204
vectors as.428 surface of a cylinder.239
Ordinate. 183,406 volume of a square pyramid 204, 239
Origin.181 water pressure.202
weight of a metal sphere . . . 203
Parabola. 321-322, 398 Product
axis of symmetry of.323 as relationship in problems ... 107
directrix of.321 having value zero.101-102
focus of .321 Product forms.55-57
vertex of.323 Programming, linear. 207-209
Parameter. 379-380 Progression
Pascal’s triangle.525 arithmetic. . . 492
Pattern(s) geometric. . . 502
of differences in polynomials . 484-486 Projection. . . 183
in factoring.50-68 Proof
of graphs.187-188 of geometric theorems . 277-279
summary of factored forms ... 64 indirect. . . 176
Perpendicular bisector.275 Property (Properties)
of complex numbers . . 364
Point-slope equation. 280-281
Polygonal convex set .209 of equality. 6
of "is greater than" . . 23
Polynomial(s). 52, 445-487
reflexive. 6
cubic, formation of.476
symmetric .'. 6
degree of. 100, 484-485
transitive . 6, 23
factor theorem .456
Proportion. 119
factorable.445
direct . 193
general.445
inverse. 196
homogeneous. 62
Proportionality, constant of 193
multiplying by — 1. 80
Pythagorean relationships . 435
order of terms. 80
remainder theorem.456
Quadrant.183, 406
successive differences in . . . 484-487
synthetic division. 460—462 Quadratic equation (s).100
discriminant of.546
Polynomial equations
formation of . 353-355
nature of roots of. 469-471
628 hulex

PAGE PAGE
methods for solving. . . 165 Reflexive property . . ,. 6
by completing the square . 158-160 Related changes . . . ..288
by factoring. 100-101 Relation. . . . 188-189
by formula. 162-164 Relationship (s)
by graphing. 332-333 "directional” . . . ..268
problems leading to. 107-108 Pythagorean . . . ..435
roots of between trigonometric functions 434-435
imaginary. 346-347 used in word problems . 39
irrational. 157-160 Relative error. .140
rational. 100-101 Remainder theorem . ..456
sum and product. 348, 354 Review exercises
summary. 163, 346 chapter . . 45, 70, 95, 174, 205,
Quadratic expression. . . 100 246, 262, 361, 402, 403, 424, 444,
Quadratic function (s). 315-362 482, 530, 560
domain of. . . 315 cumulative
extreme values of. 327-329 chapters 1-7 . . . . . . 133-136
formation of. 353-355 chapters 8-10 . . . . . . 301-310
graph of.316-319,, 327, 347 chapters 11-18 . ,. . . . 562-572
and the parabola. 321-323 general ., . . . 572-580
range of. 315, 328 short question . . . 310-314, 578-582
zeros of.315 , 346-347 Root(s).. 15
Quadratic inequalities. 334-335 cube..446
Quality control {illus.) .... . . 75 of cubic equations . . .452, 455,
Quartic equation. . . 472 457-459, 469-473
extraneous.. 170
Radar {illus.). . . 325 irrational. . . . 157-160
Radian. 238, 536-538 of quadratic equation . . . . 162-164
Radical(s) . 145-153 nature of.. . . . 345-347
addition and subtraction of . . . 150 product of . . . . . 348-350, 354
conjugate. . . 152 sum of., . 348-350, 354
division by. . . 152 square. . 137, 341-342
in equations. . . 169 table. .586
of an expression. . . 167 Rotations of square. . . . 12
multiplication and division of . . 146 Rounding off, rules for . . 139
proof concerning w3 ... . 176-177
simplest form. . . 147 Satellite Echo {illus) . . .363
Radius of circle. . . 367 "Satisfy,” meaning of . 15
Range of a function. 190, 298 Scale model {illus.) . . . . 120
cosecant . . . 433 Secant .. . . . 258, 535
quadratic. 315, 328 tables., . . . 600, 616
tangent . . . 433 Sentences, algebraic . .185
Ratio (s). . 3, 119 Sequence(s).. . . . 488-495
in right triangles. 250-251 arithmetic ..492
Rational numbers. 1-11, 143 common difference of .492
axioms for. . . 4 common ratio . . . .502
as exponents. 214-216 Fibonacci..520
Real numbers. 144-145 general term of . . . . 489, 492-493
geometric representation of . 181-182 geometric..502
trigonometric functions of . . . . 534 sum. .495
Reciprocal. . 84-85 Series .. . . . 495-501
Reference angle. 409, 430 arithmetic, sum of . . . . . 496-498
Reflection. . . 299 binomial. . . . . 524-528
Index
629
PAGE
PAGE
convergent.510 quadratic.100-101,
divergent.510
158-160, 162-164, 332-333
geometric, sum of. 504-506 quadratic systems. 392-393
limit. 508-511 trigonometric. 440-443
Set(s) .1, 25, 97 Space flight (illus.).413
algebra of. 99 Square.137
complement of . 99 completing the . . 158-160, 328-329
defining property of. 25 table.584
designating a.25-26 Square root(s). 137, 341-342
element of. 25 axioms for.138
empty.26, 97 evaluating.140-141
equality of. 97 principal.137
intersection of. 98 table.586
member of. 25 Standard form.223
null.26,97 Standard position.406
operations with.97-99 Statements
polygonal convex.209 equation. 14
subset of. 97 "if-then”.10, 18
symbols of. 25-26, 97-99 "Steepness”.268
union of.23, 98 Subscript notation.185
universal. 97 Subset(s). 97
Sidelights ... 12, 25, 47, 72, 97, of complex numbers .... 337, 365
131, 176, 207, 298, 364, 426, 484 Substitution, principle of. 7
Significant figures.040) Subtraction.2, 5
Simplest radical form.M7 of complex numbers.338
Sine function .... 249-251, 408, 534 of fractions.87-88
addition formulas . .541 Successive differences in polynomials 484
as ordered pairs . . .249 Summaries
graph of. . . . . 412—415 absolute value of expression ... 80
inverse. . . . . 553-554 factored forms. 64
tables. . . . . 592,608 loci of quadratic equations . . . 390
Size, order of .... . 20 logarithms. 235-236
of complex numbers .342 operations for obtaining equivalent
of fractions .... . 78 equations. 17
Slope. . . . . 268-269 solving quadratic equations ... 165
formula for ... . .269 Sum-sequence.495
of horizontal line . . .269 Symbols. See Notation
of line. .279 Symmetric, meaning of .299
negative. .270 Symmetry
of parallel lines . . .273 axis of.317, 323
of perpendicular lines .274 of ellipse.383
positive. .270 of hyperbola .386
of vertical line . . . .269 method of .328
Solution of equations . . 15 about a point. 450-451
checking. . 29 property of. 6

common. . 27 Synthetic division. 460-462

graphical. . 29 System (s)
as a pair of values . .179 of linear equations.27-49
Solving equations of linear and quadratic equations
cubic. 101-102, 457-459 370-372
linear and quadratic systems 370-372 non-numerical. 12
linear systems . . . . . 28,35,47-48 of two quadratic equations . 392-393
630 Index

PAGE PAGE
Tables. 581-620 reference angle and .409
use of logarithmic.227 of special angles .412
use of trigonometric.252 tables. 592-619
Tangent to a curve . 378-379 values of. 430—431, 434
Tangent function. 250, 429, 434 Trigonometric identities . . . 435-436
addition formulas.544 Trigonometry. See also preceding
domain.433 items
graph of.432 Law of cosines. 420-421
inverse. 555-556 Law of sines.418-419
range.433 in oblique triangles.416-421
tables. 596,612 Pythagorean relationships ..... 435
values of.431 Trinomial. 52
Terminal side of an angle.405 general quadratic.60-61
Terms, rearrangement of. 4 factoring of.60-62
Tests, chapter . . . 11, 24, 46, 71, Turning point(s).452
96, 113, 130, 175, 206, 247, 263,
296, 362, 404, 425, 444, 483, 531, 561 Union of sets.23, 98
Theorems Universal set. 97
V3 not rational.177
Value
binomial.525
extreme .327
for congruences. 73
greatest.209
cubic equation .458
least.209
concerning divisibility by 3 . . . 176
maximum. 327, 355
factor.456
minimum. 327, 355
of "laws” of algebra.7-8
of trigonometric functions . . 430-431
remainder.456
Variable. 14
use of, in solving equations . . 16-17
dependent .190
T ransiti ve p rop erty.6,23
independent.190
Triangle (s)
Variation
area of any.416-417
constant of.193
computation in.416
direct.193-195
oblique.416-421
inverse.196-199
right
joint.200
measurement in. 249-262
Vector(s). 426-428
ratios in. 250-251
addition of. 427-428
Trigonometric addition formulas 540-551
Velocity.426
cosine. 540-541
Vertex of parabola.323
double-angle. 546-547
sine.541 x-axis .182
summary.551 ^-coordinate.182
sums to products. 550-551 ^-intercept. 192, 280
tangent.544 y-coordinate.182
Trigonometric equations . . . 440-441 y-intercept. 192, 280
Trigonometric functions. . 249-251,
408-409, 429-431 Zero
graphs of. 412-415, 432-433 a-0=0. 7
inverse. 553-557 in axioms. 4
of quadrantal angles.431 division by. 9
of real numbers. 532-534 of function. 193, 315, 328

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QA 152 W39 C-2
WEEKS ARTHUR WILLIAM
SECOND COURSE IN ALGEBRA
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QA 152 W39 C. 2
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