1. What is microprocessor? Describe the application of microprocessor.

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) which incorporates core functions of a computer’s central processing
unit (CPU). It is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip, clock driven, register based, accepts binary data as input
and provides output after processing it as per the instructions stored in the memory. A processor is the brain of a
computer which basically consists of Arithmetical and Logical Unit (ALU), Control Unit and Register Array. As the
name indicates ALU performs all arithmetic and logical operations on the data received from input devices or
memory. Register array consists of a series of registers like accumulator (A), B, C, D etc. which acts as temporary
fast access memory locations for processing data. As the name indicates, control unit controls the flow of instructions
and data throughout the system.

The microprocessor is a programmable integrated device that has computing and decision-making capability similar
to that of the central processing unit(CPU) of the computer. • When microprocessor works as a CPU, then the system
is called a microcomputer. A microcontroller is a small computer on the single integrated ckt. Containing a processor
core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals.

1. µP Applications & Real-time Systems • Microprocessors are used to handle a set of tasks that control one
or more external events or systems. • Microprocessors are typically used in either reactive or embedded
systems. – Reactive systems are those that have an ongoing interaction with their environment - for
example, a fire-control system that constantly reacts to buttons pressed by a pilot. – Embedded systems are
those used to control specialized hardware in which the computer system is installed - for example, the
microprocessor system used to control the fuel/air mixture in the carburetor of many automobiles. • In
embedded systems the software system is completely encapsulated by the hardware that it controls.
2. µP AS A PROGRAMMABLE DEVICE • The fact that the µP is programmed means it can be instructed to
perform given tasks within its capability. Similarly, today’s µP is designed to understand and execute the
instructions. A programmer can select apt instructions and ask the µP to perform various tasks on a given
set of data.
3. µP AS A CPU • A computer with a microprocessor as its CPU is known as a Microcomputer. The terms µP
and µP unit(MPU) are often used synonymously. MPU implies a complete processing unit with the
necessary control signals. But because of less pins, some of the signals need to be generated by using
discrete devices to make the µP a complete functional unit or MPU.
4. SOME EXCLUSIVE APPLICATIONS • The impact of microprocessor in different lures of fields is significant.
The availability of low cost, low power and small weight , computing capability makes it useful in different
applications. Now a days , a microprocessor based systems are used in instructions, automatic testing
product, speed control of motors , traffic light control , light control of furnaces etc. Some of the important
areas are mentioned below :
5. Instrumentation: It is very useful in the field of instrumentation. Frequency counters, function generators,
frequency synthesizers, spectrum analyses and many other instruments are available , when
microprocessors are used as controller. It is also used in medical instrumentation. • Control : Microprocessor
based controllers are available in home appliances, such as microwave oven, washing machine etc.,
microprocessors are being used in controlling various parameters like speed, pressure, temperature etc.
These are used with the help of suitable transduction.
6. Communication : Microprocessors are being used in a wide range of communication equipments. In
telephone industry , these are used in digital telephone sets. Telephone exchanges and modem etc. The
use of microprocessor in television, satellite communication have made teleconferencing possible. Railway
reservation and air reservation system also uses this technology. LAN and WAN for communication of
vertical information through computer network. • Office Automation and Publication : Microprocessor based
micro computer with software packages has changed the office environment. Microprocessors based
systems are being used for word processing, spread sheet operations, storage etc. The microprocessor has
revolutionize the publication technology.
7. Consumer : The use of microprocessor in toys, entertainment equipment and home applications is making
them more entertaining and full of features. The use of microprocessors is more widespread and popular. •
Other uses of Microprocessors in various fields are: • In Home Appliances Refrigeration Cooking
Washing Motor control Audio/ Video Mobile Accessories Remote controls • In Automotive
Electronics Power train Infotainment Door, Seat, Sunroof Modules Climate Control Security
Dashboard
 8. In Metering  Electricity Meters  Gas and Water Meters  In Home Display units •In Mobile Electronics
Mobile Phones & Internet Devices Portable Game Consoles Automotive GPS Cameras Netbooks
PDAs •In Building Automation Fire and Security Comfort and Control Telecare Lighting Industrial
Automation

2. Describe the Microcomputer system with neat diagram.

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and or division, and logical operation such as
AND, OR, NOT and XOR needed to carry out the instructions.

2. Control Unit (CU)

The control unit (CU) is responsible for fetching instructions from main memory and
determining their type.

3. Memory Unit (MU)

The memory unit (MU) is used to store information such as number or character data.
By store we mean that the memory has the ability to hold this information for
processing or for outputting at a later time.
The memory unit is divided into primary storage memory and secondary storage
memory. Typically, Primary storage memory is implemented with semiconductor
memories: read-only memory (ROM) and random access read/write memory (RAM)
integrated circuits. Secondary storage memory is used for long-term storage of
information that is not currently being used such as disk and CD ROM.

Rom (Read-Only memory)

By using ROM, the information is made nonvolatile; that is, the information is not
lost if power is turned off.

RAM (Random access Memory)

By using RAM, the information is made volatile; that is, the information is lost if
power is turned off. RAMs come in tow varieties: static and dynamic.
Input unit (IU)
The input unit (IU) is used to input the information to be processed from external
input device such as a card reader, keyboard, or switch.

Output Unit (OU)

The output unit (OU) is used to output the processed results of computer to the
external output devices such as a printer, monitor, 7- segment display, and LED.

3. What is bus? Describe the buses of microprocessor.

A bus is a collection of wires used to transmit signals in parallel. According to the
purpose, the buses of a microcomputer can be divided into three types: address bus,
data bus, and control bus. Three buses are shown are shown in Fig. 1-1-3.

1. Address Bus
The unidirectional address bus transmits the address signals emitted from CPU to
memory and I/O port.
 The address bus consists of 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel signal lines.
 On these lines the CPU sends out the address of the memory location that is to be written to or read from.
 The no of memory location that the CPU can address is determined by the number of address lines.
 If the CPU has N address lines, then it can directly address 2 N memory locations i.e. CPU with 16 address
lines can address 216 or 65536 memory locations.

2. Data Bus
The signal on the bidirectional data bus is the data either from CPU to memory and
I/O or from memory and I/O to CPU.

 The data bus consists of 8, 16 or 32 parallel signal lines.

 The data bus lines are bi-directional.
 This means that the CPU can read data in from memory or it can send data out to memory

3. Control Bus
The control bus is used to transmit the control signals such as read, write, and
interrupt control signal.

 The control bus consists of 4 to 10 parallel signal lines.

 The CPU sends out signals on the control bus to enable the output of addressed memory devices or port
devices.
 Typical control bus signals are Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read and I/O
 Write.
 The Microprocessor is divided into three segments: ALU, Register array and Control Unit.

4. What is stored program concept? Describe the von-neuman architecture with diagram.

Storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently.
The idea was introduced in the late 1940s by John von Neumann, who proposed that a program be electronically
stored in binary-number format in a memory device so that instructions could be modified by the computer as
determined by intermediate computational results.

A computer with a Von Neumann architecture stores program data and instruction data in the same memory

Brief History of Computing

 Second half of the 19th century: Charles Babbage constructed a mechanical computer “Difference and
Analytical Engine”.
 1936: Alan Turing provided a definition of a universal computer called Turing machine with algorithm
execution capability.
 Before WWII: mechanical and electrical analog computers compute ballistics trajectories, momentum,
inertia...
 1946: ENIAC – first electronic general-purpose computer (18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, 30 ton).
 1947: John von Neumann introduced a design of a stored program computer. This base design is known as
“von Neumann architecture”. It started new epoch of computing and computers.

All moderns computers nowadays use this design.

John von Neumann introduced a universal computer. It must comply with some principles and criteria:
1. Computer consists of memory, arithmetical-logical unit (ALU), control unit, input and output devices,
2. All parts of a computer are connected together by Bus,
3. Computer structure is independent on the computed problem, a computer is programmed with content of
memory,
4. Every computing step depends on the previous step,
5. Machine instruction and data are in the same memory,
6. Memory is split to small cells with the same size. Their ordinal numbers are called address numbers.
7. Program consists of a sequence of instructions.
8. Instructions are executed in order they are stored in memory.
9. Sequence of instructions can be changed only by unconditional or conditional jump instructions.
10. Instructions, characters, data and numbers are represented in binary form.

A Von Neumann-based computer is a computer that:

 Uses a single processor.

 Uses one memory for both instructions and data. A von Neumann computer cannot distinguish between
data and instructions in a memory location! It ‘knows’ only because of the location of a particular bit pattern
in RAM.

 Executes programs by doing one instruction after the next in a serial manner using a fetch-decode-execute
cycle.
 1) The ALU, or Arithmetic Logic Unit
A Von Neumann CPU has an ALU. This is the part of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logic operations on
data and acts as the revolving for the CPU, letting data enter and leave the CPU. We also know that CPUs
have a ‘word size’. This is the number of bits that can be added, for example, in one go. The bigger a CPU’s
word size, the more bits it can work on in one clock cycle and the more work you can get done.
2) The Control Unit
A Von Neumann CPU has a control unit. The control unit is in charge of ‘fetching’ each instruction that needs to
be executed in a program by issuing control signals to the hardware. It then decodes the instruction and finally
issues more control signals to the hardware to actually execute it.
3) Registers
A Von Neumann CPU has registers. These are very fast memory circuits. They hold information such as the
address of the next instruction (Program Counter), the current instruction being executed (Current Instruction
Register), the data being worked on and the results of arithmetic and logical operations (Accumulators),
information about the last operation (Status Register) and whether an interrupt has happened (Interrupt
Register). Registers are covered in a lot more detail later in this chapter.
4) The clock
Instructions are carried out to the beat of the clock! Some instructions take one beat and others more than one
beat. Very roughly speaking, the faster the clock, the more clock beats you have per second so the more
instructions per section you can do and the faster your computer will go.
5) Memory
• Memory, also called RAM (Random Access Memory),
– Consists of many memory cells (storage units) of a fixed size.
Each cell has an address associated with it: 0, 1, …
– All accesses to memory are to a specified address.
A cell is the minimum unit of access (fetch/store a complete cell).
– The time it takes to fetch/store a cell is the same for all cells.
• When the computer is running, both
– Program
– Data (variables)
are stored in the memory.

5. Describe the Harvard architecture with necessary diagram.

Harvard Architecture based computer consist of separate memory spaces for the programs (or instruction) and data.
· Each memory space has its own address and data bus. Thus both instruction and data can fetch from memory
concurrently.
· It provides significant processing speed improvement.
· There are two data and two address buses for the program and data memory spaces respectively.
· The program memory data bus and data memory data are multiplexed to form single data bus.
· Similarly, program memory Address and data memory address are multiplexed to form single address bus.
· Hence there are two blocks of RAM chips; one for program memory and another for data memory space.
· Data memory address unit generates data memory address. The data memory address bus carries the memory
address of data where as program memory address bus carries the memory address of the instruction.
· Central arithmetic logic unit consists of the ALU, multiplier, Accumulator, etc.
· The program counter is used for next instruction to be fetched.
· Control unit control the sequence of operations to be executed.
· The data and control bus are bidirectional where as address bus is unidirectional.

6. Differentiate between Von Neumann architecture and Harvard architecture.

 Von Neumann Harvard
1 Same memory holds data, instructions Separate memories for data and instructions
2 A single set of address/data buses between CPU Two sets of address/data buses between CPU and
and memory memory
3 CPU is allowed to access either program or data It is possible to access program memory and data
memory at a time. data transfers and instruction memory simultaneously
fetches must be scheduled

7. Describe the history of microprocessor.

4004
 The first commercially available Microprocessor was the Intel 4004 produced in 1971.
 It contained 2300 PMOS transistors.The 4004 was a 4 bit device intended to be used with some other
devices in making a calculator.In 1972, Intel came out with the 8008, which was capable of working with 8
bit words.

8008
 The 8008 however required 20 or more additional devices to form a functional CPU.

8080
 In 1974 Intel announced the 8080, which had a much larger instruction set than the 8008 and required only
two additional devices to form a functional CPU.The 8080 used NMOS transistor, so it operated much faster
than the 8008The 8080 is referred as a Second generation Microprocessor.It requires +5V,-5V and +12V
supply.

8085
 In 1977, Intel Produced 8085, an upgrade of 8080 that required only a +5V supply.It was a 8 bit
Microprocessor.

8088
 Intel Produced 8088, which was the first Microprocessor used in Personal computer by IBM.
 It has 16 bit registers and an 8 bit data bus and can address up to 1 million bytes of internal memory.

8086
 In 1978 Intel came out with the 8086 which is a full 16 bit Microprocessor.It has a 16 bit data bus and runs
faster.It can address 220 or 1048576 memory locations.

80286
 Runs faster than the preceding processors, has additional capabilities and can address up to 16 million
bytes.This processor can operate in real mode or in protected mode, which enables an operating system like
windows to perform multitasking and to protect them from each other.

80386
 Has 32 bit registers and 32bit data bus.It can address up to 4 billion bytes of memory.
 The processor supports virtual mode, whereby it can swap portions of memory onto disk

80486
 Has 32 bit registers and 32 bit data bus.High speed cache memory connected to the processor bus enables
the processor to store copies of the most recently used instructions and data.The processor can operate
faster when using the cache directly without having to access the slower memory.

PENTIUM
 It has 32 bit registers, a 64 bit data bus and separate caches for data and for memory.The Pentium has a 5
Stage pipelined structure and the Pentium II has a 12 stage super pipelined structure.This feature enables
them to run many operations in parallel.