Human eye
Introduction
What are sense organs? (just fiy)
1. Receptors called sense organs receive stimuli from the environment
2. Mammals usually have many different types of sense organs
3. These sense organs can be as simple as dendrites of receptor neurones or
as highly specialised as the eye and the ear
Where is the Human eye located and how does it look like?
Each eyeball is located in a hollow in the skull called the orbit (image
below)
The eyeball is attached to the skull by rectus muscles
Each eyeball’s front part is covered by eyelids
Human eye 1
Human eye 2
Anatomy 101
Diagram of the Human eye?
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Things to note :
1. The ciliary body, suspensory ligament and lens are used in focussing
2. The iris and pupil are used in pupil reflex
3. The fovea is also known as the yellow spot
4. *Must be able to label and know these parts
The structures of the front part of the eye (annotated with key words bolded)
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Internal structure of the eye
Label line for choroid is wrong it should be for the darker blue layer/middle
layer
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Internal structure of the eye continued
Note the below table for revision
Aqueous humour Vitreous humour
Similarity Both refract light Both refract light
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Aqueous humour Vitreous humour
Differences Watery fluid Jelly like substance
Photoreceptors in the retina - basic idea
Rods Cones
Contains rhodospin (RR) which can Contains photospin which absorbs bright
absorb dim light light
Detect shades of gray in dim light Allows colour perception in bright light
Structurally nucleus is outside (RON : rods
Nucleus is inside
outside nucleus)
In detail
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Rods (important to memorise all)
Rods are more sensitive to light than cones and they enable us to see
in dim light but only in black or white.
Rods are sensitive to light of low intensity (dim light) because they
contain a pigment known as visual purple. When the eye is exposed to
bright light, all the visual purple is bleached. Impulses cannot be sent
to the brain. Hence, a person cannot see anything in bright light.
Hence, when one moves from a brightly lit room to a dimly lit one, one
may not be able to see what is around him or her for a while. This is
because time is taken for the visual purple to reform in the rods in
order for us to see in the dark.
The formation of visual purple requires vitamin A. Therefore a person
deficient in vitamin A may be unable to see in dim light. He or she is
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said to suffer from night blindness.
Cones (important to memorise all)
Cones enable us to see colours in bright light and there are three types
of cones : red, blue and green
Each type of cones absorbs light of different wavelengths and
together, they enable us to see a variety of colours
However, cones do not work well in dim light
Theory
How does the iris control the amount of light entering the eye?
The iris is controlled by two sets of involuntary muscles the radial
muscles and the circular muscles
The muscles are antagonistic to each other (1 contracts = other relaxes)
What happens in bright light?
1. Circular muscles of iris contract
2. Radial muscles of the iris relax
3. The pupil becomes smaller or constricts. This reduces the amount of light
entering the eye
Memorise using BCC (bright circular contract)
What happens in dim light?
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1. In dim light, the circular muscles relax
2. Radial muscle contracts
3. The pupil dilates or enlarges. This increases the amount of light entering
the eye
❗ Note that when asked to draw the above, only PUPIL size changes not
iris !!!
What is the pupil reflex?
Pupil reflex is a reflex action that occurs as a result of changes in light
intensity (involves receptors and effectors)
Sometimes light may be so bright that only decreasing the size of the pupil
isnt enough so the eyelids have to come closer together to screen off part
of the light. This prevents excessive light entering the eye and damaging
the retina. This is squinting.
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Explain why the pupil reflex can be used to determine if the brain is
functioning properly
Relay neurone for pupil reflex is found in the brain
This neurone must be living for the pupil reflex to occur.
If pupil reflex cannot be seen despite increasing light intensity, the brain
cells are damaged
Theory continued!
Formation of an image on the retina
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1. Light rays are refracted as it passes through the cornea and aqueous
humour
2. Light is further refracted when it passes through the lens
3. Image on the retina either stimulates the rods or cones, depending on the
intensity of the light. Image formed on the retina is inverted, laterally
inverted and smaller in size than the real object
How does the image formed differ from the object?
The image formed is upside down, that is it is inverted;
It is laterally inverted
And it is diminished (smaller in size)
What is the role of the brain in vision?
Nerve impulses are produced when light falls on the rods and cones and
these nerve impulses are transmitted via optic nerve to the brain.
The brain interprets these impulses so that we see the object the right way
up, front to back, and the right size.
The brain essentially has corrective function
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In the case of blind people who have their vision restored, objects appear
upside down to them at first. The brain then has to learn how to correct the
images that fall on the retina.
MORE THEORY
What is focusing?
Focusing or accommodation is the adjustment of the lens
of the eye so that clear images of objects at different
distances are formed on the retina.
Thickness or curvature of the lens is adjusted and this allows light rays to
be focused on the retina
Focusing on a distant object (estimated at 7 metres or more)
💡 When a person is looking at a distant object, the light rays reflecting
off the object are almost parallel so the lens needs to be thinner
since little refraction is needed
Changes that occur when focussing on a distant object are as follows :
1. Ciliary muscles relax, pulling on the suspensory ligaments
2. Suspensory ligaments become taut, pulling on the edge of the lens
3. Lens becomes thinner and less convex increasing its focal length*
4. Light rays are focussed on the retina
5. Photoreceptors are stimulated
6. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve. Brain
interprets the nerve impulses and the person sees the distant object
Focusing on a near object
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💡 When a person is looking at a near object, diverging light rays
reflecting off the near object mean that the lens needs to be more
convex to bend the light rays more
Following occurs when the eye is focussing on a near object :
1. Ciliary muscles contract, relaxing their pull on the suspensory ligaments
2. The suspensory ligaments slacken, relaxing their pull on the lens
3. Lens becomes thicker and more convex, decreasing its focal length
4. Light rays are focussed on the retina
5. Photoreceptors are stimulated
6. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve. Brain
interprets the nerve impulses and the person sees the near object
Summary?
Distant Near
Muscle relax Muscle contract
S Ligaments Taut S Ligaments slacken
Lens becomes thinner and less convex Lens becomes thicker and more convex,
increasing its focal length* decreasing its focal length
Points 4 - 6 are the same for both cases :o
Note that for drawing the lens you would need to ensure that the suspensory
ligaments are also drawn properly. There is a difference between focusing on
distant and near for both lens and suspensory ligaments.
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