STUDY GUIDE

Introduction to Mathematics
ITM111S

Namibia University of Science and Technology

Centre for Open and Lifelong Learning
 STUDY GUIDE

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Published by the Centre for Open and Lifelong Learning, Namibia University of Science and
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and Technology.

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 Introduction to Mathematics

Contents
About this STUDY GUIDE 1
How this STUDY GUIDE is structured ........................................................... 1

Course overview 3
Welcome to Introduction to Mathematics ( ITM111S) ....................................... 3
Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S—is this course for you? ............................. 3
Course objectives ................................................................................. 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................... 4
Study skills ......................................................................................... 4
Need help? ......................................................................................... 5
Assignments ....................................................................................... 5
Assessment......................................................................................... 5

Getting around this STUDY GUIDE 7

Margin icons ....................................................................................... 7

Unit 1 9
Real Numbers...................................................................................... 9
Introduction ................................................................................ 9
1. What is the Real Number System? .................................................... 9
2. Different Types of Numbers ......................................................... 10
2.1 Natural numbers (counting numbers) ................................... 10
2.2 Whole numbers (W) ....................................................... 10
2.3 Integers (Z) ................................................................. 10
2.4 Rational numbers (Q) ..................................................... 10
2.5 Irrational numbers ( Q ) ................................................. 10
2.6 Real numbers .............................................................. 11
2.7 Primes and Composites .................................................... 12
2.8 Highest Common Factors /Divisors (HCF / HCD) and Lowest
Common Multiples (LCM) ........................................................ 13
2.8.1 Highest Common Divisor (HCD) or Highest Common Factor
(HCF) 14
2.8.2 LCM – Lowest or Least Common Multiples ..................... 14
2.8.3 Word Problems Involving HCF and LCM ......................... 16
3. Rules of Arithmetic .............................................................. 20
3.1 BEDMAS...................................................................... 20
4. Fractions – Vulgar Fractions ....................................................... 22
4.1 Equivalent fractions and lowest terms .................................. 22
4.2 Mixed numbers .............................................................. 23
4.3 Changing mixed numbers into improper fractions ....................... 24
4.4 Changing improper fractions into mixed numbers ....................... 24
4.5 Addition and subtraction of vulgar fractions ............................ 26
4.6 Multiplication of fractions .................................................. 27
4.7 Division by a fraction ........................................................ 29
 4.8 Word Problems Involving Fractions ...................................... 31
5. Fractions – Decimal Fractions ....................................................... 35
5.1 Place values ................................................................... 35
5.2 Types of decimal fractions .................................................. 35
5.2.1 Terminating decimals ............................................... 35
5.2.2 Recurring decimals .................................................. 36
5.2.3 Non-recurring-non-terminating decimals......................... 36
5.3 Interconversions of vulgar and decimal fractions ....................... 36
5.3.1 Vulgar fractions to decimal fractions ............................. 36
5.3.2 Decimal fractions to vulgar fractions ............................. 37
6. Standard Form ........................................................................ 37
6.1 Writing a Number in Standard Form ....................................... 38
Unit summary ................................................................................... 41

Unit 2 43
Accuracy and Approximation .................................................................. 43
Introduction .............................................................................. 43
1. Accuracy and Rounding ............................................................. 44
1.1 Decimal places................................................................ 44
1.2 Significant figures ............................................................ 46
Unit summary ................................................................................... 51

Unit 3 52
Indices, Surds and Logarithms ................................................................ 52
Introduction .............................................................................. 52
1. Indices .................................................................................. 53
1.1 Basic rules of indices ........................................................ 53
1.2 Interesting deductions from the rules..................................... 54
2. The Calculator and Indices .......................................................... 55
3. Surds.................................................................................... 56
3.1 Basic rules of surds........................................................... 57
4. Logarithms ............................................................................. 59
4.1 Rules or laws of logarithms ................................................. 62
5. The Calculator and Logarithms ..................................................... 63
6. Change of Base ........................................................................ 63
7. Indicial and Logarithmic Equations ................................................ 66
Unit summary ................................................................................... 72

Unit 4 73
Algebraic Expressions .......................................................................... 73
Introduction .............................................................................. 73
1. Variables, Coefficients and Like Terms ........................................ 73
1.1 Like Terms .............................................................. 75
2. Expansion of Algebraic Expressions ................................................ 77
3. Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions............................................ 82
3.1 Factorisation Methods ....................................................... 83
3.1.1 Factorisation by HCF method ...................................... 83
3.1.2 Factorisation by Grouping .......................................... 84
3.1.3 Factorising Quadratic Trinomials ................................. 85
 Introduction to Mathematics

3.1.4 Factoring Difference of Two Perfect Squares ................... 91

Unit summary ................................................................................... 97

Unit 5 98
Linear Equations ................................................................................ 98
Introduction .............................................................................. 98
1. Linear Equations (In One Variable) ................................................. 99
2. Simultaneous Linear Equations .................................................... 104
Unit summary .................................................................................. 111

Unit 6 112
Quadratic Equations ........................................................................... 112
Introduction ............................................................................. 112
1. Discriminant .......................................................................... 112
1.1 Solution by completion of squares ........................................ 114
1.2 Solution by quadratic formula ............................................. 117
1.3 Solution by factorization ................................................... 122
Unit summary .................................................................................. 128

Unit 7 128
Basic Set Theory ............................................................................... 128
Introduction ............................................................................. 128
1. Set and Set Notations ............................................................... 129
1.1 The listing method .......................................................... 129
1.2 Property definition method ................................................ 130
1.3 Venn Diagrams ............................................................. 132
1.4 Subsets and Power sets ..................................................... 134
1.5 Difference and Symmetric Difference .................................... 135
2. Application of Venn Diagrams...................................................... 138
Unit summary .................................................................................. 148

Unit 8 149
Matrix Algebra .................................................................................. 149
Introduction ............................................................................. 149
1. Vectors ................................................................................ 149
2. Matrices ............................................................................... 153
2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices ................................... 154
2.2 Scalar Multiple of a Matrix ............................................... 155
2.3 Product of two Matrices .................................................... 155
2.4 Identity Matrices ............................................................ 160
2.5 Determinant of a 2  2 matrix ............................................. 161
2.6 Inverse of a 2  2 Matrix ................................................. 162
3. Application of Matrices – Cramer’s rule .......................................... 165
 Unit summary .................................................................................. 169

Unit 9 170
Linear Inequalities ............................................................................. 170
Introduction ............................................................................. 170
1. Notations and Meanings............................................................. 170
2. Properties of Inequalities .......................................................... 171
3. Solving Inequalities .................................................................. 172
4. Intervals on the Real Line .......................................................... 175
5. Number Line Representations ..................................................... 176
Unit summary .................................................................................. 179

Unit 10 180
Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions .................................................... 180
Introduction ............................................................................. 180
1. Arithmetic Progressions (AP) ....................................................... 181
2. The Sum of an Arithmetic Progression ........................................... 185
3. Geometric Progressions ............................................................. 189
4. The Sum of a Geometric Progression ............................................. 195
Unit summary .................................................................................. 200

Unit 11 202
Percentages, ratios and proportions ........................................................ 202
Introduction ............................................................................. 202
1. Percentages .......................................................................... 202
1.1 Percentage of a Quantity .................................................. 203
1.2 Increasing and Decreasing by Percentage .............................. 204
2. Ratio ................................................................................... 206
2.1 Simplifying a Ratio .......................................................... 206
2.2 Dividing a Quantity in a Given Ratio...................................... 209
3. Proportion ............................................................................ 213
3.1 Direct Proportion ............................................................ 214
3.2 Indirect Proportion .......................................................... 217
Unit summary .................................................................................. 223

Unit 12 224
Simple and Compound Interests ............................................................. 224
Introduction ............................................................................. 224
1. Basic Definitions ..................................................................... 224
2. Simple Interests ...................................................................... 226
3. Types of Simple Interests and Time............................................... 229
3.1 Exact Time and Ordinary Interest (The Banker’s Rule) ................ 229
3.2 Exact Time and Exact Interest ............................................ 229
3.3 Approximate Time and Ordinary Interest ................................ 230
3.4 Approximate Time and Exact Interest.................................... 231
4. Compound Interest .................................................................. 235
Unit summary .................................................................................. 240
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

About this STUDY GUIDE

Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S has been produced by the Centre
for Open and Lifelong Learning, Namibia University of Science and
Technology. All STUDY GUIDEs produced by the Centre for Open and
Lifelong Learning (COLL) are structured in the same way, as outlined
below.

How this STUDY GUIDE is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you
 What you will already need to know
 What you can expect from the course
 How this course fits into the learning programme as a whole
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills
 Where to get help
 Course assignments and assessments
 Study guide icons
 Units

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content
 Unit objectives
 The prescribed readings for the unit
 Additional readings for the unit
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities
 References
 Self-assessment activities (if any)
 The unit’s key words or concepts
 A unit summary

1
About this STUDY GUIDE Real Numbers 2

Resources
For those who interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources within each unit of this study
guide. These may be books, articles or web sites. Please note that these
resources are optional rather than prescribed readings. The prescribed
readings are listed at the beginning of each unit.

Your comments
After completing Introduction to Mathematics we would appreciate it if
you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect
of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure
 Course reading materials and resources
 Course assignments
 Course assessments
 Course duration
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Course overview

Welcome to Introduction to
Mathematics ( ITM111S)
They say mathematics is the queen of the sciences. This is indeed true
as the trend in higher education is that every graduate should have
basic mathematical skills, hence, the inclusion of this course in your
curriculum. Mathematics can be considered an easy subject, but it
depends on your effort in studying the subject. Rather than thinking of
mathematics as a difficult subject, think of it as a game of golf. When
Tiger Woods manages to score a birdie, the cynic in us says, ‘it’s easy’,
but we forget that in order for Woods to be able to do that, he had to
practise every day. So practice is the motto for this course.

Introduction to Mathematics
ITM111S—is this course for you?
This course is intended for people who are studying in the School of
Business and Management. This course is designed to uplift the level of
mathematical skills of Business and Management students. In addition,
the course is structured in such a way that in the end, confidence in
handling simple mathematical calculations is enhanced. The course also
forms a good foundation for those of you who might wish to further your
studies in areas that require higher mathematical techniques.

There are no prerequisites to this course, except for the motivation to

work hard in order to realise the goals set for the course.

Course objectives
Upon completion of this course you will be able to:

 


demonstrate revitalised and strengthened mathematical knowledge
to a standard needed for further studies in the program
explain basic mathematical concepts and carry out simple
Objectives calculations
 show basic competencies in the use of basic mathematical skills
 apply mathematical concepts to real business and management
situations
 show competence at using a scientific calculator

3
Course overview Real Numbers 4

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

Timeframe
This is a one-semester course.
The study guide has thirteen units that should be covered in one
semester. You should be able to work through a unit in one week.
Ideally you should spend on average 8 hours every week studying a unit.
How long?

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you
will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning,
coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you
engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarise yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:

 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.

 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,

control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays
for analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory
building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the
time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for
more go to www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study
tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.

Need help?
Students with access to internet facilities can visit the site
www.purplemath.com
The course coordinator is located at the Main Campus in Windhoek.
Help
Students in need of contacting the course coordinater could do so via
COLL course subject officers.
In case of routine enquiries students should contact the COLL offices.

Assignments
Two assignments will be required for this course
Assignments can be hand-delivered at the NUST Regional centres or
COLL offices in Windhoek.

Assignments

Assessment
The assessment will be based on continuous assessment and an-end-of
semester examination. The continuous assessment is made up of two
assignments. These will contribute 30% to the final assessment. The
Assessments end-of-semester examination is one three-hour paper. This will
contribute 70% to the final assessment.
Special Rules Applicable To This Course
1 To gain entry to the semester examination, a candidate must have

5
Course overview Real Numbers 6

obtained a continuous assessment average of NOT less than 50%.

2 The semester examination will consist of one three-hour written
paper. This will contribute 70% to the final evaluation mark.
3 The pass mark for the course is 50% with a sub-minimum of 40% in
the semester examination.
4 A candidate will be required to write a supplementary examination
if (s)he obtains 45% to 49% final evaluation mark.
This guide contains a number of features to help build experience and
confidence. For example:
Worked examples throughout each section area to show the student
how a particular idea can be used to resolve business-related problems.

Review questions (with full solutions at the end of each activity),

having a clearly focused business context throughout each unit.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Getting around this STUDY GUIDE

Margin icons
While working through this STUDY GUIDE you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece
of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to
help you to find your way around this STUDY GUIDE.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarise
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

 
Objectives Activity Time

Feedback


Prescribed

Additional

In-text question Group activity
reading. reading

Discussion Case study Reflection Tip

Study skills Note it!

 Key Help
words/concepts

 
Audio Recommended Refer to the Refer to the
website assessment assignment

References
Summary

7
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit 1

Real Numbers
Introduction
"When am I ever going to use fractions in real life?" is a common
question from students. But if you think about it, math has many real
life applications. For example, adults and kids use math every day,
whether it's telling time, playing board games or reviewing sports
scores.
Numbers play very important roles in our day-to-day activities. Without
numbers, there would be, for example, no differentiating between the
ages of mothers and the ages of their daughters, or no richest and
poorest person. Without numbers, life would be as boring as
thoughtlessness.
In this Unit, we will discuss the different types of numbers, their
meanings and how they are manipulated.
This unit is a prerequisite unit for you to understand good, basic
mathematics.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


Identify and Classify different types of numbers
manipulate different types of fractions
use numbers in standard form
Objectives
 use a scientific calculator effectively

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading

 Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.
Additional reading

1. What is the Real Number System?

All the numbers we use for counting, measuring and calculating are
called real numbers. All the numbers you will come across at this stage
are real numbers. They are made up of a collection of different types of
numbers which are shown below.

9
Unit 1 Real Numbers 10

2. Different Types of Numbers

2.1 Natural numbers (counting numbers)
These are the most basic and oldest group of numbers. They are those
numbers that you have used since early childhood for counting.
These are the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The smallest is 1. We also call
these numbers COUNTING NUMBERS. Please note that there is no largest
natural number. This set of numbers is denoted by the symbol N. We
may therefore write this set as follows:

N  1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 
2.2 Whole numbers (W)
Whole numbers include all natural numbers and zero. The numbers 0, 1,
2, 3,… are called whole numbers. Please remember that every natural
number is a whole number. Zero is not a natural number therefore not
every whole number is a natural number.

2.3 Integers (Z)

All the positive and negative whole numbers including zero are integers.
This set is denoted by the symbol Z. We may write this set as follows:

Z  ..., 4,  3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...

You can represent these numbers on a number line as shown below:

2.4 Rational numbers (Q)

a
These are numbers of the form where a and b are integers and
b
b  0 . This means that the numbers we can write down as one integer
divided by another integer so long as the bottom integer is not zero.
These integers can be positive or negative. The list of rational numbers
1 3 11 201
is also endless. Some rational numbers are , , , , 3 . Three
2 5 6 49
a 3
is also a rational number, because we can express 3 in terms of as
b 1
.
This collection is denoted by the symbol Q. Thus we can state that:

a 
Q   such that a and b areintegers and b  0 
b 

2.5 Irrational numbers ( Q )

Any number which is not rational is referred to as an IRRATIONAL
NUMBER. You may wonder if there can be such numbers. Indeed there
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

are infinitely many of them. Some are

 (which has the value 3.141592654...), 2, 5, 2.7182818284590452358
and so on. These numbers cannot be written as a quotient of two
integers. More generally, the square roots of all prime numbers are
irrational numbers. We shall denote the collection of all irrational
numbers by Q.

2.6 Real numbers

Let us represent all the aforementioned collections in diagram 1.1
below:
Diagram 1.1: Real Number System Diagram

REAL NUMBERS
Real numbers are numbers we use for
counting, measuring and calculating. They
are made up of rational numbers and
irrational numbers.

RATIONAL NUMBERS IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

Numbers that can be expressed in These are numbers that have an
the form of a/b where a and b are infinite number of decimal places
integers and b should not be equal which do not repeat nor
to zero. terminate. Generally the roots of
all prime numbers are irrational
numbers.

NON-INTEGERS
INTEGERS
These numbers are made up of
fractions, terminating and These numbers are made up of zero,
recurring decimals. positive integers and negative integers.

NEGATIVE INTEGERS WHOLE NUMBERS

These are opposite of These numbers are made
natural numbers with a up of the natural numbers
negative sign in front of and zero. They are 0, 1, 2,
them, e.g -2-1 etc ...

Zero NATURAL or COUNTING

0 NUMBERS
They are 1,2,3,...

ODD EVEN
NUMBERS NUMBERS
e.g. e.g.
1,3,5,7,9,... 2,4,6,8,...

11
Unit 1 Real Numbers 12

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 10 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Which of the following is:
(a) not a natural number? 7; 7; 77; 7777

How long?
21 8 121
(b) not a whole number? ; 6; ;
7 15 11

(c) a natural number? 9;  6;  3; 0; 3

(d) rational 3; 81; 17; 

(c) irrational 1.2; 1.222; 1.22; 1.221221221...


8
(a) 7 (b) (c) 3 (d) 81 (e) 1.221221221...
15

Feedback

2.7 Primes and Composites

A natural number x  1 is said to be prime if and only if it is divisible
by 1 and itself. Meaning, a prime number has only two natural factors.
Otherwise, a number which is not a prime is called a composite - i.e. it
is composed of more than two natural factors.
EXAMPLES
 Primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, etc.

 Composites: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, etc.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2.8 Highest Common Factors /Divisors (HCF / HCD) and

Lowest Common Multiples (LCM)
Before we discuss the LCM and HCF, let’s talk about factors and
multiples. What are they?

Factors:
The individual numbers that are multiplied together form a product.
Hence a factor is a number that divides into a product exactly without a
remainder.
For example, in the problem 3 x 4 = 12, 3 and 4 are factors
and 12 is the product.
We can also say that the number 12 is a multiple of 3, because it can be
divided evenly by 3. Therefore,
3 x 4 = 12
3 and 4 are both factors of 12
12 is a multiple of both 3 and 4.

Multiple:
A multiple in math is any number that is a product of the
number. The multiples in math are found by taking the
products of any counting number and that number. For
example 2,4,6,8 are all multiples of 2.
Let’s look at another example.
To find the multiples of 3, multiply 3 by 1 to get 3, 3 by 2 to get 6, 3 by
3 to get nine, and so on. Then 3, 6 and 9 are multiples of 3. To find the
multiples of 5, multiply 5 by 1, 5 by 2, 5 by 3, and so on. The multiples
are the products of these multiplications.12 is a multiple of 2 or 6,
because 2 times 6 is 12.

Before we try to find LCM and HCF, let’s first learn how to write a given
number as a product of prime factors.
Let’s express 44 as a product of primes. Follow the guidelines below.
1. Write down the 1st few prime numbers e.g. 2,3,5,7,11,13.
2. Divide 44 by the 1st prime number (2) as many times as possible
until it can no longer divide exactly into that number.
3. Divide 44 by the next prime number (3) as many times as
possible and so on until you get 1.
4. Write down the product of all the prime numbers you came up
with.

44 22 11
e.g. : : :1
2 2 11
Therefore, the prime decomposition of 44 is:
44  2  2 11
5. Write any repeated prime number as powers (using index form).
e.g. 44  22 11 (note that this is not compulsory)

13
Unit 1 Real Numbers 14

2.8.1 Highest Common Divisor (HCD) or Highest Common Factor

(HCF)
The HCF of two or more numeric or algebraic expressions is the highest
(greatest) expression that divides into two more numbers or expressions
exactly.
2.8.2 LCM – Lowest or Least Common Multiples
The LCM of two or more numeric or algebraic expressions is the least
(smallest) expression that is exactly divisible by each of the two or
more numeric or algebraic expressions.
To find the HCF and LCM of two or more given numeric expressions, it
is achieved by repeatedly dividing by the prime numbers 2,3,5,… etc.
till that number does not divide exactly. Then write the given numbers
as product of prime numbers.
For the HCF we select those numbers with the lowest power of each of
the prime factors that occur commonly in all of the decompositions
(prime factors) of each of the given numbers and multiply them
together – this product now being the HCD.
For the LCM we select those numbers with the highest power of each of
the prime factors in all of the decompositions of each of the given
numbers and multiply them together – the product now being the LCM.
EXAMPLES
Let’s look at some of the examples below.
Find the HCD and LCM of 105, 210 and 630.
Solutions
First we need to break up these numbers and express them as products
of their primes.

For 105

3105 or 105  3  35 
5 35 or (35  5  7)
7 7 or (7  7  1)
1
Therefore, the prime decomposition of 105  3  5  7 .

For 210;
210 105 35 7
210  : : : :1
2 3 7 7
Do not worry, in this example I have just used another way to break
down the number into prime factors which gives us the same results
just as when I used the first method.

Therefore 210  2  3 7  7 which can also be expressed as 2  3  72.

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

For 630;
2 630
3 315
3 105
5 35
77
1

To find the HCF, remember we select those numbers (with lowest

power) which occur commonly in all of the decompositions and
multiply them together.

Therefore the prime decomposition of 630is 2  32  5  7.

Hence the HCF of 105, 210 and 630 is given by 2  3  7  42.

To find the LCM we select every prime factor with its highest
power which occurs in any of the prime factor decompositions
and multiply them together.

This means now that the HCF of 105, 210 and 630 is 42.

Hence the LCM of 105, 210 and 630 is given by 2  32  5  72  4 410

The LCM of 105, 210 and 630 is 4 410.

15
Unit 1 Real Numbers 16

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 15 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

Find the HCF and LCM of the following numbers:

1. 24, 36, 96 and 300
How long?

2. 255, 105 and 90

3. 196, 210 and 45

1. HCF  12 and LCM  7200

 2. HCF  15 and LCM  10710

Feedback

3. HCF  1 and LCM  8820

2.8.3 Word Problems Involving HCF and LCM

Problem sums on HCF and LCM can be tricky, as they are not easy to
identify, therefore we need to carefully analyse the problem statement
before we decide whether we need to find the HCF or LCM.
Let’s first take a look at a few examples of problems involving HCF.

EXAMPLES
(a) Three ropes of different lengths, 72 cm, 300 cm and 96 cm are to
be cut into equal lengths. What is the greatest possible length of each
piece?
(b) There are 40 girls and 32 boys in a class who want to participate in
playing games. If each team must have the same number of girls and
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

same number of boys, what is the greatest number of teams that can be
formed to participate in playing games and how many girls and boys will
be on each team?
SOLUTIONS
(a) If you notice, finding the HCF is crucial here because you are trying
to find what the 3 numbers have in common, i.e. common factor. All 3
numbers must be able to be divided by the same number in order for all
ropes to be cut into equal lengths.
Using the same process of decomposing each number into its prime
factors, we come to the following answers:

72 36 18 9 3
: : : : :1
2 2 2 3 3
72  23  32

96 48 24 12 6 3
: : : : : :1
2 2 2 2 2 3
96  25  3

300 150 75 25 5
: : : : :1
2 2 3 5 5
300  22  3  52

HCF  22  3  12
We see that the HCF of 72, 300 and 96 is 12. Therefore, the greatest
possible length of each piece is 12 cm.

(b) The HCF is 8. Hence the greatest number of teams that can be
formed to participate in playing games is 8.

To find the number of girls and boys that will be on each team, we
40 32
divide: to get 5 and to get 4 .Therefore there will be 5 girls
8 8
and 4 boys on each team.

Let’s now look at examples of problems involving LCM. Note that

problems involving LCM require you to find a multiple that is common to
the numbers involved.

EXAMPLES
(a) Two traffic lights flash their green lights every 20 seconds and 30
seconds respectively. Given that they flashed green together at 7:30,
when will they next flash green together?

17
Unit 1 Real Numbers 18

(b) Anna goes to Pick and Pay every 64 days. John goes to pick and pay
every 72 days. They met each other one day. How many days later will
they meet each other again?
SOLUTIONS
(a) One method to finding the next time the traffic lights flash green
together is to list the flashing intervals separately and identify the
common time.
The traffic light which flashes every 20 seconds flashes as follows:
20, 40, 60, 80etc
The one which flashes every 30 seconds flashes as follows:
30, 60, 90, 120etc
The common time is 60seconds.
This is the same as decomposing 20 and 30 into prime factors and
finding their LCM.

20 10 5
: : :1
2 2 5
20  22  5

30 15 5
: : :1
2 3 5
30  2  3  5

LCM  22  3  5  60
The two traffic lights flash green together at 60 seconds intervals,
which is 1 minute. Therefore they will flash together at 7:31

(b) The LCM of 64 and 72 is 576. Therefore Anna and John will meet
each other again 576 days later.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 3

 Time Required: About 10 minutes.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
Activity
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Let’s say you have sixty erasers, ninety pencils and one hundred and
twenty pens and you want to make packages of erasers, pencils and
How long? pens to donate to your school for students who cannot afford these
supplies. What is the maximum number of packages you can make using
all items, and how many erasers, pencils and pens will be in each
package?
2. A Polytechnic choir coordinator wants to divide the choir into
smaller groups. There are 24 sopranos, 60 altos and 36 tenors. Each
group will have the same number of each type of voice.
2.1 What is the greatest number of groups that can be formed?
2.2 How many sopranos, altos and tenors will be in each group?
3. Three girls entered to race around a track. Anna takes 6 minutes to
run one lap. Emily takes 3 minutes to run one lap and it takes Maria 5
minutes to run one lap. If all three girls begin the race at the same
time, how many minutes will it take for all three girls to be at one point
again?

4. Some dolls costs N$30 each, some are N$120 each and some are
N$40 each. Find the least sum of money with which we can buy an
exact number of dolls of each kind.

HCF  30


1.
30 packages with 2 erasers, 3 pencils, 4 pens
2.1 12 groups since the HCF=12
Feedback
2.2 2 sopranos, 5 altos and 3 tenors

3. LCM  30 , hence 30 minutes

4. The LCM =120 therefore the answer is N $120

19
Unit 1 Real Numbers 20

3. Rules of Arithmetic
3.1 BEDMAS
For uniformity and correctness, there are basic rules we have to follow
when we are dealing with the arithmetic part of mathematical
calculations.

 Do you think there should be rules of arithmetic? Motivate your answer.

In-text question
Addition (  ), Subtraction (  ), Multiplication (  ), and Division (  ) are
the commonest of the operations carried out in arithmetic. They form
the four basic operations of arithmetic. However, grouping using
brackets and repeated multiplications constitutes some sort of a given

The basic rule of arithmetic on the order of operation can be

remembered by the word BEDMAS, standing for Brackets,
Exponents, Division, Multiplication, Addition, and Subtraction,
taken in that order.

order when executing the basic operations of arithmetic.

When an expression has two or more of these, the order of execution of

the operations is from B to S.
Example 1:
To evaluate 36[2  (7  2)  17]  24  (3  5), we follow the order
of operations as follows:
36[2  (7  2)  17]  24  (3  5)
 36(2  14  17)  24  8 (Inner Brakets first)
 36(1)  24  8 (Brackets)
 36( 1)  3 (Division)
 36  3 (Multiplication)
 33 (Addition)
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(240  4)
Example 2 : Determine the value of  17  3(2  2)
(28-16)
60
  17  3(4) (Brackets)
12
 5  17  3(4) (Division)
 5  17  12 (Multiplication)
 22 12 (Addition)
 10 (Subtraction)

Example 3: Find the value of 25  3  (7  9)  2

 25  3  (2)  2 (B)
 32  3  2  2 (E)
 32  3  1 (D)
 96  1 (M)
 95 (S)

Hint: Dividing a number with the sign in front is part of the number
being divided. When addition and subtraction follow each other as
above, the sign changes to minus (subtraction)

Tip
Activity 4

 Time Required: About 20 minutes.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1 Simplify the following

How long? 1.1 (4  6)  2  (3  1)  8
1.2 (2  3)3  (6  2  4  7)

1.3 2 3(7  2)  5 6  (2  3)

1.4 4  2  (6  4)  4  (12 10)

1.5 17  4  2  3  12  (7  3)

21
Unit 1 Real Numbers 22

1.1  1

 1.2
1.3
1.4 7
25
200
Feedback
1.5 10

4. Fractions – Vulgar Fractions

A vulgar fraction is the quotient of two integers a and b written as
a
. The upper integer a is called the numerator while the lower
b
integer b is called the denominator. By rule, the denominator is never
accepted as 0.

4.1 Equivalent fractions and lowest terms

In order to explain these concepts, please think about the following
scenario:
John shared N$24 into three equal parts and gave one part to Andrew.
1
This means John gave of N $24 to Andrew.
3
Peter shared N$24 into six equal parts and gave two parts to Andrew.
2
This means Peter gave of N $24 to Andrew.
6
Paul shared $24 into twelve equal parts and gave four parts to Andrew.

4
This means Paul gave of N $24 to Andrew.
12
It is very easy to notice that each one gave Andrew N $8 . Hence the
1 2 4
fractions ; and are the same. These fractions are said to be
3 6 12
equivalent.

2
Notice that if the numerator and the denominator of are divided by
6
1 4
2 , we obtain . Similarly the numerator and the denominator of
3 12
1 1
can be divided by 4 to get . The fraction cannot be reduced any
3 3
further because there is no number that can divide 1 and 3 . Hence the
1
fraction is in its lowest term, or we say in simplest form. Please look
3
at the following examples:
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

EXAMPLES
1. Write three equivalent fractions of
2 1
(a) (b)
3 7

2. Express each of the following fractions in its lowest term

4 56
(a) (b)
24 168
SOLUTIONS
1.

2 2 2 4 2 23 6 2 2 4 8
(a)   and   and  
3 3 2 6 3 3 3 9 3 3  4 12
4 6 8 2
Thus ; ; are equivalent to .
6 9 12 3
1 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 4
(b)   and   and  
7 7  2 14 7 7  3 21 7 7  4 28
2 3 4 1
Thus ; ; are equivalent to .
14 21 28 7
2.
(a) If we divide both the numerator and the denominator of the
4 1
fraction by 4 , the fraction reduces to which is the simplest form
24 6
4
of fraction .
24

56 7
(b)  in its simplest form.
168 11

To get a fraction in its lowest terms divide the numerator and

denominator by the HCF.

4.2 Mixed numbers

A mixed number has two parts – a whole number part and a proper
fraction part.
A fraction is proper if the numerator is numerically smaller than the
denominator. If the numerator is numerically larger than the
denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. The fractions

23
Unit 1 Real Numbers 24

1 3 101
; ; are all proper fractions, whereas the fractions
2 5 104
12 3 101
; ; are all improper fractions.
8 2 99
b
A mixed number is generally written in the form a where a is the
c
b
whole number part and is the proper fraction part. The following are
c
1 3 9
all mixed numbers: 2 ; 4 ; 11 .
4 2 13
4.3 Changing mixed numbers into improper fractions
b
Given a mixed number a , we can change this into an improper
c
fraction by multiplying a by c and adding b to the result to get the
numerator of the improper fraction while the denominator remains as
(a  c)  b
c . Our final improper fraction will thus be . Please look at
c
the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Change the following mixed numbers into improper fractions:

3 6
(a) 4 (b) 2
7 11

SOLUTIONS
3 (4  7)  3 31 6 (2 11)  6 28
(a) 4   (b) 2  
7 7 7 11 11 11

4.4 Changing improper fractions into mixed numbers

d
Given an improper fraction where d is numerically greater than e ,
e
we can change this into mixed numbers by dividing d by e to get q
r
remainder r . We then write the mixed number as q .
e
15
For example if we have an improper fraction, we change this to a
2
mixed number by dividing 15 by 2 to get 7 remainder 1 which we can
1
then write as 7 as a mixed number.
2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 5

 Time Required: About 20 minutes.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Write four equivalent fractions to:

How long? 3 111 1
(a) (b) (c)
11 112 20

2. Express each of the following fractions in its lowest term:

28 33 320
(a) (b) (c)
36 77 2560

3. Change the following mixed numbers into improper fractions:

3 21 99
(a) 2 (b) 24 (c) 1010
5 23 100
4. Change the following improper fractions into mixed numbers:

77 36 231
(a) (b) (c )
49 28 7

25
Unit 1 Real Numbers 26


3 6 9 12 15
1. (a)    
11 22 33 44 55
111 222 333 444 555
(b)    
Feedback 112 224 336 448 560
1 2 3 4 5
(c )    
20 40 60 80 100

7 3 1
2. (a) (b) (c )
9 7 8

13 573 101099
3. (a) (b) (c)
5 23 100

4 2
4. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 33
7 7

4.5 Addition and subtraction of vulgar fractions

2 4
Given two fractions and , these fractions can be added as follows:
3 5
 Identify the denominators in the fraction. Here they are 3 and 5
 Identify the common multiples of 3 and 5 . They are 15 , 30 , 45 ,
etc.

 Select the least of the common multiples. This is 15 and it is called

the least common multiple (LCM) of 3 and 5

2 4
 Now write the fractions and equivalent to fractions with
3 5
2 10 4 12
denominator 15 . That is  and 
3 15 5 15
2 4 10 12 22
 Find the sum  as   .
3 5 15 15 15

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Find the following sums or differences, depending on what the case may
be:
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1 2
1. 
2 3
5 1
2. 
6 3
3 1
3. 3  2
4 2

SOLUTIONS
1 2
1. 
2 3
3 4
  (equivalent fractions with LCM 6)
6 6
7

6
1
 1 (in simplest form)
6
5 1
2. 
6 3
5 2
  (equivalent fractions with LCM 6)
6 6
3

6
1
 (in simplest form)
2
3 1
3. 3 2
4 2
15 5
  (changing to improper fractions)
4 2
15 10
  (equivalent fractions with LCM 4)
4 4
5

4
1
 1 (in simplest form)
4
4.6 Multiplication of fractions
a c
Given two fractions and being proper or improper, we can find
b d
a c ac
the product of these fractions as   .
b d bd

27
Unit 1 Real Numbers 28

We can do this by simply multiplying the numerators to get the

numerator of the product, and multiplying the denominators to get the
denominator of the product.
Remember, if one or both of the fractions involve mixed numbers, then
change the mixed numbers into improper fractions and proceed as
mentioned.

EXAMPLES
Evaluate the following products:

3 4
1. 
16 5
4 1 2
2. 1 
7 2 3
 1 1 1
3.  5    2
 4 2 3

SOLUTIONS
3 4
1. 
16 5
12

80
3

20

4 1 2
2. 1 
7 2 3
4 3 2 1
   (changing1 to improper fraction)
7 2 3 2
24

42
4

7
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

 1 1 1
3.  5    2
 4 2 3
 21 1  7 1 1
     (changing 5 and2 to improper fraction)
 4 2 3 4 3
 21 2  7
     (equivalent fractions with LCM 4)
 4 4 3
23 7
  (BEDMAS, worked out brackets first)
4 3
161

12
5
 13
12
4.7 Division by a fraction
To divide by a fraction, we multiply by the reciprocal of that fraction
instead.

1
Please note that for any whole number n , the reciprocal is and for
n
a b 4 7
any fraction , the reciprocal is and for , the reciprocal is .
b a 7 4

EXAMPLES
Evaluate the following:

7 3
1. 
8 4

 2 1 1
2.     3
 3 3 2

SOLUTIONS
7 3
1. 
8 4
7 4
 
8 3
28

24
1
1
6

29
Unit 1 Real Numbers 30

 2 1 1
2.     3
 3 3 2
 2 1 7
  
 3 3 2
 2 3 2
   
 3 1 7
6 2
 
3 7
12

21
4

7
Let’s look at the two examples again where we have a combination of
operations in one statement. Here we need to strictly adhere to the
application of BEDMAS.

Do not forget that there are times that we change mixed

numbers to improper fractions, and when we divide by a fraction
we instead change the sign to multiplication and take a reciprocal
of the fraction.

EXAMPLES
Evaluate the following:

1 2 1  1  1
1.  1        
3 5 15  3   2 
1 21 1 2  2  1
2.      2     
5 52 4 3  3  2

SOLUTIONS
1 2 1  1  1
1.  1        
3 5 15  3   2 
1 5 1  3 1
  1      
3 2 15  1  2
5 1  1
  3  
6 5  2
5 3
 1
6 5
23

30
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1 21 1 2  2  1
2.      2     
5 52 4 3  3  2
1 21 8  2  1
         
5 54 3  3  2
1 2 8  3  1
       
5 20 3  2   2 
1 20 8  3   1 
       
5 2 3  2  2
 22
0

4.8 Word Problems Involving Fractions

You will notice that fractions word problems arise in many situations. In
such case you will have to apply the fraction skills you have learnt.
Let’s look at this following example:

Maria is preparing for a final exam. On a specific weekend she studied

3 5 2
hours on Friday, hours on Saturday and hours on Sunday. How
2 4 3
many hours did she study over the weekend?
Solution
Note that this word problem requires addition of fractions.
Choosing a common denominator of 12 , we get the following:

3 5 2
 
2 4 3
18 15 8
  
12 12 12
41

12
5
 3 hours.
12
5
So, Mary studied a total of 3 hours.
12
Let’s look at more examples.

EXAMPLES

31
Unit 1 Real Numbers 32

1. Frieda earns a salary every month. She spends N $3400, which is

2
on accommodation and N $1 700 on food. What fraction of her
5
salary is left for other purposes?

2. Madam Ecka shares her monthly salary with her children as follows:
2 1
Maria receives of her mother’s salary and Tom receives . If Tom
7 5
receives N $950 , how much does Maria receive?

3. Three friends, Alex, Brenda and Charles decide to buy a car. Alex
1 1
pays of the cost, Brenda pays of the cost and Charles pays the
4 3
rest.
3.1 What fraction of the cost does Charles pay?
3.2 Brenda pays N$12 000 more than Alex. Calculate the cost of the
car.

SOLUTIONS
1. Let’s first get Frieda’s salary every month.

2 3400

5 x
3400  5
 8500
2
Frieda’s salary is N $8500 .
If N $3400  N $1700  N $5100 which is the amount spent, then
N $8500  N $5100  N $3400 is the amount left.
3400 2
Therefore  is the fraction of her salary which is left.
8500 5

1 950
2. 
5 mother's salary
mother'ssalary  N $4750 , therefore
2
 4750  1357.14 . Maria receives N $1357.14
7

1 1 7
3.1   (total fraction paid by Alex and Brenda)
4 3 12
7 5
1 
12 12 .
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

5
Charles pays a fraction of .
12

3.2 We need to get the fraction difference between Brenda and Alex.

1 1 1
  and we know that this difference is equivalent to
3 4 12
the N $12000, hence
1 12000

12 the cost of the car
thecost of thecar 12 12000  N $144000 .

Activity 6

 Time Required: About 40 minutes.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the

33
Unit 1 Real Numbers 34

assignments.
Evaluate the following

1 21 2 3 1
1.    4 
How long? 3 5 4 3 4 2
1 2 2 1 1
2.    
3 3 5 5 2

3 1

3.
8 5
7 2

10 3

3 1 7 2
4.   
8 5 10 3
1
5. Mrs Nadi accumulated a number of shares. She sold of her shares
5
1 2
to her brother, to her cousin and 340 which is of the original
3 15
number of shares to her best friend, Emily.

5.1 What fraction of shares remained with Mrs Nadi?

5.2 How many shares did Mrs Nadi sell in total?

6. Mr. Kakololo had 550 shares. He sold half of them to Peter
1
Tradings and of the remainder to Jakes & Co. How many shares
5
remained with Mr. Kakololo?

7. Andrew sold 1/3 of his cows and gave his younger brother 1/5 of the
original number of cows. How many cows does Andrew now have if he
had 30 originally?
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S


3
1. 8
2. 1
1
Feedback 5
3. 4
97

4. 168
1
5.1 3
5.2 1700shares

6. 220shares

7. 14cows

5. Fractions – Decimal Fractions

5.1 Place values
Before we discuss the types of decimal fractions, let’s remind ourselves
about place values.

We are familiar with the numbers such as 78.25 . The number 78 is the
whole number part while the 25 is the decimal part. (Recall mixed
numbers.) In 78 the value of 8 is 8 1  8 while the value of 7 is
1
7 10  70 . In 0.25 , the value of 2 is 2   0.2 while the value
10
1
of 5 is 5   0.05.
100
5.2 Types of decimal fractions
There are three types of decimal fractions (as far as this module is
concerned) namely:
(i) terminating decimals
(ii) recurring or repeating decimals and
(iii) non-recurring, non- terminating decimals.
The last one is simply called irrational decimals.

5.2.1 Terminating decimals

These are decimal fractions with a finite number of decimal places.
Let’s look at the following fractions:

35
Unit 1 Real Numbers 36

1. 0.25
2. 2.75
3. 125.275
4. 4.2
5. 11.25755
All the fractions given above are the terminating decimal fractions type
as they have a finite number of decimal places.
5.2.2 Recurring decimals
These are non-terminating decimals which have a cycle of repetitions
after a certain decimal digit. To show that a portion of the decimal part
is continuously repeated, we place a bar over the first repeating part.
For instance 0.4 and 0.18 represent 0.44444... and 0.18181818...
31
respectively. The vulgar fraction has the decimal equivalence of
7
4.428571428571428571... . This can be written, therefore, as
4.428571.
5.2.3 Non-recurring-non-terminating decimals
These are the decimal forms of irrational numbers. For example, an
attempt to write
2 in decimal form will give
1.4142135623730950488016887242097..., and the decimal digits
continue without end. Such a decimal number neither terminates nor
repeats.

a
In conclusion, any rational number has a decimal representation
b
where the decimal part is either terminating or recurring. An irrational
number has a decimal representation with the decimal part neither
recurring nor terminating.

5.3 Interconversions of vulgar and decimal fractions

5.3.1 Vulgar fractions to decimal fractions
a
Given a vulgar fraction , we obtain the decimal equivalence by
b
dividing a by b to get c remainder r . Place a decimal point after c
and henceforth multiply r by 10 and keep dividing by b .

EXAMPLES
2 45 7
(a) (b) (c ) 2
3 12 9

SOLUTIONS
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2
(a)  2  3  0.6
3
45
(b)  45 12  3.57
12
7 25
(c) 2  inimproper fraction, therefore 25  9  2.7777...
9 9
5.3.2 Decimal fractions to vulgar fractions
Given a decimal fraction with a finite number of decimal places, we can
write the vulgar fraction equivalence. What we do is count the number
of decimal places, with one under the decimal and zeros as many as the
counted number of decimal places. We then write the vulgar fraction
without the decimal point.

EXAMPLES
Find the vulgar fraction equivalence of the following decimal fractions:
(a) 2.4
(b) 0.0014

SOLUTIONS
24 2
(a) 2.4  2
10 5
14 7
(b) 0.0014  
10000 5000

NOTE: There is a way of changing recurring decimal fractions into

vulgar fractions. We will however, not discuss it in this module.
Note it! /
Warning

6. Standard Form
Look at the following numbers and try to see what they have in
common:

2.4 102 ; 5.37 106 ; 1.293 102

What in appearance these numbers have in common is that they have
only one non-zero digit before the decimal point and there is a power of
ten.
Please note that these numbers are all in standard form.

However, the following numbers are NOT in standard form, because

they do not have the appearance of the above.

37
Unit 1 Real Numbers 38

24.2 102 ; 537 106 ; 0.1293 102

We call a number which is not in standard form a floating (decimal)
number.

6.1 Writing a Number in Standard Form

To write a given number in standard form, we should do the following:
(i) move the decimal to a position so that it comes immediately after
the first non-zero digit of the number.
(ii) determine the number of places the decimal point had to shift to
reach the present position. If movement was done to the right, then
we have a negative number (n) . If movement was done to the
left, then we have a positive number (n) .
n
(ii) multiply by 10

The number a 10 is in standard form when

n
1  a  10 and n is a
positive or negative integer.

To write 3 000 in standard form: 3  1000  3  103

To write 150 in standard form: 150  1.5 100  1.5 102 and
1
0.0004  4   4  10 4
10 000
Here are a few examples:
EXAMPLES
1. Express the following floating decimal numbers in standard form:

(a) 234.024 (b) 0.00004 (c) 764

SOLUTIONS

(a) 234.024  2.34024 102 (two places moved to theleft)

(b) 0.00004  4 105 (five places moved to the right)

(c) 764  7.64 102 (two places moved to theleft : 764  764.0)

2. Express the following standard forms in floating decimals:

(a) 2.14 101

(b) 3.49206 103

(c) 1.2401103
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTIONS

(a) 2.14 101

One place was moved to the right to obtain this standard form. We
therefore have to move one place to the left to undo what was done.
1
Thus 2.14 10  0.214
(b) 3.49206 103
Three places were moved to the left to obtain this standard form. We
therefore have to move three places to the right to undo what was
done.

Thus 3.49206 10  3492.06

3

(c) 1.2401103  0.0012401

Zeros are introduced so that we can count the correct number of
decimal places.

Activity 7

 Time Required: About 25 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Change the following vulgar fractions into decimal fractions:
24 1 3
(a) (b) 2 (c )
25 8 16
How long?
2. Change the following decimal fractions into vulgar fractions:
(a) 0.625 (b) 10.12 (c) 2.0055
3. Express the following floating decimals in standard forms:
(a) 0.002304 (b) 105.0 (c) 0.0000107
4. Express the following standard forms in floating decimals:
(a) 2.60 102 (b) 2.60 102 (c) 5.2567 103
5. Kanu is paid N $248000.00 per week. How much will he be paid
for 20 years if there is no change in salary? Write your answer in
standard form. (Take 4 weeks in one month)

39
Unit 1 Real Numbers 40

Activity 7

 1. (a) 0.96 (b) 2.125 (c) 0.1875

Feedback
5 3 11
2. (a) (b) 10 (c) 2
8 25 2000

3. (a) 2.304 103 (b) 1.05 102 (c) 1.07 105

4. (a) 0.026 (b) 260 (c) 0.0052567

5. N $238080000  2.3808 108

Learning Nourishes The Brain.[http://www.mathsshop.com]

References
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Counting Numbers: Also called natural numbers, these are numbers

 Integers:
we use to count things e.g. 1, 2, 3….

These are the negative and positive integers

combined together with zero in the middle. Zero
Keywords/concepts isAlso
neither positive
called nor
natural negative.
numbers, these are numbers
we use to count things e.g. 1, 2, 3….

Rational Numbers: Numbers that can be expressed as a ratio,

a
, where a & b are integers and b  0 .
b
Numbers made up of the natural numbers and
Whole Numbers: zero.

Irrational Numbers Numbers that cannot be written as a ratio of two

other numbers. E.g. , 7, 23 etc.

Real Numbers Any number that lies on the real line or number
line.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Fraction It is a representation of division, when 3 is

3
divided by 4 it can be written as a fraction
4
where the number above the line is called a
numerator and the one below is called a
denominator.

Vulgar Fraction See description above.

Decimal Fractions A number such as 45.17354 is a decimal. 45 is the

whole number part and .17354 is the decimal
(fractional) part.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about types of numbers, the rules of arithmetic,

 fractions and writing numbers in standard form.

Summary

41
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit 2

Accuracy and Approximation

Introduction
To introduce this unit, I would like you to think about the following
scenario.

Mr Shikongo bought 16 pencils and paid only N $3. To find out how
much Mr Shikongo paid for each pencil the shopkeeper calculates the
3
price for each pencil as N $ or N $0.1875 cents. Since the
16
Namibian currency does not have a smaller denomination from cents
the shopkeeper will tell us he had sold each pencil for 19 cents, as he
did not want to lose money. What the shopkeeper did is known as
rounding off the price to a given accuracy.
In this unit we will learn about rounding off to a number of decimal
places or to a given number of significant figures. The significant
figures (digits) in a given number are those first digits of the number
necessary to represent a measurement.
The accuracy of a number refers to the number of significant digits in
the number. You should remember that a number may be given to some
accuracy over and above what is really necessary. In this case one may
be required to round off the number to a required accuracy. For
instance, at the time that I am writing this, the exchange rate of the US
dollar to the Namibia dollar is US $1  N $7.7246 . The last two digits
(i.e. 4 and 6 ) in this number are not actually necessary when we are
talking about Namibia dollar, because 100 cents = N $1 . As such only
two decimal places are needed.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 

identify significant figures and decimal places
round numbers off to a given number of significant figures or decimal
places
Objectives
 compute simple estimations using upper and lower bounds

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading

43
Unit 2 Accuracy and Approximation 44

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Accuracy and Rounding

1.1 Decimal places

Please refer to the example of the pencils sold by Mr. Shikongo that I

 mentioned in the introduction. Was Mr Shikongo’s price for each pencil an

exact answer or an approximate answer given for the price of each pencil?
How accurate was the price that Mr Shikongo gave as his price?
In-text question
Rounding a number to a given number of decimal places, for example
13.456 is a number written to 3 decimal places, because there are
three digits (figures) after the decimal point.
To express a number correct to a given number of decimal places, we
take the following steps:
(i) Count the required number of places from the digit that comes
immediately after the decimal point.
(ii) Draw a cut-off line where the counting stopped.
(iii) Consider the digit that comes immediately after the cut-off line. If
it is 5 or more, consider it as 1 and add 1 to the last counted digit. If
it is less than 5, then ignore it and all the digits after it.
For example, if we want to express the number 21.40562 correct to 3
decimal places, we should do the following:
Count three places from the digit 4 and end at the digit 5, then draw
the cut-off line as 21.405\62.The digit after the cut-off line is 6. This
is considered as 1 and added to 5. The required rounded number is
then 21.406.
Please look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Express the following numbers correct to the indicated number of
decimal places.
(a) 40.283 (2 places of decimal)
(b) 0.0275 (2 places of decimal)
(c) 38 (2 places of decimal)
(d) 1017.2 (4 places of decimal)

(e) 3.4 104 (2 places of decimal)

(f) 4.2578 102 (3 places of decimal)

(g) 6.0 101 (1 place of decimal)

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTIONS
(a) 40.283
 40.28\3 count 2 places and cut off.
 40.28 3 < 5 and therefore ignored.

(b) 0.0275
 0.02\75 count 2 places and cut off.
 0.03 7>5 and therefore added as 1 to 2.

(c) 38
 38.00 two zeros added after 8 to make two
decimal places

(d) 1017.2
 1017.2000 three zeros added after 2 to make
four decimal places

(e) 3.4 104

 34000 rewritten in floating decimal.

 34000.00 two zeros are added to make 2 decimal

places.

(f) 4.2578 102

 0.042578 written as floating decimal.
 0.042 / 578 cut off after three places

 0.043 5  5 and therefore added as 1 to 2.

(g) 6.0 101  0.60 written in floating decimal

 6.0\0 cut off after one place
 0.6 0 < 5 and therefore ignored.

45
Unit 2 Accuracy and Approximation 46

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 5 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Calculate the following and leave your answers correct to 2 decimal

places:
How long?
(a) 13  7 (b) 403.5  0.042 (c) 18.7  4.2  0.1
(d ) 12  5 (e) 2.3  0.10 ( f ) 0.004  0.25


(a) 1.86 (b) 16.95 (c) 19.12
(d ) 2.40 (e) 0.23 ( f ) 0.00

Feedback

1.2 Significant figures

In decimal places, we counted from the first digit after the decimal
point. However, there is a slight difference when we deal with
significant figures.
The number of significant figures is counted from (and including) the
first non-zero digit from the left of the given number. It should be
noted that digits after the first non-zero digit are significant when we
do the counting.
The following information with regard to significant figures will help us
to understand better how to handle significant figures, or how we can
tell how many significant figures a particular number has.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Table 2.1 Examples of Significant Figures

EXAMPLES

1 Any digit that is not zero is significant 1234.56 has 6 SF

2 Zeros between non-zero digits are 1002.5 has 5 SF

significant.

3 Zeros at the end of a number that 244.50 has 5 SF

contains a decimal point ARE
significant. They are measurable. 1.20 has 3 SF
70.00 has 4 SF
4 Zeros to the left of the first non-zero 000456 has 3 SF and
digit are not significant. They are not
0.0056 has 2 SF.
measurable values.They only show the
position of the decimal point.

5 If the number is greater than one (1), 663.16 has 5 SFs and
then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant.
300.00 has 5 SF

6 If the number is less than one (1), then 0.01030 has 4 SF

zeros that are at the end of the number
and between non-zero digits are
significant.

7 For numbers that do not contain 1000 has 1, 2, 3 or 4

decimal points, the trailing zero may or SF , let’s assume 4 SF
may not be significant. In this course in our calculation.
we assume the digits are significant
unless we are told otherwise, but But 1500 has 2 or 3 or
scientific notation eliminates 4 SF (unclear)
ambiguity.
1.5 103 has 2 SF
1.50 103 has 3 SF

To express a number correct to a given number of significant figures,

we take the following steps:
(i) Count the required number of figures from the first non-zero digit.
(ii) Draw a cut-off line where the counting stopped.
Consider the digit after the cut-off line. If it is 5 or more, add it as 1 to
the last counted significant digit. If it is less than 1, then ignore it and
every digit that comes after it.

As an example, let us express the number 21.40562 correct to five

significant figures (otherwise written as “correct to 5 s.f”).
Count from 2 and end up at 5 and then draw a cut-off line between 5

47
Unit 2 Accuracy and Approximation 48

and 6. That is 21.405\62. Take 6 as 1 since 6 > 5. Add 1 to 5 to get the

answer 21.406

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Express the following numbers correct to the indicated number of
significant figures.

(a) 40.283 (2 s.f)

(b) 0.0275 (2 s.f)
(c) 4090.01249 (3 s.f)
(d) 20.17 (3 s.f)
(e) 38 (4 s.f)
(f) 1017.2 (3 s.f)

(g) 3.4 104 (1 s.f)

(h) 4.2578 103 (2 s.f)

(i) 4.2578 104 (3 s.f)

SOLUTIONS
(a) 40.283
 40.\283 cut off after 2 s.f
 40.000 2 < 5 and therefore ignored
 40 all the zeros after the decimal are dropped to have only
2 s.f.

(b) 0.0275
 0.027\5 cut off after 2 s.f
 0.028 5 is taken as 1 and added to 7

(c) 4090.01249
 409\0.01249 cut off after 3 s.f
 4090.00000 0 < 5 and therefore ignored
 4090 only the zeros after the decimal are dropped. As a
rule no zero BEFORE the decimal point must be
dropped.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(d) 20.17
 20.1\7 cut off after 3 s.f
 20.20 7 is taken as 1 and added to 1
 20.2 only 3 s.f required

(e) 38
 38.00 two zeros added to make 4 s.f

(f) 1017.2
 101\7.2 cut off after 3 s.f
 1020.0 7 is added as 1 to 1
 1020 zero after decimal dropped

(g) 3.4 10

4

 34000 in floating decimal

 3\4000 cut off after 1 s.f
 30000 4 < 5 and therefore ignored
 30000 zeros retained because they come before the
decimal

(h) 4.2578 10

3

 4257.8 in floating decimal

 42\57.8 cut off after 2 s.f
 4300.0 5 is added as 1 to 2
 4300 zero after decimal dropped
4
(i) 4.2578 10
 0.00042578 in floating decimal
 0.000425\78 cut off after 3 s.f
 0.00042600 7 is added as 1 to 5
 0.000426 last zeros after decimal dropped

49
Unit 2 Accuracy and Approximation 50

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 10 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Express the following numbers correct to the indicated number of

significant figures in brackets.
How long?
(a) 24314 (4 s. f )
(b) 24314 (3 s. f )
(c) 24314 (2 s. f )
(d ) 24314 (1 s. f )
(e) 835049 (5 s. f )
( f ) 835049 (2 s. f )

2. Calculate the following and leave your answers correct to 2

significant figures.
(a) 13  7 (b) 403.5  0.042 (c) 18.7  4.2  0.1
(d ) 12  5 (e) 2.3  0.10 ( f ) 0.004  0.25


1. (a) 24310 (b) 24300 (c) 24000 (d ) 20000
(e) 835050 ( f )840000

Feedback 2. (a) 1.9 (b) 17 (c) 19 (d ) 2.4 (e) 0.23 ( f )0.00

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Aus-e-Tute. Significant Figures.

[http://www.ausetute.com.au/sigfig.html].
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
References Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Accuracy: The accuracy of our calculations usually depends

 Approximation:
on the number of decimal places we are using in
our sums.

When one quantity X is an approximation of

Keywords/concepts another quantity y it means the two are almost
equal.

Decimal Places: In rounding off a number to n decimal places the

original is replaced by a number with just n digits
after the decimal place. i.e. 3.152954013 written
to three decimal places is 3.153.

Round off (or In rounding off, the original number is replaced

Rounding): by the number with the required number of digits
that it is close to, i.e. rounding off to two
decimal places.

Significant Digits To count the number of significant figures in a

(or Figures) given number, start with the first non-zero digit
from the left and, moving to the right, count all
the digits thereafter, counting final zeros if they
are to the right of the decimal point.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about rounding off to a number of decimal

 places or to a given number of significant figures. The significant figures

(digits) in a given number are those first digits of the number necessary
to represent a measurement.

Summary

51
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 52

Unit 3

Indices, Surds and Logarithms

Introduction
Exponents represent shortcuts in multiplication. In other words, you
5
would much rather write the expression 7 than write out 7×7×7×7×7 (7
multiplied with itself 5 times). One can also use exponents with
variables. It is a fact that many students in high schools and in colleges
have a difficult time with exponents and logarithms. In many cases,
they memorise the rules without fully understanding them, and they
sometimes even manage to squeak by a course, i.e. just passing. I hope
you were not one of them, but such students often wonder why they
should waste their time on these archaic entities; they are never going
to see them again. Wrong! Just when the student breathes a sigh of
relief to be done with logarithms, they encounter them again in another
course, say Economics. They would now be in trouble, because the
second encounter with logarithms is at a more sophisticated level.
Without an understanding of the basics, the student is doomed to
blindly stumble through and fail the course. Since logarithms are
exponents, we will review exponents, surds and exponential functions
before we review logarithms and logarithmic functions.
You will see that all the topics in this chapter are applicable in financial
mathematics and economic forecasting.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 

simplify indicial and logarithmic expressions
express indicial expressions as logarithmic expressions and vice
versa
Objectives
 solve indicial and logarithmic equations for one unknown

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1. Indices
We know that 23 means 2  2  2 and that 32 means 3  3 . Hence
23  24 would mean (2  2  2)  (2  2  2  2) . If we remove the
brackets, we have 2  2  2  2  2  2  2 which is the meaning of 2 .
7

This could as well be shortened as 2  2  2  128.

3 4 7

(See that 3  4  7. )
The lowest factors of 200 are 2  2  2  5  5. These factors can be
written as 2  5 , where 2 and 5 are called bases and the numbers 3
3 2

and 2 are called Indices, Powers or Exponents.

n 7
Generally when a number is expressed as a (like in 2 ), the number
a is called the base and the number n is called the index or exponent.

Please identify the base and the index in each of the following exponents:

 53 , 210 , 72.

In-text question

1.1 Basic rules of indices

Here is the list of the basic rules of indices, as well as a few examples
to illustrate each:
I. If n and m are positive whole numbers, then

a n  a m  a n m
n m
Notice that a and a have the same base, a.
Examples from rule I

(i) 23  24  234  27

(ii) 43  46  436  49

II. If n and m are positive whole numbers, then

a n  a m  a n m
n m
Notice that a and a have the same base, a.
Examples from rule II

(i) 84  82  84  2  82

(ii) 38  35  385  33

53
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 54

III. If n and m are positive whole numbers, then

(a n ) m  a nm
Examples from rule III

(i)
2   2  2  2  2   2
3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
 234  212

(ii) (62 ) 3  623  66

IV. If n is a positive whole number and a and b are any numbers, then

a n  b n  (a  b) n
Notice that the bases are different but their exponents are the same.
Examples from rule IV

(i) 32  42  (3  4) 2  12 2

(ii) 63  23  (6  2) 3  123

V. Fractional indices
1
a na
n

and
m
a  n am
n

Examples from rule V

1 1 1 1
  
(i) 3  3  3
2 2 2 2
 31  3 or 3  3  3
1 1 1
(ii) 53  53  53  5 or 3
5 3
5  3
5 5

1.2 Interesting deductions from the rules

Before we move on to negative indices, let us play a little game. Let us
0
find out what a stands for.
First let us assume that a  0.

Then

a 0  a 22
 a0  a2  a2
 a0  1

Hence a  1 , provided
0
a  0.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(Note that you could choose any number in place of 2 .)

If a were to be zero, then 0  0

2 2
would not be meaningful. Hence we
may write

1, if a  0
a0  
meaningless, if a  0
Now that we know that a
0
 1 provided a  0 , let us look at the
meaning of an expression of the form a  n , where n is a positive whole
number.

We can write the following:

a  n  a 0n  a 0  a n
a0 1
 n
 n
a a

n 1
Hence a  , provided a  0.
an

We can now summarise that rule I through IV are valid for integral
exponents and all bases except where a base is zero.

Examples from the deductions

0
1 3
42  , 60  1,    1
7
2
4

2. The Calculator and Indices

There is one key on your calculator that you can use for performing the
" y x " or "^" , but for the
operation of indices. This key is labelled
2 3
square and cube of a number " x " and "x " .

To find 42 from the calculator, enter 4 and press " x 2 " , your answer
will be: 4  16.
2

4
To find 3 from the calculator, enter 3 and press " y x " or "^ " followed
by 4, and your answer will be: 3  81 .
4

These sequences of operations are valid for the CASIO and SHARP
calculators. Check the operating sequence of YOUR calculator from your
calculator manual.

55
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 56

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 20 min.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Evaluate the following, leaving your answers in exponents form.

(i) 48  4 2 (ii) 166  165 (iii) 4 2  62

How long? (3  4) 0  12 2 (32 ) 3
(iv) (v) (vi) 2 6  2 2

(vii) 52  52 (viii) 225  299  2124

2. Simplify each of the following as much as possible, leaving your

answers in positive indices.
2
3 2   2 x2 y3  2 
x y
(i) (ii)  
x 1 y  3x 2 y 
 

(iv) a 2b3   a 4b2 

1
(iii)  2a  b4 a 2
4

1. (i) 410  1048576 (ii) 161  16 (iii)  4  6   576


2

1 1
(iv) 122  144 (v) (vi)  (vii) 50  1 (viii) 20  1
36 28

Feedback
x4 9 16a 2 a6
2. (i ) (ii) (iii) (iv)
y3 16 x16 y10 b4 b

3. Surds
We know that 4   2. We already saw that 2  2  4 and
 2   2  4. Thus when we write a , we want to get that number
which when multiplied by itself, will give a . We call that number the
square root of a .
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Surds are roots that cannot be expressed as a rational number i.e.

3  1.732050808 whereas 4  2 , which is a rational number.

We may wish to get a number which, when multiplied by itself three

times, will yield the number a. We then say we are looking for the cube
3
root of the number a and this is written as a.
In general, the nth root of the number a is written as n a and it is
that number which will multiply itself n times to yield a. For instance
2  2  2  2  2  32 , Hence 5 32  2 because the number which
will multiply itself 5 times to give 32 is 2 .

3.1 Basic rules of surds

The basic rules of surds are the same as those of indices. What we need
1
to know here is that we can write n
a a .
n

82 3   643  3 64  4 .
1
Now

1  1 2

 
 2 
Also 8
2 3
8  3
 8 . We have made use of rule III in the second
3

equality here.
2
3
Thus 8 3 is interpreted as the cube root of 82 , written as 82 or as the
 8 .
2
3
square of the cube root of 8, written as

Let a and b be any real non-negative numbers and m and n are

positive integers; the rules of radicals are given below. In mathematics
a radical sign is a symbol placed before a number or quantity to
indicate the extraction of a root, especially a square root.

 a
n
(a) If n is even, n
 a . In mathematics, the absolute
value a of a real number a is the numerical value of a
without regard to its sign. For example, the absolute value
of 2 is 2 , and the absolute value of 2 is 2 .

(b) If n is odd,  a
n
n
a

(c) n
a  n b  n ab
n
a a
(d) n  n
(b  0)
b b
(e)
n
am   a
n
m

57
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 58

(f) m n
a  mn a
Please look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES

i
3
1252  (3 125 ) 2 (Check that each side is equal to 25.)

ii
5
326  (5 32 ) 6 (Check that each side is equal to 64.)
3

iii 16  16
4 4 3
(Check that each side is equal to 8.)
3

iv 144  144
2 3
(Check that each side is equal to 1728.)

In general, it is advisable to take the root before taking the

power.

It is easier to see that

3
16 4  ( 4 16 ) 3  23  8
than to see that
3
16 4  4 163  4 4096  8 .

Important note: We do not take the even root of a negative number.

For instance, there is no real number whose square is –4. So there is no

Note it! / real number that is 4 .

Warning
1
If N is a negative number and n is an even number, then N n is not a
real number.

The following are not real numbers:

1 1
 9 2 ;  256 4 ; 4
18; 6
729 .
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 15 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Simplify each of the following as completely as possible:

1 3
3
How long? (i) 9 2
(ii) 16 4
(iii) 729

(iv) 50  4 64 (v)
4
32  8 64 (vi)
5
64  5 16

2. Simplify as far as possible:

(i) 4  25 (ii) 21  24  3 3 (iii) 64  64

1. (i) 3 (ii) 8 (iii) 9 (iv) 20 (v) 4 (vi) 4

 2. (i) 10 (ii) cannot simplify (iii) 64

Feedback

4. Logarithms
When we dealt with powers and exponents, we learnt that any real
number can be written as another number raised to a power. For
example:

16  4 2 , 27  33 and 64  43
Let us recall that 2  8 , where 2 is the base and 3 is the exponent (or
3

index or power). There is a direct relationship between exponents and

logarithms. This relationship is expressed in the following:
The logarithm of the number 8 to base 2 is the power to which 2 must
be raised to yield 8. This is expressed as log 2 8  3.
A logarithm is an exponent. It is the exponent to which the base must
be raised to produce a given number.

59
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 60

If p, q and r are real numbers where:

p  q r and q  0 , the power r is called the logarithm of the number

p to base q and it is written r  log q p, read as r is the log of p to
base q.

Therefore having b x  y which implies that x  log b y , we say that x

is the logarithm of y with base b if, and only if, b to the power x
equals y.

For example, because 36  6 the power 2 is the logarithm of

2
36 to
the base 6. That is: 2  log 6 36.

Let’s work on the following examples. Try to work them out

yourself before you look at the solutions.

EXAMPLES
1. In each of the following, what is the value of x, remembering
that if p  q r then r  log q p ?

(a) x  log 3 81
(b) 4  log x 16
(c) 2  log 5 x
2. Express the following logarithms in exponential format:

(a) log 3 81  4
(b) log c x  z
(c) log 2 32  5
(d) 2  log 7 49
(e) x  log 5 25

SOLUTIONS

1. (a) The value of x is 4

(b) The value of x is 2

(c) The value of x is 125

2. (a) 34  81
(b) cz  x
(c) 2 5  32
(d) 7 2  49
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(e) 5 x  125
There are two commonly used bases when dealing with logarithms.
They are the common logarithm and the natural logarithm (also called
the Napierian logarithm). The base of the common logarithm is 10,
while the base of the natural logarithm is e.
These two logarithms are common features in any standard scientific
calculator. Although one can work with logarithm to any positive base,
we shall stick to the bases 10 and e.

A discussion of how to change from one base to another will broaden

our knowledge of the subject.
We said above that logarithms to base 10 are called common logarithms
and are written without indicating the base. For example log 10 a is
simply written as log a without indicating base 10 and log 10 1000 is
simply written as log 1000.

To find the value of the common logarithm, log 1000, on the

calculator, simply press the key,
log, the value 1000 and then the  key.
The logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms . They are
written as ln x . Instead of writing log e 10, we write ln 10. You can also
find the value of log e 10 by simply pressing ln 10 on the calculator.

The value of log 10  1 and the value of ln10  2.302585093.

Note that for any base the:

 Logarithm of 1 is zero

 Logarithm of 0 is not defined

 Logarithm of a number greater than 1 is positive
 Logarithm of a number between 0 and 1 is negative
 Logarithm of a negative number cannot be evaluated as a real
number
Let us now try some of the examples below, keeping in mind the
logarithms rules.

Now let us evaluate the following logarithms:

i log10 1000 .
We have to find n such that 10  1000 . n has to be 3.
n

 log10 1000  3
ii log 0,10
We have to find n such that 10n  0,10 .

61
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 62

1 1
But 0.01   2  102
100 10
10 n  10 2  n  2
 log10 0,01  2
iii loge 1000
We have to find n such that en  1000 .
(e = 2.71828… is a constant given to four places of decimal).

n will have to be 6.90775528 so that

2.7182818286.90775528  1000 .

Note: The value e  2.718281828... is a constant. Recall that e is an

irrational number and as such, 2.718281828 is just a rational
approximation of e. (See UNIT 1: section 1.3.)
Tip

4.1 Rules or laws of logarithms

The rules of logarithms are as follows:
For all
b  0, b  1, and M , N  0 (b, n, M , N , are real numbers) ,
We have:

(a) log b MN  Logb M  log b N

M
(b) log b  log b M  log b N
N
(c) log b M n  n log a M

(d) log b 1  0
(e) log b b  1

(f) log b b n  n

Note: There are no rules for the logb (M  N ) or logb (M  N ).

Please look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
(a) log10 100  log10 1000
 log10 (100 1000)
 log10 100000
5
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(b) log10 5000  log10 500

 log10 (5000 500)
 log10 10
1
(c) 5  log10 10
 log10 105
 log10 100 000
5

5. The Calculator and Logarithms

As we said above, there are two keys on your calculator, namely the
common logarithm key and the natural logarithm key. The common
logarithm key is labeled “log” and the natural logarithm key is labeled
“ln”.

To find log10 365 from the calculator, you should enter 365 and press
“log” OR press “log” and then enter 365.

log10 365  2.562292864...

To find log e 365 from the calculator, you should enter 365 and press
“ln” OR press “ln” and then enter 365.

loge 365  5.899897354...

These sequences of operations are valid for the CASIO calculators.
Check the operating sequence of YOUR calculator from your calculator
manual.

6. Change of Base
If a logarithm is given to a base other than 10 and e which feature in
our scientific calculators, we can change the base to either base 10 or
base e.

To change log 2 32 from a logarithm in base 2 to a logarithm in base 10,

you should use the following:

log10 32
log 2 32 
log10 2
Let us verify this as follows:

LHS: log 2 32  x,

 2 x  32  25
 x  5  log 2 32  5

63
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 64

log10 23 1,50514...
 5
RHS:
log10 2 0,30102...
Therefore LHS = RHS.

In general, if we wish to change the base a in log a k to base b, we use

the following conversion expression:

log b k
log a k 
log b a
It therefore follows that

log b a
log a a  1
log b a

The procedure of changing from one base to another can be considered

as an additional law which we shall generally state as follows:

logb P
log a P 
logb a
Please look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Evaluate the following logarithms:

(a) log3 23 (b) log 4 16

1
(c) log 2 16  log3 27 (d ) log8 16  log 9  
3
SOLUTIONS
(a) log 3 23
log10 23
 (changing baseto base10)
log10 3
1,3617...
 (calculator key "log")
0, 4771...
 2.854 to 3 d . p

(b) log 4 16
 log 4 42 (since16  42 )
 2 log 4 4 (applying the rule)
2 (since log 4 4  1)
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(c ) log 2 16  log 3 27
 log 2 24  log 3 33 (since16  24 and 27  33 )
 4 log 2 2  3log 3 3 (applying the rule)
 4 1  3 1
7

1
(d ) log8 16  log 9  
3
1
log 3
log 2 16 3 (change of base rule)
 
log 2 8 log 3 9
log 2 24 log 3 31
 
log 2 23 log 3 32
4 log 2 2 1log 3 3
 
3log 2 2 2 log 3 3
4 1
 
3 2
5
1
6

65
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 66

Activity 3

 Time Required: About 35 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
Evaluate the following logarithms:

( a) log13 169

(b) log11 11
How long?
 9  log 3 9
(c) log 3   
 27  log 3 27
1
(d ) log 2   log 2 1  log 2 2 
2
3
(e) log 5 5
( f ) log 8 23  log 3 27  log10 15
( g ) 15log 3 2  log 3 32768
(h) log 0.1 0, 001  log 0.001 0,1


1 2
(a) 2 (b) (c)  1 (d ) 0
2 3
1 1
(e) ( f )  0.316 ( g ) 0 (h) 3
Feedback 3 3

7. Indicial and Logarithmic Equations

Indicial and logarithmic equations occur in the application of
mathematics in business and other areas of human activity.
For example, the annual sales return of a firm might be given as
follows:
t
R  1000000e  20000 , where T is time in years and R (in N$) is the
4

annual return. After three years, the return is expected to be

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

3
R  1000 000e  20 000
4

 1000 000(2.117)  20 000

 N $2137 000.10
Now after how many years is an annual return expected to be
N$7409056.10?
To get the answer to this question, we have to solve the indicial
T
equation R  1000000e 4  20000  7 409056.10 for T .
It is therefore important that we learn how to solve indicial equations.
Please look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. Solve the following indicial equations:
2
(a) x 3  64 (b) 2 x 3  2 x 1  2 x 2  70 (c) ( y  1)3  64

1
(d ) 8x  (e) 2t 1  32 (f) x
125  5
16

SOLUTIONS
2
(a) x 3  64
2 3 3
 1
x3 2
 64 2

x  512

(b) 2 x 3  2 x 1  2 x  2  70
2 x  23  2 x  21  2 x  2 2  70
2 x (23  21  22 )  70
 1 1
2 x  8     70
 2 4
 3
2 x  8   70
 4
3
2 x  8 (divide by8 on both sides)
4
2  2 (change to common base)
x 3

x3

67
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 68

(c) ( y  1)3  64
1 1
3 1
( y  1) 3
 64 3

y 1  4
y  4 1
y5

1
d ) 8x 
16
8x  161
23( x )  24( 1)
23 x  24 (once you change to same, base simply equate the exponents)
3x  4
4
x
3

(e) 2t 1  32
2t 1  25
t 1  5
t  5 1
t4

(f) x
125  5
1
125  5 x

1
3 
5 x
 51
3
5  51
x

3
1
x
x3
2. Solve the following logarithmic equations:

(i) log 2 ( x  7)  3 (ii)

log x 81  4

(iii)
log 8 16  x (iv)
log 7 ( x  3)  log 7 83

log10 0,10  x  7
(v)

SOLUTIONS
(i)
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

log 2 ( x  7)  3
 x  7  23
 x7 8
 x  15
(ii)

log x 81  4
 81  x  4
 34  x 4
 ( 13 )  4  x  4
 13  x
x 1
3

(iii)

log 8 16  x
 x  log 8 16
log 2 16
x
log 2 8
4 log 2 2
x
3 log 2 2
x  4
3

(iv)

log 7 ( x  3)  log 7 83
x  3  83
x  80

log10 0,10  x  7
(v)

10( x 7)  0,10

1
10( x 7) 
10
10( x 7)  101
x  7  1
x6

69
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 70

Activity 4

 Time Required : About 35 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Solve the following indicial equations:

(i) 162 x 1  324 x (ii) (2 x  1) 3  1000

How long?
(iii) 2k  3 2 (iv) 32 x1  9 x  39  32 x1

2. Solve the following logarithmic equations:

x
(i) log10 1000  2 x  11 (ii) log10 5 10 
10
(iii) log x 4  2 (iv) log5 (3x  5)  2

 1. (i) x 
1
3
(ii) x 
11
2
(iii) k 
1
3
1 1
(iv) x  1

Feedback 2. (i) x  7 (ii) x  2 (iii) x   ;x (iv) x  10

2 2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Here are a few hints on how to solve exponential (indicial) and

logarithmic equations:
I: How to solve exponential equations.
Tip  First simplify both sides of the equation.
 If the unknown variable is an exponent, then write both sides with
the same base, such that if a x  a y , then you can deduce that
x  y , if a  0, 1,  1 . For example: If 2x  25 , then x  5 .
 If the unknown variable is a base, then raise both sides by that
same power required in order to change the power of the unknown
to 1 (unity). For example:
3 2
  1
x 2
8 x 8 3
 x  22 
4
II: How to solve logarithmic equations.
 When solving logarithmic equations, remember that log a x is only
defined for x  0, a  0 and a  1 .
 If logs only occur on one side of the equation, then write it as a
single term and change the logarithmic equation to an exponential
equation.
 When the bases are not the same, then choose an easy and
convenient base and change the others to that base.

Foundation Mathematics. Indices and Logarithms. http:www.Angelfire.com

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
References
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE,Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Index or Indices When a number r is repeatedly multiplied by

 (plural): itself such as

r  r  r  r , this can be written as r 4 ;
the number 4 is called the index or power.
Keywords/concepts
Surd: An irrational number in the form of a root of
some number such as 5, 3 7 or 62 3

Logarithms: The value log a x is called the logarithm of x to

the base a.

Common Logarithm to the base 10. The notation is given

Logarithms: as log x.
Check log 3=0.477121254

71
Unit 3 Indices, Surds and Logarithms 72

Natural Logarithms: Logarithm to the base e. with notation ln x.

Check ln 3=1.098612289

Change of Base Logarithms to a different basis are related by the

log a y
formula; log b y  this is where the base is
log a b
being changed from b to a.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned that we express a short cut to repeated

 multiplication in indices. To effectively work with indices, surds and

logarithms one needs to follow the basic rules.
A few key points to remember about this unit are the following:
Summary  To multiply indices with the same base, add the indices, i.e.
a x  a y  a x y
 To divide indices with the same base, subtract the indices, i.e
a x  a y  a x y ( x  y)
n n
n 1 a b
 Negative indices i.e. a  n,    
a b a
 Power of zero i.e. a0  1(a  0)

 Raising a power to a power i.e. a 

n m
 a nm

 Surds a  b  ab special case a  a  a.

 a
1 m
m
 Fractional indices an  n a an  n
 n am
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit 4

Algebraic Expressions
Introduction
You will see that most statements that have to do with two or more
quantities can be expressed in mathematical forms. For example, “John
is older than Mary” can be written as J > M, where J is John’s age in
years and M is Mary’s age in years. Also, “John is twice as old as Mary”
could be written as J = 2M. Note that it is Mary’s age that should be
multiplied by 2 to be equal with John’s age. In addition, “John is two
years older than Mary” could be written as J = M+2 or as J-2 = M. This is
correct, because we have to add 2 to Mary’s age to be equal with
John’s age, or subtract 2 from John’s age to be equal with Mary’s age.
We shall be looking at more of this type of MODELING in Unit 5.
Please note that this unit is a prerequisite chapter to numerous
concepts in Quantitative Methods 2.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


distinguish terms, variables and coefficients
factorise quadratic equations in one variable
add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic expressions
Objectives
 compute simple factorisations

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Variables, Coefficients and Like Terms

To start this section, please consider the following: “John and Mary
have their separate bank accounts. John’s account balance is N$x.
Mary’s account balance is N$y. Three times Mary’s account balance is
N$150 less than twice John’s account balance.” Mathematically, we can
write this statement as follows:

73
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 74

2x – 150 = 3y (*)
In this mathematical form, we call the letters that represent the
unknown quantities variables . The number of times a variable is added
is called the coefficient of that variable.
In the above expression (*), 2x = x + x and 3y = y + y + y. Hence the
coefficient of x is 2 and the coefficient of y is 3.
Note that the number –150 does not represent a number of times a
variable is added. Hence it is called a constant.
In a mathematical expression, a term is the product of a variable and
its coefficient.
In the following expression: 4x + 3y – 5xy – x + 2xy, there are five terms.
Do not be confused by the number of variables being two.
Please look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
In the following expressions, identify each variable and its coefficient.
Also state the constants.
(i ) A  36  2t  3a
(ii ) y  2 x  3b  2c  1  2 y  x
(iii ) 3x 2  2 x  4m
(iv) 4mn  m 2  3n  5
(v) 9 xy 2  2 x 2 y  x  3xy  x 2 y

SOLUTIONS
(i) Variable A has coefficient 1
Variable t has coefficient 2
Variable a has coefficient –3
36 is a constant
(Note that A and a are two different variables.)

(ii) Variable y has coefficient 3 (y + 2y = 3y)

Variable x has coefficient 1 (2x – x = x)
Variable b has coefficient –3
Variable c has coefficient –2
1 is a constant

(iii) Here there are three variables namely x 2 , x and m. x 2 and x

are two different variables.
2
Variable x has coefficient 3
Variable x has coefficient 2
Variable m has coefficient –4

(iv) Here there are three variables namely mn, m2 and n .

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Variable mn has coefficient 4

2
Variable m has coefficient –1
Variable n has coefficient 3
-5 is a constant

(v) Here there are four variables namely xy 2 , x2 y, x and xy .

Variable xy 2 has coefficient 9

Variable x 2 y has coefficient –3 (2 x2 y  x2 y  3x 2 y)

Variable x has coefficient 1
Variable xy has coefficient -3

1.1 Like Terms

Two terms are called like terms if they have exactly the same
variables.

The following are pairs of like terms: 2x and –3x; 4y and 3y; k and –5k;
x2 and 3x2 ;2 xy 2 and 3xy 2 etc. Do you notice that each pair has the
same variable although the coefficients differ?
The following pairs are NOT like terms: 2x and 3y;
2 x2 and x; x 2 y and xy 2 etc. These terms that are not like terms are
called unlike terms.
When we simplify algebraic expressions, like terms are added (or
subtracted as the case may be) whereas unlike terms are left as they
are.

Think about the following expression:

3xy  x2  xy  x2 y  2 xy 2  3x 2 y  6  4 x 2 y  2 (**)
This expression has nine terms, the first being 3xy , the second being
x 2 etc.
The variables here are xy, x 2 , x 2 y, xy 2 .
The like terms are
3xy and  xy

x2
x2 y,3x2 y and 4 x2 y

2xy 2
the constants are 6 and –2

75
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 76

Adding the like terms, we get

2xy

x2
8x 2 y

2xy 2
4

Therefore when simplified, expression (**) becomes

2 xy  x2  8x2 y  2 xy 2  4 (***)
Since the terms in expression (***) are now all unlike terms, it means
that the simplification is completed.
In the following examples, we shall rearrange the terms so that like
terms are placed next to each other were possible.
Let’s look at the following examples.
EXAMPLES
Simplify each of the following expressions as much as possible:

(i ) 4 p  3e  7 p  18e  11 p  21e
(ii ) 5t  6r  3t  8r  2t  2r  4
(iii ) 4a 2  3a  7  5a  a 2  2a  7
(iv) 3x 2  y 2  x 2  xy  2 xy  y 2  4
(v) 2ah  3a 2 h  4ah 2  2a 2 h  2a  h

SOLUTIONS
(i) 4 p  3e  7 p  18e  11 p  21e
=4 p  7 p  11 p  3e  18e  21e (collecting like)
=0 p  42e=42e (0 times p is 0)

(ii) 5t  6r  3t  8r  2t  2r  4
=5t  3t  2t  6r  8r  2r  4
=0t  0r  4=4

(iii ) 4a 2  3a  7  5a  a 2  2a  7
=4a 2  a 2  3a  5a  2a  7  7
=3a 2  4a  14
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(iv) 3x 2  y 2  x 2  xy  2 xy  y 2  4
=3x 2  x 2  xy  2 xy  y 2  y 2  4
=2 x 2  xy  2 y 2  4

(v) 2ah  3a 2 h  4ah 2  2a 2 h  2a  h

=2ah  3a 2 h  2a 2 h  4ah 2  2a  h
=2ah  5a 2 h  4ah 2  2a  h

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 15 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
Simplify each of the following expressions:
1. 11x  12 y  7 x  5 y

2. 21a  12a  2a  a  4
2 2
How long?
3. 5xt  5x t  10tx  7 xt  8
2 2 2

4. 5mn  3nm  2m  6
5. 2 x2 y  yx2  5 y 2  3x  2  4 xy 2  3 y 2  6

1. 4 x  17 y

 2. 22a  14a  4
2

3. 5xt  5x t  7 xt  8
2 2

Feedback 4. 2mn  2m  6

5. x y  2 y  3x  4 xy  4
2 2 2

2. Expansion of Algebraic Expressions

As you can recall, the expression 2(3 + 5) could be evaluated in the
following two ways:
2(3  5)  2  8  16
2(3  5)  (2  3)  (2  5)  6  10  16

77
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 78

We call the second of these two methods the method of expansion .

Many people refer to it as “opening the brackets”. It is therefore correct
to state the following:
a(b  c)  ab  ac where a, b and c are numbers.
You should be careful when the factor that is multiplying the bracket
carries a negative sign. If this is the case, then all signs in the bracket
have to change once the brackets are opened.
For instance
a(b  c)  ab  ac (****)
Another kind of bracket is the division line, as in the following
example:

1 46
(4  6) 
2 2
This division line shows that “4 + 6” is being divided by “2”.
Note that:

4 4  6 10
 6  2  6  8, whereas   5. For this reason, it is
2 2 2
important to draw the division line correctly and appropriately.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify each of the following expressions:
1. 2( x  y  3z )
2. 5a(2  b  7c)

3. 2t (5m  t )  t 2
4. x(2 x  y)  y(2 y  x)

SOLUTIONS
1. 2( x  y  3z )  2 x  2 y  6 z
2. 5a(2  b  7c)  10a  5ab  35ac

3. 2t (5m  t )  t 2  10mt  2t 2  t 2  10mt  t 2

4. 2(4m  3n)  3(2m  n)  8m  6n  6m  3n  2m  3n

x(2 x  y)  y(2 y  x)  2 x 2  xy  2 y 2  xy ( xy  yx)

 2 x2  2 y 2
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify each of the following expressions:
1. ( x  y)(a  b)
2. ( x  y)(a  b)
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

3. ( x  3)( y  5)
4. ( x  y)( x  y)

5. ( x  y)2  ( x  y)
6. 2 x( a  b  c) 2
SOLUTIONS
1. ( x  y)(a  b)  x(a  b)  y(a  b)  xa  xb  ya  yb
2. ( x  y)(a  b)  x(a  b)  y(a  b)  xa  xb  ya  yb
3. ( x  3)( y  5)  x( y  5)  3( y  5)  xy  5x  3 y  15

4. ( x  y )( x  y )  x( x  y )  y ( x  y )  x 2  xy  yx  y 2
 x 2  y 2 (since xy  yx therefore  xy  yx  0)

5. ( x  y ) 2  ( x  y )  ( x  y )( x  y )  ( x  y )
 x(x  y )  y (x  y )  (x  y )
 x 2  xy  yx  y 2  x  y
 x 2  2 xy  y 2  x  y

6. 2 x(a  b  c) 2  2 x(a  b  c)(a  b  c)

 (2 xa  2 xb  2 xc)(a  b  c)
 2 xa(a  b  c)  2 xb(a  b  c)  2 xc(a  b  c)
 2 xa 2  2 xab  2 xac  2 xba  2 xb 2  2 xbc  2 xca  2 xcb  2 xc 2
 2 xa 2  4 xab  4 xac  2 xb 2  4 xbc  2 xc 2

7. Find the area of figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

SOLUTION
We can divide figure 4.1 above into three rectangles, as shown below.

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Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 80

Area of rectangle A  ycm 1cm  y cm 2

Area of rectangle B  ( y  1)( x  3)  ( xy  x  3 y  3)cm 2
Area of rectangle C  2( y  1)  (2 y  2)cm 2
Therefore total area of the figure is:
y  ( xy  x  3 y  3)  (2 y  2)  y  xy  x  3 y  3  2 y  2
 ( xy  x  5)cm 2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 30 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Expand the brackets and simplify:
(a) 5(6a  9)  3(2a  4)
How long? (b) x( x 1)  x(2  3x)
(c) 5n(3n  n2  5)  3(2  n2 )
(d ) xy( x  2)  5( x  xy)
2. Expand the following expressions and simplify where possible:
(a) ( x  y)( x  y)
(b) ( x  y)( x2  2 xy  y 2 )
(c) (a  7)2 (a  b)
(d ) (a  b  c)(a  b  c)
3. An open box is made from a square board of cardboard by cutting
four squares each of length x cm from the four vertices as shown.

Figure 4.2
(i) Write down an expression for a side of the base of the box.
(ii) Write down and simplify an expression for the area of the base
of the box.
(iii) Write down and simplify an expression for the total surface area
of the open box.
(iv) Should the material from which the box is made be water
resistant, how much water, in litres, can the box hold to its full
capacity?

81
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 82

1.
(a) 36a  33

(b) 4 x 2  3x

 (c)  5n3  18n 2  25n  6

(d ) x2 y  3xy  5x
Feedback
2.
(a) x 2  2 xy  y 2
(b) x3  x 2 y  xy 2  y 3
(c) a3  a 2b  14a 2  14ab  49a  49b
(d ) a 2  b2  2bc  c 2

3.
(i) 18  2 x
(ii) (18  2 x) (18  2 x)  324  72 x  4 x 2
(iii) Area of one side = (18  2 x) x  18 x  2 x 2
Area of all five sides = 4(18 x  2 x 2 )  324  72 x  4 x 2
 (4 x 2  324)cm2

(iv) Volume  (18  2 x) (18  2 x) xcm 2

 (324 x  72 x 2  4 x3 )ml
1
 (324 x  72 x 2  4 x3 )l
1000

3. Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions

We recall that a number p is a factor of another number q if p can
divide q without a remainder. Similarly, an expression p(x) is a factor of
another expression q(x) if p(x) can divide q(x) without any remainder.

Look at the following two illustrations:

2  3  6 . This means that both 2 and 3 are factors of 6
In the previous section we expanded expressions such as x(3x  1) to
give 3x  x. The reverse of this process is called factorising.
2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

In expression 4 xy  2 xz , the HCF of the coefficients is 2 and the

common variable is x , therefore we can factor out 2 x . Now from the
4 xy 2 xz
term 4 xy if 2 x is a factor then  2 y and z
2x 2x
then 4 xy  2 xz can be factorised as 2 x(2 y  z )

In expression 12ax  18x  42bx the HCF of the coefficients is 6 and

2

the common variable is x therefore we can factor out 6 x . Now from

the term 12ax , if 6 x is a factor then
12ax 18 x 2 42bx
 2a and from  3x and  7b
6x 6x 6x
Thus, 12ax  18x  42bx can be factorised as 6 x(2a  3x  7b)
2

( x  2)( x  6)  x 2  4 x  12, thus ( x  2) and  x  6  are factors of

x 2  4 x  12.

3.1 Factorisation Methods

3.1.1 Factorisation by HCF method
To factorise linear expressions, you should do the following:
 identify the HCF of the coefficients
 identify any variable(s) which is in common

To factorise the expression 12ax  18x  42bx , we see that the H.C.F
2

of 12, 18 and 42 is 6. Also the letter x is common to all the terms of the
expression. We therefore “factor out” 6x . Now from the term 12ax , if
6x is factored out, what is left is 12 xa  6 x  2a . Similarly, from
12  2 , if 6x is factored out, what is left is 18x2  6 x  3x , and 6x
factored out from 42bx will leave 7b .

Thus 12 xa  18x2  24 xb  6 x(2a  3x  7b)

Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Factorise the following expressions completely:
(a) 49  21a

(b) 81x2  12bx

(c) abcd  acd  bcd
(d ) 25 f 2 g 3  15 f 2 g 2  10 f 3 g 2

SOLUTIONS
(a) 49  21a  7(7  3a) (7 is a common factor of 49 and 21)
(b) 81x 12bx  3x(27  4b) (3x is a common factor)

83
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 84

(c) abcd  acd  bcd  cd (ab  a  b) (cd is a common factor)

(d ) 25 f 2 g 3  15 f 2 g 2  10 f 3 g 2  5 f 2 g 2 (5g  3  2 f ) (ref.: indices)

3.1.2 Factorisation by Grouping

In some other cases, factorisation has to be done by grouping. For
instance, to factorise the expression abxy  cdxy  abz  cdz , we look
at the terms and recognise that xy is common to two terms and z is
common to the other two terms. The grouping can then be done as
(abxy  cdxy)  ( abz  cdz).
This can be factorised into xy(ab  cd )  z (ab  cd ). Now looking at
these two latest terms, we see that " ab  cd " is common. The
factorisation is therefore completed as (ab  cd ) ( xy  z ).
One can always check the accuracy of the factorisation by expanding
the brackets of the factorised form. If the expression that was
factorised is obtained in the checking, then things have been done
correctly.

EXAMPLES
Factorise the following expressions completely. Check the accuracy of
your work:
(a) 2abcd  cdx  2aby  xy
(b) ax  ay  bx  by
(c) x2  2 xy  5x  10 y
(d ) 3adx  bcx  bdx  3acx

SOLUTIONS
(a) 2abcd  cdx  2aby  xy
 (2abcd  2aby)  (cdx  xy) (grouping terms)
 2ab(cd  y )  x(cd  y ) (factorise the groups)
 (cd  y )(2ab  x) (factorising last expression)
Check: (cd  y )(2ab  x)  cd (2ab  x)  y (2ab  x)
 2abcd  cdx  2aby  xy which is the given expression

(b) ax  ay  bx  by  (ax  ay )  (bx  by )

 a ( x  y )  b( x  y )
 (a  b)( x  y )
check : ( x  y )(a  b)  x(a  b)  y (a  b)
 ax  bx  ay  by
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(c) x 2  2 xy  5 x  10 y  ( x 2  5 x)  (2 xy  10 y )
 x ( x  5)  2 y ( x  5)
 ( x  5)( x  2 y )
You should check to see that this factorization is indeed correct.

(d ) 3adx  bcx  bdx  3acx  (3adx  bdx)  (3acx  bcx)

 dx(3a  b)  cx(3a  b)
 ( dx  cx)(3a  b)
 x( d  c)(3a  b)

3.1.3 Factorising Quadratic Trinomials

A quadratic expression in one variable x, is an expression of the form
ax2  bx  c , where (a  0), b, and c are numbers (or constants). The
following are examples of quadratic expressions in the variable x:

2 x2  x  4; x2  3x  6;  x2  2 x  1; 4 x2  6 etc.
Sometimes it is not immediately noticeable that an expression is of the
form ax  bx  c . For instance, the expression 2 x  x  x  4  2 x
2 2 2

can only be recognised as a quadratic expression after it has been

simplified to 3x  3x  4 . In this case, a = 3; b = -3; c = 4.
2

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
In each of the following expressions, identify a, b, and c:

(a) 2 x  3  x 2
(b) 4 x  3x2  x  x2  2
(c) 5x  x 2  2 x  x 2
(d ) x 2  4

SOLUTION

(a) 2 x  3  x 2   x 2  2 x  3
 a  1; b  2; c  3

(b) 4 x  3x 2  x  x 2  2  2 x 2  5 x  2
 a  2; b  5; c  2

(c ) 5 x  x 2  2 x  x 2  2 x 2  3 x
 a  2; b  3; c  0

85
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 86

(d ) x 2  4  x 2  0 x  4
 a  1; b  0; c  4

Factorising quadratic expressions can be very interesting. If you tried

but failed, then try again. It is a hide-and-seek game! However, there
are guidelines to help us with the factorising of quadratic expressions.

Given an expression of the form ax  bx  c to factorise, for example

2

x2  5x  6

Factorise ax2 , e.g. x2  x  x

Put these in two brackets as  x  x 

Find two numbers whose product is c but thesum is b e.g

find  2and  3so that  2 3  6 but  2    3  5.

Fix these in two brackets as  x  2   x  3 .

However, in most cases a  1. In that case, use a multiplication table
demonstrated as follows:

Given the quadratic expression 2 x  5x  3 to factorise:

2

We have, a  2; b  5; c  3 .

Step 1: multiply ac  2  3  6
Step 2: We need to find factors of 6 that, when added together, will
give 5 (b coefficient) The factors of 6 are: 1 and 6; 2 and 3; since we
need factors of negative six, then one of these factors should be
negative and the other one should be positive. The wise choice is to
have negative six (-6) and positive one (+1), which will give us negative
five as required (-6+1=-5).
Step 3 : Draw a two row by two column box or Grid. Insert the first term
in the first square and the second term in the last square together with
the signs, i.e.

2x 2

3

Step 4: Enter the factors of –6 complete with sign and variable (in this
case the variable is x) in the same grid. It doesn’t matter which way
you enter the factors of –6 into the remaining grids, e.g.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2x 2 6x

x 3

Step 5: To find the factors of the equation 2 x  5 x  3, factorise the

2

terms in the grid as a group in rows and columns and write the factors
next to that row, i.e.

First row

2x is a factor for both. 2 x2 and  6 x

2x 2 6x
2x
x 3

Second row

1 is the only factor between x and  3 .

2x 2 6x
1
x 3

First column
2
x is a common factor between 2 x and x

2x 2 6x

x 3

87
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 88

Second column
3 is the common factor between  6 x and  3.

2x 2 6x

x 3

The complete factorisation and grid are shown below

x 3

2x 2 6x
2x
x 3
1

Therefore the factorised quadratic equation is:

2 x2  5x  3  ( x  3)(2 x  1)
You can check your solution by expanding the two factors in brackets:

( x  3)(2 x  1)  2 x2  x  6 x  3  2 x 2  5x  3 .
Look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Factorise each of the following quadratic expressions:

(a) x2  9 x  18
(b) 2 x2  5x  3
(c) 2 x2  5x  12

SOLUTIONS

(a) Given the quadratic expression x  9 x  18 to factorise,

2

we have, a  1; b  9; c  18 .

Step 1 : multiply ac  118  18

Step 2: We need to find factors of 18 that, when added together, will
give 9 (b coefficient). The factors of 18 are 1 and 18 ; 6 and 3 ; 2 and
9, since we need factors of 18, then both of these factors should be
positive.The wise choice is to have 6 and 3 which will give us positive
nine as required (6+3=9).
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Step 3 : Draw a two row by two column box. Insert the first term in the
first square and the second term in the last square together with the
signs, i.e.

x2

18

Step 4 : Enter the factors of 18 complete with sign and variable (in this
case the variable is x) in the same grid. It doesn’t matter which way
you enter the factors of 18 into the remaining grids, e.g.

x2 6x

3x 18

Step 5: To find the factors of the equation x  9 x  18, factorise the

2

terms in the grid as a group in rows and columns and write the factors
next to that row, i.e.

The complete factorisation is shown below.

x 6
x
x2 6x
3 3x 18

Therefore the factorised quadratic equation is:

x2  9 x  18  ( x  3)( x  6)
You can check your solution by expanding the two factors in brackets:

( x  3)( x  6)  x2  3x  6 x  18  x2  9 x  18

(b) Given the quadratic expression 2 x  5 x  3 to factorise,

2

We have, a  2; b  5; c  3 .

Step 1 : multiply ac  2  3  6
Step 2: We need to find factors of 6 that, when added together, will
give 5 (b coefficient) The factors of 6 are 1 and 3 and 2. Since we need
factors of 6, then both of these factors should be positive.The wise
choice is to have 2 and 3, which will give us positive five as required
(2+3=5).

89
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 90

Step 3 : Draw a two row by two column box or Grid, Insert the first term
in the first square and the second term in the last square together with
the signs, e.g
2x 2

Step 4: Enter the factors of 6 complete with sign and variable (in this
case the variable is x) in the same grid. It doesn’t matter which way
you enter the factors of 6 into the remaining grids i.e.

2x 2 2x

3x 3

Step 5 : To find the factors of the equation 2 x  5 x  3, factorise the

2

terms in the grid as a group in rows and columns and write the factors
next to that row, i.e.
The complete factorisation is shown below.

x 1
2x
2x 2 2x

3 3x 3

Therefore the factorised quadratic equation is:

2 x2  5x  3  ( x  1)(2 x  3)
You can check your solution by expanding the two factors in brackets:

( x  1)(2 x  3)  2 x2  3x  2 x  3  2 x2  5x  3

(c) Given the quadratic expression 2 x  5x  12 to factorise,

2

We have , a  2; b  5; c  12 .

Step 1: multiply ac  2  (12)  24

Step 2: We need to find factors of 24 that, when added together, will
give 5 (b coefficient) The factors of -24 are 4 and 6; 3 and 8; 12 and 2,
1 and 24; since we need factors of -24, then one of the factors should
be negative and the other one should be positive. The wise choice is to
have -3 and 8 which will give us positive 5 as required (-3+8=5).
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Step 3: Draw a two row by two column box or Grid. Insert the first term
in the first square and the second term in the last square together with
the signs, i.e.

2x 2

12

Step 4 : Enter the factors of -24 complete with sign and variable (in this
case the variable is x) in the same grid. It doesn’t matter which way
you enter the factors of -24 into the remaining grids, e.g

2x 2 8x

3x 12

Step 5: To find the factors of the equation 2 x  5 x  12, factorise

2

the terms in the grid as a group in rows and columns and write the
factors next to that row, i.e.
The complete factorisation is shown below:

x 4
2x
2x 2 8x
3 3x 12

Therefore the factorised quadratic equation is:

2 x2  5x  12  (2 x  3)( x  4)
You can check your solution by expanding the two factors in brackets;

(2 x  3)( x  4)  2 x2  8x  3x  12  2 x 2  5x  12

3.1.4 Factoring Difference of Two Perfect Squares

You may remember seeing expressions like this one:
(a  b) (a  b)  a 2  b2 , when you worked with multiplying algebraic
expressions.

The expression a  b is called a difference of two squares. Take a

2 2

note of the subtraction sign between the terms.

Do not get confused with expression like
( x  6)2 , which gives  x  6  x  6  when wefactorise . These are
called Perfect Square Trinomials.

91
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 92

REMEMBER: An algebraic term is a perfect square when the

numerical coefficient (the number in front of the variable) is a
perfect square and the exponents of each of the variables are
even numbers.

Let’s look at factor x  16 .

2

2
Both x and 16 are perfect sqares. Since subtraction occurrs between
these squares, this expression is the difference of two squares.
2
Ask yourself, what times itself gives x ? The answer is x . Again, what
times itself gives 16? The answer is 4.
Therefore the factors are ( x  4) ( x  4) or ( x  4) ( x  4) (order is
not important).
Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Factorise the following:

1. p 2  64
2. 121  y 2
3. x 2  36 y 2
SOLUTIONS

1. p 2  64
 p 2  82
  p  8  p  8
2. 121  y 2
 112  y 2
 11  y  11  y 
3. x 2  36 y 2
 x2   6 y 
2

  x  6 y  x  6 y 
Sometimes we need to consider more than one method when we
factorise. Let’s also look at the following two examples:
EXAMPLES
Factorise:

1. 5a 2  45
2. 63  7 x 2
SOLUTIONS
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1. 5a 2  45
 5(a 2  9) (common factor  5)
 5  a 2  32  (differenceof twosquares)
 5  a  3 a  3

2. 63  7 x 2
 7(9  x 2 ) (common factor  7)
 7  32  3 x  (differenceof twosquares)
  3  x  3  x 
In summary, let’s look at the four forms of multiplying/factoring that
characterise algebra.
1. Common factor: 2(a  b)  2a  2b

2. Quadratic Trinomial: ( x  5) ( x  4)  x2  9 x  20
3. Perfect Square Trinomial: ( x  9)2  x2  18x  81
4. The Difference of Two Squares: ( x  7)( x  7)  x 2  49

93
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 94

Activity 3

 Time Required: About 30 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problem yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Factorise each of the following:
(a) 2a  4ax  6ab
How long? (b) 27 x  9 y  12 z
(c) pq 2  2 pq  3 p 2 q
(d ) 4ax  2bx  11ab
2. Factorise each of the following by grouping:
(a) 6ax  4ay  3bx  2by
(b) 3x2  3bx  ax  ab
(c) 6b  6c  2ab  2ac
(d ) bh  byz  axh  axyz
3. Factorise each of the following quadratic expressions:

(a) x 2  9 x  8
(b) x 2  4 x  5
(c) x 2  4 x  5
(d ) 2 x 2  11x  6
(e) 3x2  13x  4
( f ) 6 x2  7 x  2
( g ) 4 x2  4 x  3
(h) x 2  4
(i) x 2  2 x  1
( j) x2  2 x  1
(k ) 1  4 z 2
(l ) z 8  p10
( m) z 2 n  9
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1.

 (a) 2a(1  2 x  3b)

(b) 3(9 x  3 y  4 z)
Feedback (c) pq(q  2  3 p)
(d ) 4ax  2bx  11ab
2.

(a)  2a  b  3x  2 y 

(b)  3x  a  x  b 

(c)  2a  6  b  c 

(d )  b  ax  h  yz 

3.
(a)  x  1 x  8  (b)  x  5  x  1
(c)  x  5  x  1 (d )  2 x  1 x  6 
(e)  3x  1 x  4  ( f )  3x  2  2 x  1
( g )  2 x  3 2 x  1 ( h)  x  2  x  2 
(i )  x  1 x  1 ( j )  x  1 x  1
(k ) (1  2 z ) (1  2 z ) (l )  z 4  p 5  z 4  p 5 
(m)  x n  3 x n  3

Mathsteacher.com Pty Ltd.(2000-2011).Year 10 Interactive Maths-

Second Edition. The Difference of Two Squares.
http://www.mathsteacher.com.au/year10/ch10-
factorisation/03_dots/do...
References
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Spector, L.(2001-2011). The Difference of Two Squares.
http://www.themathpage.com/alg/difference-two-squares.htm

95
Unit 4 Algebraic Expressions 96

Coefficient: In an expression (or Polynomial) such as

 an xn  an1 xn1  .......  a1 x  a0 , where

an , an 1 ,...., a1 , a0 are real numbers,
the numbers an , an 1 ,..., a1 are called
Keywords/concepts
coefficients.

Expansion: The process of multiplying out factors or two

expressions in brackets, i.e. expanding
(a  c)(b  e)  ab  ae  cb  ce

Factorization: The opposite of expansion, that’s when given an

equation or expressions, one can write the same
expression as the product of two factors or
expressions.

Like Terms: 2 x and 3x are like terms, because they have the
same variable with the same power parts, in
other words two x 's and three x ' s . Combining or
putting them together,one gets five x 's .

Unlike Terms: 3 x and 4 are unlike terms, because the

second term has no variable.
2 x 2 and 2 x are unlike terms
because of the same variable with
different powers.
6x and -4y are also unlike terms, as
they have different variables.
Unlike terms cannot be combined

Variable: An unknown term that is usually represented by a

letter of the alphabet, especially x or y. In
statistics a variable is a quantity that takes
different numerical values as a result of an
experiment.

Quadratic An expression of the form

Expressions: ax 2  bx  c and a  0, b and c
are real numbers.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit summary
In this unit you learned how algebraic expressions represent

 relationships between two or more terms. Basics of manipulating

algebraic expressions are expansion and factorisation.
Key points to remember are:
Summary  Terms, unlike and like terms, coefficients and constants. Like
terms can be combined by addition or subtraction.
 When expanding or multiplying two algebraic expressions,
multiply each term in the first expression with the ones in the
second expression, e.g.
 a  b  a  b   a2  ab  ba  b2  a2  b2
 Factorisation is done by HCF method, grouping, or by methods
of trial and error.

97
Unit 5 Linear Equations 98

Unit 5

Linear Equations
Introduction
An equation is simply an algebraic expression with an equality (equal)
sign involved. Linear equations are some of simplest equations that you
will deal with in this course. We call them linear equations, because the
highest power of the variable is one. For example 3x  4  7 is linear,
because the highest power in the variable x is 1.
The basic idea here is that we have an equation that is balanced on
both sides. Picture a scale in your head with the same values on each
side, and you have a basic understanding of algebra.

Notice how there is a six on each side, and so they are equal and the
scale is balanced. That is your first equation! You've probably realised
too that we can perform operations on each side of the equation
(scale). Writing 4+2 on one side and 3+3 on the other will keep the
scale balanced still, right?

Of course, you don't have to use addition. Any of the other arithmetic
operations, like subtraction, multiplication, or division will work, so
long as each side is equal to the other.

This unit is a prerequisite to numerous concepts in Quantitative

Methods II, especially to Systems of Linear Equations.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


solve linear equations in one variable
solve simultaneous linear equations in two variables
construct simple linear equations from word problems
Objectives
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Linear Equations (In One Variable)

A linear equation has the general form
bx + c = 0 , provided b  0.
c
This linear equation has the solution x   . We can check this
b
c
solution by substituting  for x in the equation as follows:
b
b( bc )  c  0
 c  c  0
00
which is indeed true.
Some of you may remember back in primary school how you would be
asked to fill in the missing number in sums such as
4  5 or 7   3.
I think even before I give you the answers you have already guessed
that the missing numbers are 1 and 4 respectively. These forms of sums
have just been modified. With this I mean that instead of empty boxes,
we now use letters of the alphabet, especially x . The two sums can
now be written as 4  x  5 or 7  x  3 and now you are asked to
solve the linear equation or find the value of x, which will make the
equation true.
However, linear equations can be in some form that is not easily
recognisable. But the highest power of x must be 1.
To solve a linear equation, one or more of the following operations can
be performed:
 add (or subtract) any number to (or from) both sides of the
equation. This is called collecting like terms.
 multiply (or divide) both sides of the equation by the same
number.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Solve the following linear equations:

99
Unit 5 Linear Equations 100

(a) 4 x  7  13
(b) 3 x  4  2 x  1
x5
(c )  5x
4
a
(d ) 7   a  6
3
2 y 1 y  7
( e)  6
3 4
( f ) 4  5(2 x  3)  8(3  x)

SOLUTIONS
(a) 4 x  7  13
4 x  7  7  13  7 (adding 7 on both sides)
4 x  20 (dividing both sides by 4, we get the next line)
x5
(b) 3x  4  2 x 1
3x  2 x  1  4 (collecting like terms)
x  5
x5
 5x
(c) 4

x5
4  5 x  4 (multiplying both sides by 4)
4
x  5  20 x
x  20 x  5 (collecting like terms, we get the next line)
19 x  5 (dividing both sides by  19, we get the next line)
5
x
19

a
(d ) 7   a6
3
a
3  7   3  (a  6)  3 (multiplying each term by 3)
3
21  a  3a  18
a  3a  18  21 (collecting like terms)
 2a  39 (dividing both sides by  2, we get the next line)
39 1
a  19
2 2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2 y 1 y  7
( e)  6
3 4
2 y 1 y 7
12   12   6 12 (multiplying each term by 12)
3 4
4(2 y  1)  3( y  7)  72 (expanding)
8 y  4  3 y  21  72
11y  72  21  4 (collecting like terms)
11y  89 (dividing both sides by 11)
89 1
y 8
11 11

( f ) 4  5(2 x  3)  8(3  x)
4  10 x  15  24  8 x  expansion 
10 x  8 x  24  15  4  collecting and combining like terms 
18 x  5 (dividing both sides by 18)
5
x
18

Let’s also look at some problems solved by linear equations.

EXAMPLES

1. I am 41 years old and my son is 5 years old. After x years, my son’s

age will be half my age. What is the value of x?

SOLUTION
After x years, my age will be 41 + x and my son’s age will be 5 + x.

1
At that time, 5  x  (41  x) . This is the equation to be solved.
2
1
5 x  (41  x)
2
1
 2  (5  x)  2  (41  x) (multiplying both sides by 2)
2
10  2 x  41  x
 x  31
This means after 31 years, my son’s age will be half my age.
2. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 42. Find the three
consecutive numbers.
SOLUTION
Let the first of the consecutive numbers be x. Then the other numbers
will be (x+1) and (x+2) respectively. (Note that consecutive numbers

101
Unit 5 Linear Equations 102

are numbers that follow each other. Examples are 2; 3; 4 or 14; 15; 16;
17 or 6; 7 etc.)
The sum of these numbers is x + (x + 1)+(x + 2) which is given as 42.
Hence
x  ( x  1)  ( x  2)  42
x  x  1  x  2  42
x  x  x  42  2  1
3x  39
 x  13
Hence the consecutive numbers are 13; 13 + 1; 13 + 2. That is 13, 14
and 15.
3. In 1984, a downtown shop increased the cost of a pen by 14 cents.
Three years later, the cost of a pen was doubled. We have just learnt
that the price has again increased by 16 cents. The present cost is
N$1.80. How much did the pen cost before the 1984 increase?
SOLUTION
Let the cost of a pen before the 1984 increase be x cents
Therefore the cost after the 1984 increase is (x + 14).
Cost in 1987 is 2(x + 14) cents.
Present cost will be 2(x + 14) + 16, which is given as 180, all in cents.
2(x + 14) + 16 = 180
2x + 28 + 16 = 180
2x = 136
x = 68
Hence the cost of a pen before the 1984 increase was 68 cents.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 30 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but do not look at them until you have considered
Activity the problem yourself. This will help you to prepare for the assignments.
1. Solve the following linear equations:
(a) 9 x  4  5x 12
(b) 5(1  2t )  5(t  2)  5
How long? a 3 a  4
(c )   28
3 4
e5 5 5e
(d )  
6 12 4
3(n  1) 2(3  n)
(e) 3 
4 5
1 2
( f ) ( x  1)  2 x  ( x  2)
2 3

2. You have a sum of money. Two hundred dollars has just been added
to it. What you now have is four hundred dollars more than half of what
you originally had. How much did you originally have?
3. John has N$6000 to invest. He invests part of it at 5% and the rest at
8%. How much should be invested at each rate to yield 6% on the total
amount?
4. A retailer incurs a fixed cost of N$330 when purchasing sugar for his
stock. He pays N$15 per packet, which he resells at N$18 per packet.
How many packets should he purchase and sell in order to break even?
5. The sum of four consecutive numbers is 20 more than the sum of the
second and the fourth numbers. Find the consecutive numbers.
6. The product of two consecutive even numbers is 12 more than the
square of the smaller number. Find the consecutive numbers.

103
Unit 5 Linear Equations 104

(a) x  4


1.

(b) t  0
(c) a  48
Feedback (d ) e  2
(e) n  3
( f ) x 1
2. 400 dollars
3. N $4000 at 5% and N $2000 at 8%
4. 110 packets
5. 9, 10, 11 and 12
6. 6 and 8

2. Simultaneous Linear Equations

So far we have seen and learned how to solve for a single variable in a
single linear equation. Suppose we wish to solve for two variables
appearing in a single linear equation: x + y = 6. We find that x = 1 and y
= 5 will satisfy the equation. Other pairs of x and y that satisfy the
equation are x = 2 and y = 4; x = 3 and y = 3; x = 0 and y = 6; etc. We
are therefore unable to say which pair is the right one for the equation.
To be able to make the right choice and to have a unique solution, we
need additional information in the form of a second equation. Thus we
need two equations to solve for two variables. These equations are
called simultaneous linear equations.
Let us reconsider the equation x + y = 6 with the additional information
x – y = 2. Then the only pair that will satisfy these equations
simultaneously will be x = 4 and y = 2.
We shall now go through the easy process of solving simultaneous linear
equations. The method we shall employ is the elimination method. This
method involves eliminating one variable so that the other variable can
be solved for.
A re-substitution normally yields the value of the eliminated variable.
Details of this method are outlined in the first two examples that
follow.

EXAMPLES
1. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous linear equations:
(a) 2x – y = 5 (b) 3x + 2y = -1
x+y=4 2x + 5y = 3
(c) 8m = 4n – 40 (d) 21 + 3b = 8a
2m = 3n – 18 7a – 49 = 7b

SOLUTIONS
(a) 2x – y = 5 ….. (eq.1)
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

x+y=4 ….. (eq.2)

We observe that the coefficients of y in both equations are equal but
opposite in sign. Thus addition will eliminate the variable y.
Adding (eq. 1) and (eq.2), we get:
2x – y = 5
x+y=4+
3x + 0y = 9
Therefore 3x = 9
Hence x = 3.
We can now substitute x = 3 in either (eq.1) or (eq.2). (Both of them
will give the same answer.)
Substituting x = 3 in (eq.1)
2(3) – y = 5
6– y = 5
y=1
Hence the solution is x = 3 and y = 1.

(b) 3x + 2y = -1 ….. (eq.1)

2x + 5y = 3 ….. (eq.2)
We observe that the coefficients of x are different in the two equations
and that those of y are also different. We can choose to balance any of
the coefficients, say those of x. We have to multiply (eq.1) by 2 and
multiply (eq.2) by 3 so that the coefficients of x will be the same in
both equations. The next step will be to subtract one equation from the
other to eliminate x.
2  (eq.1)  6x  4y  -2 ..... (eq.3)
3  (eq.2)  6x  15y  9 . .... (eq.4)
Subtracting (eq.4) from (eq.3):
6x + 4y = -2
6x + 15y= 9
0x – 11y = -11
Therefore –11y = -11
Hence y=1
Substituting y = 1 in (eq.1),
3x + 2(1) = -1
3x + 2 = -1
3x = -3
x = -1
Hence the solution is x = -1 and y = 1.

(c) 8m = 4n – 40 ….. (eq.1)

105
Unit 5 Linear Equations 106

2m = 3n – 18 ….. (eq.2)
We may rearrange the equations as follows:

(eq.1)  8m – 4n = -40

(eq.2)  2m – 3n = -18
Therefore (eq.1) – 4  (eq.2) will be
8m – 4n = -40
8m – 12n = -72
8n = 32
Therefore n = 4.
Substituting n = 4 in (eq.1),
8m = 4(4) – 40
8m = 16 – 40
m = -3
Hence the solution is m = -3 and n = 4.

(d) 21 + 3b = 8a ….. (eq.1)

7a – 49 = 7b ….. (eq.2)

(eq.1)  3b – 8a = -21

(eq.2)  -7b + 7a = 49
7  (eq.1)  3  (eq.2) will give
21b – 56a = -147
-21b + 21a = 147 +
35a = 0
Therefore a = 0
Substituting a = 0 in (eq.1), we have
21 + 3b = 8(0)
3b = -21
b = -7
Hence the solution is a = 0 and b = -7.

Let’s consider word problems solved by simultaneous linear equations.

EXAMPLES
1. Juliana was paid a certain amount out of which she spent part on
furniture and saved the rest. Bianca was paid twice as much as Juliana
but saved three times as much as Juliana did. Bianca spent N$150. Mona
was paid three times as much as Juliana but she saved twice as much as
Juliana did. Mona spent N$250. How much was each one paid and how
much did each one save?
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTIONS
Let the amount Juliana was paid be x in N$ and the amount she spent
be y in N$.
Juliana: got x, spent y saved x – y
Bianca: got 2x, spent 150, saved 3(x – y)
Mona: got 3x, spent 250 saved 2(x – y)
From Bianca, we recon that 2x – 3(x – y) = 150 (eq.1)
From Mona, we recon that 3x – 2(x – y) = 250 (eq.2)

(eq.1)  -x + 3y = 150 ….. (eq.3)

(eq.2)  x + 2y = 250 ….. (eq.4)

Adding (eq.3) and (eq.4) we get
5y = 400
y = 80
Substituting y = 80 in (eq.3), we get
-x + 3(80) = 150
x = 90
Hence Juliana got NS90, spent N$80, saved N$10
Bianca got N$180, spent N$150, savedN$30
Mona got N$270, spent N$250, saved N$20.
2. Mr. Malima receives a bill of N$458,60 for 244 units of electricity
and 315 units of water. Last month, he was billed N$439,22 for 310
units of electricity and 201 units of water. If the unit price for these
commodities did not change, how much would he pay for 312 units of
electricity and 294 units of water?
SOLUTION
Let the unit price for electricity be e in cents and the unit price for
water be w in cents. Then
244e + 315w = 45860 ….. ….. (eq.1)
310e + 201w =43922 ….. (eq.2)
310  (eq.1)  75640e  97650w  14216600........(eq.3)
244  (eq.2)  75640e  49044w  10716968........(eq.4)
(eq.3) – (eq.4)  48606w = 3499632
w = 72

Substituting w= 72 in (eq.1) we get

244e + 315(72) = 45860
244e + 22680 = 35860
244e = 23180
e = 95

107
Unit 5 Linear Equations 108

This means the unit price for electricity is 95 cents and the unit price
for water is 72 cents.
Therefore 312 units of electricity and 294 units of water would cost
312  95  294  72
 29640  21168
 50808 cents
 N $508.08
3. Five years ago, a man was seven times as old as his son. In five years
time, the man will be three times as old as his son. How old are father
and son now?
SOLUTION
Let the father’s present age be x and the son’s present age be y.
Five years ago, the father was x – 5 and the son was y – 5.
At that time, x – 5 = 7(y – 5) ….. (eq.1)
Five years from now, father will be x + 5 and son will be y + 5.
At that time, x + 5 = 3(y + 5) ….. (eq.2)

(eq.1)  x – 7y = -30 ….. (eq.3)

(eq.2)  x – 3y = 10 ….. (eq.4)
(eq.3) – (eq.4)  -4y = -40
Therefore y = 10
Substituting y = 10 in (eq.3), we get x – 7(10) = -30
Therefore x = 40
Hence the father is at present 40 years old and the son is at present 10
years old.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 40 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Solve the following simultaneous linear equations
(a) 2 x  y  3 and 2 x  3 y  23
How long? (b) 4 x  3 y  30 and x  y  4
(c) 7 y  39.2  4 x and x  7 y  18.2
1 1 2y  3 1
(d ) ( x  2)  4 y  3 and x  
2 4 3 3
2. Two kilograms of sugar and five kilograms of maize meal cost N$41.
Three kilograms of sugar and 10 kilograms of maize meal cost N$74.50.
How much does a 12 kilogram bag of maize meal cost?
3. A parking meter takes only one-dollar coins and fifty-cent coins. In
the meter, there are 81 coins with a total value of $65.50. How many of
each coin type are in the meter?
4. A mobile traffic court gave a total of N$25785 fines in 135 cases of
drunk driving and over speeding. A drunk driving fine is N$250 and an
over speeding fine is N$115. How many cases of drunk driving received
a fine?
5. A school has budgeted N$13777.50 for mathematics textbooks and
science textbooks. 75 mathematics textbooks and 80 science textbooks
must be bought. A science textbook costs N$85.50. How much does a
mathematics textbook cost?
6. The equations 5x  5 y  80 and 3x  2 y  44.80 represent the
money collected from school concert tickets sales during two class
periods. If x represents the cost for each adult ticket and y represents
the cost for each student ticket, what is the cost per adult ticket?
7. In three years’ time a pet mouse will be as old as his owner was four
years ago. Their present ages total 13 years. Find the age of each now.
8. During the class period, the number of girls is 10 more than four
times the number of boys. Determine the number of boys in the class if
the total number of students is 100 in the class.

109
Unit 5 Linear Equations 110

1. (a) x = 4; y = 5 (b) x = 6; y = -2

 (c) x = -7; y = 1.6 (d) x = 4; y = 0.5

2. N$5.20 per kg, hence N$62.40 for 12 kg.
3. 50 one-dollar coins and 31 fifty-cent coins
Feedback
4. 76 cases
5. N$92.50

6. N$12.80
7. owner is 10 years and the mouse is 3 yrs.
8. 18 boys

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.

Linear Equation in An equation of the form ax  b  c , given a, b

 One Variable:

Collecting Like
Terms:
and c are real numbers and a  0

A process of adding or subtracting like terms.

Keywords/concepts

Simultaneous A system of equations where you have m linear

Linear Equations : equations in n unknowns. In this course we dealt
only with a system of two equations in two
2 x  4 y  6.......(i)
unknowns i.e.
3x  2 y  5........(ii)

Elimination Method: A method of solving simultaneous linear

equations.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about linear equations in one or two unknown

 (variables). You have learned that to be able to solve linear equations,

you should do the same to both sides of the equations and collect all
the terms in the unknown to one side.
Key points you should remember for this unit are:
Summary
 The general form of a linear equation is ax  b  0.
 To solve an equation means to find the value of the unknown and to
keep the equation balanced in the process of solving it.
 Simultaneous linear equations can be solved by two methods of
substitution and elimination. If the general form of an equation is
not obvious at the beginning, simplify first.
 All the previous concepts discussed such as BEDMAS and fractions
and indices should be maintained when dealing with equations.

111
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 112

Unit 6

Quadratic Equations
Introduction
To add to what was discussed in the previous unit, you may realise that
quadratic equations are also widely used to solve or model many real-
life problems such as finding speed, distance and time of travel and
problems in finance. In this unit I will show you how to solve quadratic
equations and how these humble quadratics make their appearance in
many different and important applications.
This unit is a prerequisite to Quantitative Methods 2.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


solve quadratic equations by factorization
solve quadratic equations by completing the square
solve quadratic equations by using the quadratic formula
Objectives
 use the discriminant to determine the type of solution of a given
quadratic equation

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Discriminant
This unit deals with quadratic equations. A quadratic equation in the
variable x is an expression of the general form ax  bx  c  0
2

where a  0 , b and c are numbers. We insist that ‘a’ should not be

zero. Should it be allowed to be zero, then the equation will
degenerate to 0 x  bx  c  0 . This is the same as bx + c = 0, which is
2

a linear equation.
There are various ways of solving quadratic equations. These will be
discussed in subsequent sections.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

It should be noted that not all quadratic equations can be solved to get
real numbers as the solutions. For those that can be solved to get real
number solutions, some can be solved to get two different real number
solutions while others can be solved to get one real number solution. In
the latter case, we say that the solution is repeated.

The type of solutions that a quadratic equation has depends on its

discriminant. The discriminant of the quadratic equation
ax2  bx  c  0 is given by the expression   b2  4ac.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Find the discriminant of each of the following quadratic equations:

( a) 2 x 2  5 x  3  0
(b) 4 x2  12 x  9  0
(c) 2 x2  x  2  2 x

SOLUTIONS

(a) 2 x  5x  3  0
2

This equation is in standard form. Here a = 2, b = -5, c = -3.

  b 2  4ac
  5   4(2)(3)
2

 25  24
 49

(b) 4 x2  12 x  9  0
This equation is in standard form. Here a = 4, b = 12, c = 9.
  b 2  4ac
 12   4(4)(9)
2

 144  144
0

(c) 2 x2  x  2  2 x
This equation is not in standard form, because it is not of the form
ax2  bx  c  0 . We therefore have to put it in standard form
before we can identify the values of a, b and c.
Now, collecting all terms to the left of the equation, we get

2 x2  x  2  0 . Here, a = 2, b = 1 and c= 2.

113
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 114

  b 2  4ac
 1  4(2)(2)
2

 1  16
 15
In the three examples that you have just seen, it is evident that the
discriminant can be positive, zero or negative.

If   0 , then the equation has two distinct real number

solutions.

If   0 , then the equation has a repeated real number

Note it! /
solution.
Warning
If   0 , then the equation does not have real number
solutions.

1.1 Solution by completion of squares

We shall give a broad outline of how to solve quadratic equations by
completion of squares and follow it up, side by side, with a numerical
equivalence.

Let us solve the equation ax  bx  c  0 side by side with the

2

equation 2 x  5x  2  0 .
2

Operations ax2  bx  c  0 2 x2  5x  2  0

Subtract c from both sides ax2  bx  c 2 x2  5x  2

Divide both sides by a x 2  ba x   ac x  52 x  1

Add
( 2ba ) 2 to both sides x2  ba x  ( 2ba )2   ac  ( 2ba )2 x 2  52 x  16
25
 1 16
25

Factorise LHS:
( x  2ba )2 ( x  2ba )2   ac  ( 2ba )2 ( x  54 )2  1  16
25

Simplify RHS ( x  2ba )2  b 2  4 ac

4a 2
( x  54 )2  169

Take square root x  2ba   b 2  4 ac

4a 2
x  54   34

Collect like terms x   2ba  b 2  4 ac

4a 2
x  54  34
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

53
 b  b 2  4ac x
Simplify RHS x 4
2a  x  84  2 or x  2
4
 1
2

Hence given the quadratic equation ax  bx  c  0 , the solutions are

2

b  b2  4a b  
x . This is the same as x  .
2a 2a
Thus when   0 , the values of x are obtained by first using the ‘+’
operator and then using the ‘ - ’ operator in the ‘  ’. This will yield
two distinct solutions.

b
When  = 0, then x   which is the only (or repeated) solution.
2a
If  < 0, then there is no real number solution, because negative
numbers do not have real roots. Note that 9 is neither 3 nor –3,
because 3  9 and (3)  9 .
2 2

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. In each of the following cases, determine the type of solutions of
the quadratic equations and then solve the equations by completing
the squares.

(a) 3x  4 x  1  0 (b) x  4 x  4  0
2 2

(c) 2 x  4  2  x (d) 2 x  4  x  2
2 2

SOLUTIONS

(a) 3x2  4 x  1  0 a = 3; b = -4; c = 1

   4   4(3)(1)
2

 16  12
4
Since   0 , the equation has two distinct real number solutions.
Now we solve for x:

3x 2  4 x  1  0
3x2  4 x  1 (transferring c to RHS)

4 1
x2  x  
3 3 (dividing by a)
2
4 16 1 16  a 
x2  x    (adding   to both sides)
3 36 3 36  2b 

115
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 116

4 4
( x  )2 
6 36 (factorising LHS and adding RHS)

4 2
x 
6 6 (taking square root of both sides)

4 2
x  
6 6
4 2
If  , then x   1
6 6
4 2 1
If , then x   
6 6 3
1
x  1 and x 
3

(b) x2  4 x  4  0 a = 1; b = 4; c = 4

   42  4(1)(4)
= 16 – 16 = 0

Since   0 , there is only one (repeated) real number solution.

We now solve for that solution:

x2  4 x  4  0
x2  4 x  4 (transferring c to RHS)

x2  4 x  4  4  4 (adding
( 2ba ) 2 to both sides)

x2  4 x  4  0
( x  42 )2  0
2
 4
 x    0 (factorising LHS)
 2
4
 x+  0 or x  2  0
2
 x  2
This is the only solution and it is said to be a repeated solution.

(c) 2 x  4  2  x is not in standard form.

2

This has to be rearranged in standard form as follows:

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2 x2  4  2  x
2x  x  4  2  0
2 x2  x  2  0 . This is now in standard form.
 = (-1)2 – 4(2)(2) = 1 – 16 = -15.
Since the discriminant is negative, the equation has no real number
solution.

(d) 2 x  4  x  2
2

Rearranging we have

2 x2  x  2  0
a = 2; b = -1; c = -2
  = (-1)2 – 4(2)(-2) = 17
Since   0 , the equation has two distinct real number solutions.
To solve for x:

2 x2  x  2  0
x 2  12 x  2
2

x 2  12 x  161  1 161

( x  14 )2  1  161

( x  14 )2  17
16

x  14   17
16

x  14  17
16

1 17
If , then x    1.28 (correct to 2 decimal places)
4 16
1 17
If , then x    0.78 (correct to 2 decimal places)
4 16

1.2 Solution by quadratic formula

Solve the quadratic equations in example 1 above by using the formula.
SOLUTION

(a) 3x 2  4 x  1  0
a = 3; b = -4; c = 1

117
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 118

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 (4)  (4) 2  4(3)(1)

2(3)
4  16  12

6
4 4

6
42

6
42
If , then x  1
6
42 1
If , then x  
6 3
1
x  1 and x 
The solutions are 3.

(b) x2  4 x  4  0
a = 1; b = 4; c = 4

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 (4)  42  4(1)(4)

2(1)
40
  2
2
Thus the solution x = -2 (repeated)

(c) 2 x2  4  2  x
Rearranging into standard form, 2 x  x  2  0 a = 2; b = -1; c = 2
2

 (1)  (1) 2  4(2)(2)

x
2(2)
1   15

4
But there is no real number such as 15 . Hence the equation has no
real number solution.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(d) 2 x2  4  x  2

Rearranging into standard form, 2 x  x  2  0

2

a = 2; b = -1; c = -2

 (1)  (1) 2  4(2)(2)

x
2(2)
1  17

4
1 17
If , then x    1.28 (correct to 2 decimal places)
4 16
1 17
If , then x    0.78 (correct to 2 decimal places)
4 16
The solutions are x  1.28; x  0.78 x correct to 2 decimal
places.

2. Solve the following equations:

14 x 15
(a)   6 by completing the squares.
x3 x4
2 x
(b)   5 using the formula.
x x 1

SOLUTIONS

14 x 15
(a)  6
x3 x4

Multiplying both sides by (x+3)(x+4), we get

14 x 15
( x  3) ( x  4)   ( x  3) ( x  4)  ( x  3) ( x  4)  6
x3 x4
( x  4)14 x  ( x  3)15  ( x  3) ( x  4)  6
14 x 2  56 x  15 x  45  6 x 2  42 x  72
8 x 2  29 x  27  0
This is the standard equation to be solved.

119
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 120

29 27
 x2  x 
8 8
29 29 27 29 2
 x2  x  ( )2  ( )
8 16 8 16
29 2 27 29 2
 (x  )  ( )
16 8 16
29 1705
 ( x  )2 
16 256
29 1705
 x 
16 256
29 1705
 x  
16 256

29 1705
If , then x     0.77 (correct to 2 decimal places).
16 256
29 1705
If , then x     4.39 (correct to 2 decimal places).
16 256
Therefore the solutions are x  0.77 ; x  4.39 correct to 2 decimal
places.

2 x
(b)  5
x x 1
Multiplying both sides by x(x-1), we get:

2 x
x( x  1)   x( x  1)   x( x  1)  5
x x 1
( x  1)  2  x  x  x( x  1)  5
2 x  2  x2  5x2  5x
4 x 2  7 x  2  0
a  4; b  7; c   2

Using the formula, we have:

 (7)  7 2  4(4)(2)
x 
2(4)
 7  17

8
7  17
If , then x   0.36 (correct to 2 decimal places).
8
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

7  17
If , then x   1.39 (correct to 2 decimal places).
8

The solutions are x  0.36; x  1.39 correct to 2 decimal places.

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 40 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Find the types of solutions of, and solve the following quadratic
equations by completing the squares:
How long?
(a) x 2  4 x  3  0 (b) 3x 2  4  2 x 2  9 x  14
1 2 1
(c ) 3 x  1  8  4 x 2 (d ) x  x 1
2 2
2. Solve the following quadratic equations using the formula:

(a) 4  5 x  3 x 2  0 (b) 3 p 2  6 p  2 p  4
1 2 x5 1 1
(c )   (d ) x 2  x  x 2  1
x x 2 2 2

3. If the hypotenuse H of a right-angled triangle is given by the formula

H 2  opp2  adj 2 . If H  x  5; opp  x  4 and adj  x, then find

the value of x.

121
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 122

1. (a) Two distinct solutions:  1 and  3

 (b) Two distinct solutions:  6 and  3

(c) Two distinct solutions: 1 and

7
4
Feedback
(d ) Two distinct solutions: 1 and  2
2. (a) 2.26 and  0.59
2
(b) and  2
3
(c) 1 and  6
(d ) 1 and  2
3. x  4.16 or x  2.16. But the length of a triangle
cannot be negative, hence x=4.16.

1.3 Solution by factorization

In section 4.3.2, we studied how to factorise quadratic expressions. In
addition to what we have studied, we need one more concept to enable
us find the solutions of a quadratic equation by factorisation.
Remember the fact that: If a and b are two numbers whose product is
zero, then at least one of a and b must be zero.

If we put this mathematically, if a  b  0 , then either a = 0 or b = 0.

Both could be zero as well.
Hence if x(x – 1) = 0, then x = 0 or x – 1 = 0. That is x = 0 or x = 1.
In general, if (x + a)(x + b)(x – c)(x – d) =0, then (x + a) = 0
or (x + b) = 0 or (x – c) = 0 or (x – d) = 0. That is x = -a or x = -b or
x = c or x = d.
Please note that there are a number of quadratic equations that cannot
be solved easily by factorisation. Question 3 of the following examples
is just one of them.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES

1. Solve the following quadratic equations by factorization:

(a) x2  6 x  0 (b) x2  x  12

(c) h2  2h  1  9 (d) 3 x 2  4  2 x  x 2  3x  1

SOLUTIONS
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(a) x 2  6 x  0
x( x  6)  0
Therefore x  0 or ( x  6)  0
That is either x  0 or x  6

(b) x 2  x  12
x 2  x  12  0
( x  4)( x  3)  0
Therefore either ( x  4)  0 or ( x  3)  0
That is x  4 or x  3.

(c ) h 2  2h  1  9
h 2  2h  8  0
(h  2)(h  4)  0
Therefore either h  2  0 or h  4  0
Therefore the solutions are: h  2 or h  4.

(d ) 3x 2  4  2 x  x 2  3x  1
3x 2  x 2  2 x  3x  4  1  0 (collecting like terms and simplifying)
2 x 2  5 x  3  0 (factorising leads to)
(2 x  1)( x  2)  0
Therefore 2 x  1  0 or x  2  0
1
The solutions are x  ; x2
2

2. The height of a triangle is 5cm shorter than the base. The area of
2
the triangle is 25cm . Find the height and the base of the triangle.

SOLUTION
Let the base of the triangle be x cm. Then the height will be (x – 5) cm.

1
Area of the triangle is base  height
2
1
 x( x  5)  25
2

123
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 124

x( x  5)  50
x 2  5 x  50  0
( x  10)( x  5)  0
 x  10  0 or x  5  0
 x  10; x  5
But the base of a triangle cannot be negative (i.e. there is no negative
distance or length)
Hence the base is 10cm.
The height is 10 – 5 = 5cm.

3. The demand equation of a commodity is given as

250
demand  ; price in N$.
price
The supply equation of the same commodity is given as
supply =900  price 1200: price in N $.

At what price will demand and supply be equal?

SOLUTION
Let demand be d, supply be s and price be p.

250
d  . ..... (eq.1)
p
and s  900 p  1200 ...... (eq.2)
If demand and supply are equal, then
d s
250
  900 p  1200
p
250
 p  p  900 p  p  1200 (multiplying by p)
p
 250  900 p 2  1200 p
 900 p 2  1200 p  250  0
 900 p 2  1200 p  250  0 (multiplying by  1)

This equation will now be solved using the formula, because it is not an
easy one to solve by factorisation.
a  900; b  1200 and cf  250
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

 b  b 2  4ac
p
2a
 (1200)  (1200) 2  4(900)(250)

2(900)
1200  1440000  900000

1800
1200  2340000

1800

1200  2340000
If , p   1.52 (correct to 2 decimal places)
1800
1200  2340000
If , p   0.18 (correct to 2 decimal places)
1800
But the price of a commodity cannot be negative. Hence the price is
N$1.52.

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 30 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Solve the following quadratic equations by factorizing:

(a) x  x  2  0 2 x2  7 x  3  0
2
(b)
How long? 2 y2  3  2 y  y2  5
(c) (d) 4 x2  1

(e)
15 p 2  p  2
2. Solve the following quadratic equations by the method of
factorization:

2 x 2
(a)  x (b) 4 x  7  0
x 2 x

1
(c ) x   2
x

3. Solve the following quadratic equations using any method of your

choice:

(a) 2 x 2  5  3x  x 2  2

125
Unit 6 Quadratic Equations 126

(b)
0.5x  7  2.5x2  0.3  12

(c) x(2  x)  0.5x 2  x  0.4

(d) x( 2  x)  2 x( 2  x)
4. A rectangular field has a length 5m more than twice the width. The
2
area of the field is 13200m . Calculate the width of the field.
5. The perimeter of a rectangular playground is 200m. The area of the
2
playground is 2400m . How long is this playground?
6. If y dollars is invested at 100r percent compounded annually, it will
grow to A  y 1  r  at the end of 2 years. Find the value of r if y =
2

$100 and A = $144.


1
1. (a) x  2 ; x  1 (b) x   ; x  3
2
4 1 1
(c ) y   ; y2 (d ) x   ; x
Feedback 3 2 2
1 5
(e) x   ; x 
3 2

1
2. (a) x  2 ; x  2 (b) x   ; x2
4
(c) x  1 (repeated )

3. (a) No real number solution

(b) No real number solution
(c) x = 0.95; x = -0.28
(d) x = 0; x = 2
4. Width is 80m
5. Length is 60m
6. r = 0.2 or r = 20%.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. & Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.

Discriminant: From the standard quadratic equation

 ax2  bx  c  0 the quantity b2  4ac is the

discriminant and it is used to predetermine what
type of solution a given equation has.
Keywords/concepts
Quadratic A quadratic equation in the unknown x is an
equation: equation of the form, ax  bx  c  0 , where a,
2

b and c are real numbers, with a  0 .

Quadratic formula:
b  b2  4ac
The formula x  used to find
2a
the values of the unknown x in a quadratic
equation.

Solution by The method of solving a quadratic equation by

factorisation: finding two expressions both of which can divide
into the quadratic equation without a remainder.

127
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 128

Unit summary
In this unit you learned how to solve quadratic equations by the method

 of factorisation, completing the square and by using the quadratic

formula. You have also seen that the concept of Discriminant plays an
important role in determining the type of solutions of a particular
quadratic equation.
Summary
Key points from this unit are as follows:
Discriminant equation
  b2  4ac, where a, b & c are coefficients of
the terms in the quadratic equation.

b  b2  4ac
Quadratic Formula x  .
2a

Unit 7

Basic Set Theory

Introduction
To start with this unit, I want you to think about the Namibian Olympic
team which participated in the 2009 Games. Suppose eight people took
part in tennis, ten in swimming and seven in track events. Further, five
people took part in both tennis and swimming, three people took part
in both track event and tennis; while two from the track events took
part in swimming as well. Only one person took part in all three of
these competitions. The interest here would be to find out how many
people the team consisted of.
Set theory is the mathematical theory of sets, which represent
collections of abstract objects. It has a central role in modern
mathematical theory, providing the basic language in which most of
mathematics is expressed.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

As a mathematical theory, Set Theory possesses a rich internal

structure, and its methods serve as a powerful tool for applications in
many other fields of Mathematics, more particularly the study of logic.
In this unit we will discuss some basic concepts to gain an elementary
understanding of Set Theory.
For various reasons, many systems of Set Theory have been studied by
logicians and others.
We can use the topics covered in this unit:
 in truth verification
 in planning and managing job distributions
 as basics for understanding mathematical literature

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


apply the set-builder notation correctly
interpret Venn diagrams
apply Venn diagrams to solve real life problems
Objectives

 Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
Prescribed reading

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Set and Set Notations

A set is a collection of objects, numbers, names or other quantities with
a common underlying definition or stated property. The numbers 2, 3,
5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19 make up the set of prime numbers between 1
and 20. This set can be described in words as “the set of all prime
numbers between 1 and 20”.
There are two principal ways of representing a set – the listing method
and the property definition method.

1.1 The listing method

This method entails mentioning or listing all the individual members of
the set. The method can be very tedious and at times impossible to use.
It will be impossible to list all the multiples of 3 for example. However,
 
when there is an order in the listing process, three dots ... can be put
after the last listed member to indicate that the list continues in that
order. This list is normally put between curly brackets, .
Let’s look at the following examples:

129
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 130

EXAMPLES

(a) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 is the set of all multiples of 3 between 1 and
20, or it is a set of all multiples of 3 less than 19.

(b) 3, 6, 9, 12,... is the set of all multiples of 3.

(c) pen, ruler , pencil , sharpener , stapler, calculator is the set of
stationery on my writing desk.

(d) A, B, C, D,...,Z is the set of all letters in the English

Alphabet.

(e) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,... is the set of powers of 2.

1.2 Property definition method

Another way of representing sets is to define the property, which the
intended members of the set must satisfy.
For instance,

The set 3; 6; 9; 12; 15; 18 under listing method could be stated in
property definition method as:
“the set of all multiples of 3 between 1 and 20”.

A proper and professional way of using the property definition method

is to employ the set builder notation.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES

{3n : n is a natural number less than 7}.

The above set represents the set with members, {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

{3n : n is a natural number}

The above set represents {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, …}.

Thus the expression “{3n : n is a natural number}” is read as “the set of

all 3n such that n is a natural number”.
Table 7.1: Sets Symbols
Below is a table of symbols and the ways they can be used.

SYMBOL NAME / READ AS USE EXAMPLE/MEANING

 Member of/belongs aZ 2  {1, 6, 2, 8}

to / an element of
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

 Is properly contained NZ If N  2, 4 and Z  1, 2, 4, 5 then

in / proper subset
N  Z hence {2, 4}  {1, 2, 4, 5}


Properly contains
ZN If Z  1, 2, 4, 5 and N  2, 4 then
ZN
hence {1, 2, 4, 5}  {2, 4}

 Is contained in A B If A  1, 5 and B  1, 5 or if

A  1, 5 and B  1, 5, 6 then A B

hence {1,5}  {1, 5} and {1, 5}  {1, 5, 6}

 Contains BA If B  1,5 and A  1,5 or if

B  1,5,6 and A  1,5,

then B  A hence{1,5  }{1, 5};

{1, 5, 6}  {1, 5}

 Union A B The union or joining of sets A and B

 Intersection A B The intersection or meeting of sets A and B

A' Complement of A / A' 2  {1, 3, 5, 7 }'

not in A

, { } Void or empty set Set with no element

 Universal set Totality of all sets under discussion

The symbols  and  indicate the negations of the respective

symbols, just to mention two.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Let A, B, C and D be sets given as
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18}
B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16}
C = {3n : n  N; n < 6}
D = {odd numbers less than 20}
We can take  = {1, 2, 3, …,20} since this set contains all of sets A, B,
C and D.
(a) C  A means that the set C is properly contained in the set A
because every element of C is also an element of A. We
therefore say that the set C is a SUBSET of the set A. Note that
C  3, 6, 9, 12, 15

131
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 132

(b) A  B is the union of sets A and B. This is the set that contains
all the elements of A and B.
A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18}.
Note that even if an element appears more than once, it is
written only once when we unite the members in one set.

(c) B  C is the intersection of the sets B and C. This intersection

contains those elements that are common to both B and C.
B  C  {6, 12} .

(d) D is the complement of the set D. This complement contains

all those elements of  that are NOT in D.

D'  {even numbers less than or equal to 20}

(e) C  C ' is the set of all elements of C AND C ' . This is the set
of common members which are in set C and are in set C  as
well. Obviously, there is no such element. Hence
C C '    or  .

Note that { } and {0} mean different sets. { } is an empty set whereas
{0} is the set that contains one element, 0.
Note it! /
Warning

1.3 Venn Diagrams

Venn diagrams represent sets and how they are inter-connected. They
show what sets have in common, what is in a set and what is not in a
set.
Note that Venn Diagrams are diagrammatic representations of sets. At a
later stage we shall look at some applications of Venn diagrams. For the
moment, let us study how to use Venn diagrams to represent sets.
Now let the sets A, B and C be given. The shaded portions in the
following Venn diagrams represent the indicated set notations.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

133
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 134

1.4 Subsets and Power sets

Consider the following sets A and B, where
A = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
B = {1, 2, 4, 9}
We observe that every element of set B is also an element of set A. We
therefore say that B is properly contained in A, since there is at least an
element of A that is not in B. The set B is called a proper subset of the
set A.
In general, set B is a subset of set A if every element of B is an element
of A. If, in addition, there is at least one element of A that is not an
element of B, then B is called a proper subset of A. It is therefore
correct to state that every set is a subset of itself.
If set B is a subset of set A, then set A is a superset of set B.
If the elements of a set A are sets, then we call the set A a family of
sets.

An example of a family of sets is the set a, e, i, o, u ,2, 4,6 ,  .

The elements of this set are the sets {a, e, i, o, u}, {2, 4, 6} and the
empty set  .
Let A be a set. The set of all subsets of the set A is called the power set
of A, denoted by P(A).

To demonstrate this, let the set A be given as {1, a, e, 2}. The family of
all subsets of the set A is P(A) = {{1}, {a}, {e}, {2}, {1, a}, {1, e}, {1, 2},
{a, e}, {a, 2}, {e, 2}, {1, a, e}, {1, a, 2}, {a, e, 2}, {1, e, 2}, {1, a, e, 2},
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

{ }}.There are 4 elements in the set A. It is therefore expected to have

24 elements in P(A).
In general, if a set A has n elements, then its power set will have 2 n
elements which are the subsets of the set A.
A set that contains only one element is called a singleton. The sets {1},
{a}, {e} and {2} are all singletons.

1.5 Difference and Symmetric Difference

We recall that the complement of a subset A of the universal set  is
the set made up of all those elements of  that are not in A.
The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A (or simply
the difference between the sets A and B), denoted by A-B or A\B, is the
set of all those elements of A that are NOT in B.

A – B = {x: x A ; x B }.
The symmetric difference between two sets A and B is defined as the
set of all those elements that belong to A or to B but NOT to both A and
B. This difference, which is denoted by A  B, is found as follows:

A  B = (A  B) – (A  B).
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Let  = {1, 2, 3, 4,…,9}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
C = {2, 4, 7, 8, 9}
D = {1, 2, 4}
Find
(a) A  B and A  B
(b) The power set of D
(c) The power set of A  D
(d) B–D

(e) CA

(f)  B  C    A  D
SOLUTIONS
(a) A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and A  B = {1, 3, 4, 5}

(b) D = {1, 2, 4}
 P(D) = {{1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2},{1, 4},{2, 4},
{1,2,4},{ }}

(c) A  D = {1, 2, 4} = set D

135
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 136

 P(A  D) = P(D) and this is as given in b above.

(d) B – D = {3, 5, 6}

(e) CA = (C  A) – (C  A)
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9} – {2, 4}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}

(f)  B  C    A  D
 A  D  1, 2, 4 and  B  C   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
 B  C    A  D   3,5,6,7,8,9
Activity 1

 Time Required: About 40 minutes.

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} B = {a, b, d, f, g}
C = {b, c, e, g, h} D = {d, e, f, g, h}
Find
How long?
(i) A  (B  D) (ii) ( A  D)  B

(iii) B C  D (iv) B  (C  D)

(v) ( A  D)  C (vi) (C  A)  D

(vii) ( A  C)  B (viii) P( A  C )

2. The Venn diagram shows sets A, B and C.

Draw and shade the following sets in different diagrams.

(i) A  (B  C) (ii) A   B  C 

(iii)  A  C    B  C 
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

3. The following is a Venn diagram.

From figure 7.12, write out the sets:

(i) AC (ii) A  B  C

(iii) ( A  C )  C (iv)  A  C 

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Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 138

1.

 (i) A  ( B  D)  a, b, d , e

(iii) B  C  D  g
(ii)  A  D   B  a, b, d , e, f , g

(iv) B   C  D   a
Feedback
(v)  A  D   C  a, d , f  (vi )  (C  A)  D  a
(vii)  a, d , g
(viii) p  A  C   b , c , e , b, c , c, e , b, e , b, c, e ,   ,

2.

3.

(i) A  C  a, i, 7, 8 (ii) A  B  C  7, 8 

(iii) ( A  C )  C  2, 3, 4

(iv)  A  C   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, b, c, d , e, f , g , h 

2. Application of Venn Diagrams

In this section, we shall look at some basic applications of Venn
diagrams.

Let n(A) denote the number of elements in the set A. If A  1, 2, 3

then n( A)  3
Now consider the following Venn diagrams:
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

In fig.1, n(A) = 6 ; n(B) = 5. If we wish to find n(A  B), we add n(A) and
n(B). But the elements 2 and 7 have been counted twice (once in A and
once in B). We therefore have to deduct n(A  B) so that the elements
of A  B will be counted only once.

Hence
n( A  B)  n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B)
 652
9
In a similar manner, we can find n( M  N  Q) , given in figure 2 as
follow
n( M  N  Q ) 
n( M )  n( N )  n(Q) - n( M  N ) - n( M  Q)  n( N  Q)  n( M  N  Q)

This is also referred to as UNION RULE.

Let us use fig.2 to verify this.

n( M )  7; n( N )  8; n(Q)  5; n( M  N )  4; n( M  Q)  3;
n( N  Q)  3 and n( M  N  Q)  2
 n(M  N  Q)  7  8  5  4  3  3  2  12
You can verify this by counting in the given fig.2.
This principle of counting is frequently applied when using Venn
diagrams to solve real life problems.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Out of 50 students interviewed, 25 speak Silozi (L), 20 speak
Otjiherero (O) and 5 speak both languages. Find the number of students
interviewed who
(a) speak only Silozi
(b) do not speak Otjiherero

139
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 140

(c) speak Silozi or Otjiherero

(d) do not speak either of the two languages.
2. A survey on regular payment of municipal bills was carried out
on 140 house owners. It was found that 60 pay electricity (E) bills
regularly and 45 pay water (W) bills regularly. Further, 20 pay both bills
regularly. Use a Venn diagram to find the number of house owners who
(a) pay at least one of the bills regularly
(b) pay exactly one of the two bills
regularly
(c) do not pay either bill regularly.
3. A team of athletes was selected to compete in long jump (L),
javelin (J) and high jump (H). No athlete was selected solely for
the high jump event.
The Venn diagram is an incomplete representation of the
distribution of the selected athletes. Copy and complete the
diagram by finding the values of x, y, z and t.

SOLUTIONS
Below is the Venn diagram to represent the given information:

(a) 25 speak Silozi and 5 of them also speak Otjiherero.Therefore

only 20 speak Silozi. We can show this symbolically as:
n( L) only  n( L)  n( L  O)  25  5  20 .

(b) 20 out of 50 speak Otjiherero. Therefore 30 do not speak

Otjiherero.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

n(O)  n()  n(O)  50  20  30

(c) n( L)  n(O)  n( L  O)  25  20  4  40.

(d) n()   n( L  O)  n( L  O)  50  40  10

2.

(a) From the diagram,

n(E only) = 40
n(W only) = 25
n(E  W) = 20
 n(E  W)  40  25  20  85
(b) “Exactly one of the bills” means “either E only and W only, but
not both”. This is E  W.
From the diagram,
N(E only) = 40 and n(W only) = 25

 40  25  65.
(c) n(  ( E W ))  n()  n( E W ) =140 – 85 = 55.
3.
x  30  (14  6  5)
5
y  x 589
 5589
 27
z  6  5  8  0 (no sole high jumper selected)
 19
t  14  6  5  x  8  9
 14  6  5  5  8  9
 47

141
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 142

The completed Venn diagram will therefore be as shown below.

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Among the 120 first-years at a college, 40 take Mathematics,

50 take English, and 15 take both subjects. Find the number of
the first-years who
How long?
(a) do not take Mathematics
(b) take Mathematics or English
(c) take Mathematics but not English
(d) take English but not Mathematics
(e) take exactly one of the two subjects
(f) take neither Mathematics nor English

2. In a survey of 60 people, it was found that 25 people read the

Namibian, 26 people read the Republikein and 23 people read the New
Era. Also 9 people read both the Namibian and the New Era, 11 people
read the Namibian and the Republikein, 8 people read the Republikein
and the New Era. All three papers are read by 3 people.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent the given information.
(b) Find the number of people in the survey who read:
(i) only the Namibian
(ii) only the Republikein
(iii) only the New Era
(iv) the Namibian and the Republikein, but not the New Era
(v) only one of the papers
(vi) none of the papers

3. In a survey conducted on 2000 officers in an establishment, 48%

prefer coffee (C), 54% like tea (T), and 64% smoke (S). Further,
28% use C and T, 32% use T and S, and 30% use C and S. Only
6% use none of these.
Find
(a) How many use all three
(b) How many use T and S but not C
(C) How many use C only.

143
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 144

4. In a school of 1 070 students, 530 are girls (G), 900 are students who
can swim (S) and 120 are students who are left-handed (L).
Furthermore, there are 410 girls who can swim, 40 left-handed students
who can swim, 80 girls who are left-handed and 10 left-handed girls
who can swim.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent the given information
(b) Find
(i) How many left-handed students are there.
(ii) How many left-handed girls can swim.
(iii) How many boys are there in the school.
(iv) How many boys are left-handed and can swim.

5. Out of 360 students interviewed, it was found that 185 students

speak Spanish (S), 55 students speak neither Spanish nor Portuguese.
Furthermore ( x  7) students speak Portuguese (P) only and x speak
Both languages.

5.1 Draw a Venn diagram and show the information as given above
on the Venn diagram.

5.2 Solve for x .

5.3 Find the number of students who speak Spanish only.

1. (a) 80 (b) 75 (c) 25

 2. (a)
(d) 35 (e) 60 (f) 45

Feedback
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(b) (i) 8 (ii) 10 (iii) 9

(iv) 8 (v) 27 (vi) 11

3. (a) 360 (b) 280 (c) 160

4. (a) The correct Venn diagram is as shown :

(b) (i) 120 (ii) 10 (iii) 540 (iv) 30

145
Unit 7 Basic Set Theory 146

5.1

5.2
185  x  x  x  7  55  360
x  113

5.3 72

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
References

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

 Set and Set

Notations:
A collection of objects, numbers, names etc. with
a common underlying definition or stated
property.
Keywords/concepts
Element of a set: A member of a set e.g. if A= 1;2;3then 2 is an
element

Listing Method: A principal way of representing a set.

Property A principal way of representing a set.

Definition:

Compliment of a NOT in that given set, but in the universal set

Set: e.g. if   1;2;3;4;5and set A  1;4 then
A  2;3;5

Union: The union or joining of given sets e.g. A  B is a

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

union or joining of set A and set B. If set A= 1;2;3

and set B= 3;4;5 then A  B  1;2;3;4;5;

Intersection: Common members or common parts of given sets

or the common members present in all given sets,
e.g. if set

A= 1;2;3;4and set B= 2;3;5;6 then A  B= 2;3

Empty Set: A Set with no element.

Universal Set: Totality of all sets under discussion.

Symbols: Symbols used in sets.

Venn Diagrams: Diagrammatic representations of sets.

Subsets: When the elements of a set A are all elements of

a set B, then A is a subset of B, written, A  B .

Power Sets: The set of all subsets of a given set is called the
power set e.g. if A  a; bthe P(A)=
a, b, a; b,  .
Difference and Difference is denoted by e.g. A - B, meaning the
Symmetric
difference between set A and set B is the set of
Difference:
all those elements of set A that are NOT in set B.
Symmetric difference is denoted by e.g. A  B ,
meaning all those elements that belong to set A
or to set B but NOT to both set A and set B.

Number of How many members are there in a given set, e.g.

Elements in a Set: if A= 1;6;9 then n(A) = 3.

147
 Basic Set Theory 148

Unit summary
In this unit you learnt about two principal ways of representing a set,

 namely the listing method and the property definition method. You also
learnt about different symbols and the ways they can be used.
Other important points that you should remember are as follows:
Summary Indicating certain areas by shading the required regions.
Application of Venn-diagrams and formulas to help you perform
calculations involving Venn-diagrams correctly.
Certain laws under the operations of union, intersection, and
compliment.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Unit 8

Matrix Algebra
Introduction
The study and knowledge of matrices play a very important roles in the
application of mathematics to business and economics. Let us look at
the following example:
The Government supplied relief products to four regions affected by drought.
Region A received 1500 bags of maize meal, 20 tonnes of animal lick and
550kg of hay. Region B received 500 bags of maize meal, 25 tonnes of animal
lick, 800kg of hay and 500 bags of rice. Region C received 30 tonnes of an imal
lick and 1200kg of hay. Region D received 1000 bags of maize meal and 700
bags of rice. A total of $117200.00 was spent for Region A, $135725.00 for
Region B, $41550.00 for Region C and $170000.00 for Region D.
The question that one might want to answer is “how much did one unit
of each of the relief products cost and consequently, what would it cost
to supply certain quantities of the relief products”.
The study of matrices is vital in solving systems of linear equations and
linear programming problems. You will be learning more about this in
Quantitative Methods 2A.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


manipulate matrices through addition, subtraction and multiplication
calculate the determinant and inverse of a 2  2 matrix
apply Cramer’s rule in solving simultaneous equations
objectives

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Vectors
A vector is any quantity that has both size and direction. A vector can
be regarded as a directed line segment. The length of the line segment

149
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 150

would be the size. The direction in which the line is headed is also
important. Hence we need to indicate the direction of a vector with an
arrowhead.

The line segments above are vectors, because each one has a size and
direction. Although vectors a and b are in the same direction, their
sizes are different. So they are different vectors. Similarly, vectors c
and d are different, because they have different directions although
they have the same size.

We shall restrict our discussions to vectors in a plane. By a vector in a

plane, we mean an ordered pair (x ; y), where the first component x
measures the length of the vector against a horizontal scale and the
second component y measures the length of the vector against a
vertical scale.

In figure 8.1, the vector (a;b) has its origin at O. The horizontal
component of this vector is a and the vertical component is b, as
indicated in the diagram. We can put the same argument forward for
the other indicated vectors.
Let us remember that the word ordered carries a weight here. It means
that placement of the components in the vector is important. For
instance, the vector (2;3) and the vector (3;2) are different vectors.
The first vector represents “2 units eastwards and 3 units northwards”
while the second vector represents “3 units eastwards and 2 units
northwards”.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1.1 Addition and Subtraction of vectors

Let a   a1 ; a2  and b   b1 ; b2  be two vectors. The sum of vector a
and vector b is given as

a  b   a1 ; a2    b1 ; b2 
  a1  b1 ; a2  b2 
In words, we find the sum by adding the corresponding components of
the summand vectors.
NOTE: The vector ( x ; y ) will be called a row vector and its equivalent
x
column vector will be  .
 y
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES

Let a   2;3 ; b   1;  5 c   2;4 

 2  2   3 
d   e  f  
3  4  2 
Find:
(a) a  b (b) c  d (c ) e  f (d ) f  d
( e) b  e
SOLUTIONS
(a) a  b  (2;3)  (1; 5)
  2  1;3  5 
 (1;  2)

151
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 152

(b) The vectors c and d cannot be subtracted, because they are

not of the same type. The vector c is a row vector, whereas
the vector d is a column vector.

 2   3   2  3   5 
(c ) e  f          
 4   2   4  2   2 

 3   2   3  2   5 
(d ) f  d          
 2   3   2  3   5 

(e) The vectors b and e cannot be added, because they are

not of the same type. The vector b is a row vector, whereas
the vector e is a column vector.

1.2 Scalar Multiple of a Vector

Let a   a1 ; a2  and let k be a scalar (that is any number). Then

ka  k  a1 ; a2    ka1 ; ka2  .
In words, to multiply a vector by a scalar, we simply multiply each
component of the vector by the scalar. This is stretching (or elongating)
the vector k times.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES

Let a   2;3 ; b   1;  5 c   2;4 

 2  2   3 
d   e  f  
3  4  2 

Calculate:

1
( a ) 2a (b)  2b  3c (c) ed
2

SOLUTIONS

(a) 2a  2  2;3   2  2;2  3   4;6 

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(b)  2b  3c  2  1;  5   3  2; 4 

  2  1 ;  2  5    3  2 ; 3  4 
 (2 ; 10)  (6 ; 12)
  2  6 ; 10  12 
 8 ;  2 

1 1  2   2 
(c ) ed    
2 2  4  3
 1   2  1 
      
 2  3   5

2. Matrices
In mathematics, a matrix (the plural is matrices, or less commonly used
matrixes) is a rectangular array of real numbers, with m-rows and n-
columns. Rows are horizontal and columns are vertical.

The real numbers in a matrix are called entries or elements. We use

parentheses notation, ( ) or box brackets [ ] for matrices.
As mentioned earlier, we shall restrict our discussions to the plane. As
such, we define a matrix of order 2  2 as an arrangement of numbers in
the form:

 a11 a12 
A 
 a21 a22 

The matrix has two rows, namely  a11 a12  and  a21 a22  . It
 a11   a12 
also has two columns, namely   and   .
 a21   a22 
Notice that a11 is the number that occupies the first row, first column
intersection whereas a21 occupies the intersection of the second row,
first column. It is, therefore, easy to see that a21 is not necessarily the
same as a12 .

2 3 
If A   1  , then
 4 
2 
1
a11  2; a12  3; a21  ; a22  4
2

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Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 154

2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Matrices of the same order are added (or subtracted) by adding (or
subtracting) the corresponding entries in each matrix.
We say matrices are of the same order if both matrices contain the
same number of rows and the same number of columns.
Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES

2 4 1 2   0 1
A    ; B    ; C   
0 3  5 4  1 2
Let
Find:
(a) A+B
(b) B–C
(c) A+B+C
(d) A–B+C

SOLUTIONS

2 4  1 2 
(a) A  B    
0 3   5 4 
2 1 4  2
 
0  5 3  4 
3 2
 
5 7 

1 2   0 1
(b ) B  C    
5 4   1 2
1  0 2  1 
 
5 1 4  2 
1 3 
 
6 6 

2 1 0 4  2 1 
(c ) A  B  C   
 0  5  1 3  4  2 
3 3
 
4 5 
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

 2 1 0 4  2 1 
(d ) A  B  C   
 0  5  1 3  4  2 
 1 7
 
 6 3

2.2 Scalar Multiple of a Matrix

The scalar multiple of a matrix A by a scalar k is obtained by

multiplying each entry of A by the scalar k.

EXAMPLES

2 4 1 2   0 1
A    ; B    ; C   
0 3  5 4  1 2
Let
Find:
( a) 2 A (b)  4C (c) 2 A  3B (d ) 6C  2 A

SOLUTIONS

2 4 4 8
(a) 2 A  2    
0 3   0 6 

 0 1 0 4 
(b)  4C  4    
 1 2  4 8 

4 8 3 6 
(c ) 2 A  3B    
0 6  15 12 
 7 2
 
15 18 

 0 6  4 8
( d ) 6C  2 A    
 6 12   0 6 
 4 2 
 
 6 18 

2.3 Product of two Matrices

Let’s consider the following matrices:

155
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 156

a b x t
Let A    and let B   .
c d u v
Then

a b  x t  ax  bu at  bv 
A B       
c d  u v   cx  du ct  dv  .

When multiplying two matrices, e.g. matrix A by Matrix B: Take the 1st
row in A and multiply with the 1st column in B e.g. (multiply the 1st
entry in first row of A by 1st entry in 1st column of B) + (multiplication
of the 2nd entry in the 1st row of A and 2nd entry in the 1st column of
Tip B) to obtain the answer of the 1st entry in the new matrix. Take the 1st
row in A again and multiply with the second column of B. Apply the
same process to the second row of A as above. Notice that using the
first row of matrix A with the first column of matrix B gives the entry in
the intersection of the first row and the second column of the matrix
AB. Similarly, using the second row of matrix A with the first row of
matrix B gives the entry in the intersection of the second row and first
column of the matrix AB.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES

2 1 1 3
Let A    and B    .
3 2  4 5 

Find:
(a) AB (b) BA

SOLUTIONS

2 1 1 3 
( a ) AB    
3 2  4 5 
 (2  1)  (1  4) (2  3)  (1  5) 
 
 (3  1)  ( 2  4) (3  3)  ( 2  5) 
2  4 65   6 1 
  
3  8 9  10   5 19 
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1 3  2 1 
(b ) BA    
4 5  3 2 
 (1  2)  (3  3) 
(1  1)  (3  2)
 
 (4  2)  ( 5  3) (4  1)  ( 5  2) 
2  9 1 6 
 
 8  15 4  10 
 11 5 
 
 7 14 

You will notice that AB  BA.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Find the value(s) of the letters in each of the following matrix
equations:

2 x  4 y x 9
(a) y   
2 z

9
 7   3

 x 3   2 5
(b )  2     
 y  1   0 

2 e 3 1  8 6
(c ) a  k   
 3 0 2   3 1 

SOLUTIONS

2 x  4 y x 9
(a) y     
 7   3 2 z 9
 6 x  y x 9
   z 
y 3 9   9

Using equality of matrices, a11 = b11. Hence x  6

From a12 = b12, we have x  y  9 . But x  6 .

Therefore,6  y  9. Hence y  3.
From a21  b21 , we have y  3  z.But y  3.
Therefore, 3  3  z. Hence z  0.

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Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 158

 x 3  2  5
(b )  2     
 y  1   0 
 2x  3  5 
  
 4  y   0 

From a11  b11, we have 2 x  3  5. Hence x  1.

From a21  b21, we have  4  y  0. Hence y  4.

2 e 3 1  8 6
(c ) a  k   
 3 0 2   3 1 
2 e   3k k   8 6
    
a 3  0 2 k   3 1 
 2  3k ek   8 6
   
 a 3  2k   3 1 

From a22  b22 , we have3  2k  1. Hence k  2.

From a12  b12 , we have e  k  6. But k  2.
Therefore, e  2  6. Hence e  4.
From a21  b21 , we have a  3.

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.

1. Let

How long? a   2 ; 3 b   5 ; 2  c   4 ;  1
 2 
 3  3 
d   e 3  f  
 7     2 
 5 

1.1 Find:
(a) a  2b (b) 2(c  a)  4b
(c) 3e  2 f (d ) d  2(e  f )

1.2 Solve for the vector x if

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(a) x  a  c (b) 2 x  3c  6a
(c) x  2e  3 f (d ) 3d  e  2 x

2 1  1 0  3 6
2. Let A    ; B  ; C  
3 4 5 2   2 5
Find

(a) A  B (b) A  C  B
(c) 3 A  5C (d ) BC
(e) A( B  C ) ( f ) A2  B 2

3. Find the value of the letter(s) in each of the following matrix

equations:

2 0  m 10 
3.1 0     
 3   n   1 

2 e 3 1  8 6
3.2 a  k   
 3 0 2   3 1 

 3y 3z  6 3 
3.3  2 y  4x   
 2z  8 w

4 0 n p  20 12 
3.4 1    
 m   2 0   1 q 

159
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 160

1.1

 (a) (12 ;  1)

 8
(b) 16 ;  4 
 23 
Feedback (c )   (d )  3 
 11  
7 
1.2

 15 
(a) (6 ;  4) (b)  0 ; 
 2
 23   25 
 
(c )  3  (d )  6 
   
 16   8 

2.

3 1  6 7   21 33 
(a)   (b)   (c )  
8 2 10 3  19 13 
 3 6  7 9 2 6 
(d )   ( e)   (f)  
 11 20   6 30  13 17 

1
3.1 m  5 ; n  
3
3.2 k  2 ; a  3 ; e  4
3.3 y  2 ; z  1 ; x  1 ; w  2
3.4 n  5 ; p  3 ; m  3 ; q  3

2.4 Identity Matrices

0 0 1 0  2 1 
Let O    ; I   ; A .
0 0 0 1  3 4
(Verify that O + A = A and A + O = A
IA = A and AI = A)
Since A does not change when O is added on to it, we call the matrix O
the additive identity matrix.
Similarly, since A does not change when multiplied by I, we call the
matrix I the multiplicative identity matrix.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2.5 Determinant of a 2  2 matrix

Let’s now see the method of finding the determinant of a two by two
matrix.

a b
Let A    . The determinant of matrix A is a number and it is
c d
obtained as det (A) = ad – bc
Note that ad is the product of the two entries in the downward-left-to-
right diagonal whereas bc is the product of the two entries in the
upward-left-to-right diagonal, i.e. product of leading diagonal minus
product of secondary diagonal.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
2 1  2 1 
A    ; B   
Let 3 4  1 2

1. Find:
(a) det ( A) (b) det ( B)
(c) det ( AB) (c) det (2 A)

2.
Show that det (kA)  k 2 det ( A)

SOLUTIONS
(a) det ( A)  (2  4)  (1  3)  8  3  5
1.
(b) det ( B)  (2  2)  (1  1)  4  1  3

2 1   2 1   3 0
(c ) AB      
3 4  1 2   2 5

det ( AB)  (3  5)  (0  2)  15

4 2
( d ) 2 A  
6 8

det (2 A)  (4  8)  (2  6)  20

 2k k 
kA   
2.  3k 4k 

2 2 2 2
det (kA)  (2k  4k )  ( k  3k )  8k  3k  5k  k det ( A)

161
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 162

2.6 Inverse of a 2  2 Matrix

Inverse of a 2  2 matrix
If A is a matrix, we denote the inverse of A by A-1.
Thus,

AA1  A1 A  I
In words, the inverse of A should multiply A so that the product is I ,
(the identity matrix).

2 1  1 1
Let A =   and let B =  2.
2 2 1 1 

1 0 1 0
Then AB    and BA   .
0 1 0 1
We, therefore, say that B is the inverse of A or vice versa.

a b
In general, given the matrix A =   , we obtain the inverse of
c d
A as

1 1  d b 
A   .
ad  cb  c a

Notethat ad  cbis det ( A). Also, note that entries in the leading
diagonal have swapped positions while entries in the secondary diagonal
have had their signs changed.
Here are few examples:
EXAMPLES

2 1  1 2  1 2
Let A    ; B 2  ; C  
0 1  1 4  2 4 

1. Find
1 1 1 1
( a) A (b) B (c) C (d ) ( AB)

1 1 1
2. Is ( AB) A B ?

1 1 1
3. Is ( AB) B A ?

SOLUTIONS
1.

1 1  1 1  1 1
(a) A    2 2
2  0 2 0 1 
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1 1 4 2  1  12 
(b ) B   
1 1

4 1 2 4
1 
8 

(c) C 1 does not exist, because det (C)  0

2 1   12 2 0 8
( d ) AB     
0 1  1 4  1 4 

1 1  4 8  1 1
 ( AB )     2 
8  1 0  1 0 
8

2.

1  1  12  5 3
1 1  2  16
1
A B  2   8 
0 1   14 1   1
8  4
1
8 

1 1 1
 ( AB )  A B

3.
1  1  1 1   1 1 

1 1
B A  2  2 2    2 
1 1  0 1   1 0 
 
4 8  8 

 ( AB) 1  B 1 A1

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at these until you have
Activity considered the problem yourself. This will help you to prepare for the

163
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 164

assignments.

1. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices:

How long? 5 2  2 1
(a) A    (b ) B   
1 1  2 3
1 1
(c ) C   2 
0 2

2 3  1 0
2. If   X   , find x .
0 4 0 1

 2 2  4 2 
3. Find B if A =   and AB =  
 1 3 0 7

2 1 11
A  ; C    . If B is a (2 1)
4. 1 1 7 
matrix such that AB  C, find B.

 x 1 0
5. If the matrix   has no inverse, what are the
x x  1

possible values of x ?

1.

 (a) A1  
 1
 3
1
 
2
3
5
 (b) B 1
3
8

1
1
 
8
1

Feedback    
 3 3 4 4
2 1 
(c ) C  
1
1

 0 
 2
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

 1 3
2. X   
 0  3

3 2
3. B  
1 3

 4
4. B  
3
5. x  1 ; x  1

3. Application of Matrices – Cramer’s rule

Let us look at the application of Cramer’s rule by way of an example.
Consider the simultaneous equations:
2x  y  3
x  2y  4
This system or pair of equations can be written in matrix form as
AX = b, where

2 1 
A=   is the matrix of coefficients,
1 2

x 3
X =  matrix of variables and b =   matrix of constants .
 y  4
In order to solve this problem, you have to take the following steps:

2 1
Step 1: Find   det   . This is 5.
1 2

3 1
Step 2: Find  x  det   . This is 10. Note that the first
4 2
column (or x-column) has been replaced by matrix b.

2 3
Step 3: Find  y  det   . This is 5. Note that the second
1 4
column (or y-column) has been replaced by b.

 x 10 y 5
Step 4: Find x    2 and then find y    1.
 5  5
Hence x  2 and y  1 .

165
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 166

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the following pairs of simultaneous linear
equations:

(a ) 2 x  y  1
4x  3y  8

(b) 3 x  4 y  7
x  5 y  4

(c ) 3 p  4  q
2q  p  1

SOLUTIONS
(a) We can write the pair in matrix forms as

2 1   x   1 
    
4  3  y   8
2 1
  det    (2  3)  (1 4)  10
 4  3
 1 1
 x  det    3  8  5
 8  3
2  1
y  det    16  4  20
4 8
 5 1 y 20
x  x   and y    2
 10 2  10
1
 x  ; y  2
2

3 4  x   7 
(b) The matrix equation is      
1 5  y   4 
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

  19

 x  19

 y  19

 x 1 ; y 1
(c) Notice that we have to rearrange the equations so that like
variables lie in the same column.
Given: 3p  4  q
2q  p  1

Rearranged: 3 p  q  4
p  2q  1

3 1   p   4 
The matrix equation is     .
1 2  q   1 
  7 ;  p  7 ;  q  7.

 p  1 ; q  1.

2. Find the value of x and the value of y if

 x 2  4   8 
    
 3x 4   y   4 

SOLUTION

167
Unit 8 Matrix Algebra 168

 x 2  4   8 
    
 3 x 4   y   4 

 x 2  4   4x  2 y 
But     
 -3x 4  y   12 x  4 y 

 4x  2 y   8 
  
 12 x  4 y   4 

Using equality of matrices, we have

4x  2 y  8
-12 x  4 y  -4
 4 2  x   8 
The matrix equation is       .
 12 4  y   4 
  40 ;  x  40 ;  y  80.
 x  1 ; y  2.

Activity 3

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at these until you have considered
Activity the problem yourself. This will help you to prepare for the assignments.
Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous
equations:
(a) 2 x  3 y  5; 4 x  2 y  2
How long? (b) 2 p  3 p  6; 3 p  q  2
(c) m  4  2n; 2n  m  4

(a) x  1 and y  1

 (b) p  0 and q  2
(c) Cramer's ruleis not applicable, because   0.
Feedback
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.

 Vectors: A vector is any quantity that has both size and

direction. A vector in a plane represents an
ordered pair (x ; y).
Keywords/concepts
Matrix: A matrix is a set of numbers arranged in rows and
columns in a rectangular or square array.

Identity Matrix: An identity matrix is a matrix which, when

combined with another matrix, does not change
the original matrix. The identity depends on the
set of elements and the operation.

Inverse of Matrix: The inverse of an element under a particular

operation is the element which combines with it
to give the identity for the operation, e.g. if we
1
multiply matrix A by A inverse ( A ) the product
1 0 
is identity ( I ) =  .
 0 1
Cramer’s Rule: Cramer’s rule is a method of application of
matrices that we use to solve simultaneous
equations and hence real life problems.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the importance of matrices in the

 application of mathematics to business and economics. You also learned

how to perform calculations involving:
 addition and subtraction of vectors and how to multiply a vector by
a scalar.
Summary
 addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices and how to
multiply a matrix by a scalar.
 identity matrices, the determinant of a 2x2 matrix, the inverse of a
2x2 matrix and application of matrices using Cramer’s rule.

169
Unit 9 Linear Inequalities 170

Unit 9

Linear Inequalities
Introduction
Inequalities occur naturally in our daily activities. For example, it is not
always possible for granny to prepare JUST ENOUGH food for dinner.
Most of the time, the food is a bit too much or a bit too little. Also, we
often hear people announcing a meeting for “not later than 14:00”. All
these are inequality statements.
You will use your knowledge of this unit in solving systems of linear
inequalities.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 



use the symbols ;;;;
solve simple linear inequalities
correctly

illustrate inequality solutions on a number line

Objectives

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Notations and Meanings

The equation 4 x  3  5 has just one solution, namely x  2 . We note
that if x  2 , then the left-hand - side (LHS) is 5 and the right - hand-
side (RHS) is 5. Hence the equality sign is true. If we chose x  3 , then
LHS would be 9 whereas RHS remains 5. The equality sign would then be
defiled (i.e. the inequality would not be true), because 9 is greater
than 5 (or 5 is less than 9). The proper way to connect 5 and 9 is to
write 5 < 9 or 9 > 5. Hence by k  10 , we are referring to all numbers
less than 10 and by k  12 , we are referring to all numbers greater than
or equal to 12.
Here is a table of inequality signs, their meanings and a few examples:
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Table 9.1: Inequality Signs

Sign Name Examples

 Greater than 2  0;  5   7; 12  10

 Less than 1 1
5  7;  6  0; 
3 2

 Greater than or equal to 1 1

2  0; 4  4; 
2 4

 Less than or equal to 3 4

5  7; 8  8 ; 
5 5

2. Properties of Inequalities
Let us look at what makes the manipulations (i.e. the work involved in
the calculation) of inequalities differ from the manipulations of
equations. Study the following table:

Table 9.1: Comparison between Equations and Inequalities

Equation Operation or Manipulation Inequality

2x  4  4x  6 2x  4  4x  6

 2 x  4  6 Subtract 4 x from both sides  2 x  4  6

 2 x  10 Subtract 4 from both sides  2 x  10

x5 Divide both sides by -2 x5

For the equation 2 x  4  4 x  6 , when x  5 , LHS is 2(5) + 4 which is

14. RHS is 4(5) – 6 and this is also 14. So, LHS = RHS.
For the inequality, when x  5 (say x  6 ), LHS is 2(6) + 4 which is 16.
RHS is 4(6) – 6 which is 18. We see that LHS < RHS. Hence it makes good
sense to turn the inequality sign around when we divided by –2.
Here are the properties of inequalities:
1. If a number is added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an
inequality, the inequality sign remains unaffected.
Example: 2 < 7. Adding 6 to both sides, we get 8<13. Similarly,
subtracting 6 from both sides, we get –4 < 1.

171
Unit 9 Linear Inequalities 172

2. If we multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by a positive

number, the inequality sign remains unaffected.
Example: 24 > 8. Multiplying both sides by 3, we get 72 > 24. Similarly
dividing both sides by 4, we get 6 > 2.
3. If we multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by a negative
number, then the inequality sign must change direction.
Example : 12 < 16. Multiplying both sides by –2, we get –24 > -32.
Similarly, dividing both sides by –4, we get –3 > -4.

4. If we take the reciprocals of both sides of an inequality, the

inequality sign must change direction

1 1
Example: 2  3 . Taking the reciprocals of both sides, we get  .
2 3
9
Also  4. Taking the reciprocals of both sides,
2
2 1
we get  .
9 4

3. Solving Inequalities
To solve an inequality, the procedure is the same as for solving
equations. However, we must remember to implement properties 3 and
4 if and when necessary.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. Solve the following inequalities:
(a) 3 x  10  5

(b) x  11  3x  1

y
(c)  1.5
8

3x  2
(d)  5  13
4
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTIONS
(a) 3 x  10  5
 3 x  15 adding 10 to both sides
 x5 dividing both sides by 3
Hence the solution is the set of all numbers less than 5.

(b) x  11  3 x  1
  2 x  11  1 subtracting 3x from both sides
  2 x  10 subtracting 11 from both sides
 x5 dividing both sides by -2
Hence the solution is the set of all numbers less than 5.

y
(c)  1.5
8
 y  12 multiplying both sides by 8
Hence the solution is the set of all numbers greater than or equal to 12.

3x  2
(c)  5  13
4
 3x  2  20  52 multiplying both sides by 4
 3x  30
 x  10
Hence the solution is the set of all numbers less than or equal to 10.

2. Find the first three whole number values of x satisfying the

inequality 4(3x  20)  5(10  12 x) .

SOLUTION
4(3x  20)  5(10  12 x)
 12 x  80  50  60 x
 12 x - 60 x  50  80
  48 x  30
30
 x
48
5
 x
8
Hence the first three whole number values of x are 0;  1;  2

173
Unit 9 Linear Inequalities 174

3. Solve the following inequalities:

(a) 2x  4  3x  -5x  16

2 1 2
(b)  
x  1 x 5x

SOLUTIONS
(a) 2 x  4  3x  5x  16
To solve such an inequality, we split the inequality into 2
inequalities 2 x  4  3x and 3x  5x  16 .

First we solve the inequality 2 x  4  3x to obtain the solution x  4.

Next we solve the inequality 3x  -5 x  16 to obtain the solution x  2.
(You should do the solving to get this correct solution).

The solution, therefore comprises all numbers less than 2 in addition to

all numbers greater than or equal 4,i.e. x  2 and x  4.
2 1 2
(b)  
x  1 x 5x
2 5 2
  combining the terms on RHS
x  1 5x
2 7
 
x  1 5x
x  1 5x
  taking the reciprocal of both sides
2 7

 7(x  1)  10x multiplying by the L.C.M of 2 and 7 which is 14

 7x  10x  7
  3x  7
7
 x
3
7
Hence the solution is the set of all numbers greater than .
3

4. The following is a design of a warehouse.

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Write down and simplify an inequality for x if the minimum volume of

the warehouse is 24m3.
SOLUTION
1
Area of cross-section ABCDE is 2x  ( x  0.8)
2
 2x  0.4x
 2.4x
Volume of Warehouse is 4  2.4x  9.6x
But volume is at least 24m3.
 9.6x  24
24
 x
9.6
 x  2.5m
Hence the least value of x is 2.5.

4. Intervals on the Real Line

The real line is the line on which all real numbers can be located. The
real line has no beginning and has no end. This means that there is no
smallest number or largest number. However, we depict the middle of
the real line by the number 0. So all numbers to the left of 0 are
negative numbers (or less than 0) and all numbers to the right of 0 are
positive numbers (or greater than 0).
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
Write down all whole number values of x, where
(a) 0  x  6 (b) 0  x  6
11 21
(c ) 0  x  6 (d )   x 
5 10
SOLUTIONS
(a) 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5
(b) 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6

175
Unit 9 Linear Inequalities 176

(c) 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 : 6
(b)  2;  1; 0; 1; 2

5. Number Line Representations

Let us represent the intervals x  2 ; x  4 ; 3  x  5 on different
number lines.

The hollow blob on top of 2 indicates that 2 is not inclusive.

The solid blob on top of 4 indicates that 4 is inclusive.

Notice that –3 is not inclusive in the interval, but 5 is inclusive.

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers after the
activity, but please do not look at them until you have considered the problems
Activity yourself. This will help you to prepare for the assignments.

1. Solve these inequalities and illustrate your solutions with a number line in each
case.

2x
(a) x  4  7 (b) y  7  10 (c ) 4 2
3

How long? 2 1 2
(d ) 2(3  4 x)  4 (e)  
x  3 x 3x

2. Solve for x in the following and illustrate your solutions with a number line in
each case.

x  1 x  1 3x  2
(a) 2 x  3  x  5  2 x  7 (b)  
2 4 8

3. Patrick is sent to the shop with a $10.00 note to buy a box of sweets costing
$2.20. He is also told to buy as many $0.45 sweets as he likes provided he brings
back at least $6.00 change.
(a) Write an inequality for x
(b) Solve the inequality and illustrate your solution with a number line.

4. You have just been given a new job in sales. You have two salary options. You
can receive a fixed salary of N $500 per week (no commission option) or you can
receive a salary of N $200 per week plus 5% of your weekly sales (commission
option). Formulate a linear inequality comparing the two options and then
calculate the dollar amount of product you must sell each week in order for the
commission option to be the better deal?

177
Unit 9 Linear Inequalities 178

(a) x  3


1.

Feedback (b) y  3

(c) x  9

1
(d ) x 
4

3
( e) x  
5

2. (a ) x   12 and x  8. Therefore,  12  x   8.

(b) x  1 and x  4

3. Let the number of sweets be x . If Patrick was to bring back at

least $6, then he could spend at most $4.
(a) 2.20  0.45 x  4.00

(b) x  4

4. You must sell N $6000 or more each week in order for the
commission option to be the better deal.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.

Inequalities: An inequality is a statement showing one quantity

 is NOT equal to another quantity e.g. x  5.

Inequality symbols or relational symbols used are;
, , , and  .
Keywords/concepts
Intervals: The interval from 5 to 9 inclusive for example is
the set of all real numbers between 5 to 9,
including nine. We can show this as 5  x  9 .

Number Line: The number line is the line on which all real
numbers can be located. All numbers on the
number line which are located to the left of zero
are referred to as negative numbers, while those
which are located to the right of zero are
referred to as positive numbers.

Unit summary
In this unit you have learned to solve linear inequalities and how to

 present solutions on number lines.

Remember that:
 If we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative
Summary number, then the inequality sign changes the direction.
 If we take the reciprocals of both sides of an inequality, then
the inequality sign changes the direction.

179
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 180

Unit 10

Arithmetic and Geometric

Progressions
Introduction
In this unit we will study two types of progressions that occur in nature
and in practical application of mathematics and statistics. We have
heard of how our money could grow if the interests paid on it are
compounded.
Think of a chessboard!

T chessboard in figure 10.1 has 64 squares. Let us place 2 grains of rice

in the first square. Next, take the 2 you placed in the first square and
raised it to the power of 2 and place the result in the second square. So
the second square will have 4 grains. Continuing in this fashion, the
third square will have 16 grains, the fourth will have 256 grains, the
fifth will have 65536 grains and so on. Try to imagine how many grains
will be in the tenth square.
This unit forms the basis for the understanding of compound interest
calculations and discounts. In addition to these, the concepts discussed
in this unit will come handy when we study annuities in Quantitative
Methods 2B.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


identify arithmetic and geometric progressions
calculate the sum of a given progression
determine the number of terms in a progression
Objectives
 use the sigma notation correctly
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Arithmetic Progressions (AP)

Let’s look at the progressions:
A: 2; 5; 8; 11; …
B: -7; -3; 1; 5; …
C: 8; 2; -4; -10; …
As you can see in progression A, we can find the next number by adding
3 to the previous number.
In progression B, we can find the next number by adding 4 to the
previous number.
In progression C, we can find the next number by adding –6 to the
previous number. Note that “adding –6” is the same as “subtracting 6”.
However, for each of these progressions, there is a unique difference
between any two consecutive terms. This unique difference is called
the common difference.
Let us denote the first term (i.e. member) of a progression by a1, the
second term by a2, the third by a3 and so on. We can represent,
therefore, the nth term by an. The term immediately after an is an+1 and
the term immediately before an is an-1. Thus if an = a7, then
an+1 = a7+1 = a8 and an-1 = a7-1 = a6.
We can now define the common difference as
d = an+1 – an.

This number d must be the same for all consecutive terms of the
progression.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Identify the common difference in each of the following progressions:

181
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 182

(a) 2; 9; 16; 23; 30;...

(b) 5; 9; 14; 20; 27;...
(c) 8; 3;  2;  7;  12;...
SOLUTIONS
(a) 9  2  7; 16  9  7; 23 16  7. Therefore d  7.
(b) 9  5  4; 14  9  5. Since the differences are not the same, there
is no common difference, hence the progression cannot be classified as
an AP.
(c) 3  8  5;  2  3  5; 12  (7)  5.Therefore d   5.

A progression with a common difference is called an arithmetic

progression (or A.P. for short).
Now let us find a way of identifying a term of an A.P. For the A.P 2; 9;
16; 23; 30; …, the first term (or rather a1) is 2, a2 is 9, a5 is 30. It will be
an easy task to find that a11 is 72. Will it be that easy to find a101? If we
had to list the terms of the progression, we would need a lot of time,
space, energy and so on.
The nth term (or simply an) of an A.P. is given by

an  a1  (n  1)  d
So for the progression 2; 9; 16; 23; 30; …, we have

a1  2
d 7
n  11
Thus a11 = 2 + (11 – 1)  7 = 72.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Consider the arithmetic progression 6; 11; 16; 21; …
(a) What are the values of a1; a2; a5?
(b) Find the common difference.
(c) Find a12; a30; a72; an.

SOLUTION
(a) a1 = 6; a2 = 11; a5 = 26
(b) 11 – 6 = 5; 16 – 11 = 5; 21 – 16 = 5. Thus d = 5
(c) a12 = 6 + (12 – 1)  5
= 61
a30 = 6 + (30 – 1)  5
= 151
a72 = 6 + (72 – 1)  5
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

= 361
an = 6 + (n – 1)  5
= 6+ 5n – 5
= 5n + 1

2. For a certain arithmetic progression, a1 = 5 and

d = -3. Find a3; a8 and an.
SOLUTION
a3 = 5 + (3 – 1)  (-3)
= -1
a8 = 5 + (8 – 1)  (-3)
= -16
an = 5 + (n – 1)  (-3)
=8 – 3n
So far we have learnt that given an arithmetic progression, the first
term and the common difference can be easily obtained. Next we will
study how to find the first term and the common difference, given any
two terms of the progression.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
The fourth term of an A.P. is 3 and the seventh term is
–6. Find the first term and the common difference of the progression.
SOLUTIONS
Given: a4 = 3 and a7 = -6
But: a4 = a1 + (4 – 1)d
That is: 3 = a1 + 3d . . . (*)
Also a7 = a1 + (7 – 1)d
That is: -6 = a1 + 6d . . . (**)
Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously (refer to unit 5), we have a1 = 12 and
d = -3.
It is also possible to find the number of terms in an A.P. For example, in
the progression 4; 7; 10; 13; … ; 100,
a1 = 4, d = 3 and an = 100. But what is n? That is, what position does the
term 100 occupy?
Now an = a1 + (n – 1)d.
 100 = 4 + (n – 1)3
 n = 33
Thus a33 = 100 and this means that 100 is the 33rd term of the
progression.

183
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 184

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Find the 100th term of each of the following progressions:
(a) 2; 5; 8; 11; …
(b) 16; 12; 8; 4; …
SOLUTIONS
(a) a100 = 2 + 99  3
= 299
(b) a100 = 16 + 99  (-4)
= -380
2. The common difference of an A.P. is 3. The 24th term is 74.
What is the first term?
SOLUTION
a24 = a1 + (n –1)d
= a1 + 23  3
Thus a1 = 5
3. The first term of an A.P. is 3. There are 25 terms and the last
term is 195. Find the common difference.
SOLUTION
a1 = 3 and a25 = 195
Thus
195 = 3 + 24d
d=8

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 30 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Find the 50th term of each of the following progressions:
(a) 5; 8; 11; 14;...
(b) 8; 5; 2; 1;...
1 1 3
(c) 2 ; 3 ; 4; 4 ;...
2 4 4
2. The third term of an A.P. is 18 and the fiftieth term is 347. Find the
How long?
common difference and the first term.
3. The 5th term of an A.P. is 3 and the 9th term is 5. Find the first
term and the common difference.
4. The first term of an A.P. is 1 and the common difference is 2. The
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

last term is 61. How many terms are there in this progression?


1. (a) T50  5  49  3  152
(b) T50  8  49  3  139
1 3 1
(c) T50  2  49   39
Feedback 2 4 4
2. d  7; a1  4
1
3. a1  1; d 
2
4. 61  1  (n 1)  2
n  31
There are31terms in the progression.

2. The Sum of an Arithmetic Progression

To be able to make better use of the tools provided by the study of
progressions, it is important that we study how to add the terms of a
progression. When we add the terms of a progression, we have a series.
For instance, consider the progression 1; 3; 5; 7; 9; 11. When we add
the terms of this progression, we write
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11. We call this a series and this series has the sum
36.
When the terms of a series are few, we can easily find the sum.
However, when the terms of a series are very many or when some of
the terms are not listed, then we have to find an alternative way of
finding the sum.
Let us denote the sum of a series by S. Thus by Sn, we shall mean the
sum of the first n terms of the series or progression.
Consider the progression 1; 3; 5; 7; 9; 11:
S = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 (*)
Also
S = 11+ 9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 (**)

Adding (*) and (**), we get

2S  12  12  12  12  12  12

185
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 186

 6 12
 6(1  11)
6
Thus S  (1  11)
2
6
Thus S  (1  11)
2
6
Look closely at the sum (1  11) . 6 is the number of terms, 1 is the
2
first term and 11 is the last term. Hence we can write:

n
Sn  (a1  l ), where l is the last term of the series.
2

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLE
Find the sum of the progression: 5; 9; 13; 17; 21; 25.
SOLUTION
S = 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 + 25
Here a1 = 5; l = 25; n= 6

6
 S6  (5  25)
2
 90
In most cases, we may not be given the last term of the series or
progression. In section 1 of this unit, we learnt that the last term of an
arithmetic progression is a1 + (n – 1)d.
So if there are n terms in the series, the last term is the nth term.
Already, we have seen that

n
Sn  (a1  l )
2
n

Sn  a1   a1   n  1 d 
2

n
Sn   2a1  (n  1)d 
2
We now have two formulas doing the same thing. The formula to be
used for a particular question depends on the information available in
the question.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLE
1. Find the sum of the first 120 terms of the series
5 + 9 + 13 + …
SOLUTION
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

a1  5
d 4
n  120
120
S120   2  5  (120  1)  4
2
 29160
2. The sum of the first twenty terms of an A.P. is 610. Find the
A.P. if the sum of the first ten terms is 210.
SOLUTION
n
Sn   2a1  (n  1)d 
2
20
S 20   2a1  (20  1)d   820
2
 20a1  190d  820...........(*)
Also
10
S10   2a1  (10  1)d   210
2
 10a1  45d  210...........(**)
Solving (*) and (**) simul tan eously, we get a1  3 and d  4
The progression is 3; 7; 11; 15;...

3. A 4 metre inelastic band is wrapped around a pole of

circumference 10cm. Each wrap is 0.5cm longer than the one it wraps
around. How many full wraps can the band make?
SOLUTION
a1  10cm
a2  10.5cm
a3  11cm etc.
d  0.5cm
But thesum of the A.P.is less than or equal to 400cm.
n
Sn   2a1  (n  1)d   400
2
n
S 20   20  (n  1)  0.5  400
2
 10n  0.25n 2  0.25n  400
 40n  n 2  n  1600 (multiplying by 4)
 n  39n  1600  0
2

Solving for n, we get n  64; n  25

But n cannot be negative.Thus n  25.Hence the number of full wrapsis 25.

187
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 188

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 35 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Find the sum of the series 3 + 9 + 15 + … as far as the 50th term.
2. Find the sum of the series:
(a) 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 103
How long?
(b) 12 + 8 + 4 + 0 + … + (-32)
3. The sum of the first twenty terms of an A.P. is 420, and the sum of
the first thirty terms is 930. Find the first term and the common
difference.

4. The sum of the first 12 terms of an A.P. is 177, and the sum of the
next 15 terms is 525. Find the first term and the common difference.

5. 18.39 metres of videotape are wound onto a reel of

circumference 8.2cm. Because of the thickness of the tape, each turn
is 0.1mm longer than the previous one. How many turns will it take to
wind all 18.3920 metres onto the reel?
6. If 𝑥 + 6; 2𝑥 + 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑥 + 26 are the first terms of an arithmetic
progression:
6.1 Determine the value of 𝑥.

6.2 Write the numerical values of the first three terms.

6.3 If the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term (𝑇𝑛 ) is 118, how many terms are in that progression?

6.4 Calculate the 30𝑡ℎ term of the progression.

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S


1. 7500
2. (a) n  51. Therefore S51 is 2703

(b) n  12. Therefore S12 is 120

Feedback
3. a1  2; d  2
4. ( H int : S12 177; S27  177  525  702)
1 1
a1  6 ; d 1
2 2
5. a1  8.2; d  0.01; Sn  1839. Therefore n  200.
6.1

x  6  d  2 x  14 2 x  14  d  5 x  26
 x  d  8......equ.1  3x  d  12.......equ.2
Solving the two equationssimultaneously
x  2 and d  6

6.2 4, 10, 16
6.3

Tn  a1  (n  1)  6
118  4  (n  1)6
n  20
Thereare 20 termsin the progression.
6.4

T30  4  (30  1)  6
T30  178

3. Geometric Progressions
You will recall that we associated “common difference” with the
arithmetic progression. To obtain terms of an A.P., we added the
common difference to the term just before it. However, the story is
slightly different for a geometric progression. We recognise a geometric
progression by the presence of a common ratio.
Consider the progression 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; …
You will immediately notice that a term needs to be multiplied by 2 to
get the next term. Hence the next three terms in this progression will
be 32, 64 and 128.
The common ratios of some geometric progressions (G.P.) are not easily
recognisable. Therefore, to obtain the common ratio (r) of a G.P., use
this formula:

189
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 190

( n  1)th term
r .
nth term

However, we must take precautions and be sure that this common ratio
is indeed common. That is
nd rd th
2 term 3 term 4 term
r st   etc .
1 term nd rd
2 term 3 term

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
Find the common ratio of each of the following progressions and write
down the next three terms of each progression.
(a) 2; 6; 18; 54; …
(b) 5; -10; 20; -40; …
(c) 16; 8; 4; 2; …
(d) 1; 4; 16; 32
(e) 0.2; -0.2; 0.2; -0.2;…

SOLUTIONS

6 18 54
(a)  3;  3;  3 .Therefore, there is a common ratio which
2 6 18
is 3.
The term that comes after 54 is 54  3 = 162. The next term after 162
is 162  3 = 486. The term after 486 is 486  3 = 1458. Hence the
next three terms are 162, 486 and 1458.

10 20 40
(b)  2;  2;  2 . Therefore, there is a common
5 10 20
ratio and it is –2. The next three terms are obtained as
–40  -2 = 80; 80  -2 = -160; -160  -2 = 320. So the next three
terms are 80, -160 and 320.

8 1 4 1 2 1 1
(c )  ;  ;  .Therefore, the common ratio is . The
16 2 8 2 4 2 2
1 1
next three terms are 1, and .
2 4
4 16 32
(d )  4;  4;  2. Since the ratios are not all the same,
1 4 16
there is no common ratio. Hence the progression is not a geometric
progression.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

0.2 0.2 0.2

(e)  1;  1;  1. Hence the common ratio is
0.2 0.2 0.2
1 . The next three terms are 0.2,  0.2, and 0.2 .

We shall now study the terms of a geometric progression. Let us

represent the first term by a1, the second by a2, the third by a3 etc. We
shall also denote the number of terms by n.
The nth term of a G.P. is given by the formula

nth term  a1  r n1 .

So for the G.P 2; 6; 18; 54; …,

5th term  2  351

 2  34
 162

7th term  2  37 1
 2  36
 1458
Note that in some cases, the first term and the common ratio may not
be given. We may have to find them ourselves. In such cases, we resort
to using two equations that we must solve simultaneously.
Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. The first term of a G.P. is 5 and the third term is 45. Find the
common ratio.
SOLUTION

1  5 and a3  45
But a3  a1  r 31
45  5  r 2
r  3
Hence the common ratio is 3 or  3.
2. Find the first term and the common ratio of a G.P. with a2 = 10
and a4 = 250. Also write down the first four terms of the G.P.

191
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 192

SOLUTION

a2  a1  r1
10  a1  r
a1r  10...........(*)

4  a1  r 3
250  a1  r 3
a1r 3  250...........(**)
Dividing (**) by (*), we get

a1r 3 250

a1r 10
r 2  25
r  5
If r  5, then from (*), a1  5  10 which gives a1  2.
If r  5, then from (*), a1  5  10 which gives a1  2.
For a1  2 and r  5, the G.P is 2; 10; 50; 250;...
For a1  2 and r  5, the G.P is  2; 10;  50; 250;...
Finally for this section, we may be required to find the number of terms
in a given G.P.
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1
1. What term of the G.P. 128; 64; 32; 16; … has the value ?
4
SOLUTION

an  a1r n 1
n 1
1 1
 128   
4 2
n 1
1 1
  (dividing both sides by128)
512  2 
512  2n 1 (taking reciprocal of both sides)
29  2n 1 (since 512  29 )
9  n 1 (same base)
n  10
1
Hence is the10th term.
4
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

2. The sixth term of a G.P. with only positive term is 3888, and
the tenth term is 5038848. Find the common ratio and the first three
terms of the G.P.
SOLUTION

a6  a1r 5
3888  a1r 5 . . .(*)
a10  a1r 9

5038848  a1r 9 . . .(**)

Dividing (**) by (*), we get
5038848 a1r 9
 5
3888 a1r
1296  r 4
r 6
Substituting r  6 in (*), we get
3888  a1r 5
1
a1 
2
1 1
Hence thefirst termis and thefirst three terms are , 3 and 18.
2 2

Activity 3

 Time Required: About 35 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. For the progression 6; 30; 150; 750; …
(a) What is the common ratio?
(b) What are the values a5; a6; a10?
How long?
(c) Write down an expression for an.

2. Find the common ratio of each of the following G.P.’s:

1 2 13
(a) 5;  3 ; 2 ;  1 ;...
3 9 27
(b) 3; 3; 3; 3;...
(c) 2; 4;  8; 16;...
3. The first term of a G.P. is 2 and the fifth term is 162. Find two
possible values for the common ratio. For each common ratio, write
down the first three terms of the G.P.

193
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 194

4. The fourth term of a G.P. is 27 and the sixth term is 243. What
is a1? What is r? Write down the first four terms of the progression.
5. How many terms are there in the progression
3; 6; 12; …; 12288?
6. A long distance runner has planned to run 20km in the first
training session. In each subsequent training session he increases the
distance that he runs by 5% over the previous training session.
(a) Write down an expression for the distance he plans to
run in the nth training session.
(b) During which training session does the runner plan to
run more than 50km for the first time?

1. (a) r=5

 (b)

(c)
a5  3750; a6  18750; a10  11718750;

an  6  5n1
Feedback
2
2. (a) r   (b) r  1 (c) r  2
3
3. For r  3, G.Pis 2; 6; 18;...
For r  3, G.Pis 2;  6; 18;...

4. For r  3, a1  1 and G.Pis 1; 3; 9; 27;...

For r  3, a1   1 and G.Pis  1; 3;  9; 27;...

5. n 13
105
6. (a) a1  20; r 
100
n 1
 105 
Tn  20  
 100 
n1
 105 
(b) 20    50
 100 
n  19.78
The runner plans to run more than 50km for the first time during
the 20 th training session.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

4. The Sum of a Geometric Progression

To start this section, consider the G.P. 3; 6; 12; 48; 96; …
Let us find the sum of the first five terms, but in a way that will help us
understand the generalisation that will follow shortly:
S5 = 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + 96
We can write this as

(*) S5   3  20    3  21    3  22    3  23    3  24  ,
( where a1  3 and r  2)

(**) 2  S5   3  21    3  22    3  23    3  24    3  25 
Subtracting (*) from (**), we have

2 S 5   3  25    3  2 0 
S5 (2  1)  3  25  20 
3  25  2 0 
S5  (notethat 20  1)
3 2  2
5 0

The reader is advised to simplify the last expression. Did you get S 5 =
93? Now use your calculator to find
3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 directly. What did you get?
In general, given a G.P. with first term a1 and common ratio r, we can
find the sum of the first n terms by using the formula

a1  r n  1
Sn  (*)
r 1
Alternatively, we can use the formula

a1 1  r n 
Sn  (**)
1 r
The formula (**) is obtainable from the formula (*), using the fact that

a b b a
x  y  ( y  x) or  .
cd d c
If r > 1, use formula (*).
If r < 1, use formula (**).
If r = 0, the formulas break down. (Why?)
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. Find the sum of the first ten terms of the G.P.
3; 9; 27; 81; 243; …

195
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 196

SOLUTION
a1  3; r  3; n  10

a1  r10  1
S10 
r 1

3  310  1

3 1
3  59049  1

2
 88572
Hence thesum of first ten terms is88572.
1
2. Find the sum of the G.P. 8;  4; 2;  1;..., .
32
SOLUTION
First we have to find the value of n.

1
a1  8; r  
2
But an  a1  r n1
n 1
1  1
 8   
32  2
n 1
1  1
   (dividing by8)
256  2 
256  (2) n 1 (taking reciprocals of both sides)
(2)8  (2) n 1 (since (2)8  256)
8  n 1
n9

To find the sum of the nine terms of the progression:

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

a1 1  r 9 
S9 
1 r
  1 9 
8 1     
  2  
 
 1
1   
 2
11
5
32
11
Hence the sum of G.P is 5 .
32

3. Find the first term of a G.P. with a common ratio of –5 and the
sum of the first six terms is 2604. Write down the G.P.
SOLUTION

S6  2604; r  5
a1 1  r n 
using S9  , we have
1 r
a1 1  (5)6 
2604 
1  (5)
a1 1  15625 
2604 
6
15624
2604  a1
6
a1  1

TheG.Pis 1; 5;  25; 125;  625; 3125;...

197
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 198

Activity 4

 Time Required: About 35 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find
answers after the activity, but please do not look at them until you
Activity have considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for
the assignments.
1. Find the sum of the first ten terms of the following geometric
progressions:
(a) 3; 9; 27; 81;...
How long?
1 1 1
(b) 1; ; ; ;...
2 4 8
(c)  32; 64;  128; 256;...

2. Find the sum of the Geometric Progression

3; 6; 12; 24; … ; 1536
3. The geometric progression 1; 4; 16; 64; … is given. The sum of
the first n terms is greater than 8500. What is the value of n?
4. A teenager plays with straight-line segments. She draws the
square

and calls it figure 10.2.

Next she divides the square into four smaller squares

and calls it figure 10.3.

She again divides each square into four smaller squares

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

and calls it figure 10.4.

She continues until she has a square with 1024 smaller squares.
How many diagrams will she have to draw?


1. (a) S10  88572
(b) S10  1.998
(c) S10  10912
Feedback
2. n  10. Therefore, S10  3069.

4n  1
3.  8500.Therefore, n  7.319.The value of n  8.
4 1
4. a  1, r  4, Tn  1024. Therefore, n  6.

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.

Arithmetic Arithmetic progression is a progression with a

 progression: common difference. There should be the same

difference between all terms (from one term to
the next term).
Keywords/concepts Geometric We recognise a geometric progression by the
progression: presence of a common ratio, hence a geometric
progression is a progression with a common ratio.

Common The common difference is the difference

Difference: between the terms, which should be the same.
We use d for common difference and d must be
the same for all consecutive terms of the
progression. d  a n1  a n means the next term
minus the previous term.

Common Ratio: We use r for common ratio. To find the common

ratio, we divide the next term by the previous
2nd term 3rd term
term meaning, r   etc.
1st term 2nd term

199
Unit 10 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 200

Unit summary
In this unit you learnt about two types of progressions, namely

 arithmetic and geometric progressions.

In arithmetic progression you learned how to:

Summary
 identify a term e.g. 1st term, 2nd term etc. and the last term of a
given progression.
 find the common difference. To find the common difference, we
subtract the previous term from the next term.
 find the next term. We find the next term by adding the common
difference to the previous term.
 find the sum of an arithmetic progression.

 remember that the formula a n  a1  n  1d helps us to find:

- the last term a n  , which is the nth term of a given

progression.
- the first term when given the common difference and any
other term of the progression.
- the common difference.
- the 1st term and the common difference when given any two
terms of the progression.

The formula S n 
n
2
2a1  n  1d  helps us to find the sum of an
arithmetic progression.
In geometric progressions you learnt how to:

 identify a term e.g. 1st term, 2nd term etc. and the last term of
a given progression.
 find the next term. We find the next term by multiplying
the previous term with the common ratio.
 find the sum of a geometric progression.

n1
Remember that the formula a1  r helps us to find:

- the nth term ( a n ) of a given progression or the number of

terms that are in a progression.

- the first term when given the common ratio and any other
term of the progression.
- the common ratio.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

- the 1st term and the common ratio when given any two
terms of the progression.

To find the sum of a given geometric progression, we use the

following 2 formulas:
If the common ratio is bigger than 1, we use

 n
a1 r  1 
Sn 
r 1
If the common ratio is smaller than 1, we use

a 1 r  n

Sn  1
1 r

201
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 202

Unit 11

Percentages, ratios and

proportions
Introduction
The topics that we will discuss in this unit are applicable in our personal
day-to-day activities and managing our personal and societal
economies.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


use the relationship between percentage and fraction
calculate percentage increase and decrease and VAT
use the link between ratio and proportion and use it in solving
Objectives
problems
 do calculations involving ratio
 carry out calculations involving direct and indirect proportion

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Percentages
We can use percentages to express quantities in the same way we use
fractions. In other words, “percentage” is a fraction with denominator
100 .
1 25 50 75
Recall that, , , and are all equivalent fractions. The
2 59 100 150
50 has denominator 100. This fraction is therefore written as
fraction 100
50%, where “%” is read as “percent” and it means “out of a hundred”.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Convert the following fractions to percentages:

(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 12 (d) 4,75 (e) 0,841

5 8

2. Convert the following percentages into fractions:

(a) 62% (b) 30 1 % (c) 64,75% (d) 0,75%

2

SOLUTIONS
4 4  20 80 4
1 (a)    80% OR 100  80%.
5 5  20 100 5

3 3 12,5 37,5 3
(b)    37,5% or 100  80%
8 8 12,5 100 8
1 5
(c) 2 100  100  250%
2 2
(d ) 4, 75 100  475%
(e) 0.841100  84.1%

62 31
2 (a) 62%   or 0.62in decimal form.
100 50

1 30,5 305 61
b) 30 %  30,5%    or 0,305in decimal form.
2 100 1000 200
64, 75 6475 259
(c) 64, 75%    or 0, 6475in decimal form.
100 10 000 400
0, 75 75 3
(d ) 0, 75%    or 0, 0075in decimal form.
100 10 000 400

1.1 Percentage of a Quantity

p
To find P% of a quantity Q, we calculate Q .
100
Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. A store adds 8% VAT to the marked price of its merchandise. How
much will be paid for
(a) a tyre marked N$450?
(b) a glass plate marked N$5,95?

203
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 204

(c) a plastic cup marked N$0,75?

SOLUTION
8
1. (a) 8% of N $450   450  N $36
100
Amount payable is N$450 + N$36 = N$486.

8
(b) 8% of N $5,95   5,95  N $0, 476
100
Amount payable is N$5,95 + N$0,476 =
N$6,426=N$6,43.

8
(c) 8% of N $0, 75   0, 75  N $0, 06
100
Amount payable is N$0,75 + N$0,06 = N$0,81.

2. Last year a BWM car sold for N$105000. This year, the price has
gone down by 0,5%. How much does a BMW car cost this year?

SOLUTION
0,5
0,5% of N$105000 = 105000  N $525
100
Amount payable this year is N$105000 - N$525 = N$104475.
3. An article costs N$175 before VAT is added on to it. A customer
pays N$194,25, VAT inclusive, for the article. What percentage
VAT has been added on to the article?

SOLUTION
VAT paid is N$194,25 – N$175 = N$19,25

19, 25
Fraction of marked price added is .
175
19, 25
% VAT added is 100  11%.
175

1.2 Increasing and Decreasing by Percentage

Increasing and decreasing a quantity by a percentage is not different
from what we saw before, whether at school level or in our daily
activities.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Increase
(a) 120 by 25%
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(b) 750km by 12,5%

SOLUTION
25
(a) Method 1: 25% of 120 = 120  30.
100
120 + 30 = 150
Method 2: 100% + 25% = 125%

125
125% of 120 = 120  150
100
12,5
(b) Method 1: 12,5% of 750 =  750  93, 75.
100
750km + 93,75km = 843,75km

Method 2:
100% + 12.5% = 112,5%

112,5
112,5% of 750 =  750  843, 75.
100
2. Decrease
(a) N$18000 by 5%
(b) 105 years by 0,5%

SOLUTION
(a) Method 1: 5% of 18000 = 900
N$18000 – N$900 = N$17100

Method 2: 100% - 5% = 95%

95% of N$18000 = N$17100
(b) Method 1: 0,5% of 105 = 0,525
105years – 0,525years = 104,475 years

Method 2: 100% - 0,5% = 99,5%

99,5% of 105years = 104,475years.
3. A company’s total income increased at 5% per annum from 1st
January 1995 to 31st December 1996. Thereafter, the total
income declined at 3% per annum from 1st January 1997 to 31st
December 1999. On 1st January 1995, total income was
N$45000. How much is the total income at the end of 1999?

205
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 206

SOLUTION
105
As at the end of 1995, income  45000  N $47250
100
105
As at the end of 1996, income  47250  N $49612,50
100
97
As at the end of 1997, income  49612,50  N $48124,13
100
97
As at the end of 1998, income  48124,13  N $46680, 41
100

97
As at the end of 1999, income  46680, 41  N $45278, 00
100

2. Ratio
Ratios represent how one quantity is related to another quantity. A
ratio is a comparison between two or more quantities.

A ratio may be written as A:B or A/B or by the phrase "A to B".

A ratio of 1:5 says that the second quantity is five times as large as the
first.
The following steps will allow a ratio to be determined if two numbers
are known.
Example: Determine the ratio of 24 to 40.
 Divide both terms of the ratio by the greatest common factor (24/8
= 3, 40/8=5)
 State the ratio. (The ratio of 24 to 40 is 3:5)

If Sarah and Tom are to share N$15 with Sarah taking 2 and Tom taking
3
1 , Sarah will get N$10 and Tom will get N$5. In other words, they
3
share the N$15 in the ratio “2:1”, read as “two to one”. We can also
say that the amount was shared in the ratio 10:5.

2.1 Simplifying a Ratio

Ratios are simplified in the same way that fractions are reduced to
4 1
simplest the forms. The fraction has the simplest form just as
12 3
the ratio 4:12 has the simplest form 1:3.
Suppose there are thirty-five people, fifteen of whom are men. Then
the ratio of men to women is 15 to 20.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Notice that, in the expression "the ratio of men to women", "men"

came first. This order is very important, and must be respected:
whichever word came first, its number must come first. If the
expression had been "the ratio of women to men", then the
numbers would have been "20 to 15".

Expressing the ratio of men to women as "15 to 20" is expressing the

ratio in words. There are two other notations for this "15 to 20" ratio:
odds notation: 15 : 20

fractional notation: 15
20
You should be able to recognise all three notations; you will be
expected to know them for your test.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Reduce the following ratios to their simplest forms:
(a) 12:16 (b) 75mm : 10cm (c) N$1.50 : 25c
(d) 45min : 3 hrs (e) 0.75 : 1.12
SOLUTION
(a) 12:16 = 3:4 (dividing by 4)
(b) 75mm:10cm = 75mm:100mm
(converting to same units)
= 75:100 (dropping the units)
= 3:4 (dividing by 25)
(c) N$1.50:25c = 150c:25c (converting to same units)
= 150:25 (dropping the units)
= 6:1 (dividing by 25)
(d) 45minutes:3hours = 45minutes:180minutes
= 45:180
= 1:4

(e) 0.75:1.15= 75:115 (multiplying by 100 to get whole number)

= 15:23

2. Find the value of x in the following ratios:

1
(a) 4 : 3  x :15 (b) : 6  x : 24
2
1
(c) 4 : 3  32 : x (d ) x :1  0.17 :
4

207
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 208

SOLUTIONS
(a) 4 : 3  x :15
15  3  5
x  4  5  20
Hence 4 : 3  20 :15

1
(b) : 6  x : 24
2
24  6  4
1
x  4  2
2
1
Hence : 6  2 : 24
6

(c) 4 : 3  32 : x
32  4  8
x  3  8  24
Hence 4 : 3  32 : 24
1
(d) x :1  0.17 :
4
1
1 4
4
x  0.17  4  0.68
1
Hence 0.68 :1  0.17 :
4
3. Express each of the following in the form 1:n:
(a) 25:75 (b) 42:8 (c) N$0.80:25c

SOLUTIONS
(a) 25:75 = 1:3 (Dividing both by 25 to get 1 on the left)

4
(b) 42 : 8  1: (Dividing both by 42 to get 1 on the left)
21

(c) N$0.80:25c = 80c:25c (same units)

= 80:25
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

5
= 1: (Dividing both by 80 to get 1 on the
16
left)

4. Express the ratios in example 3 in the form n:1:

SOLUTIONS
1
(a) 25:75 = :1 (Dividing both by 75 to get 1 on the right)
3
21
(b) 42:8 = :1 (Dividing both by 8 to get 1 on the right)
4

(c) N$0.80:25c = 80c:25c (same units)

= 80:25

16
= :1 (Dividing both by 25 to get 1 on the
5
right)

2.2 Dividing a Quantity in a Given Ratio

Let’s share 10 apples in the ratio 2:3.
First we share the apples into (2+3=) 5 equal parts. Then out of the five
equal parts, two parts go one way and three parts go the other way.
This is done as follows:
Add the ratios: 2+3=5

Divide the quantity by 5: 10  5  2

Multiply each component of the ratio by 2:
2  2  4 and 3  2  6

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Divide the following quantities in the indicated ratios:
(a) N$56 → 3:4
(b) 906km → 1:3
(c) 609kg → 1:3:2
(d) 120 cows → 1:2:3:4

209
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 210

SOLUTIONS
(a) 3  4  7
56  7  8
3  8  24 and 4  8  2
The amounts are N$24 and N$32
(b) 1  3  4
906  4  226,5
1 226,5  226,5 and 3  226,5  679,5
The distances are 226,5km and 679,5km

(c ) 1  3  2  6
609  6  101,5
1101,5  101,5 and 3 101,5  304,5
and 2 101,5  203
The masses are 101,5kg; 304,5kg and 203kg
(d ) 1  2  3  4  10
120  10  12
112  12; 2 12  24; 3 12  36 and 4 12  48
The numbers of cows are 12; 24; 36 and 48.

2. Mr. Goagoseb has 24 goats and Mrs. Namises has 30 goats. They
decided to share 648kg of animal feed between them in the ratio of the
numbers of their animals. How much does each of them get?

SOLUTION
We are expected to share 648kg in the ratio 24:30. 24:30 = 4:5 in the
simplest form. (Note that this step is not compulsory. However, it helps
us to work with smaller figures.)
45  9
648  9  72
4  72  288 and 5  72  360
Thus Mr. Goagoseb gets 288kg and Mrs. Namises gets 360kg.

3. Abbey, Bianca and Cecil share N$2500 in the ratio of their ages.
Abbey, who is 6 years of age, gets N$600. Bianca is 8 years of age.
(a) How much does Bianca get?
(b) How old is Cecil?
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTION
(a) Let Bianca get x . Then we can have the two equivalent
ratios of Abbey to Bianca as:

6 :8  600 : x
We solve this ratio equation for x to obtain

x  800 .
Therefore Bianca gets N$800.
(b) Let Cecil’s age be y years. Since Abbey gets N$600 and
Bianca gets N$800, then Cecil gets the balance N$1100.
Then we can have the two equivalent ratios
6 : y  600 :1100
Solving this equation for y , we have

y  11 .
Hence Cecil is 11 years old.

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. A soup recipe reads as follows:
400g of plain soup powder
25g of ground ginger
85ml of cream
105ml of water
How long? A pinch of salt recipe serves 5 adults.
Write out the amounts of the different ingredients to make the same
type of soup for 35 adults.
2. A piece of wire is 105m long. Kalomo cuts this piece into two
parts, making one part twice as long as the other. What are the lengths
of the two pieces?

3. Ndapandula has 248 copies of a news article. The ratio of the

number of Ndapandula’s copies to the number of Mariam’s copies is

211
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 212

1
:1 . How many copies does Mariam have?
3
4. A greengrocer sells oranges according to their size. Oranges of
4cm radius are sold at $1 for 10; oranges of 5cm radius are sold at $1
for 6.
(a) Calculate the ratio of the volumes of these two sizes of oranges.
(b) Which size of oranges would you buy if all the oranges are of the
same quality?
Note that the formula for finding a sphere (orange) is given by:

4
V   r3
3
5. A photocopier can print smaller or larger than the original. The
ratio of lengths in the original to lengths in the copies must be one of
the following:
1:0.5 1:0.7 1:1 1:14 1:2
A firm has always used the ratio 1:1, but now wishes to reduce the area
of paper used for each copy by about one half. Which ratio should the
firm choose?

6. PIZZA RECIPE
(MAKES EIGHT)
160g of flour
40g of butter
12 eggs
1,5 litres of milk
4g of yeast
(a) How much flour is needed to make one pizza?
(b) How much butter would be needed for six pizzas?
(c) How many pizzas could be made using 4,5 litres of milk?
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1. 2800g of plain soup powder

 175g of ground ginger

595ml of cream
735ml of water
Feedback
Salt to taste
Serves 35 adults
2. 35m and 70m
3. 744
4. (a) 64 : 125
3
(b) The 5cm radius size. This gives a total volume of 750cm
3
for N$1 whereas the 4cm radius size gives 630cm for N$1.
5. 1 : 0.5
6. (a) 20g (b) 30g (c) 24 pizzas.

3. Proportion
Another comparison between quantities can be done using proportions.
Proportion deals with how one quantity quantitatively relate to another
quantity.
If we consider two quantities Q and P, we may find that one is
dependent on the other or that the two are totally independent of each
other. For instance, the amount of petrol used is dependent on the
distance driven. However, the heights and ages of persons over the age
of forty years are independent.
A proportion is simply a statement that two ratios are equal. It can be
written in two ways:

a c
As two equal fractions  or
b d
Using a colon a:b  c:d
20 4
Given a proportion,  we can read this as twenty is to twenty-
25 5
five as four is to five.
We can use cross products to test whether two ratios are equal and
form a proportion.
To find the cross products of a proportion, we multiply the outer terms
called the extremes and the middle terms called the means.

20 4
For example: in the proportion  which can be expressed as
25 5
20 : 25  4 : 5 ,
20 and 5 are the extremes, and 25 and 4 are the means.
Since the cross products are both equal to 100, then the ratios are

213
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 214

equal and that is true proportion.

We can also use cross products to find a missing term in a proportion.

20 30

50 x
x  75

When two quantities are related, they do so directly or indirectly. We

shall therefore look at DIRECT AND INDIRECT PROPORTIONS.

3.1 Direct Proportion

In figure 11.1, we see that both triangles increase together from top to
bottom or decrease together from bottom to top. We should, however,
note that the increase in one might not generate the same increase in
the other.
Think of driving every 10km with 1litre of fuel. When fuel consumed
increases from 1litre to 4litres, the distance covered will increase from
10km to 40km.

When an increase in one quantity causes increase in another

quantity, or a decrease in one quantity causes a decrease in
another quantity, we say that the two quantities are directly
related. We refer to the relationship as Direct Proportion.

Let’s look at few examples:

EXAMPLE 1
If 30 dozen eggs cost N$300, find the cost of 5 dozen eggs.

SOLUTION
Let x be the required price of 5 dozens of eggs
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

EGGS (dozens) COST(N$)

30 300
5 x
OR

Since quantities are in direct proportion, we use the above principle:

30 300

5 x
x  N $50

EXAMPLE 2

A car travels 81 km on 4.5 liters. How far will it go with 20 liters of

petrol?

SOLUTION

Let x be the required distance travelled by the car on 20 litres.

PETROL DISTANCE

4.5 81

20 x

x  360km

EXAMPLE 3

4 bricklayers could lay 240 bricks in one day, working at the same rate:

(a) How many bricks could 12 bricklayers lay in one day?

(b) How many bricklayers could lay 180 bricks in one day?

SOLUTION

(a) Let x be the number of bricks that 12 bricklayers can lay in 1 day.

BrickLayers Bricks

4 240

12 x

4 x  12  240
x  720

215
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 216

12 bricklayers can lay 720 bricks in one day.

(b) Brick Layers Bricks

4 240

x 180

240 x  4  180
x3

3 bricklayers can lay 180 bricks in one day.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES

1. Which of the following pairs are directly proportional?

(a) Petrol consumed in driving and distance driven.
(b) Petrol remaining in tank and distance yet to be
covered.
(c) The number of cleaners cleaning a hall and the time it
takes them to clean the hall.
(d) Kilograms of sugar consumed and the number of
consumers.
SOLUTIONS
(a) As petrol consumed increases, so does the distance
covered. Hence the pair is in direct proportion.
(b) As the petrol in the tank decreases, so does the
uncovered distance. Hence the pair is in direct
proportion.
(c) The more cleaners there are to clean the hall, the
less the time it will take them to clean the hall.
Hence this pair is NOT in direct proportion.
(d) Kilograms consumed increases with the number of
consumers. Hence the pair is in direct proportion.

2. An electricity bill consists of a fixed rate of N$25 per month and

a consumption rate of 15c per unit. How much will be paid for a
period of three months during which 715 units of electricity
were consumed?

SOLUTION
Fixed rate at N$25 per month = 3  25for three months  N $75
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Consumption : 15c per unit  715 15c for 715units  N $107, 25

Total bill for three months =N$107,25 + N$75 =N$182,25.

3.2 Indirect Proportion

In figure 11.2, we see that as Q decreases from right to left, P increases

from left to right.
Now let us think of the amount of petrol remaining in a car tank and
the distance the car has already traveled. The more the car travels, the
less is the remaining petrol in the tank, or if we increase the speed, the
time taken to cover a given distance decreases.
Two quantities may change in such a manner that if one quantity
increases, the other quantity decreases and vice versa.

We say two quantities are indirectly proportional to each other if

one increases as the other decreases.

Let’s look at the following examples:

EXAMPLE 1

If it takes 4 days for 10 men to dig a trench, how long will it take 8
men?

We can arrange the information as follows.

MEN  DAYS

10  4

1  10  4  40

217
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 218

40
8  5
8

It takes 5 days for 8 men to dig the trench.

Or

We can use the Vedic Method:

The first by the first and the last by the last

4 : 10 8: x
4  10  8 x
40  8 x
x5

8 men take 5 days

EXAMPLE 2

If 15 workers can build a wall in 48 hours, how many workers will be

required to do the same work in 30 hours?

WORKER HOURS

15 48

x 30

15  48  30 x
720  30 x
x  24

To finish work in 30 hours, 24 workers are required.

Let’s look at more examples, as given below:

EXAMPLE
1. Fifteen men could dig a ditch in three days. Assume that all men
work at the same rate.
(a) How many men could dig the same ditch in five days?
(b) How many days would it take five men to dig the same ditch?
SOLUTION
(a) 15 men can dig it in 3 days
15  3  45men can dig in1day
45  5  9 men can dig in 5days

(b) 3 days are enough for 15 men

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

3 15  45days are enough for1man

45  5  9days are enough for 5men
2. Water from a boiling pot evaporates at the rate of 3ml per second.
In the beginning, there is 4,8 l of water and same just before
evaporation started.
Assume that the rate of evaporation is constant throughout.
(a) How much water is left in the pot after 10 minutes of evaporation?
(b) How long does it take the whole water to evaporate?

SOLUTION
(a) 10 minutes = 600 seconds.
Evaporation is 3ml per second.
3  600  1800 ml will evaporatein 600seconds
Amount of water left after10 minutes will be
4800 ml 1800 ml
 3000 ml
 3 litres

(b) 3 litres = 3000ml

3ml evaporates in 1 second.

1
1 ml will evaporatein second
3
1
3000 ml will evaporatein  3000seconds
3
 1000seconds
 16 minutes and 40seconds

Here follows an example of mixed proportions:

Four workers can plough six hectares of field in twelve days. Working at
the same rate in similar fields,
(a) How many workers can plough eight hectares in sixteen days?
(b) How many days will it take six workers to plough four hectares?
(c) How many hectares can eight workers plough in six days?

SOLUTION
(a) We wish to find the number of workers.
4 workers plough 6 hectares in 12 days

219
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 220

4 12 workers will plough 6 hectres in1day

4 12
workers will plough1hectrein1day
6
8 workers will plough 6 hectres in1day
8  8 workers will plough 8 hectres in1day
88
workers will plough 8 hectres in16 days
16
4workers will plough 8 hectres in16 days.

(b) We wish to find the number of days.

12 days for 4 workers to plough 6 hectares

12  4 days for1worker to plough 6 hectres.

4 12
days for1worker to plough1hectre.
6
8 days for1worker to plough1hectre.
4  8 days for1worker to plough 4 hectres.
48
days for 6 workers to plough 4 hectres.
6
1
5 days for 6 workers to plough 4 hectres.
3
(c) We wish to find the number of hectares.
6 hectares take 4 workers 12 days

6
hectres can be ploughed by1worker in12 days
4
6
 12 hectres ploughed by1worker in1day
4
0,125 hectres ploughed by1worker in1day
0,125  8 hectres ploughed by1worker in1day
0,125  8  6 hectres ploughed by8 workers in 6 days
6 hectres can be ploughed by8 workers in 6 days
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 40 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers after the
activity, but please do not look at them until you have considered the problems
Activity yourself. This will help you to prepare for the assignments.

1. A group of workers is digging a trench. When there are 6 workers, the length
of the trench they can dig is 18m in 1 day. All the workers dig at the same
rate.
(a) Work out the length of the trench 1 worker could dig in 1 day
How long? (b) A group of workers digs 12m in 1 day. How many workers are in
this group?
2. To make a shade of pink paint, a painter mixes 4 litres of white paint with
16 litres of red paint.
(a) How many litres of white paint should he mix with 52 litres of
red paint to maintain the same shade of pink paint?
(b) If he decided to mix 4500ml of white paint with the correct amount
of red paint, how many litres of pink paint will he get?
3. The price tag on a piece of furniture is shown below.

(a) How many such pieces of furniture can be bought for N$8100?
(b) How much will be paid for 3 pieces of the same furniture?

221
Unit 11 Percentages, ratios and proportions 222

1. (a) 3m (b) 4 workers

 2. (a) 13 litres
(b) The 4500ml of white paint plus 18000ml of red paint
give 22.5 litres of pink paint.
Feedback
3. (a) 6 (b) N$4050

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.
Math 12 proportions worksheet. (2000).
[http://www.elcamino.edu/faculty/gscott/m12c5rw.pdf]

Percentages: Percentages are simply a convenient way of expressing

 fractions or decimals, e.g. 25% means

1
25
100
which can

Keywords/concepts be expressed as a simple fraction as or in decimal

4
form as 0.25.

Ratios: The ratio is a comparison between two or more

quantities. The ratio is used to describe a fraction. If
the ratio of one tree’s height to the other tree’s
2 1
height is 2:10, then the shorter tree is  as tall
10 5
as the longer tree.

Direct Direct proportion is when two quantities are both

Proportion: increasing together, or both are decreasing together,
e.g.the number of apples bought and their cost:

Apples 1 2 3 4

Cost 20 cents 40 cents 60 cents 80 cents

 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Indirect Indirect proportion is if one quantity of the two

Proportion: quantities increases as the other decreases, e.g. the
number of boys building the bridge and the days it
takes:

Number of 2 boys 4 boys 5 boys 8 boys

Boys

Number of 40 days 20 days 16 days 10 days

days it takes

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about percentages, ratios and proportions.

 About percentages you learned how to:



convert vulgar and decimal fractions to percentages and vice versa.
find a percentage of a quantity.
Summary
 increase and decrease a given percentage.
About ratios you learned how to:
 simplify ratios.
 divide a quantity in a given ratio
You also learnt that in proportion, when two quantities are related,
they do so directly or indirectly, hence you learned two types of
proportions.
Please remember that direct proportion is when two quantities are both
increasing together or both are decreasing together, while indirect
proportion is if one quantity of the two quantities increases as the other
decreases.

223
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 224

Unit 12

Simple and Compound Interests

Introduction
As you know, when we buy things on Hire Purchase, an extra charge is
attracted. In the end, the purchaser would have paid more than the
original price of the item purchased. On the other hand, buyers would
want some reduction in the original price when they are “paying cash”
at the time of purchase. Therefore, we can say that when a purchase is
made, one or more of three situations arise – paying more than the
original price; paying the original price, or paying less than the original
price.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 


calculate the interest, time, rate, principal and amount related to
simple interests
calculate the interest, time, rate, principal and amount related to
Objectives compound interests

Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE.Oxford: Oxford

 University Press.

Prescribed reading
Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation

 Mathematics, Chichester. Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional reading

1. Basic Definitions
Please look at the definitions of the following basic terms that w e
use when we discuss interests:
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

Table 12.1: Basic Terms

Interest This is money paid for the use of capital

borrowed or invested.

Principal This is the capital on which interest is

calculated. It can also be referred to as
money invested or borrowed.

Rate The rate (or interest rate) is the percentage

of the principal payable as interest on the
capital.

Time This is the period for which the principal is

borrowed or invested. Time is usually
expressed in years, although smaller units of
time are often applicable.

Amount This is the sum of the principal and all the

interests paid during the investment period.

Nominal Rate of Interest The interest rate is often given per year. This
is indicated by “p.a.” which stands for “per
annum”. However, this rate may be applied
for periods other than a year. When this
happens, the given interest rate p.a. is called
the nominal interest rate (or simply the
nominal rate).

Effective Interest Rate As the name suggests, this is the rate that
actually determines the interest earned on
the capital.

Let the nominal rate be represented by i and the effective rate be

represented by r. Then the relationship between these two is expressed
mathematically by

r  1  i   1, where m is the frequency of interest calculations.

m

As an example, let us consider the following:

It is stated that interest will be paid at 10% p.a. on an investment.
However, the interests are calculated quarterly. To find the effective
rate of interest, we proceed as follows:
m = 4 because there are four quarters in a year.

225
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 226

10
i % because interest is to be calculated 4 times in a year.
4
4
 10 
r  1    1
 4
4
 10 
r  1   1
 400 
r  1.1038  1
r  0.1038
r  10.38%
Effective (actual) interest is 10.38%.

2. Simple Interests
To introduce this concept, let:
P represent the money borrowed or invested
I represent interest on P
r represent annual interest rate
t represent time in years
A represent the amount due after t years

Simple interest is calculated on a one-time investment at the end

of the investment period.

This interest is referred to as simple, because it does not generate any

interest itself.
The following formulas are used in calculations of simple interests. The
particular formula to be used for a particular problem depends on the
information given in the problem.
I  pr t
A pI or A  p (1  rt )
I
r
pt
I
t
pr

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Find the simple interest payable on a loan of N$2500 at 25% p.a.
at the end of 3 years.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTION
p  N $2500
r  25%  0.25
t  3 yrs
I  pr t
 2500  0.25  3
 N $1875

The simple interest is N$1875.

1
2. Find the simple interest payable on a loan of N$2500 at 12 %
2
p.a. at the end of 18 months.
SOLUTION
p  N $2500
r  12.5%  0.125
t  1.5 yrs
 2500  0.125 1.5
 N $468.75
The simple interest is N$468.75
3. For how long should an amount of N$5000 be invested at 5% p.a.
to generate an interest of N$750?

SOLUTION
p  N $5000
r  5%  0.05
I  750
t ?
I
t
pr
750

(5000  0.05)
 3 yrs
Interest of N$750 is generated at the end of 3 years.

4. John wants to buy a car after 10 years. He wants to have

N$75000 at the time of purchase. How much should he invest

227
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 228

now in a savings account that pays simple interest at 12%?

SOLUTION
t  10 yrs
r  12%  0.12
A  75000
p?
A  p(1  rt )
A
p (by formula transposition or changein subject of formula)
(1  rt )
75000

(1  0.12 10)
 N $34 090.91
He should invest N$34090.91 now.

5. Andrew invested N$12550 for 5 years. After the 5 years, he

received a total amount of N$22500 from his investment.
Calculate the annual rate at which interest was paid.

SOLUTION
Method 1
A  p (1  rt )
22500  12550(1  5r )
22500
 1  5r
12550
0.793  5r
r  0.1586
r  15.86%

Method 2
I  22500  12550 from I  A  P
 9950
I
r
pt
9950

12550  5
 0.1586
r  15.86%
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

The annual interest rate is 15.86%.

3. Types of Simple Interests and Time

We will now look at the following methods of computing simple interests
between two dates.

3.1 Exact Time and Ordinary Interest (The Banker’s Rule)

The exact time of an investment is the number of days between the
investment date and the maturity date. Ordinary interest is calculated
based on a year of 360 days.
Let’s look at the following examples:
EXAMPLE
A sum of N$150000 is invested on the 15 th of February 2009 at 12% p.a.
simple interest. Calculate the ordinary interest on the 31 st of December
2009 based on the exact time of investment.
SOLUTION
P = N$150000 and r = 12% = 0.12
Calculate the exact time as follows:
DATE NUMBER OF DAYS
Dec. 31 365
Feb. 15 - 46
Exact time 319 days

319
t
360
I  prt
319
 150 000  0.12 
360
 15950.00
Hence the ordinary interest for the exact time is N$15950.00.

3.2 Exact Time and Exact Interest

In this case the exact interest is calculated based on a year of 365 days
(or 366 days for a leap year).
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLE
A sum of N$150000 is invested on the 15 th of February 2009 at 12%
simple interest. Calculate the exact interest on the 31st of December
2009 based on the exact time of investment.
SOLUTION
P = N$150000 and r = 12% = 0.12

229
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 230

Calculate the exact time as follows:

DATE NUMBER OF DAYS
Dec. 31 365
Feb. 15 - 46
Exact time 319 days

319
Thus t  .
365
I  prt
319
 150 000  0.12 
365
 15731.51
Hence the exact interest for the exact time is N$15731.51.
EXAMPLE
A sum of N$150000 is invested on the 15 th of February 2009 at 12%
simple interest. Calculate the exact interest on the 31 st of December
2009 based on the exact time of investment.

SOLUTION
P = N$150000 and r = 12% = 0.12
Calculate the exact time as follows:
DATE NUMBER OF DAYS
Dec. 31 366
Feb. 15 - 46
Exact time 320 days

320
Thus t  .
366
I  prt
320
 150 000  0.12 
366
 15737.70
Hence the exact interest for the exact time is N$15737.70.

3.3 Approximate Time and Ordinary Interest

To find the approximate time, you should construct a table and subtract
as you can see in the following example:

EXAMPLE
A sum of N$150000 is invested on the 15 th of February 2009 at 12%
simple interest. Calculate the ordinary interest on the 31 st of December
2009 based on the approximate time of investment.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

SOLUTION
P = N$150000 and r = 12% = 0.12
Calculate the approximate time as follows:

Date Month Day

Dec. 31 12 31
Feb. 15 2 15

Difference 10 16

Now convert to approximate time in days:

(10 months  30 days per month) 16 days
 316 days.
316
Thus t  .
360
I  prt
316
 150 000  0.12 
360
 15800.00
Hence the ordinary interest for the approximate time is N$15800.00.

3.4 Approximate Time and Exact Interest

Consider the following example:

EXAMPLE
A sum of N$150000 is invested on the 15 th of February 2009 at 12%
simple interest. Calculate the exact interest on the 31 st of December
2009 based on the exact time of investment.

SOLUTION
P = N$150000 and r = 12% = 0.12
Calculate the approximate time as follows:

Date Month Day

231
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 232

Dec. 31 12 31
Feb. 15 2 15

Difference 10 16

Now convert to approximate time in days:

(10 months  30 days per month) 16 days
 316 days.
316
Thus t  .
365
I  prt
316
 150 000  0.12 
365
 15583.56
Hence the exact interest for the approximate time is N$15583.56.

Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLES
1. Monica borrowed N$8000 from a bank and paid off the principal
together with interest N$525.80 at the end of 190 days. If the bank
applied the banker’s rule, what rate of interest did the banker charge?

SOLUTION
190
p  8000.00 I  525.80 t
360
I
r
pt
525.80

190
8000 
360

525.80
8000  0.527778
 0.1245
 12.45%
The bank charged a rate of 12.45%.

2. Ninety days after investing money, the investor was paid

exactly N$870.19.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(i) Calculate the amount invested if the payment included

1
principal and ordinary simple interest at 9 %.
2
(ii) Calculate the amount invested if the payment included
1
principal and exact simple interest at 9 %.
2
SOLUTION
90
(i) A  870.19 r  0.095 t
360
A
p
1  rt
870.19

90
1  0.095 
360
870.19

1  0.095  0.25
 N $850.00

90
(ii ) A  870.19 r  0.095 t
365
A
p
1  rt
870.19

90
1  0.095 
365
870.19

1  0.095  0.246575342
 N $850.27

233
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 234

Activity 1

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
(1) Find the simple interest on a N$8500 loan at an annual interest
rate of 12% for 2 years.
(2) Calculate the maturity value of an investment of N$30000 due
How long?
in 5 years when the annual simple interest rate is 16%.
(3) Benson wishes to take a loan at an annual simple interest rate
of 14.5% for 7 months. He is told that he will have to pay back
the sum of N$5422.92 at the end of the 7months. Calculate the
loan Benson wishes to take.
(4) The maturity value of a loan of N$30000.00 is N$54000.00.
(i) Calculate the annual simple interest rate if the loan
takes 5 years to mature.
(ii Calculate the time the loan takes to mature if the
annual simple interest rate is 16%.
5. Find the ordinary simple interest on a loan of
(i) N$900 at 14.5% for 120 days
(ii) N$1400 at 13% for 90 days
6. Find the exact simple interest on a loan of
(i) N$900 at 14.5% for 120 days
(ii) N$1400 at 13% for 90 days
7. How many days will it take a loan of N$1000
(i) to earn N$50 at 12% ordinary simple interest?
(ii) to accumulate to at least N$1500 at 18.75% exact
simple interest?

1. N$2040

 2.
3.
4.
N$5400
N$5000.00
(i) r = 16%
Feedback
(ii) t = 5 years
5. (i) N$43.50
(ii) N$45.50
6. (i) 42.90
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

(ii) 44.88
7. (i) 150 days
(ii) 973.33 days

4. Compound Interest
This type of interest is different from simple interests we studied in
section 2 of this unit.

While the simple interest is calculated once on a once-off

investment at the end of the investment period, compound
interests are calculated periodically (within the investment
period) on the amount of the investment at the time of
calculation.

This means that when you invest N$1000 for 3 years at 10% p.a. and you
want your interests capitalised annually, then after 1 year, your amount
would be N$1000 + N$100 = N$1100. (Verify that the simple interest on
N$1000 at 10% p.a. for 1 year is N$100.)
Now your investment for the second year is N$1100. At the end of the
second year, your amount would be
N$1100 + N$110 = N$1210. (Verify that the simple interest on N$1100 at
10% p.a. for 1 year is N$110.)
Your investment for the third year is now N$1210. At the end of that
third year, your amount would be
N$1210 + N$121 = N$1331. (Verify that the simple interest on N$1210 at
10% p.a. for 1 year is N$121.)
You have now noticed that we actually calculated simple interest three
times on three different investments, each investment being for 1 year
at 10% p.a.
If you were to calculate the simple interest on N$1000 at 10% for 3
years, the amount would be N$1300. (Verify this as true by doing the
calculations.)
(Next time you want to invest some money in a savings account, request
that the interests be capitalised!)
However, it can be tiresome to calculate simple interests a number of
times on different investments if we wish to calculate the amount due
at the end of an investment where interests are capitalised. To ease
our calculations, let us study the method of calculating compound
interests directly.
To introduce this concept let:
P represent capital or investment
A represent the amount at the end of the investment period
i represent the interest rate per compounding period

235
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 236

n represent the number of compounding periods

Then

A
A  (1  i)n and p
1  rt
Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the amount payable for a loan of N$1000 for 3 years at the
rate of 10% p.a. compounded annually.

A  (1  i ) n
p  N $1000
i  10%
n  3 years
3
 10 
A  1000 1  
 100 
 1000 1.1
3

 1000  1.331
 N $1331
The amount payable is N$1331.
2. Calculate the amount payable for a loan of N$1000 for 3 years at the
rate of 10% p.a. compounded quarterly.

SOLUTION

A  (1  i ) n
p  N $1000
10
i %(interest compounded 4 times a year)
4
n  3  4  12 years (thereare12quartersin 3 years)
A?
12
 10 1   10 10 1 
A  1000 1    note  %   
 4 100   4 4 100 
12
 10 
A  1000 1  
 400 
 1000 1.025 
12

 N $1344.89
The amount payable is N$1344.89.
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

3. Jane inherited a sum of money from her father. She wants to invest
part of the inherited money so that after 10 years, she could get
N$250000 from the investment. The bank has accepted to pay interest
1
at 7 % p.a. compounded semi-annually.
2
(i) How much should Jane invest?
(ii) How much interest would her investment generate?

SOLUTION
A  N $250000
n  20 years (thereare 20six-months periodsin10 years)
7.5
i %(interest compounded 4 times a year)
4
P?
A
p
(1  i ) n
250 000
p
(1  0.0375) 20
250 000  7.5 7.5 1 
  %   0.0375 
(1  0.0375) 20  2 2 100 
 119723.09
Jane should invest N$119723.09.

(i ) I  A  p
 250 000  119 723.09
 130 276.91
The interest is N$130276.91.

4. A trust fund is expected to grow from N$360000 to N$500000 in 4

years when the interest is compounded monthly. At what annual
interest rate is the trust expected to grow?

SOLUTION

A  p 1  i 
n

A  N $500 000
p  N $360 000
n  48 months
i?

237
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 238

p (1  i ) n  A
A
(1  i ) n 
p
500 000

360 000
 1.38889
1  i  48 1.38889
 1.006867324
i  0.00687
The annual interest rate is 0.00687 12  0.0824.
That is annual interest rate is 8.24%.

Activity 2

 Time Required: About 45 minutes

Directions: Please answer the following questions. You will find answers
after the activity, but please do not look at them until you have
Activity considered the problems yourself. This will help you to prepare for the
assignments.
1. Determine the compound amount if N$5000 is invested for 10 years
at 5% p.a. compounded annually.
2. Tony invested a sum of money for 2 years at 8% p.a. compounded
How long? annually. At the end of the 2 years, he received a total amount of
N$1166.40. How much did Tony invest?
3. Determine the sum to be invested for 4 years at 8% p.a. compounded
semi-annually to amount to N$3500 at the end of the investment
period.

4. If N$750 amounts to N$1200 in 3 years, determine the nominal rate

converted monthly.
5. Fifty-five years old Tate Paul invested N$80000 in a savings account
that paid 10% p.a. compounded semi-annually. After 5 years, the
interest rate increased by 2%. The compounding period also changed to
quarterly. Tate Paul made no withdrawal from this savings account until
he was seventy years old. How much was in Tate Paul’s savings account
at the age of seventy?
6. Miss Ndapandula wishes to save for her wedding day, which comes up
exactly two and a half years from now. She has N$6000 to invest in a
savings account that pays interest at 10% p.a. compounded every two
months. How much will she have to borrow to add to her investment
amount if her wedding budget stands at N$12500 on the day of her
wedding?
 Introduction to Mathematics ITM111S

1. N$8144.47

 2.
3.
4.
N$1000.00
N$2557.42
15.8%
Feedback
5. At the end of the first 5 years, A = N$130311.57
At the end of the next 10 years, A=N$425081.27
1
6. Compound amount after 2 years is N$4811.71.
2

Mustoe, L.R. & Barry, M.D.J., Wiley, J. and Sons Ltd (1998). Foundation
Mathematics, Chichester.Wiley-Blackwell.
Rayner, D. (2000). Extended Mathematics For IGCSE, Oxford: Oxford
References University Press.
Swift, L. (2001). Quantitative Methods for Business, Management and
Finance, Palgrave Publishers, Parts EM and MM.New York.
Wilkes F.M. (1999). Mathematics for Business, Finance and Economics,
Second Edition. Thompson Business Press.New York.

Interest: The money paid for the use of capital borrowed or invested.

 Principal: The capital on which interest is calculated (money

borrowed or invested).
Keywords/concepts Rate: The rate or interest rate is the percentage of the principal
payable as interest on the capital.

Time: The period for which the principal is borrowed or invested.

Amount: The sum of the principal and all the interests paid during
the investment period.

Nominal Rate of The interest rate is often given per year. This is indicated
Interest: by “p.a.” which stands for “per annum”. However, this rate
may be applied for periods other than a year. When this
happens, the given interest rate p.a. is called the nominal
interest rate (or simply the nominal rate).

Effective Interest As the name suggests, this is the rate that actually
Rate: determines the interest earned on the capital.

Simple Interest: The simple interest is calculated on a one time investment

at the end of the investment period.

Compound Interest: Compound interests are calculated periodically (within the

investment period) on the amount of the investment at the
time of calculation.

239
Unit 12 Simple and Compound Interests 240

Maturity Value: The maturity value is represented by S or A. Maturity value

is an amount at the end of the investment period.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned basic definitions with regard to interests,

 simple interests, types of simple interests, time and compound

interests.
Please take note that simple interest is calculated once on a once-off
investment at the end of the investment period, while compound
Summary
interest is calculated periodically (within the investment period) on the
amount of the investment at the time of calculation. Finally you have
learnt to use appropriate formulas to help you to make your
calculations simpler and faster.