Human Development and Learning (EDU302) VU

Human Development and Learning (EDU 302)

Table of Contents
S.NO Contents Page
1 Lecture No.1 (Topics 1-8) 3
2 Lecture No.2 (Topics 9-11) 8
3 Lecture No.3 (Topics 12-17) 9
4 Lecture No.4 (Topic18) 15
5 Lecture No.5 (Topic 19) 15
6 Lecture No.6 (Topic 20) 17
7 Lecture No.7 (Topics 21-23) 17
8 Lecture No.8 (Topics 24-26) 20
9 Lecture No.9 (Topics 27-30) 22
10 Lecture No.10 (Topics 31-35) 25
11 Lecture No.11 (Topics 36-39) 28
12 Lecture No.12 (Topic 40) 31
13 Lecture No.13 (Topics 41-44) 31
14 Lecture No.14 (Topics 45-48) 35
15 Lecture No.15 (Topics 49-50) 39
16 Lecture No.16 (Topics 51-53) 40
17 Lecture No.17 (Topics 54-56) 42
18 Lecture No.18 (Topics 57-60) 44
19 Lecture No.19 (Topics 61-65) 46
20 Lecture No.20 (Topics 66-71) 49
21 Lecture No.21 (Topics 72-76) 53
22 Lecture No.22 (Topics 77-83) 56
23 Lecture No.23 (Topics 84-88) 61
24 Lecture No.24 (Topics 89-99) 64
25 Lecture No.25 (Topics 100-106) 72
26 Lecture No.26 (Topics 107-115) 77
27 Lecture No.27 (Topics 116-120) 82
28 Lecture No.28 (Topics 121-130) 90
29 Lecture No.29 (Topics 131-138) 95
30 Lecture No.30 (Topics 139-144) 99
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31 Lecture No.31 (Topics 145-151) 103
32 Lecture No.32 (Topics152-160) 108
33 Lecture No.33 (Topics161-165) 112
34 Lecture No.34 (Topics166-171) 114
35 Lecture No.35 (Topics172-184) 118
36 Lecture No.36 (Topics185-195) 124
37 Lecture No.37 (Topics196-204) 130
38 Lecture No.38 (Topics205-211) 135
39 Lecture No.39 (Topics212-219) 138
40 Lecture No.40 (Topics220-227) 141
41 Lecture No.41 (Topics228-237) 150
42 Lecture No.42 (Topics238-247) 157
43 Lecture No.43 (Topics 248-256) 166
44 Lecture No.44 (Topics257-263) 172
45 Lecture No.45 (Topics264-269) 175

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Lecture: 01
(Topics: 1-8)
Topic: 01. Introduction of Growth and development

Development is a process that entails the entire life-span of an individual, from conception to death.
Some of us are intrigued to understand how development does evolve over the years, what are the
changes that occur and how do they occur during the life-span? A study of all changes throughout
the life-span of an individual is referred to as developmental psychology, developmental science or
human development (Keenan & Evans, 2009). However, when we focus our attention to
understand the growth, changes and consistencies, on a rather narrower portion of life-span, from
conception through adolescence, we are referring to the study of child development.

The field of child development is multidisciplinary, which draws its knowledge from several
other fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, and neuroscience to name a few
(Berk, 2013). Likewise, it informs the practices of various experts who are keen to improve the lives
of children. These include educators, pediatricians, psychologists, child care service providers, social
service professionals, and parents. In this way, the field of child development has both scientific as
well as practical relevance and utility.

While the study of child development is important in its own right, it also informs us about the
nature of human development. A better understanding of the growth, changes and stability in the
earlier behaviors of life has the potential to inform later behavior, also referred to as adult behavior.
As we focus on the growth and development of children in this unit, we draw upon the life-span
developmental psychology to inform our understanding.

Overview of Growth and Development

This section provides an overview of two interrelated yet discrete concepts: growth and
development. Child's growth and development are complex processes which are influenced by
multiple factors and sources. The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably or
paired up in a rather similar way, which causes ambiguity over their meaning. It is, therefore,
important to understand the difference between these two terms right at the outset.

Topic: 02.Difference between Growth and Development Growth

The term growth implies an addition or increase in the bodily aspects that can be measured, for
example, height, weight, size, muscles and length (Woolfolk, 2014). It is based on biological
processes that naturally occur over a period of time and are relatively not or less influenced by
context except for extreme illness or undernourishment. It eventually stops when the body parts
reach the peak of their growth. Overall, growth refers to the natural, spontaneous, specific,
genetically programmed, and measurable quantitative gains in a human body. Most of the child's
physical gains fall within this category. Some of the developmental psychologists also refer to these
changes as maturation.
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Development

While growth refers to the physical changes that an individual undergoes, development refers to
certain changes that occur within lifespan life-span of an individual, that is, from conception till
death (Keenan & Evans, 2009). It not only involves growth but also entails disintegration and
eventually decays (death). However, not all changes are considered as development. Rather, it applies
to those changes that appear in orderly ways and are considered permanent. Most of these changes
are qualitative in nature and influenced by context, for example, changes in behavioral, social, moral
and intellectual aspects of an individual. Overall, these changes result in better, adaptive, organized
and complex human behaviors.

Development has been described in different ways to highlight different aspects. These include
domains of development and stages of development. While the former emphasizes the processes
that characterize development latter later on focuses certain age periods to manage the flow of time
across child development. The following sections describe each of them in detail.

TOPIC: 03-07. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Topic: 03.Principles 0f Human Development-1 Developmental psychologists believe that

knowledge of an accurate pattern of development is fundamental to an understanding of children.
There are several basic principles that characterize the pattern and process of growth and
development. These principles describe typical development as a predictable and orderly process.
Even though there are individual differences in children‘s personalities, attitudes, behavior, and
timing of development, the principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns.

1. Development involves change: - The human being is undergoing changes from the moment of
conception to the time of death. There are different types of change that occur such a, changes in
size, and proportions, the disappearance of old features and the acquisition of new features etc. The
goal of these developmental changes is self-realization, which Abraham Maslow has labeled as self-
actualization. Each individual is equipped with certain abilities and potentialities at birth. By utilizing
the innate or inborn abilities one tries to realize and strive for self-actualization during the total life
period. Children‘s attitude toward change is generally determined by their knowledge about these
changes, social attitudes toward this change, and the way people of society treat to children when
these changes take place.

2. Development is a continuous process: - Development continues throughout the life of an

individual. This process takes place in interaction with the environment in which a person lives. One
stage of development is the basic framework for the next stage of development. A child has limited
knowledge and experiences about his environment. But as he develops, he acquires more
information through explorations and ads to the skills already acquired and the new skills become
the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills. For example, the child is able to write and
draw; he must have developed a hand control to hold a pencil and crayon. Thus, a person has vast
experiences and knowledge as he grows up.

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3. Development follows a direction and uniform pattern in an orderly manner: - (i)
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of proximodistal
development that describes the direction of development (from nearer to far apart). It means that
the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child‘s arms develop before the hands
and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. (ii) Development proceeds from the
head downwards. This is called the cephalocaudal principle. According to this principle,
development occurs from head to tail. The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and
then the legs.

Topic: 04. Principles of Human Development-2

4. Individual Differences in the Development Process: - Even though the pattern of

development is similar for all children but the rate of development varies among children. Each
child develops as per his abilities and perception of his environment. Children differ from each
other both genetically and environmentally. So, both biological factor and environmental situations
have their impact on individual development which leads to individual differences in development.
Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of development should aware us to be
careful about using and relying on age and stage characteristics to label children.

5. Development depends on maturation and learning: - Maturation refers to the sequential

characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential
order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for
maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. The
child‘s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child‘s experiences largely
determine whether the child will reach optimal development. An enriched environment and varied
experiences help the child to develop his/her potential.

Topic: 05. Principles of Human Development -3

6. Development is predictable: - Human development is predictable during the life span.

Although this development is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, however, it
takes place in a pre-defined manner. Specific areas of development, such as: different aspects of
motor development, emotional behavior, speech, social behavior, concept development, goals,
intellectual development etc. follow predictable patterns. For example, the growth of the child in
height and weight etc. continue up to a certain age. In general, it is also found that all children follow
a commonality in the development periods of life. All children generally grow following the periods
like prenatal period and postnatal period. The postnatal period includes infancy, babyhood,
childhood, puberty and so on.

7. Early development is more critical than later development: - Milton writes ―The childhood
shows the man, as morning shows the day.‖ Similarly, Erikson views ―childhood is the scene of
men‘s beginning as man.‖ He explains that if parents gratify the needs of the child for food,
attention and love etc., his perception towards people and situation remains positive throughout his

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life. He develops positive attitudes, feels secure, emotionally stable and adjusts well with the
environment. If negative experiences occur during early life of the child, maladjustments may take
place. Glueck concludes that delinquents can be identified as early as 2-3 years of age. Different
researchers‘ view that the preschool year‘s age are most important years of development as basic
foundation is laid down during this period which is difficult to change.

Topic: 06. Principles of Human Development-4

8. Development involves Social expectations: - In every society there are certain rules, standards
and traditions which everyone is expected to follow. Development is determined by social norms
and expectations of behaviors form the individuals. Children learn customs, traditions and values of
the society and also what behaviors are expected from them. They realize from the approval or
disapproval of their behavior. Social expectations are otherwise known as ―developmental tasks‖.
Havinghurst defines developmental task as a ―task which arises at or about a certain period in the
life of an individual. Developmental tasks arise mainly

(a) as a result of physical maturation;

(b) form the cultural pressures of society,

(c) out of the personal values and aspirations of the individual.

The developmental tasks remain the same from one generation after another in a particular culture.
As societies are evolving, changing traditions and cultural patterns of a society are learned
automatically by children during their development process. These developmental tasks help in
motivating children to learn as well as help parents to guide their children.

9. Development has potential hazards: - Development may be hampered by various hazards.

Hazards may be of physical, environmental, or psychological type. These hazards may be originated
from the environment in which the child grows or due to hereditary factors. They have negative
impact on the physical as well as socio-psychological development of the child. The growth of the
child may be retarded, he may be an aggressive person or he may encounter adjustment problems.
For example, if a child is slurring or stammering and parents neglect the child, the child may
continue with this problem.

Topic: 07. Principles of Human Development-5

10. Happiness varies at different periods in the development process: - Childhood is the
happiest period of life and puberty is unhappy. The patterns of happiness vary from child to child
and it is influenced by the rearing process of the child. Paul B. Baltes stated six principles of
development of life span approach.

The six principles of development are mentioned below:

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1) Development is a lifelong process- Development is a process that continues throughout life. It
begins at birth and ends in the death of an individual.

2) Development includes both gain and loss during life span. The child may develop in one area
and lose in another area.

3) Development is influenced the biological factor and environmental situations- Human

development is influenced by biological and environmental factors. For example, the body strength
of the child develops in the early period but may deteriorate during old age.

4) Development involves changing the allocation of resources. It states that during different
developmental periods, resources such as; time, money, social support, etc. are used differently. For
example, during old age, people require more money to maintain their proper health.

5) Development can be modified- This principle reveals that through proper training
development can be modified. For example, an individual can maintain his proper health by doing
different exercises even in old age.

6) Development is based upon the historical and cultural environment- The child grows,
develops, and acquires knowledge about the traditions, rules, and regulations of society according to
his historical and cultural environment.

Topic: 08. Factors Affecting Human Development

 Heredity factors
 Environmental factors
 Home Environment
 Cultural factors
 Socioeconomic status (SES)
 Normative influences
 Nutritional
 Education and training
Human development is the process which the changes occur in all the aspects of an organism from
conception to death. It is a natural process for each and every child to grow. But it is observed that
all children do not grow in a similar fashion. Some children‘s physical growth occur earlier than
others, some Individual differences in the development process

1-Development depends on maturation and learning

2-Development is predictable

3-Early development is more critical than later development

4-Development involves social expectation

5-Development has potential hazards

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Lecture: 02
(Topics: 9-11)
Topic: 09.Biological Influences on Human Growth

Human development is a result of the interaction of biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and

ecological processes. Genetic factors are the basic framework of the biological processes of
development. For example, developments of brain, heart, lungs, nervous system etc.; depend largely
on the hereditary characteristics of the individual. Similarly, changes in the height, weight, sex
characteristics are parts of the biological processes of development. Each and every individual tries
to keep himself/herself both physically and mentally healthy. There are differences among
individuals due to the biological basis of self-preservation. For example, a child who is physically
stronger can overcome various problems that come across in the growing up than the less physically
strong child. Similarly, the child who is emotionally stronger and stable can face various problems in
life than the other child. Thus, physical as well as emotional strength relates to genetic factors. Due
to the genetic factor some children have the desire to live longer while other children have the death
wish is stronger.

The biological influences are also observed in the needs of the children. For example, a child needs
food when he is hungry; he requires water when he is thirsty and so on. These needs are associated
with preservation of one‘s life. But how these needs are fulfilled depends upon socio-cultural
influences. The biology of a person is interlinked with his behaviors. Thus, both body and mind are
interdependent. Physical damage can result in mental problems and mental problems may affect
physical well-being.

As human being lives in a society, with his biological endowments he interacts with different stimuli
of the environment. Social traditions, culture, beliefs, nationality and others influence human
behavior. Both culture and behavior of the individual are inseparable. Thus, human development
and behaviors are combination of biological, social and psychological influences. For example, a
child has talent in mathematics by birth due to hereditary factor but if the environment does support
to develop his talent, the innate ability may not develop properly.

Topic: 10.Characteristics of Biological Influences on Human Growth and Behaviors:-

The human growth and behaviors can be understood from the characteristics mentioned below:

1) Behaviors are reproduced in Successive Generations:

Behaviors in species are handed over from generation to generation. In other words, the particular
behavior continues over several generations. For example, goats live to move in flock.

2) Change in Biological Process determines Change in Behaviors: The changes in human

growth and behaviors are determined by changes in biological processes. If there is a change in
biological structure or process then it leads to changes in human growth and behaviors also. For
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example, if there is damage in a particular area of the brain of a person, the behaviors of that person
may change as he may express more aggressiveness or emotionality. Similarly, the intake of certain
drugs may change the brain chemistry which has produced behavioral changes of human beings.

3) Behaviors run in families/ Behaviors are transmitted in families: It has been observed in
families that if a person in the family has a mental disorder; other members of the same family may
have the same problem to some extent because they carry some similar genes which are transmitted
over generations.

4) Genes are Evolutionary: Behavioral changes occur through evolutions of genes. The genes of
chimpanzees and human beings are almost similar. So, chimpanzees are closest to human beings and
their characteristics and behaviors are more or less similar to humans which can be traced on the
basis of history of the evolution of genes.

Happiness varies at different periods of development are physically stronger than others; some are
taller than others and so on. So far as mental development is concerned, some children have better
cognitive ability, memory, reasoning, thinking ability etc. than others. All children also do not have
same type of intelligence. Some have more musical talents, others have more intrapersonal
intelligence, others also have more linguistic abilities etc. So, children differ from each other because
several factors influence on their development. Some of the important factors have been
enumerated below:

Topic: 11.Hereditary Factors:-

 Biological factors refer to the genetic features that individuals receive from their
parents
 General Health of a child maternal age, health, stress and nutrition are likely to
influence a child’s development
 Boys and girls are tend to develop differently
Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries genetic endowments from
his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from one generation to the next. The
physical characteristics like height, weight, eye color etc. and psychological characteristics such as
intelligence, personality, and creativity and so on are innately determined and hereditary. The genetic
code provides the base on which brain and bodies grow and manifest in observable appearance and
behavior. Boys and girls tend to develop differently.

Lecture: 03
(Topics: 12-17)
Topic: 12.Environmental Factors: - Environmental factors include parenting, nutrition, housing,
education; culture, income, employment, health, services, safety etc affects a child‘s development.
Another important factor of human development is the environment where an individual lives. The
child lives and grows in his environment. The environment consists of a wide range of stimuli and it
provides the necessary input and experiential base for the development of the child. Enrichment or
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impoverishment of the environment would produce differences in his abilities. For example, a child
may have inherited music talent from his parents through the transmission of genes, but he may not
excel in music field if he does not get the proper environment and support to develop his innate
ability.

Topic: 13.Interpersonal Relationship: - Interpersonal Relationship is an important aspect of

growth and development. There four important personality component of a child such as

 Physical
 Mental
 Social
 Emotional
Interpersonal relationship is attached with the Social aspect. It tells about the social activeness,
socialization of a child. Internal motivation is about to interact with the people. External motivation
comes after sharing with the people. Attachment is an important word in Interpersonal relationship.

Maslow hierarchy needs a theory that describes

Biological needs

Safety needs: secure man with health mind full fills safety needs

Attachment needs: like child attachment with parents

There is a need to be strong attachment of child with the parents and de-attachment leads towards
psychological trauma. Parenting style is of three types

 Authoritative parenting
 Authoritarian parenting
 Democratic parenting
Authoritative parenting pushes child to learn a lie because he or she feel fear to speak a truth.
Parents try to make friendship with the children. If you did not teach your child then your child
takes help from technology and Google will make their teacher. The gap of father and strict
introduction of him is not good for the child.

Topic: 14.Home Environment:-

Home environment has three important factors that include Parental relationship, Parenting style
and siblings.

Home environment exerts tremendous influence on a child‘s understanding of the external world. It
builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external world. The child begins to acquire
knowledge through interaction with parents and other family members. During his early years of
development, the behaviors of the child are modulated by the home environment. The environment
of the family can be supportive or stressful for the child. If it is the supportive, warm and

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harmonious environment, the child develops normally. In unsupportive and stressful home
environment, broken families or uncaring parents in the family, children may develop as maladjusted
persons.

4) Cultural Factors: - Culture refers to a system of beliefs, attitudes and values that are transmitted
from one generation to the next. It is a product of past human behavior and is also a shaper of
future aspirations. The development of the child is influenced by family as well as by the society.
The child learns the habits, beliefs, attitude, skills and standards of judgment through the
socialization processes. The socialization processes of the child take place according to the culture,
customs and traditions of the society. For example, greeting someone is a familiar experience but
behavioral experiences are different in different cultures. In Indian culture, people greet others by
saying namaskar, folding hands or lying down near the feet but in Western culture, people greet by
handshake or kissing or saying hello etc.

5) Socioeconomic Status (SES):- Socioeconomic Status plays a pivotal role in human

development. The index of socioeconomic status is determined by parental education, occupation
and income. The children of low socioeconomic status may develop as mal-nourished, suffer from
lack of knowledge in many aspects and their normal development may get hampered. The parenting
in high socioeconomic status families would be different from low socio-economic status families.
Children of the high socioeconomic groups of the society get better social opportunities, are
nurtured with better nutrition, good medical treatment and are exposed to more intellectual
stimulation than low socioeconomic group.

6) Normative influences: - Normative influences occur in a similar way for majority of people in a
particular group. These influences may be biological or environmental. For example, biological
events like sexual maturity or deterioration in old age. Environmental events, like entering the school
at about 6 years of age, parenthood etc. has the same influences on individuals. Most of the people
of the same age, at same place and time and generation have common biological and environmental
influences such as floods, famines and other natural disasters. Non-normative influences include the
unusual life events in an individual‘s life. For example, death of a parent when a child is young or
birth defects etc.

7) Education and Training: - Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be
nurtured through proper education and training. Therefore, the first and foremost step is to identify
and recognize the ability of the child and the next step is to provide adequate opportunities to
develop the same. If proper identification of the ability is not possible and adequate facilities are not
available to the child, then his innate ability may not be developed. Thus, adequate education and
training have influence on human development.

Topic: 15.Difference between Intelligence, Heredity and environment: -

Intelligence is a Heredity trait and the role of environment in increasing or decreasing intelligence is
the discussion of the topic. One school of thought believes that its natural based on the genes

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transmitted among generations and another one believes that we can change it, increase it and polish
it. Positive environment can improve and polish intelligence. Intelligence means cognitive abilities. A
command of the mind will come in the result of body actions. Action or response of a child
determines the intelligence of a child. Effect of parents on the intelligence of a child is also
important. It happened due to genes (responsible for the genetic transformation from one
generation to another). Positive environment can be flourished. Exploration, improvement and
utilization of intelligence are dependent upon the environment provided by the parents. Puzzle
games can play a role in the understanding of mathematical skills and can also increase the creativity,
curiosity of a child as compared to role learning. Individual differences among children also existed
with the environmental effects. Hence we can accept both heredity and environment are important
for intelligence.

Topic: 16.Issues of human development: -

A number of controversies exist in the field of child development due to its complex nature.
Researchers vary in their opinion about how children change and develop over time, what are these
changes like, and what are the similarities and differences etc (see Keenan & Evans, 2009). These
varied perspectives advance the knowledge about child development and psychology by guiding
research in diverse areas of child development (e.g., social, emotional, intellectual, and physical
development) and contradicting and integrating different views. The following sections present the
most recurrent issues in the study of child development.

Heredity vs. Environment

Nature or Nurture (stability vs. plasticity)

The Active or Passive character of development

Continuous or discontinuous

Heredity vs. Environment

Another issue that concerns developmental psychologists is whether there is a single route of
development or is there many? Stage theorists who believe that development occurs in a series of
universal stages argue that the same sequence is followed everywhere. Yet, others acknowledge
specific features of individuals and the distinct contextual factors in which they are brought up. They
believe that child development is influenced by unique combinations of personal (e.g., heredity and
biological factors) and environmental (e.g., home, school and community settings) circumstances,
and thus, follows multiple and varied tracks.

Overall, researchers today are more concerned about the contextual factors that influence the course
of child development. Most of them acknowledge both universal factors as well as the unique
personal and contextual features in the study of child development.

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Nature or Nurture (stability vs. plasticity)

Perhaps one of the most controversial questions in the study of child development is about its
underlying cause. How does development take place? What are the basic factors that influence
development? The answer to these questions sparks a debate about the possible role of nature
versus nurture in human development.

The term nature implies that the biological and hereditary traits that we receive from our parents are
responsible for our development. The theorists who stress the role of heredity in human
development also emphasize stability (i.e., the children who are genetically high or low in certain
traits will also remain so in adulthood). Whereas, the term nurture suggests that the complex
environmental and cultural influences are accountable for human development. Likewise, the
theorists who emphasize nurture believe that development is substantially plastic and open to
changes throughout the lifespan. Thus, while the theorists attend to both nature and nurture in
explaining human development, they vary in their emphasis.

However, the extreme positions on nature or nurture are no longer supported. Rather, it is argued
that development is influenced by an interaction of both genetic and environmental factors. This
interaction is becoming increasingly popular among researchers as well as the general public, for
example, parents. In turn, researchers are encouraged to study the interplay between these two
factors in order to understand how development takes place.

The Active or Passive character of development

For example, children's immediate environment is created by their parents. Since parents and
children share a rather similar genetic structure, it is likely that the environments which parents
create for their children would support their genetic traits such as painting, playing soccer etc.
Similarly, genes may have an evocative relationship with the environment which helps to reinforce
certain inherited traits. For example, a socially active baby would draw positive attention from other
people. As a result of these social exchanges, it is likely that the baby's genetic tendency is
strengthened. Moreover, a child's genetic disposition urges him/her to find a compatible
environment for himself/herself. For example, a child with a musical talent would be inclined to join
the music/singing club at school etc. This tendency gets stronger as the child moves into adulthood
and takes the charge of their own environment.

On the other hand, the environment may also have a critical impact on genetic factors. For example,
certain behavioral traits such as cognitive abilities etc change dramatically under
supportive/unsupportive conditions. Similarly, different children react differently to their
environmental circumstances (e.g., out of the two children coming from the same deprived context,
one child performs slightly better under supportive conditions, whereas the other one performs way
better).

Overall, genes and environment continue to act upon each other to form behaviors and patterns of
development. These influences are unique to each individual, caused by multiple factors and lead to
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multiple directions. This is why; even the identical twins living in the same context may develop
some dissimilar traits.

Continuous or discontinuous

One of the puzzling issues in the study of child development is how to characterize the nature of
changes that occur with time? Are they best viewed as a part of a continuous? Process or do they
take place in discontinuous stages? Some theorists believe that development is a smooth, continuous
process in which rather simple knowledge, skills and behaviors are gradually accumulated to form
complex knowledge, skills, and behaviors. This implies that the process of development proceeds in
an organized and orderly way in which newer and complex behaviors are formed on the basis of
previous abilities.

Contrary to this view, other theorists believe that development is a discontinuous process in which
new skills and behaviors emerge in rather abrupt and disconnected ways. From this perspective,
development takes place in stages and mostly involves a qualitative reorganization of knowledge,
behaviors, skills and functioning.

It is important to note that how we choose to examine development (i.e., as a continuous or

discontinuous process) affects our understanding and interpretation of the process as well.

However, instead of focusing on development as a continuous or discontinuous process,

developmental psychologists urge to focus on the sources of continuity or discontinuity.

Overall, it is assumed that development has both continuous and discontinuous aspects.

Topic: 17.Stages of Human Development: -

This issue relates to the importance of various stages of development. Development is a continuous
process. Early experience of the child is more important than the later experience, Therefore, if the
proper experiences are not provided to the child at the right time; the development process may get
affected. Developmental psychologists have observed that there are critical periods of development.
The impact of appropriate stimulation during that period is optimal in specific kinds of behaviour
than prior or later to that period. Several studies have been conducted on animals (K. Lawrenz,
1937; Harry Harlow, 1978) and later on human beings to see whether there are critical periods on
human development. It has been observed that the first six months are a critical period for the
health, emotional and social development of the child. Although some other research studies reveal
the adverse experiences in early childhood can be mitigated (amended) to a certain extent in the later
stage of life.

Human development is described in terms of stages covering the period from conception to death.
Each stage of development includes a time period during the life span and has its own characteristics
and a specific rate of development. But people vary with respect to time and rate of development

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from one stage to another. Even though there is no consensus on classification of various stages of
development, the human life span can be divided into eight developmental stages:

1. The prenatal period (conception to birth)

2. The stage of Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)

3. The early childhood (3 to 6 years)

4. The middle childhood (6 to 11 years)

5. The period of Adolescence (11 years to about 20 years)

6. Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years)

7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

8. Late Adulthood (65 years and above)

Lecture: 04
(Topic: 18)
Topic: 18.Physical Development from infancy to toddlerhood: -

Physical development in children is crucial since it provides them with the needed skills to explore
and interact with the world around them. This section presents the course of physical growth and
development in childhood. It also discusses the environmental factors which influence the physical
development of children.

The course of physical growth includes changes in body size, proportions, muscle-fat makeup, and
skeleton. It also includes gains in gross- and fine-motor skills (Berk, 2013).

Rapid Physical change

The most rapid changes in body size are observed during infancy. These changes are marked by an
immense increase in the height and weight of the child. However, the growth rate slows down in
early and middle childhood. While the first two years of life characterize rapid but decelerating
annual growth trends, early and middle childhood follow slow but steady growth. A sharp increase
in growth is again observed in early adolescence followed by a sudden decline when the adult growth
is achieved.

Proportion of the body

As the body increases in size, different parts of the body grow at different rates and follow different
patterns. Understanding these trends would help us to develop appropriate expectations of a child's
physical abilities at different age levels.

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The first trend in the growth of the child highlights the 'head to toe' pattern. For example, a baby
would learn to hold up his head before he could walk. The next pattern follows the 'inside to
outside' or 'center to outside' path. For example, the muscles around the trunk of the body grow
stronger before the muscles in the hands, feet etc. Besides, growth also follows 'general to specific'
and 'large to small' patterns of development during childhood.

Muscle to fat ratio also changes during the course of physical development. While the body fat
increases at a faster rate in infancy to help the baby keep a consistent body temperature, it is
considerably reduced during early and middle childhood. Whereas, muscles build up at a much
slower rate during infancy and childhood, when compared to the adolescence period, as they start to
develop rapidly.

Since children of the same age may grow and mature differently at different speeds, it becomes
difficult to account for the causes and consequences of individual differences in physical
development. Physical maturity is estimated by skeletal growth or age which specifies a measure of
the development of body bones. It is based on the number of epiphyses (special growth centers
which are present at each end of all long bones in the body) and the extent to which they are
merged. This measure of an individual's physical development helps to understand the causes and
consequences of individual differences in physical development of children.

Reflexes

Gross and fine motor skills

Gross motor involves all the big muscles in a human body. Gross-motor activities involve activities
which require the use of big muscles and include crawling, walking, running, skipping and jumping.
Children's gross motor skills experience considerable gains with the increase in body size,
proportion, and muscle strength. The acquisition of motor skills is guided by the patterns similar to
growth as described in section ii. For example, children will learn to move in a random fashion
before they can make precise movements to achieve desired results (i.e., general to specific
movement).

On the other hand, fine motor skills require precise control of muscles and coordination of body
movements to perform different activities such as drawing, writing, and cutting with scissors. With
time and experience, children acquire a complex system of fine motor skills featuring a dynamic
interplay of brain, body movement, motivational and contextual factors. Physical growth and
development is dependent on both biological and environmental factors. While biological structure
and hormonal influences play a central role in manipulating physical development; environmental
influences such as nutritional intake, emotional well-being and cultural practices are also critical
(Berk, 2013). Physical growth is highly dependent on nutritional intake, and opportunities for play
and physical activities. It is important that children do not only eat sufficient food, but also eat the
right kind of food to maintain healthy physical growth and development. Besides, anxiety, fear and
emotional deprivation may hinder physical development of children.

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Lecture: 05
(Topic: 19)
Topic: 19.Social and Emotional Development from infancy to toddlerhood: -

 2 months show social smiling

 4-6 months laugh, anger and sadness
 8 months seek information about other’s feelings
 Express affection as a form of emotion to others as a part of social emotional
development
 Children are attached with their care
 Givers, parents and other siblings
 If detached feel anxiety
Infants at about two months old demonstrate social smiling in response to human faces. When they
are four months old, they show laughter and express anger, sadness and surprise by six months. By 8
or 10 months, they actively seek information about other people‘s feelings. They learn to respond
when somebody calls them by their names at about age six to twelve months. They also have face to
face contact. They are afraid of when their parents or care-taker leaves them. They start expressing
anger if their needs are not met. Thus, social and emotional development starts during the period of
infancy to toddlerhood itself. Children start expressing their feelings of trust, fear, confidence, love,
etc. They express affection as a form of emotion to others as a part of social emotional
development. If a child is neglected during this period, it affects his social emotional development
negatively. During this period children are attached with their caregivers, parents and other siblings,
etc., so children develop separation anxiety if they are separated from them. This appears at the age
of nine months.

Lecture: 06
(Topic: 20)
Topic: 20.Cognitive Development from infancy to Toddlerhood: -

 Making various sounds like gurgling, cooing, etc.

 Gradually learn the relationship between their actions and the external world.
 Can manipulate various objects to produce effects.
 Infants seem to acquire knowledge about the world only
 through motor activities and sensory impressions
 Around the end of the 9th month infants demonstrate object permanence and
say mama,papa
Infants express their intellect by making various sounds like gurgling, cooing, etc.
They observe their own hands and feet. They gradually learn the relationship
between their actions and the external world. They can manipulate various objects to
produce effects. Infants seem to acquire knowledge about the world only through
motor activities and sensory impressions. They try to focus their eyes on various
objects and people, and put everything in their mouth. Children develop the ability to
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form mental representation during infancy. Around the end of the 9th month infants
demonstrate object permanence. By babyhood stage they learn to make sounds like
mama, papa, they try to copy various activities as others do. By 12 months of age
many children are able to say some words which can be understood by others.
During infancy children start developing language ability, learn through their sense
organs and explore the world in their own ways. In this period children are
dependent on others whereas in the toddlerhood stage, creativity and socialization
begins. In infancy, emotions are of simple type but in toddlerhood emotions are of
varying types and growth is faster than other periods of life.

Lecture: 07
(Topics: 21-23)
Topic: 21.The Childhood Stage: Physical development: -

 This stage includes two sub-stages: one is early childhood and another is late
childhood
 Period between the ages of 3 to 11 years
 Children gain 2 to 3 inches in height and 5 to 6 pounds in weight every year
 They learn to walk, run, jump and play.
 Children begin to develop athletic appearance and they lose their babyish
roundness.
 The late childhood period extends from 6 to 11 years. This period is known as
pre-adolescence.
This stage includes two sub-stages: one is early childhood and another is late childhood. This period
covers the period between the ages of 3 to 11 years. Sometimes the girls at 13 years and boys at 14
years of age are considered adolescents and till then the child is considered being in the childhood
stage. During this period significant physical and psychological changes take place. But compared to
infancy, the growth rate is slow but stable during childhood. In this stage, children gain 2 to 3 inches
in height and 5 to 6 pounds in weight every year. They learn to walk, run, jump and play. They can
gain knowledge to distinguish between what is good and what is bad. Their physical capacities
increased independently, they performed tasks and met adult expectations in several ways.

Physical Development:

Early childhood stage covers the age range from 3 to 6 years. Children begin to develop athletic
appearance and they lose their babyish roundness. As abdominal muscles develop, the trunk, arms
and legs grow longer. Their brain and head grow rapidly than any other parts of the body.

The late childhood period extends from 6 to 11 years. This period is known as pre-adolescence. The
different parts of the body become stronger during this period. Children learn to use their body
parts appropriately with speed and for proper behaviors. During the late childhood period some of
the habits like table manners, interactions with others, eating appropriately, etc. may also be
modified wherever needed. In this period importance is given to the physical strength of children. If
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a particular child is not growing physically at par with other children of his age, the child may be
emotionally and socially depressed.

Topic: 22-Psycho-Social Development of Childhood: -

In the early childhood stage children can say full sentences, express their feelings and emotions and
communicate their needs and feelings and emotions and communicate their needs and feelings with
others. During early childhood children have better control of their physical movement and can
have better coordination of their body parts. They also learn how to cooperate with other children
and conflict resolution when they are about the age of five or six years they are independent in
various ways.

There are three important socio-emotional developments, such as; development of self, gender roles
and moral development, take place during childhood. Through the process of identification the child
comes to know who he is and differentiates from who he wants to be. The child is aware of this
process through his observation and imitation of parents and significant others. The child‘s
personality is laid down by this identification. The child learns the socially appropriate behaviors by
observing and participating in the social events. When the children are about the age of 5 to 6 years
they can understand that they belong to a particular gender and also learn to behave gender roles.

When the children enter into school, their interaction is changing from supervising adults to
classmates. As the social environment changes the children begin to experience feelings of
independence and freedom from authority through negotiation, compromise and discussion. Social
identification and social comparison help them to describe themselves. Parenting style plays an
important role in psycho-social development of children. A balanced parenting style which is neither
permissive nor authoritative is acceptable and helps in the social and emotional development of
children. But children of authoritative parents are afraid of their parents and children of permissive
parents are impulsive and immature. Besides parenting style peer group influence has also an impact
on the socialization process of children. During the childhood period the children are able to
differentiate between right and wrong. They experience feelings of guilt by making a mistake, and
feel sorrow and happiness for them. These are experienced by the children due to their moral
development.

Topic: 23-Cognitive Development of Childhood: -

The childhood period is important for cognitive development of children. Children are curious to
know the answers of questions like, ―why‖, ―Where‖ and ―How‖ for everything that happens.
Cognitive abilities include memory, reasoning, perception, problem solving and thinking abilities
which continue to emerge throughout childhood. Jean Piaget worked on childhood cognitive
development.

He concluded that children are not less intelligent than adults but they simply think differently.
Piaget explained that human beings acquire knowledge through interaction with the environment in
which he lives in, Piaget named early childhood (2 to 7 years) as the preoperational stage of cognitive
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development in which there is a great expansion in the use of symbolic thought, or representational
ability. But they are not able to use logic. In this stage children do not need to be in sensory motor
contact with an object, person or event in order to think about it. They are aware that superficial
alterations do not change the nature of things and also understand the cause-effect relationship.
They develop the ability to classify objects, people and events. Children can count and deal with
quantities. They become more able to imagine how others might feel and aware of mental activity
and the functioning of the mind. For example, Ranu saw a pencil rolling down from behind and she
looked back for the person who threw it.

According to Piaget children enter the concrete operational stage during middle childhood period
which begins at about age 7 and ends at age 12 years. In this period children can use mental
operations to solve actual problems and they can think more logically. They can perform many tasks
at a much higher level than before. They have developed abilities to use maps and models and to
communicate spatial information improve with age. They have a better understanding of cause and
effect relationship, of categorization of inductive and deductive reasoning and of conservation.

Lecture: 08
(Topics: 24-26)
Topic: 24- Physical development of adolescence: -

 Adolescence is the developmental transition between childhood and

adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive and psychological changes.
 As this is the transitional phase of life adolescents’ rebel against their parents
and society most often. Therefore, this period is labeled as storm and stress
period.
 Sexuality and identity formation are two major challenges of the period of
adolescence
 The approximate age for sexual maturation is 12.5 years for boys and 10.5
years for girls
 Sex hormones like testosterone in males and estrogen in females are secreted
from the sex glands.
The term adolescence is derived from the Latin word adolescence, which means to sprout into
maturity. It is the intermediate period between childhood and adulthood. This period is otherwise
called the age of teenagers. It includes three sub periods, such as: early adolescence (12 years -14
years), middle adolescence (14 years -17 years) and late adolescence (17years -19 years). Adolescence
is the developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive
and psychological changes. During this period physical changes that occur are universal, but social
and psychological changes largely depend on the cultural contexts. As this is the transitional phase of
life adolescent‘s rebel against their parents and society most often. Therefore, this period is labeled
as storm and stress period.

Sexuality and identity formation are two major challenges of the period of adolescence. During this
period the most rapid physical growth occurs. There are changes in the growth rate, sexual
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characteristics, and behavior. Adolescent boys and girls develop in their height, weight, strength and
development of bones, muscles, etc. Puberty and sexual maturity for both boys and girls marks the
beginning of the adolescent period. Growth spurts and development of secondary Sex
characteristics signal about the onset of adolescence. Menstruation is the first sign of puberty for
girls whereas the appearance of a few whiskers is the sign of puberty for boys. The approximate age
for sexual maturation is 12.5 years for boys and 10.5 years for girls. Puberty begins in response to
changes in the hormonal system.

Sex hormones like testosterone in males and estrogen in females are secreted from the sex glands.
The secretion of sex hormones helps in pubertal development and is also closely associated with
emotions. During this period emotion like aggression is found in boys and depression is marked in
girls. They try to imitate their idols.

Girls are conscious about their shapes and do what their friends do while boys try to go for
bodybuilding.

Topic: 25-Psycho-Social Development of adolescence: -

 Adolescents are very self-conscious and it is expressed in the concept of

imagery audiences.
 Peer group influence is very important during adolescence.
 Adolescents abuse alcohol and drugs under peer pressure.
 In this period if an adequate atmosphere is provided to them and they get
high parental support, then they can develop their abstract thinking,
reasoning skills and other social behaviors.
 They have their own expectations and they are also very emotional during this
period.
During this period the physical changes in adolescents bring about a wide variety of psychological
changes. Adolescents become innovative and take interest in learning various skills with great
interest. They feel that no one understands them, and they often consider themselves to be
„superman‟. Their sense of uniqueness is expressed in the form of personal fables around them
away from the world of reality. They are argumentative and they have a tendency to find fault with
the authority figures. They are not able to differentiate between ideal and real. Adolescents are very
self-conscious and it is expressed in the concept of imagery audiences. These imaginary audiences
criticize, encourage and motivate an adolescent. Peer group influence is very important during
adolescence. They want to do what their friends are doing,

Adolescents abuse alcohol and drugs under peer pressure. Developmental psychologists viewed
adolescence as a period of risk, turmoil, uncertainty and conflict, if proper care is not taken during
this period children become antisocial, abusive or depressed. They also develop eating disorders if
they are not getting proper love and affection from the parents. In this period if an adequate
atmosphere is provided to them and they get high parental support, then they can develop their
abstract thinking, reasoning skills and other social behaviors. The important task of adolescents is to
establish an identity independent of their parents. They do not like anyone to interfere in their
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opinions, trust, beliefs and decision making process. They have their own expectations and they are
also very emotional during this period. Adolescents suffer from different problems like teenage
pregnancy and juvenile delinquency. So, positive relationships with parents, peers, siblings and adults
play an important role during adolescence.

Topic: 26- Cognitive Development of adolescence: -

 Piaget opined that adolescents enter the highest level of cognitive

development, i.e. formal operational stage of cognitive development.
 Teenagers develop their reasoning skills and engage in hypothetical
deductive reasoning
During adolescence not only do changes in body structures occur but also they think differently
from younger children. Jean Piaget opined that adolescents enter the highest level of cognitive
development, i.e. formal operational stage of cognitive development. During this period adolescent
thoughts change from concrete objects to abstract events. They can think flexibly enough about the
world. They accumulate knowledge through interaction and apply the learned concepts to new tasks.
Teenagers develop their reasoning skills and engage in hypothetical deductive reasoning. As
adolescents develop their logical thinking, they are becoming aggressive and argumentative. They are
able to understand abstract concepts such as congruence and mass and they think in terms of
theoretical concepts. They are conscious about others' opinions regarding them and curious enough
to know about spirituality, traditions and beliefs. Thus, during adolescence people deal with
problems on an abstract level, to form hypotheses and to reason from propositions that are contrary
to fact. Paget‘s theory of cognitive development has been criticized on the following grounds:

a) Piaget has given too much emphasis on physical maturation based on cognitive development.

b) He has not included environmental factors and experiences that people accumulate during the
process of growing up.

c) He has overlooked the concept of the individual differences in his theory.

Lecture: 09
(Topics: 27-30)
Topic: 27-Adulthood Stage: -

Robert Having Hurst lists major tasks in the middle years:

• Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes, such as menopause.

• Reaching and maintaining satisfaction in one's occupation.

• Adjusting to and possibly caring for aging parents.

• Helping teenage children to become responsible adults.

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• Achieving adult, social and civic responsibility.

• Relating to one's spouse as a person.

• Developing leisure time activities.

An adult is someone who is responsible, mature, self-supporting and well integrated into society.
Also people do not develop these attributes and characteristics at the same time and with the same
skills. This adult stage has three sub-stages of development. First stage is early adulthood, the second
stage is middle adulthood, and the third stage is late adulthood.

In early childhood, adults are at the peak of physical health, strength and energy. Sensory and motor
systems are at their highest functioning. Adults gain weight and their height increases. They develop
intimate relationships; they marry and begin their families. At this period of life adults take many
important decisions of life like choice of career, type of friends, residence, etc. independently and
accept responsibility and consequences for their own decisions. Every adult tries for recognition, job
security and to excel in his job.

Middle adulthood period is explained in terms of a gradual decline in one‘s physical abilities, physical
health, stamina etc, but the decline is gradual in nature. Both men and women feel tired easily. In
this period people experience stress due to the double responsibility of caring for the aged parents
and the growing children. Women usually experience hormonal changes which results in the loss of
ability to reproduce, a process called menopause. Many psychological and intellectual changes occur
in middle age. During this period, women express more assertiveness and men are more nurturing.
The term ―late adulthood‖ is roughly equivalent to old age. This is the final stage of physical change.

Some people suffer from depression due to the middle age crisis by thinking that some important
years of their lives are over while some others try hard to achieve their goals by changing their
lifestyles. Some people engage themselves in creative activities to get self-satisfaction. Other people
get worried about the future of their children and some start worrying about their post retirement
activities.

Topic: 28-Physical characteristics of Adulthood Stage: -

 This adult stage has three sub-stages of development. First stage is early
adulthood, the second stage is middle adulthood, and the third stage is late
adulthood.
 At this period of life adults take many important decisions of life like choice
of career, type of friends, residence, etc. independently and accept
responsibility and consequences for their own decisions.
 Middle adulthood period is explained in terms of a gradual decline in one's
physical abilities, physical health, stamina etc., but the decline is gradual in
nature. Both men and women feel tired easily.
Physical growth and development is at its maximum during this period. Physical strength usually is
more than previous years due to mature physical structures. Strength, speed, coordination and
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endurance for activity is greatest during this period. A number of sensory and neural functions are at
optimal levels during this period. Full brain weight and mature brain wave patterns are observed at
this stage of development. Changing lifestyle patterns has an impact on growth and development. In
the middle adulthood period (during 20s) there is a decline in our physical stamina and health. At
that time physical functioning are generally perfect, but physical attractiveness declines and
biological changes in the sexual life occur. The physical changes like loss of elasticity of the skin,
resulting in facial lines as well as looseness in other parts of the body are easily noticeable through
external physical appearance. There is a marked change in visual activity.

People suffer from presbyopia – the farsightedness associated with aging. The auditory problem is
also associated with increasing age, i.e. presbycusis. It means progressive loss of hearing. In this
period loss of taste, smell and sensitivity to touch also occurs. Some physiological changes like
enlargement of prostate gland, less enzyme secretion in the gastrointestinal tract, diminished ability
to pump blood, reduced kidney functioning, etc. take place.

Topic: 29-Psycho-Social Stage of Adulthood: -

It is another important aspect of adulthood. It addresses pattern of socializations. Socialization is

further linked with the personality. Personality are two type usually one is introvert and second off
extrovert. Extrovert people like socialization and make friends.

During early years of adulthood, people face the problem of choosing, preparing for and entering
into careers that bring a lot of social changes in the adult. They have cordial relationships with their
siblings. They spend very little time with friends because their energies are consumed for family and
work. Middle adulthood people have children of adolescent age. It is very difficult to handle their
problems. Conflicts occur between parents and children regarding ―giving‖ and ―getting‖
independence. Parents have to help their children in their search for identity. Middle aged adults also
have important responsibilities towards their parents. In this period they also try to be satisfied at
work. People are worried about their jobs and pay packages because they have to meet the daily
needs of themselves and of the family.

Topic: 30-Cognitive Development of Adulthood: -

Intellectual ability and cognitive skills are high in early adulthood. Middle adulthood people cannot
learn new skills. Recent research suggests that intellectual development continues into late
adulthood. Intellectual development continues and that is influenced by the accumulation of the
experiences of life, i.e. verbal skills, social knowledge and moral judgments. During this period
people show changes in logic and morality. It is observed that creativity peaks in early adulthood but
forms of creativity that require experience, revision and interpretation either remain unchanged or
increase in middle age. People utilize their cognitive skills and creativity particularly at the workplace
in order to get recognition. Studies revealed that intelligence declines with age, but there is no
certainty that intelligence and age are related to each other.

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Lecture: 10
(Topics: 31-35)
Topic: 31- Late adulthood: -

The term late adulthood is rightly equivalent to old age. This is the final stage of physical change. It
is difficult to consider the exact age of a person for being old. The onset of old age may vary from
country to country. Although the retirement age is considered as one of the criteria of old age, it
varies from job to job. For example, in India the retirement age for government organization is 58
years while for Universities it is 62 years and in some other institutions like IIT and IIM it is 65
years. Now-a-days people beyond 70 years old are considered old.

It is the period of decline where the person thinks that he has done what he wanted to do and most
of his life span is over. Today researchers used two categories to describe old age people.

(i) The young Old: This category of older people irrespective of their actual age, are vital, vigorous
and active.

(ii) The Old: Those older individuals who are infirm, inactive and suffer from physical problems
include in this group. As older persons suffer from physical problems, they become less active.

During the late adulthood period significant changes take place which are mentioned below.

Topic: 32-Physical stage of late adulthood: -

There are changes in the body like wrinkles in face, rough skin, gray hairs, problems in hearing and
eyesight, bones and joints problems, change in voice, etc. They may suffer from various diseases.
Old people also suffer from irreversible mental problems, which are organic in nature and is
called Alzheimer’s disease.

The experiences of old age are not same for everybody. Some people are worried about old age
particularly those who are single or there is nobody in the family to support them economically or
have continued physical ailments. It is a period in one‘s life span that is characterized by physical
decline. There are two types of physical changes during old age. They are (a) Primary ageing and (b)
Secondary ageing. Primary ageing is that in which bodily deterioration occur by the passage of time
or by genetic factors which is gradual and inevitable. Secondary ageing results from disease, disuse or
abuse of body which is preventable. Many structural and functional changes occur as people reach
old age. Common physical changes like decrement in sensory abilities of vision, hearing, taste, smell
and other senses, skin becomes inelastic, decrease in fat and muscle tissue, loss of teeth,
deterioration of bone tissue, decline in height due to compression of spinal disc and postural strop
etc. occur due to primary ageing. Physical changes occur due to secondary ageing are also different
for different people. For example, physical changes of diabetic people are different from persons
who are suffering from arthritis. Old people are also inefficient in sensory-motor coordination. They
cannot respond to the physical demands of stressful situations as quickly or efficiently as possible.
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They are prone to accidents due to decline of reserve capacity of physical energy. Thus, ageing
affects appearance, sensation and motor abilities of a person.

However, despite the problems of old age some people lead a happy life due to their positive
thinking towards life and they are physically fit by doing yoga and exercises. They are developing and
enjoying their hobbies and their perception of old age for relaxation help them free from different
ailments.

Topic: 33-Psycho-Social stage of late adulthood: -

Many psycho-social changes happen to people during old age. The statement that old age is a period
for waiting death can prove to be a myth. Commonly people believe that old age is a curse so far as
physical and psychological aspects of life are concerned.

According to Erikson during late adulthood the outcome of a well-integrated person is wisdom.
Wisdom means accepting life as it is, accepting imperfections in self, parents and in life and having
no regrets. Old people remain in a state of inward depression and dissatisfaction. These internal
feelings are manifested in reaction formations for which they become over sensitive and demanding.
Some old people depend on their children to a large extent. This undue dependence makes them
sad. But those people who are independent and less expectations from their children and other
support system, they are happy in their old age and they engage themselves in various activities.
They think that old age is the golden age because they are free from family responsibilities and
burdens of job. There are many social and cultural factors influence the process of successful ageing.
Financial security and close relationship with children or other relatives or good friends make people
healthy in old age.

Ageing is a process of growing old. The most important theory that explains the psychosocial
aspects of ageing are: (i) The activity theory (ii) The disengagement theory.

(i) The Activity Theory: This theory states the relationship between keeping active and ageing well.
According to this theory, persons who are successfully keep themselves busy in many activities and
they find substitutes for activities which they have lost due to retirement and also they perform
many roles. As role decreases, ageing increases.

(ii) The Disengagement Theory: This theory reveals that successful ageing by mutual withdrawal
between society and the older person. Generally, older people voluntarily minimize their activities by
retiring and also society encourages this by making individuals retire.

Topic: 34-Cognitive stage of late adulthood: -

People commonly believe that with old age intellectual decline occurs. Intellectual decline is
associated with respect to certain functions such as; speed, perceptual integration ability, memory
and inductive reasoning. People show variability in intellectual functioning in late adulthood period.

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Researchers classified intelligence into two types. They are: (1) Fluid intelligence and (2)
Crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence declines as age increases. Fluid intelligence involves the
ability to perceive relations, form concepts and reason abstractly. Crystallized intelligence involves
the ability to remember and use learned information. Fluid intelligence includes reasoning, memory
and information processing capabilities, whereas crystallized intelligence is the acquired knowledge
of the person. During old age people forget that it may lead to dementia or Alzheimer‘s disease
which is possible due to Fluid intelligence, because it relates to neurological functioning. On the
other hand, crystallized intelligence helps in storing information. Therefore, in old age people should
keep their minds active by mental exercises such as problem solving analysis and other operations
etc.

Topic: 35- Summary of all stages of late adulthood: -

 Human development is related with physical, social, emotional and cognitive development of
individuals.
 There are different issues in human development. They are: a) development relates to
heredity or environment, development is a continuous process or takes place in various
stages and what are the critical periods of development.
 Stages of human development have been classified in various ways by different
psychologists. Erikson has classified human development in terms of psycho-social
development, whereas Freud explained this based upon psychosexual stages.
 The infancy and toddlerhood period is from birth to 3 years of age which is an important
age for physical, social, emotional as well as cognitive development.
 Childhood stage is from 3 years to 11 years. During this stage growth rate is slower in
comparison to the infancy and toddlerhood stage. In this period children develop social and
language ability.
 Piaget has developed the theory of cognitive development. He has emphasized four stages of
cognitive development, such as: Sensory-motor stage, Pre-operational stage, Concrete
operational and Formal operational stage.
 The adolescence period is generally from 11 years to about 20 years of age.
 This is the most crucial period for development. During this period children develop
physically and psychologically. They want to make their own decisions independently. As
they are neither considered as children nor adults, they feel that nobody understands them.
 The adulthood stage can be classified as young adulthood and middle adulthood stage. The
middle adulthood stage is also known as the middle age period in which people start ageing.
In the young adulthood period people develop relationships and settle down with family and
work.
 The late adulthood stage is also called old age. Generally during this period people are
physically weak and they may suffer from various diseases. Some people enjoy this period of
life as they are free from their responsibilities. These stages of development depend upon
the environmental factors of specific countries. For example, in India some children do not
get nutritious food for which they suffer from various diseases even in their childhood.

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Lecture: 11
(Topics: 36-39)
Topic: 36- Theories of Human Development: Concept of theory: -

 A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one

based on general principles independent of the thing be explained is called theory.
 Behaviorism theories
 Cognitive theories
 Humanistic theories
Theories are different schools of thoughts based on the different point of view of theorists.
Theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed
explanations for the ―how‖ and ―whys‖ of development. Have you ever wondered, ―Why is my 3
year old so inquisitive?‖ or ―Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?‖ Theories can
help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we
develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a
blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines
much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The
instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after
patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established
theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific
investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing
concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines
for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.

There are different schools of thoughts about learning like behaviorism, cognitive and humanistic.
One of the old schools of thought in human development is behaviorism that is based on stimulus
(motivating force) response and association between them. Teachers and parents stimulate the child
while association may be positive or negative. Another school of thought is cognitive based on mind
(intellect) and mental abilities. They rejected the behaviorism school of thought. Third school of
thought is humanistic theorists. Learning should be affected with love and affiliation with internal
motivation. It is based on interests, emotions, feelings and motivations.

Topic: 37- Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory: -

 Freud explained that personality is motivated by inner forces about which

individuals have little awareness and over which they have no control.
 Concept of instinct or drive which is known as urges
 Much of our behavior is motivated by the unconscious.
 People develop through conflict between their primary drives (sex and aggression)
and social pressures
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It is also called psychoanalytical theory. It is represented by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has
been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and
psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His
assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which
parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children‘s emotional
states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only
recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain
personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in
children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars
(O‘Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated
many ideas. Agreeing with Freud‘s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the
contribution he has made to the field of development.

Freud‘s theory is based on urges and these surges may be physical or biological (Like hunger, thrust,
and sexual desire). When a child does not get satisfaction from their urges then conflict occurs.
There is a need for balance between urge and satisfaction for a personality. Abnormalities occur due
to imbalance.

Topic: 38- Parts of Psychosexual Theory: -

• He has categorized the structure of personality into two:

a) Topographical aspects of mind

b) Dynamic aspects of min

• Topographical aspects of mind:

• Freud has divided the structure of mind into three levels:
1) The conscious,

2) The preconscious or the subconscious and

3) The unconscious

Dynamic aspect of mind

• The id: - The primitive part of the personality is id.

• The Id is a completely amoral part of the personality that exists at birth which
contains all of the basic biological drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and
irrational impulses.
Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is
guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The
newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes. The ego develops through interaction
with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It

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knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and
reality to calm the other parts of the self. The superego represents society‘s demands for its
members. It is guided by a sense of guilt.

Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego. The personality is thought to
develop in response to the child‘s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important
here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here
is a brief introduction to Freud‘s stages.

Topic: 39- Stages of Psychosexual Theory: -

The process of personality development of the child is divided into the following five
overlapping stages:

1. Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months)

a) Oral sucking

b) Oral biting

2. Anal Stage – (12-18 months to 03 years)

a) Anal Explosive

b) Anal Retentive

3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 – 6 years)

4. Latency Stage (5 – 6 years to adolescence)

5. Genital Stage (Adolescence to adulthood)

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Name of Stage Descriptions of Stage

Oral Stage
The oral stage lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation
and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or
too little stimulation may lead to fixation.
Anal Stage
The anal stage coincides with potty training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is
beginning to develop in this stage. Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean
and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control.
Phallic Stage
The phallic stage occurs in early childhood and marks the development of the superego and a sense
of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates.

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Latency
Latency occurs during middle childhood when a child‘s urges quiet down and friendships become
the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate
with others.
Genital Stage
The genital stage begins with puberty and continues through adulthood. Now the preoccupation is
that of sex and reproduction.
Lecture: 12
(Topic: 40)
Topic: 40- Review of Psychosexual Theory: -

• This theory has been criticized on the ground that it lacks scientific validity.
• Freud made his observations by observing few patients and developed his theory.
His theory has had an impact on western culture.
• This theory emphasizes that personality of the individual is influenced by childhood
experiences.
• This theory neglects the importance of healthy personalities.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud‘s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test
scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other
variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in
suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow
psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of
what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above,
despite the criticisms, Freud‘s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in
shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and
parenting practices. Freud‘s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to
elaborate and modify subsequent theories.

Lecture: 13
(Topics: 41-44)
Topic: 41- Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: -

• Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was German born psychoanalyst, a pioneer in a life
span perspective

• Theory of psychosocial development covers eight stages across the life span.

• Each stage involves a “crisis” in

• Personality –

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• In each stage there is the balancing of a positive tendency and a corresponding
negative one

Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a German born psychoanalyst, a pioneer in a life span perspective.
Erikson viewed that ego development occurs through one‘s lifetime. Erikson (1950-1982) theory of
psychosocial development covers eight stages across the life span. According to Erikson each stage
involves a ―crisis‖ in personality – that is important at that time and will remain an issue to some
degree throughout the rest of life. In each stage there is the balancing of a positive tendency and a
corresponding negative one. Initiative vs. guilt is a conflict children face between their urge to form
and carry out goals. When they fail to reach their goals, they feel guilty. The sense of right and
wrong morality emerges as a result of identification with the parents. Children can resolve this crisis
to acquire the virtue of purpose. Erikson defines it as the courage to envisage and pursue valued
goals. Children can then develop into adults who combine spontaneous enjoyment of life with a
sense of responsibility. Those who cannot resolve this crisis may become repressed. If initiative
dominates, they must continue to believe. Erikson's last stage is ego-integrity. The virtue of this
stage is wisdom. As Erikson mentioned different stages of human development, crisis is very typical
of each stage and resolution of it is a must. Resolution requires balancing a positive trait and a
corresponding negative trait. Both are required for healthy development. If either of the two
predominates, there will be imbalance and the conflict remains. Hence the development of ego
suffers.

Erikson suggested that our relationships and society‘s expectations motivate much of our behavior
in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud‘s but emphasized the
importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he
believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we
consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental
psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain
primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Erikson expanded on his Freud‘s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices
and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed
that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in
guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on
meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones.

Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that
we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a
meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems. Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages.
In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson
believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these
challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

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Topic: 42- Stages of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory-1: -

• Stage 1-----birth to 1 year---

• Trust versus mistrust
• Stage 2------1-3years
• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
• Stage 3------3 to 5 years old
• Initiative versus Guilt
• Stage 4-------5 to 12 years old
• Industry versus Inferiority
State/Stage Age Developmental Crisis Successful Dealing with Crisis Unsuccessful Dealing with
Crisis

1. Trust vs. mistrust (0-1) the infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel
that the world is a trustworthy place.

Birth to 1 year old Trust versus Mistrust Babies learns to trust or mistrust others based on whether
or not their needs such as food and comfort are met. If babies‟ needs are met, they learn to trust
people and expect life to be pleasant. If babies‟ needs are not met, they learn not to trust.

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2) Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to
exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.

1 to 3 years old Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Toddlers realize that they can direct their own
behavior. If toddlers are successful in directing their own behavior, they learn to be independent if
toddlers‟ attempts at being independent are blocked, they learn self-doubt and shame for being
unsuccessful.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5) Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things ―all by
myself.‖

4 to 5 years old Initiative versus Guilt Preschoolers are challenged to control their own behavior,
such as controlling their exuberance when they are in a restaurant. If preschoolers succeed in taking
responsibility, they feel capable and develop initiative if preschoolers fail in taking responsibility;
they feel irresponsible, anxious and guilty.

4. Industry vs. inferiority (6-11) School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making
comparisons between themselves and their classmates.

5 to 12 years old Industry versus Inferiority When children succeed in learning new skills and
obtaining new knowledge, they develop a sense of industry, a feeling of industry, a feeling of
competence arising from their work and effort. When children succeed at learning new skills, they
develop a sense of industry, a feeling of competence and self-esteem arising from their work and
effort. If children fail to develop new abilities, they feel incompetent, inadequate, and inferior.

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Topic: 43- Stages of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory-2: -

• Stage 5-------Adolescence
• Identity versus Role Confusion
• Stage 6-------Early Adulthood
• Intimacy versus Isolation
• Stage 7-------Middle Adulthood
• Generativity versus Stagnation
• Stage 8-------Late adulthood
• Ego Integrity versus Despair
5. Identity vs. role confusion (Adolescence) Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they
experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.

Adolescence Identity versus Role Adolescents who succeed in defining Adolescents who fail to
define their Confusion Adolescents are faced with deciding who or what they want to be in terms of
occupation, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior patterns who they are and find a role for themselves
develop a strong sense of identity. Identity become confused and withdraws, or wants to
inconspicuously blend in the crowd

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood)

In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.

Early Adulthood Intimacy versus Isolation The task facing those in early adulthood is to be able to
share who they are with another person in a close, committed relationship. People who succeed in
this task will have intimate relationships. Adults who fail at this task will be isolated from other
people and may suffer from loneliness.

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (Middle adulthood)

The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting
to feel that we‘ve made a contribution to society.

Middle Adulthood Generativity versus Stagnation The challenge is to be creative, productive, and
Adults who succeed in this challenge will be creative, productive, and nurturing, thereby Adults who
fail will be passive, and self-centered, feel that they have done nothing for the next generation, and
nurturing of the next generation Benefiting themselves, their family, community, country, and future
generations. Feel that the world is no better off for their being alive.

8. Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity
because we lived according to our beliefs.

Late Adulthood Ego Integrity versus Despair The issue is whether a person will reach wisdom,
spiritual tranquility, sense of wholeness, and acceptance of his or her life. Elderly people who

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succeed in addressing this issue will enjoy life and not fear death. Elderly people who fail will feel
that their life is empty and will fear death.

Source: Psychology by Saundra. K. Ciccarelli & Glenn E. Meyer (Pearson Education)

Topic: 44- Summary of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: -

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during
the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For
instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances.
Erikson‘s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the
completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses
on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that
adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the
United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty
through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.

Lecture: 14
(Topics: 45-48)
Topic: 45- Behaviorism: -

• Stimulus response
• Association
• Intensity of event
While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any
reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of
psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be
derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior.

The trait and psychodynamic approaches have focused on the ―inner‖ person whereas the behavior
or learning approaches to personality focus on the ―outer‖ person. According to learning theorists
personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment. Learning theorists‘ view
that personality is the best understood by taking account of the person's environment. In the early
1940s, Dellard and Miller developed a scientific theory and emphasized the role of learning. The
main tenets of this theory are observable behaviors and processes. All of us possess certain innate
needs like food, water, oxygen etc which have to be fulfilled. These needs are inherited but the way
to fulfill these needs people learn to respond. The researchers remarked that any response that
reduces our need is reinforced and that response is repeated to strengthen by fulfilling need in
future. Thus, they learn to elicit responses to different needs.

B. F. Skinner, the learning theorist, viewed that personality is a collection of learned behavior
patterns. He did certain experiments on animals and gave an idea about how personality functions.

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Dollard and Miller analyzed the internal processes such as; motivation drives, etc., whereas Skinner
emphasized upon observable behavior only. Skinner is less interested in behavior across situations
than in ways of modifying behavior. Skinner discussed two important concepts such as:
generalization and discrimination. People learn to elicit similar responses in similar situations and
learn to discriminate among responses.

Behavior theories involve two types of conditioning: (i) Classical conditioning and (ii) operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning was developed by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning a connection
between two stimuli, a neutral or conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. For example, if
a child is ill, he associates his illness with the doctor from whom he may receive medicine. In
operant conditioning, B.F Skinner suggests a kind of learning in which a person learns to associate
his behavior with the consequences of his own behavior. For example, a child learns to respond to
the answer of a question in a similar manner, in which the answer has been rewarded earlier.

Social learning theory was developed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel. These theories of
behavior emphasize the role of cognitive processes.

According to Skinner internal cognitive processes such as thinking or feelings are not very important
to behaviors. But social learning theories emphasize cognitive interpretation as being important in
shaping personalities. Social learning theory holds that children learn by observing and imitating
models.

Bandura theory is based on three components: (i) the behavior of a person, (ii) the environment in
which one interacts or behaves with others and (iii) to understand that particular behaviors would
achieve the goal. These three factors help in interaction in shaping behaviors. People are able to
assess various situations on the basis of their experience and also their capabilities to deal with
various situations. The behavioral and social learning theories emphasized upon social factors which
play an important role in developing and changing personalities. These theories also indicate as to
why certain behaviors continue and same behaviors may change from situation to situation.

Skinner theory neglects the importance of hereditary factors. It does not take into account the
internal forces. But learning theory believed that events have cognitive analysis dimensions. The
behaviorist theorists were interested in modifications of behaviors. They emphasized that the
interaction between cognitive factors and environmental factors result in modification of behavior.
Through conditioning the organism‘s responses to a great variety of stimulus situations can be
changed.

Topic: 46- Ivan Pavlov theory-1: -

• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Dog's experiment
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Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded
the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually
began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the
cage. This, he thought, ―is not natural!‖ One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food
hits their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me.
That‘s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the
footsteps with the food. The key word here is ―learned‖. A learned response is called a
―conditioned‖ response.

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning. He began to ring a bell, for
instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the
dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which
the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell
was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov‘s jargon, a conditioned response.
Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned
(unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural
(unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned). Let‘s think about how classical conditioning is
used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was
brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally
occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the
environmental stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.
How Classical Conditioning Works In order to understand more about how classical conditioning
works, it is important to become familiar with the basic principles of the process. Classical
conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response.
There are three basic phases of this process. Phase 1: Before conditioning the first part of the
classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a
response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring
stimulus. During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an
unconditioned response (UCR). For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically
triggers a salivation response (the UCR). At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces
no effect—yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a
response. Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical
conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately
feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. The
unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response. In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced. Phase 2: During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is
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repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between
the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point, the once neutral stimulus
becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond
to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned.

Topic: 47- Ivan Pavlov theory-2: -

• Generalization
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
• Discrimination
Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning.
Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the
disappearance of a response. These elements are important in understanding the classical
conditioning process. Let's take a closer look at five key principles of classical conditioning. A)
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened.5 during the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with an unconditioned stimulus. As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something
that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. After an association is
made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which
is now known as a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been
acquired.

For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell.
You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response
has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Once the
response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the salivation response to make sure the
behavior is well learned. B) Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease
or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired
with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had
been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus) then it would eventually come to
evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of
food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle) then eventually the
conditioned response (hunger) would disappear. C) Spontaneous Recovery sometimes a learned
response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of extinction. Spontaneous recovery is the
reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. For
example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the
behavior and the response eventually becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the
conditioned stimulus is not presented, you suddenly ring the bell and the animal spontaneously
recovers the previously learned response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. D) Stimulus
Generalization Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
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responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to
salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to stimuli that are
similar to the conditioned stimulus. In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for
example, a small child was conditioned to fear a white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus
generalization by also exhibiting fear in response to other fuzzy white objects including stuffed toys
and Watson's own hair.

Topic: 48- Application of Pavlov’s theory in real life: -

• In a classroom setting
• In a real life context
• Behavior management
• Habit formation
In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous real-
world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical
conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.
These techniques are also useful for helping people cope with phobias or anxiety problems.
Therapists might, for example, repeatedly pair something that provokes anxiety with relaxation
techniques in order to create an association. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the
class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear.
Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant
surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these
situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

Lecture: 15
(Topics: 49-50)
Topic: 49- John Watson theory: -

• Albert experiment
• Association with events
• Phobias can be induced
• Phobias can be removed
John B. Watson

Behaviorism school of thought

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are
classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice
on parenting offered to the public. He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with
his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named ―Little Albert‖. Watson sat Albert down
and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white
rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of
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our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he
introduced one of Albert‘s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired
with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson
filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve
any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in
newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to
household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase
or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let‘s look at this a bit more.

Topic: 50- Application of Watsons’ theory in real life: -

• Create a caring relationship.

• Display unconditional acceptance.
• Apply a holistic treatment approach which includes treating the mind, soul, and
spirit as well as the body.
• Take time to have uninterrupted moments with the patients –Watson refers to this as
“caring moments.”
Application of Watsons‘ theory in real life is very beneficial. He discussed feelings and emotions. He
did experiments on a child, induced fear and reduced fear from the child's mind. These applications
can be applied in real life. If we create a caring relationship (Like Love and affection) with anyone
then the respective person feels comfortable with you and you will also receive a good reply and vice
versa. We need to just reflect our love and affection not only with words but also with consistent
actions. Display unconditional acceptance like interaction of children with parents and teachers in a
positive way. Apply a holistic treatment approach which includes treating the mind, soul, and spirit
as well as the body. Take time to have uninterrupted moments with the patients –Watson refers to
this as ―caring moments.‖ Obedience should not be linked with fear.

Lecture: 16

(Topics 51-53)
Topic: 51- B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning theory

o Operant conditioning, in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability
that the behavior will occur, is at the heart of B.F. Skinner‘s (1938) behaviorism.
o According to Skinner, the behavior of all animals and humans is guided by its consequences
(rewards or punishments).
o Experiment with pigeon
The Skinner box experiment, also known as operant conditioning, was conducted by the
psychologist B.F. Skinner to study the effects of rewards and punishments on the behavior of
animals, particularly pigeon. Skinner designed a controlled environment called a "Skinner Box"
or an "operant chamber" in which he could observe and manipulate the behavior of the subjects.

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In the Skinner box, pigeon was placed inside a small chamber that contained a lever or a button
he could press, as well as a food dispenser and other equipment. The chamber was soundproof
and had various sensors to monitor the pigeon's behavior. Skinner's experiment involved
training the pigeon to perform a specific action, such as pressing the lever, in order to receive a
reward, typically food. Initially, the pigeon would explore the chamber randomly, and by chance,
he would press the lever, resulting in the delivery of food. Over time, Skinner observed that the
pigeon began to associate the action of pressing the lever with receiving food and started to
press the lever more frequently.

Skinner then introduced a system of reinforcement schedules to examine how different patterns
of rewards and punishments influenced the pigeon‘s behavior. For example, he implemented a
continuous reinforcement schedule in which the pigeon received food every time he pressed the
lever. He also implemented intermittent reinforcement schedules, where the pigeon received
food only after pressing the lever a certain number of times or at random intervals. Skinner
discovered that intermittent reinforcement schedules were particularly effective in maintaining
the pigeon‘s behavior, as he continued pressing the lever persistently, even when the rewards
were infrequent. This phenomenon is known as the "partial reinforcement effect."

The Skinner Box experiment with pigeon demonstrated the principles of operant conditioning,
emphasizing the role of consequences (rewards and punishments) in shaping and maintaining
behavior. Skinner's work extended beyond pigeon and had significant implications for
understanding human behavior and the development of behavior modification techniques in
various fields.

Skinner recommended that language is also gained in the same manner as other behavior,
through operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, learning is characterized as changes in
behavior as a result of interaction that happens after a response. Skinner said that operant
conditioning happens in language development when sounds are made by a youngster and
afterward reinforced by their guardian's responses. Result of this reinforcement may be an
energized smile. This makes the kid more prone to repeat the word and associate it with an
object or occasion. This operant conditioning consolidates with imitation to permit quick
language development to happen.

o Shaping: Shaping is the process of developing behavior through step-by-step process. Behavior
can be shaped by using the following psychological processes:
 Imitation: Imitation can be defined as the copying of behavior. It plays a key crucial role in
improving the children behavior and allows them to learn new things quickly and efficiently
by watching those around us.
 Chaining: Required behavior is broken down into small steps for its effective learning.
 Reinforcement: Reinforcement helps to shape the behavior. It involves the use of
providing something or taking it away to achieve a desired behavior.

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Topic: 52- Schedule of Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a procedure of associating pleasant or unpleasant experiences objects or events

with the responses, made by the learner. The basic idea of reinforcing a response is either to
strengthen a response or to weaken it. Appreciation and rewards help in the strengthening of certain
behavior in the child. Punishment and reproof help in the elimination of undesirable behaviors in
children. Thus, reinforcement can be positive such as appreciation and rewards, and negative such as
reproof and punishment. The idea of providing reinforcement in learning was first popularized by
Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner. Reinforcement plays a significant part in learning and
therefore, the teacher should make use of this technique in the learning process.

• Operant conditioning is the idea that actions are reinforced.

• There are two types of reinforcements that are vital to this theory: positive reinforcement
(This involves adding something to increase response, such as giving a piece of candy to a
child after they clean their room) and negative reinforcement (This
involves removing something to increase response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn
in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the
teacher hopes to increase the desired behavior (completing all homework). Negative
reinforcement should not be confused with punishment.
Types of Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Schedule: It occurs when the response is rewarded after a specified amount of time.
• Variable Schedule: It occurs when response is rewarded after an unpredictable number of
responses or an unpredictable amount of time.
• Ratio Schedule: It involves reinforcement after a certain number of responses have been
emitted.
• Interval Schedule: It involves reinforcement of a target behavior after an interval of time
has passed.
Topic: 53- Strengths of Skinner’s theory

Following are the strengths of the Skinner‘s theory:

• Operant conditioning explains a wide range of phenomena, such as learning language and
phobias.
• Operant conditioning has practical advantages, specifically in the area of education.
• When a person is rewarded for a behavior, it is more likely for it to occur again.
• People are more aware of how to control behavior which has become very important in
parenting techniques.
• This theory is very helpful when raising children, and when teaching them.
• A child that has been punished after acting a certain way will less be likely to model that
behavior again.
• Very helpful way to control students‘ behavior.
• Indicates the importance of scientific research.

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Lecture: 17

(Topics 54-56)
Topic: 54- Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura

• Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to
influence human learning and behavior.
• Observational learning
• Imitation
• Reinforcement of consequences
• Cognitively selection of behavior to imitate
Albert Bandura (1925) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the
ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by
watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Sometimes,
particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of
others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting
and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely
heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we‘ve seen it pay off
for someone else. They were operant conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it
will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross,
1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are
not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only
influence their child‘s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but
children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with
their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last
child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our
environment creates us and we create our environment.

Topic: 55- Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiment & Today’s Children and the Media

 Bandura (1961) conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviors

(i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.
 On TV, 24 children a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a
―Bobo doll‖. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner – they used a
hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted too.
 The result of the experiment found that those children who observed the aggressive
behavior on TV, they also learnt aggression than those children who did not watch it.
 Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as
aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of
another person.
 This classic example of laboratory experiment lends support to the idea that exposure to

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violence at home or in the media can increase aggressive and possibly violent behavior in
real life.
Topic: 56- Main Points to Note About Behaviorism

Following are the main point about Behaviorism:

• Stimulus Response
• Association
• Reinforcement
• Immediate Feedback
• Reward and Punishment
• Habit formation
• Removal of Phobia
Lecture: 18

(Topics 57-60)
Topic: 57- Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired
to explore children‘s ability to think and reason by watching his own children‘s development.
He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children‘s thought
differs from that of adults. He believed that children‘s intellectual skills change over time
through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.
• Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within.
• Children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
• Children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment, then adjust
their ideas accordingly.
Topic: 58- Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within. He worked out his four stages on the basis
of the following key concepts:

• Schemas: Mental image produced in response to a stimulus that becomes a framework or

basis for analyzing or responding to other related stimuli is known as schemas.
• Assimilation: Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that
it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures.
• Accommodation: Accommodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order
to accept something from the environment. It changes the schema, so it can increase its
efficiency.
• Equilibrium: According to Piaget, the developmental ideal is a balance between assimilation
and accommodation, which is known as equilibrium.
Topic: 59- Stages of Piaget’s theory

Piaget believed that child‘s cognitive development progresses through four stages which involve
sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational periods. These stages
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are treated as fixed and universal and represent a general sequence which is observable in all types of
cognitive change. Piaget argued that children's thinking and the ways through which they make sense
of their experiences (schemes) change with age. The infancy period is marked by sensory-motor
action patterns during which a child acts on the objects around him/her to form schemes. Soon,
he/she begins to form mental images which help to transform thinking and experiences into
meaningful, manageable and memorable patterns. This transformation in thinking is supported by
two critical processes including adaptation and organization. Adaptation involves the process of
developing schemes by directly working upon the environment through assimilation or
accommodation. However, if the balance between these two is disturbed, it causes a cognitive
conflict or disequilibrium within the minds of children. It is important to resolve the conflict
through either assimilation or accommodation to bring the mind back to the equilibrium state.
These resulted in developing more effective schemes that help the child to advance his/her thinking.

Learning Through Stages:

1. Sensory Motor Stage-0-2 year

2. Preoperational Stage-2-7 year
3. Concrete Operational Stage-7-11 year
4. Formal Operational Stage-11 year and up
Piaget‘s four stages of cognitive development are described as under:

1. The sensory-motor stage: The sensorimotor stage is characterized by the first two years of
life during which infants think through their five senses. At the beginning of this stage, the
sensory reflexes of the child serve to make up for his/her intelligence. The child engages in
circular reactions (repeating chance behaviors) which help him/her to adapt to his/her
surroundings. Later, the child deliberately employs intentional or goal directed behaviors by
coordinating different schemes to solve simple problems. Object permanence (the ability to
understand that objects exist even when they are not seen) emerges towards the end of this
period which helps to set the stage for mental representations and engage s the child in
make-believe play.
2. The preoperational stage: As children grow, they enter in the preoperational stage (2 to 7
years) which characterizes their immense representational or symbolic capacities. Children
make advancements in their mental representations as they develop more effective schemes.
For example, as they get past the first two years of their life, their make-believe play gets
more sophisticated. This cognitive change is seen when a child older than 2 years of age
pretends to use an object (cup) in different ways, for example, using it to drink water as well
as using it as a hat. Similarly, children's drawings get more mature, realistic and detailed
during the preschool years. However, their expanding cognitive capacities are limited by their
inability to take into account someone else's perspective, referred to as egocentrism. iii. The
concrete operational stage.
3. The concrete operational stage extends from 7 to 11 years. As the children enter the
middle childhood, they accomplish a number of cognitive advancements. For example,
children at this stage perform mental operations that follow logical rules. They are capable of
thinking in more than one direction and are capable to see a problem from different angles
(decantation). Consequently, they understand that certain characteristics remain the same
even if they change the outward appearance (conservation). Their understanding of space is
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more precise when compared with the preschool children. They are capable of developing
logical hierarchies and classification systems and can perform reversible actions which
demonstrate that the children have now developed logical, flexible and organized schemes
than before.
4. The formal operational stage: Children develop the capacity for an abstract and systematic
thinking around 11 years of age. Piaget referred to this stage as formal operational stage.
While the children can perform operations with the real objects at the concrete operational
stage, they are now ready to perform mental, abstract operations without any concrete things
or events. The main features of this stage include hypothetical -deductive reasoning and
propositional thought. These abilities refer to the children's capacity to form and evaluate
logical propositions without referring to the real-world circumstances and systematically
reaching a conclusion. Accompanying this stage, comes the individual's desire to get noticed,
often referred to as adolescent egocentrism. This is a heightened self-consciousness phase in
which the growing adolescents tend to believe that others are interested in them in the same
way as they are themselves. This state causes irresponsible and uncontrolled behaviors often
leading to suicide attempts, negative thoughts, and drug use etc.
Topic: 60- Criticism on Piaget’s theory

Following criticism was made on Piaget‘s theory:

• Learning through stages.

• Environmental part neglected.
• Piaget underestimated the ages at which children could master various cognitive tasks.
• The theory also seems to suggest that intellectual development is largely complete by the age
of 12. More recent research demonstrates that the teen and early adult years are a period of
important cognitive development as well.
Lecture: 19

(Topics 61-65)
Topic: 61- Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Vygotsky‘s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and
the origination of human intelligence in society or culture.
• The major theme of Vygotsky‘s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition.
• Learning through environment.
• Meaning making.
• Socialization patterns.
• Children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through
collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
Topic: 62- Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Zone of proximal development and
scaffolding

Vygotsky created the concept of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding and which came
to be a central part of his theory.

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• Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Proximal means those skills that child is close to
mastering. ZPD is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child
can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement
from a skilled partner. Skills are too difficult for a child to master on his own, but that can be
done with the guidance of knowledgeable person
• Scaffolding: scaffolding means providing a support or assistance to a child in learning a
task. When the child learns to complete the task independently, then given help or assistance
is removed gradually. This gradual removal of help is scaffolding.
Topic: 63- Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky Piaget

 Given the concept of zone of proximal  Given the sages of cognitive

development development
 Cognition through environment and  Cognition within
culture
 Learning through observation and  Learning through experiencing
modelling everything on their own
 Language through social interaction  Language through stages
Topic: 64- Humanistic theories

• A group of psychologists founded the association of Humanistic Psychology in the year

1962. They developed the theories, called as Humanistic theories, which gave importance to
the growth potential of human beings. Humanistic approaches discussed about people‘s
inner goodness and their tendency to grow to higher levels of functioning.
• The humanistic perspective was founded by Abraham Maslow as well as Carl Rogers.
• This perspective gives more value to human beings.
• The humanistic perspective is a way of evaluating an individual as a whole, rather than
looking at them only through a smaller aspect of their person.
• Humanistic perspective begins with the existential assumptions that people have free will
and are motivated to achieve their potential and self-actualize.
• This perspective considers the needs, interest and aptitude of children.
• Humanistic perspective considers the basic human needs of an individual and how
important they really are to the overall happiness of that person.
• The humanistic perspective considers physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-
actualization needs.
• This perspective is based on the hierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow.
Topic: 65- Maslow theory

Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs is a theory of psychology explaining human motivation based on the
pursuit of different levels of needs. The theory states that humans are motivated to fulfill their needs
in a hierarchical order. This order begins with the most basic needs before moving on to more
advanced needs. The ultimate goal, according to this theory, is to reach the fifth level of the
hierarchy: self-actualization.

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Levels of Hierarchy

There are five main levels to Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs. These levels begin from the most basic
needs to the most advanced needs. Maslow originally believed that a person needed to completely
satisfy one level to begin pursuing further levels.

1: Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are the lowest level of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs. They are the most essential
things a person needs to survive. They include the need for shelter, water, food, warmth, rest, and
health. A person‘s motivation at this level derives from their instinct to survive.

2: Safety Needs

The second level of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs consists of safety needs. Safety, or security needs,
relate to a person‘s need to feel safe and secure in their life and surroundings. Motivation comes
from the need for law, order, and protection from unpredictable and dangerous conditions.

There are many examples of safety needs in modern society. To find stability and security, a person
must consider their physical safety. This means seeking protection from the elements, violent
conditions, or health threats and sickness. Additionally, an individual needs economic safety to live
and thrive in modern societies. This refers to the need for job security, stable income, and savings.
One method of achieving economic safety is to learn proper investment strategies.

3: Love and Belonging Needs

The third level of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs is love and belonging needs. Humans are social
creatures that crave interaction with others. This level of the hierarchy outlines the need for
friendship, intimacy, family, and love. Humans have the need to give and receive love, to feel like
they belong in a group. When deprived of these needs, individuals may experience loneliness or
depression.

4: Esteem Needs

The fourth level of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs is esteem needs. Esteem needs are related to a
person‘s need to gain recognition, status, and feel respected. Once someone has fulfilled their love
and belonging needs, they seek to fulfill their esteem needs.

Maslow broke up esteem needs into two categories: the need for respect from others and the need
for respect from oneself. Respect from others relates to achieving fame, prestige, and recognition.
Respect from oneself relates to dignity, confidence, competence, independence, and freedom.

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5: Self-Actualization Needs

The fifth and final level of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs is self-actualization needs. Self-actualization
relates to the realization of an individual‘s full potential. At this level, people strive to become the
best that they possibly can be.

Lecture: 20

(Topics 66-71)
Topic: 66- Moral Development

Overview:

Moral development has a significant role in shaping the personality of a child. In order to know the
student, teacher must have the knowledge of various patterns of morality which appear at different
phases of child‘s development. Moral development like other aspects of development occurs along
with the social, emotional and cognitive aspects of development.

Moral Development:

 Moral development relates to an individual‘s sense of right and wrong. It focuses on the
beginning, understanding and change of morality from infancy through old age.
 What do we mean by morality? According to one definition, morality refers to ―a set of
principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong and to act on this
distinction‖ (Shaffer, 1993).
 Morality principles guide how people should treat one another, with respect to justice,
others' rights and welfare.
Moral development includes:

Learning the difference between right and wrong;

To use this knowledge to reach at proper decisions in complex choices; and

Possessing strength and freedom to act according to the right decision

It can be referred to do the right thing even in difficult situations.

Morality is shaped by several factors like children's experiences of interaction with family, friends,
and other adults. Some other factors as their physical growth, cognitive, emotional and social skills
combine to influence moral development.

Topic: 67- Moral Component

There are three moral components according to Shaffer (1993):

 First Cognitive component relates to the thinking about moral issues and making decisions
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about right and wrong.
 Second Emotional component is linked to the feelings associated with moral thoughts and
decisions. These feelings include guilt, shame and pride.
 Third is Behavioral component: This is concerned with the ways we behave (act) and
includes the limit to which we steal, lie, cheat and behave nobly.
Topic: 68- Factors Affecting Moral Development

There are various factors which affect moral development of an individual. Let‘s have a look:

i. Family

Family plays an important role in a child's moral development. Parents show acceptance or rejection
of child‘s actions. And set the meanings of right and wrong for the child. The actions which are
approved by the parents are viewed as good and those rejected by them are viewed as bad. This
makes his first orientation to morality.

ii. School

School, too, has important part in making moral concepts. The child gets influenced by the concepts
of the good and the bad as a result of his relationship with his classmates, teachers and senior
students.

Children take many actions which they see their seniors doing in the school. Most of what has been
learnt at home from parents and family is rejected. School can play a positive role by providing
special teaching and training for moral development.

iii. Peer Group

Friends and play mates affect child‘s perception of good and bad. Child accepts the ideas of his
companions.

iv. Society and Culture

The common social environment also affects the moral development of the individual. Due to the
fact, the moral behavior of individuals from cultured societies is distinctly changed from that of
individuals belonging to uncivilized societies.

v. Age

Age is an important source in making moral concepts and moral behaviors. As the individual
develops from infancy to adolescence, he becomes more open-minded towards certain those ideals
which sometimes do not fit with what he thinks to be good. In later adolescence he approves many
things which he had earlier rejected.

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vi. Gender

Another important factor in moral development is gender. Girls are held with the sense of guilt and
shame if their behavior does not match with the accepted moral code. They try to be less critical of
the moral tone set by their elders. Boys, on the other hand, are more aggressive than the girls. Often,
they set their own standards of moral behavior and put effort to follow them.

To conclude we can say that moral development is a complicated process in which an individual‘s
interaction with people and objects in his surrounding, play an important role.

Topic: 69- Importance of Moral Development

 Society cannot work in a proper way in the absence of ethical and moral principles on what
is right and what is wrong. Moral education starts from early childhood and continues during
childhood and adolescence.
 Impact of moral development will be reflected through individual‘s personality, behavior and
attitudes.
 The quality of inter personal relations depends on the quality of manners and behaviors
people act upon.
 Starting from individual level, morality spreads out to society and is an important element
for peace and unity. Thus, teaching positive values such as honesty, courage, responsibility,
compassion, integrity, self-discipline, self-reliance, kindness, friendliness, tolerance, respect,
love, justice and mercy becomes essential.
Topic: 70- Theories of Moral Development

Psychologists have studied morality in various ways. In the following section we will present an
introduction of the two major theories related to moral development.

Jean Piaget’s Theory:

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) focused specially on the moral lives of children. He studied the way
children play games in order to learn about children‘s beliefs about right and wrong. He watched
children play marbles to learn how they used and thought about the rules of the game. He also asked
children questions about moral issues like: theft; lies; punishment; justice.

Through his studies, Piaget concluded those children, depending on their developmental maturity,
thinking two unique ways about morality. He termed the ways as Heteronymous and Autonomous
morality.

Heteronymous Morality

This is the first stage of moral development in Piaget‘s theory. It arises from 2 to 7 years of age.
Here, justice and rules are considered of as unchangeable things of the world which are beyond
control of people.

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Autonomous Morality

This is exhibited by older children (about 10 years of age and older). The child becomes aware that
rules and laws are created by people and that, in judging an action, one should consider the actor‘s
intentions as well as the consequences.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory (1927-1987):

Lawrence Kohlberg started as a developmental psychologist and then moved on to the field of
moral education. Through his studies, Kohlberg displayed that people developed in their moral
reasoning through a series of stages. He believed that there were six identifiable stages of moral
reasoning. These stages can be clustered into three levels of complexity. They are:

Level I - Pre-Conventional Reasoning

At this level, the child cannot understand the concept of moral values. Moral reasoning is controlled
by external rewards and punishments.

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience

Moral thinking is based on punishment. Children obey because adults tell them to obey.

Whatever is rewarded is good; whatever is punished is bad.

Stage 2: Individualism and Purpose

Moral thinking is based on rewards and self-interest. Children obey when they want to obey and
when it is in their best interests to obey. What is right is what feels good and what is rewarding.

I‘ll do something good for you if you do something good for me.

Level 2 - Conventional Reasoning

At this level, internalization is transitional. The child abides by certain standards (internal). However,
these are the standards of others (external) such as parents or the laws of society.

Stage 3: Interpersonal Norms

Children give importance to trust, caring and faithfulness to others as the basis of moral judgment.
At this stage, children often adopt their parents‘ moral standards. They make efforts to be
considered by parents as a‖ good boy‖ or a ―good girl. This impression is rewarding for children.

Stage 4: Social System Morality

Moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice and duty. For example, a
child might say that it is always wrong to steal because laws that have been developed are for the
benefit of society.

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Good is defined by laws of society, by doing one‘s duty. A law should be obeyed even if it is not fair.

Level 3 - Post-Conventional Reasoning

At this level morality is completely internalized (adopted) by the individual and is not based on
others‘ standards. The adolescent identifies alternative moral ways, searches for choices and then
decides on personal moral codes.

Stage 5: Community Rights versus Individual Rights

The adolescent understands that values and laws are not absolute but relative. He also knows that
standards may differ from one person to another. The person recognizes that laws are important for
society but knows that laws can be changed. He believes that some values, such as liberty, are more
important than the law. Values and laws are relative and standards may vary from one person to
another.

Good is understood in terms of abstract (mental) principles that the society has settled down. An
unfair law ought to be changed.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

At this stage individual has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When
faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person will follow conscience, even though
the decision might involve personal risks. Good is understood in terms of abstract principles. The
emphasis is on human rights without caring for the approval of society.

Kohlberg‘s theory shows us that moral reasoning is a complex process and the child needs guidance
throughout his developmental stages.

In the pre-school age, you will be dealing with children of the first two stages and in the long run the
third stage, but it is important for you to understand the whole process of moral development
according to the perspective of Lawrence Kohlberg.

Topic: 71- Criticism on Kohlberg’s Theory

Following criticism was made on Kohlberg‘s theory:

 Kohlberg is biased against women.

 Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other
values, with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those who value
other moral aspects of actions.
 Cultural bias problem.
 Children and adults have different morality rules

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Lecture: 21

(Topics 72-76)
Topic: 72- Moral Characteristics of Learners

 Preschool years mark child's transition from egocentricity (self -interest) to empathy—or at least
the potential for empathy.
 Child becomes increasingly helpful and caring of others when forced to choose between her
own self-interest and empathy, a four-year-old will still perhaps choose self-interest.
 Preschoolers tend to think of right and wrong in black and white terms. That is, an act is always
right or always wrong. There are no shades of gray and there is no room to negotiate. People are
good or people are bad. Good people are always good and bad people are always bad.
 At the age of preschool some more features emerge as:
 Strict equality
 Reciprocity (mutuality); merit, deserving
Topic: 73- Characteristics of Learners at Kindergarten

Young children think of right and wrong in following terms:

 Absolutes: Things are always good or always bad. It is unimportant whether an act was
intentional or unintentional.
 How much physical damage was done? Greater the damage worse is perception of the
act.
 Whether an act will evoke punishment: If an act will be punished then it is wrong.
 Rules: Rules should never be broken. Breaking rules is viewed as wrong.
 Their own perspective: Children have difficulty taking another person‘s view of an issue.
Topic: 74- Classroom Activities to Develop Morality

Majority of childhood education experts agree that building a child's character must begin at
preschool age. During this period, children can be easily molded and guided to learn about what is
right and what is wrong, and to learn to live a value-filled life. They can easily absorb and follow
what they see and hear from the adults in their surroundings. Thus, teaching positive values such as
honesty, courage, responsibility, sympathy, honesty, self-discipline, self-reliance, kindness,
friendliness, tolerance, respect, love, justice and pity will likely be more effective when the
youngsters are at preschool age than when they are at adolescent age.

At this level teacher can use the following classroom activities to promote moral development:

1. Telling and Reading Stories:

All children enjoy listening to and reading folk tales, fairy tales, and stories where animals are the
main characters. Teachers can select such story books in Urdu or in mother tongue.

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2. Learning and Singing Songs:

Most children love learning and singing songs. Adolescents and adults also like songs and singing,
especially if they can identify with the music. Through poems and songs moral values can be
indorsed.

3. Role-playing a Story:

Majority of children like to wear a particular dress and acting out the roles of different characters.
For teaching the value of hard work, truth, and empathy teacher can use role playing in classroom.

Topic: 75- Characteristics of Elementary Learners

 In elementary school child can easily put himself in another person‘s shoes; can show
empathy.
 Children are able to take need as an important reason for kindness.
 Children try to reason things out and increase their moral understanding. They often shout
―it‘s not fair.
 It should be noted that elementary children will test boundaries as part of their moral
development. They are exploring where the line falls. This requires the adults in their world
to follow rules which are put in place. Failure to do so results in moral ambiguity which the
elementary child quickly picks up on, learning that we don‘t really mean what we say. Not
ideal when these children are forming their sense of morality.
Topic: 76- Classroom activities for Elementary Level

Teacher can help in moral development of students by inculcating moral values through classroom
activities. Some of the ideas are presented here; you can innovate your own ways.

Thinking about rules

Objective: To teach children that some rules are inflexible, while other rules can be changed.

Skill: Respect, creating agreement

Ask the group, ―What does it mean to follow rules? What would happen if people didn‘t follow
them?‖ Write down their answers on the board or a large sheet of paper.

Tell them:

Rules tell us how to behave. Some rules should always be followed so that people don‘t get unhappy
or have something bad happen. ―Don‘t steal,‖ ―Don‘t cheat,‖ and ―Tell the truth‖ are all rules that
should always be followed. In a group like this one, there are certain rules that we follow so that
everyone can participate. Some of the rules are: don‘t disturb others, don‘t use bad language, and
don‘t say things that will be unkind to others.

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If we didn‘t have these rules, it would be very difficult for us to live together in a society. Other rules
are more flexible. If your sleep time is fixed, your mother might change the rule and allow you to
stay awake later sometimes. Rules can only be changed only if no one gets hurt.

Ask the children which of the following rules must always be kept and which can be changed
sometimes. Also ask them the reasons for their answer.

 Don‘t hit anyone in anger.

 Eat a balanced meal.
 Keep your room neat.
 Don‘t talk behind people‘s backs.
 Listen to the teacher.
Children can offer other rules from home and school, and tell why these rules should always be kept
or can sometimes be bent.

Role model

Learning Objective: To identify positive qualities of role models

Skill: Self-awareness

Ask, ―What is a ‗role model‘?‖ Brainstorm ideas and write them on the board or a large sheet of
paper.

Tell the group:

Role models are people you admire. You may like their values, the way they live their lives, and the
things that are important to them. You may want to copy their style.

Most people‘s role models are famous people—celebrities, sports stars, politicians, and so on. In this
activity, try to think of someone you know personally who is really great. It could be a parent,
teacher, or friend.

Ask students to talk about their role models. Encourage them by asking these questions:

 What has that person done to become your role model?

 Does your role model help others? How?
 What‘s the most important quality a role model should have?
 What could you do to be like your role model?
Lecture: 22

(Topics 77-83)
Topic: 77- Personality: Concept and Definition: -

Topic: 78- Characteristics of Personality: -

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Topic: 79- Personality Trait Theories-1: -

Topic: 80- Personality Trait Theories-2: -

Topic: 81- Psychodynamic Theories of Personality: -

Topic: 82- Structural personality Topographical aspects of mind-1: -

Topic: 83- Structural personality Topographical aspects of mind-2: -

Topic: 77- Personality: Concept and Definition

 Personality is a controversial concept. People used this in various ways. The term
―personality‖ is derived from the Latin word ―Persona‖ this means artificial mask used by
actors in those days to indicate their role in theatrical play.
 People usually think that personality means physical attractiveness or reputation etc. So
different terms are used to type a person, such as ―he is shy‖, ―he is introvert‖ etc. Thus,
everyone has got a personality. This personality includes both outer self and inner self and
both of these interact with each other.
 Several attempts have been made by sociologists, philosophers and psychologists to define
personality in different ways. All these definitions emphasized on the total person, i.e., his
external appearance, his abilities, tendencies, innate and acquired characteristics. Some of
these definitions are discussed below:
 Coleman (1960) defined personality as ―the individual‘s unique pattern of traits, the pattern
that distinguishes him as an individual and accounts for his unique and relatively consistent
way of interacting with his environment‖.
 According to Mischel (1986) personality as ―what usually refers to the distinctive patterns of
behavior (including thoughts and emotions) that characterize each individual‘s adaptation to
the situations of his or her life‖.
 One of the most appropriate definitions of personality has been given by G.W. Allport. He
defined personality ―as the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment‖.
 Thus, personality is the sum total of physical abilities and mental traits of the individual
which are dynamic and they help one to adjust to his environment.
Topic: 78- Characteristics of Personality

Following are the characteristics of personality:

 Personality is unique.
 Personality refers to relatively stable qualities of an individual.
 Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism to the environment.
 Personality is greatly influenced by social interaction.

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Topic: 79- Personality Trait Theories

Personality theories have been classified into four groups. They are:

1. Trait theories
2. Psychodynamic theories
3. Behavioral theories
4. Humanistic theories
Trait Theories:

 Trait theories attempt to describe personality as the sum of certain traits. According
to Kimble and Garmezy ―trait is a stable and enduring attribute of a person which is revealed
consistently in different situations.‖ Allport believed that the pattern of these traits is unique
in each individual and determines his behaviors. Therefore, traits are consistent personality
characteristics and behaviors manifested in different situations.
 Trait theorists assumed that all people possess certain traits, but the degree to which a
particular trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. It is necessary for
trait theorists are to identify specific primary traits in order to describe personality. For
example, if we compare the personalities of two persons, one being extrovert and another
being introvert. The extrovert person would be social, happy go lucky and would make
friends easily while the introvert‘s behavior would be shyness, lack of initiatives in social
interactions etc.
 Gordon Allport suggested that there are three major traits, viz. cardinal, central and
secondary traits in personality.
o The special trait which provides uniqueness to the person is known as cardinal trait.
The cardinal trait is observed in almost all the behavior throughout one‘s life. A child
who becomes the monitor of the class since beginning tries to be a leader in the state.
o Central trait refers to the major characteristics of an individual. These traits make up the
core of personality. Central traits, such as honesty and sociability, they usually number
from five to ten in any one person.
o Secondary traits are characteristics that affect behaviors of a person in fewer situations.
These traits are less enduring. For example, a person is invited to attend a marriage party,
He may wear sherwani for this purpose but in general he may like to wear casuals.
 Personality psychologist Raymond Cattell (1965) viewed that personality is made of two
types of traits – the surface traits and the source traits. He called source traits as the core
factors of personality and they are underlying internal traits responsible for behaviors. On
the other hand, surface traits are some general traits and are possessed by all which are
observable patterns of behavior
Topic: 80- Personality Trait Theories

 Another trait theorist Hans Eysenck (1992, 1994, and 1995) also used factor analysis method
to identify patterns of traits to discuss about the nature of personality. He viewed that
personality could be described in terms of just three major dimensions: extroversion,
neuroticism and psychoticism. The extraversion dimension relates to the degree of
sociability, the neurotic dimension emphasizes emotional stability and psychoticism
encompasses to the degree to which reality is distorted. Eysenck suggested that behavior of a

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person can be predicted accurately in a variety of situations by evaluating along these three
dimensions.
 The most influential trait approach contends that five traits or factors – called the
“Big-Five” – lie at the core of personality. Now-a-days the “Big-Five” represent the
best description of personality traits. The “Big-Five” factors are:
o Extroversion,
o Agreeableness,
o Conscientiousness,
o Emotional stability and
o Openness to experience.
o Extroversion refers to a personality dimension describing someone who is sociable,
gregarious and assertive.
o Agreeableness describes someone who is good-natured cooperative and trusting.
o Conscientiousness is a measure of reliability that describes someone who is responsible,
dependable, persistent and organized.
o Emotional stability characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure. The person with
high negative scores can be nervous, anxious, depressed and insecure.
o Openness to experience dimension of personality characterizes someone in terms of
imagination, sensitivity and curiosity.
Topic: 81- Psychodynamic Theories of Personality

 Psychodynamic theories of Personality are otherwise called as Psychoanalytic theories of

Personality. These theories are based on the fact that personality is motivated by inner forces
about which individuals have little awareness and over which they have no control.
 Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician propounded the psychoanalytic theory in the early
1900s.
 He (Sigmund Freud) tried to explain the concept of instinct or drive which is known as
urges.
 He (Sigmund Freud) argued that much of our behavior is motivated by the unconscious, a
part of the personality.
 Freud viewed that personalities of people develop through conflict between their primary
drives (sex and aggression) and social pressures; and early childhood experiences are
extremely important in the development of personality.
Topic: 82- Structural Personality: Topographical Aspects of Mind

Sigmund Freud, a clinical psychologist developed a comprehensive theory of Personality. He has

categorized the structure of personality into two:

 Topographical aspects of mind

 Dynamic aspects of mind
Topographical aspects of mind:

Freud has divided the structure of mind into three levels:

1. the conscious,
2. the preconscious or the subconscious and
3. the unconscious.
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The conscious mind consists of all the things of which a person is aware at any given moment. In
other words, it refers to the experience or awareness of an object at the present moment. Freud
compared the human mind to an iceberg and viewed that only one-tenth part of the mind deals with
conscious experience.

The segment of the mind where the readily recallable is to be located is called by Freud the
preconscious or subconscious. The subconscious is the storehouse of surface memories and are
readily retrieved though are not conscious at the moment. The subconscious process is weak and
when it gets some force from the outside, it comes to the conscious level.

Freud emphasized the unconscious mental process which is about 9/10 part of the mind. He
believed that the unconscious part of the mind is the important determining factor in human
behavior and personality. It is the level of mind where thoughts, feelings, memories and other
information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness.

Topic: 83- Structural Personality: Dynamic Aspects of Mind

Freud in his theory of personality has described that personality consists of three separate but
interacting components: the id, the ego and the superego. According to Freud, the dynamic
aspects of self-refer to the agents through which conflicts arising in the instincts are resolved.

1) The id: The primitive part of the personality is id. It is derived from the Latin word which
means ‗it‘. It is the raw, unorganized and innate part of personality. It is representative of
the unconscious and the storehouse of instinctual desires. The Id is completely amoral
part of the personality that exists at birth which contains all of the basic biological drives
related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. Those drives are fuelled by
‗Psychic energy‘ which Freud termed as ‗the libido‘. The id is guided by the pleasure
principle, in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of
satisfaction. The pleasure principle can be stated as ―if it feels good, do it‖.
2) The ego: It begins to develop soon after birth. The ego comes from the Latin word for ‗I‘
which is mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical and cunning than the id. The ego
is the ‗executive‘ of personality. The ego maintains balance between the desire of the id
and the realities of the objective, outside world. It is guided by the reality principle.
Therefore, the ego satisfied the demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways that will
not lead to negative consequences. Sometimes ego decides to deny the id to satisfy its desires
because the consequences would be painful.
3) The superego: The final part of personality is called the superego. The superego is derived
from the Latin word which means ‗over the self‘. It develops in childhood as the child learns
rights and wrongs of society and modeled by parents, teachers and other significant
individuals. The superego is guided by the moral principle. There are two parts to the
superego: the ego ideal and the conscience. The ego ideal is the sum total of all the behaviors
which the child has learned about from parents and others of the society. The conscience is
another part of the superego that makes people feel pride when they do the right thing and
guilt, when they do the wrong thing. The superego works at both conscious and unconscious
level.

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Lecture: 23

(Topics: 84-88)
Topic: 84- Types of defense Mechanism: -

Topic: 85- Successful Defense Mechanism: -

Topic: 86- Un-successful defensive mechanism-1: -

Topic: 87- Un-successful defensive mechanism-2: -

Topic: 88- Developing Personality: Psycho sexual Stages: -

Topic: 84- Types of Defense Mechanism

 The use of defense mechanisms are a common phenomenon and used normally by
everyone.
 The defense mechanisms function in the unconscious level.
 ―Defense mechanisms are a means of distancing, transforming or falsifying a person‘s reality
which reduce anxiety and allow the individual to cope with whatever he/she is facing.‖
 Defense mechanisms can be healthy or unhealthy depending on the situations and the way
the person uses them.
 There are different types of defense mechanisms which are used by different persons at
different spheres.
 A person can use a number of different mechanisms even for a similar type of situation.
 All defense mechanisms do not help; some are maladaptive and can lead to total loss of
individual from the reality.
 The defense mechanisms are classified into successful and unsuccessful defense
mechanisms.
Topic: 85- Successful Defense Mechanism

Sublimation

 It is considered as the most complete and successful of all defense mechanisms.

 It is the transformation of sexual and aggressive urges into creative work into socially
acceptable directions.
 Thus, it is a form of channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially
acceptable behavior.
 For example, a person who is very aggressive becomes a professional cricket player.
Topic: 86- Unsuccessful Defense Mechanism

It includes the following:

 Denial
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 Regression
 Repression
 Projection
 Rationalization
 Reaction Formation
 Displacement
 Identification
 Compensation
(i) Denial:

It is a type of defense mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge a threatening

situation. It is the most primitive form of defense mechanism. For example, a person who is a drug
addict denies being a drug addict.

(ii) Regression:

It is a form of defense mechanism in which a person falls back on child-like patterns of

responding in reaction to stressful situation. It refers to a state where an adult behaves like a child.
For example, a six-year-old baby starts wetting his bed after his parents bring home a new baby.

(iii) Repression:

It is a primary defense mechanism and it is a direct method of dealing with anxiety.

Repression is a defense mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember a
threatening or unacceptable event, instead putting those events in to the unconscious mind. For
example, a person who was sexually abused as a child cannot remember the incident because bad memory has
got repressed inside.

(iv)Projection:

The literal meaning of projection is ―throwing out‖. It is commonly used by everyone.

Projection is a form of defense mechanism by which one transfers the blame of his own
shortcomings, mistakes and misdeeds to others and attributes to others his own unacceptable
thoughts. For example, a lady is attributed to her friend‘s husband but denies this and believes the
friend‘s husband is attracted to her.

Topic: 87- Unsuccessful Defense Mechanism

(v) Rationalization:

It is the invention of unconsciously acceptable motives by the ego to cover up those

unconscious motives which it cannot accept. In other words, it refers to the substitution of a socially
approved motive for a socially disapproved one. In this type defense mechanism, a person invents
acceptable excuses for an unacceptable behavior. For example, a person who gives a lot of

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donations to charity may consider himself to be a very generous but in fact he is motivated by guilty
conscience.

(vi) Reaction Formation:

It is the defense mechanism by which a person forms an opposite emotional or behavioral

reaction one‘s true feelings. Reaction formation is the development of behavior which is opposite to
the unconscious desires of the person. For example, a person is very angry but overtly he may state
that he is not angry by showing smiles.

(vii) Displacement:

Displacement is commonly found in dreams of normal adults. It implies that redirecting

feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one. In this defense mechanism the discharge
of an unconscious impulse by shifting from one original object to a substitute takes place. For
example, a child may be angry with his mother; he may not express his anger towards his mother
due to social restriction, but may do so by breaking his doll into pieces.

(viii) Identification:

It is a mechanism which is very often used by normal people. In this defense mechanism a
person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety. For example, a student may identify
himself with a bachelor professor whose qualities he may like.

(ix) Compensation:

Compensation is also called as substitution. In this defense mechanism a person makes up

for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another area. In the process of compensation, a
person tries to maintain balance of his weaknesses by overemphasizing strengths in other areas. For
example, a person who is not a good player, he may put all his energizes to become a good
academician.

Besides the above-mentioned defense mechanisms there are some other mechanisms like isolation,
fantasy, fixation, etc. people use to overcome their unpleasant experiences. When the ego of the
individual is threatened, the various defense mechanisms are used to resolve conflict and the person
would have able to maintain a balanced personality. However, excessive use of defense mechanism
is dangerous for the ego. Defense mechanisms are generally learned by the person during childhood.

Topic: 88- Developing Personality: Psycho Sexual Stages

Sigmund Freud provided with a view that personality develops through a series of five psychosexual
stages. According to him failure to resolve conflicts at a particular stage can result in fixation. He
proposed that experiences and difficulties during a particular childhood stage may predict specific
characteristics in the adult personality.

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The process of personality development of the child is divided into the following five
overlapping stages:

1. Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months)

a) Oral sucking

b) Oral biting

2. Anal Stage – (12-18 months to 03 years)

a) Anal Explosive

b) Anal Retentive

3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 – 6 years)

4. Latency Stage (5 – 6 years to adolescence)

5. Genital Stage (Adolescence to adulthood)

In the first stage of psychosexual development the mouth is the primary site of a kind of sexual
pleasure. If there is frustration at oral stage, it may result in verbal hostility. The second stage of
psychosexual development which begins from 12 months and continued up to 03 years, during this
period the area of getting pleasure changes from mouth to the anus and the child gets pleasure by
retaining and controlling feces and urine. The phallic stage begins at about age of 03 years. During
this stage the sex energy is localized in the genital organs. In this stage the child must also negotiate
the important hurdle of personality development, the oedipal conflict through the process of
identification. After the resolution of oedipal conflict, the child enters in to the latency stage of
psychosexual development which lasts until puberty. In this period, the sexual interest becomes
dormant. The last stage is the genital stage which extends until death. At this stage the sexual
instinct starts to develop with the aim of reproduction.

Lecture: 24

(Topics: 89-99)
Topic: 89- Language Development What is Language: -

Topic: 90- Referential Language Development: -

Topic: 91- Expressive Language Development: -

Topic: 92- Transition in Language Development: -

Topic: 93- Key Signs of Language Development: -

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Topic: 94- Theories of Language Development: -

Topic: 95- The Learning Perspective: -

Topic: 96- The Nativist Perspective: -

Topic: 97- Inter-Actionist Perspective Development: -

Topic: 98- Components of Language-1: -

Topic: 99- Components of Language-2: -

Topic: 89- Language Development: What is Language

Overview:

Language is a system of communication used by many of us to communicate our feelings,

information and expression to our fellow beings. Language is a system of communication based
upon symbols, words, phrases and sentences. It is language that differentiates humans from non-
human creatures. Language may be described as being ordered collection of standardized signals and
structures according to set rules which are used as the means to communication. The process by
which children communicate and understand the language is called Language development.

More than other different aspects of development, it mirrors the expansion and maturity of mind.
Children initially express single words and subsequently join words together i.e., join two words to
form sentences and later three-words to form sentences. Children everywhere throughout the world
pursue alike model of language development. They produce different sounds from birth to attract
the attention, recognize sounds, utter single words, then many words and then go on to phrases and
sentences. Many different theorists developed different theories regarding language development like
Skinner, Chomsky and Vygotsky.

This lecture explains language and its development as well as transitions and key signs of language
development. It also includes theories of language development and components of language.
Besides, it also takes into account the Sequence of language development at preschool, kindergarten
and elementary level. The lecture concludes by suggesting some physical activities geared to the level
of pre-school, kindergarten and elementary school children.

What is language? We all communicate with one another. We share information, convictions,
opinions, wishes, dangers, thanks, promises, guarantees, feelings and emotions. We can laugh at to
express entertainment, joy, we smile to convey our entertainment, delight, support or zealous
sentiments, we shout to communicate our anger, energy or nervousness, we raise our eyebrows to
convey sentiments of shock or opposition, however the system of communication before everything
else is language.

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We use the language as the system of communication that relies upon words and composition of
words to form sentences. Language is a method that is mainly used for communication. It is called
linguistic communication. Chuckling, grinning, and screaming are ways that are named as
nonlinguistic communication. Generally, all non-human creatures exchange information. However,
they are not familiar to such a system of communication which is as complex as the language. They
correspond by nonlinguistic means taking after our grinning, snickering, shouting, gripping of
tighten hands, and rising of eyebrows.

It is language that differentiates humans from non-human creatures. As humans utilize the language
capacity consistently to grip thoughts, share the emotions, comment on the world, and see one
another's personalities. Language can be narrated as an organized arrangement of uniform
signals and rule governed structures that are utilized as means for communication.
Language occurs through reading, writing, listening and speaking. In order to become fully
functioning members of school as well as the society, we must learn the components, the principles,
the structure, and the traditions of language system.

As discussed above, we can summarize the language as:

 We communicate our different emotions with others.

 Language is a system of communication.
 Language differentiates humans from non-humans.
Topic: 90- Referential Language Development

What is language development? Language development is the process by which children come to
understand and communicate language. From birth up to the age of five, children develop language
at a quick pace. The phases of language development are wide-ranging among people. On the other
hand, the age and the pace of language development vary from child to child at which they achieve
every landmark. As far as the language development in children is concerned, it should be compared
to the standards and not with their fellow children. Usually, the rate of language in girls is speedier as
compared to the boys. As compared to some other aspects of development, it mirrors the growth
and development of mind. After the age of five it generally turns out to be much difficult for the
children to learn it. Receptive language develops quickly than expressive language development. Two
unique styles of language development are as under:

 Referential language development

 Expressive language development
Referential language development:

 Children at first express only words and afterward join them together, at first into sentences
comprising of two-word and later into sentences comprising of three-word.
 It is a style of right time learning of language in which children use language for the most
part to label objects.
 This style is useful to young children because this way extends their understanding of
vocabulary.
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Topic: 91- Expressive Language Development

 Kids first utter sounds like babbles that copy the rhythm and beat speech.
 Most kids utilize a blend of these styles. Another commonly known style involved in
language learning is expressive style.
 In this style little children apply language to discuss their specific emotions and
requirements.
As discussed above, we can summarize the language development as:

 Language development is the process to understand and communicate language.

 Referential language development is denoted as labeling different objects.
 In expressive language development children discuss their emotions and needs.
Topic: 92- Transition in Language Development

There are several transitions that help to explain kid‘s acquisition regarding language development:

 First transition occurs when first year ends and it proceeds in the school year with the
emergence of words into essential vocabulary
 Second transition happens when children change from saying one word at once to joining
words into expressions and basic sentence about the end of school year.
 Third transition happens when kids move afar utilizing simple sentences to express one
thought to complex sentences communicating different thoughts and the relationship
between them.
Topic: 93- Key Signs of Language Development

Children everywhere throughout the world pursue alike model of language development. Several
milestones of which are as follows:

Babbling and gestures: Children dynamically make sounds from birth to onward years to attract
attention. These continue till the mid of the first year.

 Crying: Infants even cry during childbirth which can indicates trouble but these sounds
indicate many other things also.
 Cooing: Children first utter murmuring sounds which are pronounced from backside of the
throat and generally convey delight on interaction with the care giving persons.
 Babbling: Amid center of the first-year children babble, that is they deliver series of
consonants.
 Gestures: Newborn children begin utilizing motions. They may wave bye-bye, node their
head to signify "yes".
Recognizing language sounds: From birth up to six months of age newborn children perceive
sounds when they change, despite what language they originate. All through the following six
months, newborn children show signs of language development at seeing the conformities in sounds
from their language, the one their elders speak and bit by bit lose the ability to differentiate that are
not noteworthy in their own particular language.

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First words: Between 8-12 months of age, babies frequently show their first conception of words.
Children say their first words when they have been gesturing to correspond with their parents
regularly and utilizing their own particular sounds. The presence of first word is continuation of this
communication process.

A Child first word may be the name of individuals, well known animals, toys, body parts, garments
and family things. Kids regularly express different goals with their one single word. The baby's
spoken vocabulary quickly increases after the first word is pronounced. One and a half year old baby
can talk around fifty words. On the other hand, near the age of almost two years they can have
words around 200.

Two words utterances: Children during the age of 18-24 months speak two word expressions. To
go on expression with just two words, the kids depend very much on motion, manner and the
background.

We can summarize transitions and the key signs of language development as:

 Children go through the different transitions in language development.

 These transitions help him in acquisition of language.
 Children follow different patterns in language development like babbling, recognizing
sounds, uttering one then two and then many words.
Topic: 94- Theories of Language Development

 Over the last fifty years, several theories have been put forward to explain the process by which
children learn to understand and speak a language.
 Theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomsky, Skinner, Skemp, Coleridge.
 Language is the vehicle of discretion, means the peculiar mode to transfer, transmit the intended
message to the receiver.
 A word can cause to sink into the deepest despair or lift us to inspired action.
 Language helps in the formation of concepts, analysis of complex ideas, and to focus attention
on ideas which would otherwise be difficult to comprehend.
Topic: 95- The Learning Perspective

 This point of view contends that children copy what they see and hear. Kids learn from
punishment and reinforcement. The main scholar associated with this learning viewpoint is
B.F. Skinner.
 According to this theory, children learn language the same way they learn other kinds of
behavior
 Through reinforcement, parents motivate and reinforces their babies for making resemble
adult speech, and so children generalize abstracts and make more of these sounds as they
grow
 Behaviorist opined that children utter sounds at random, in which those that sound like
adult speech is reinforced.
Topic: 96- The Nativist Perspective

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 The nativist point of view narrates that people are naturally made to learn knowledge.
 Noam Chomsky is the main scholar connected with this point of view.
 He recommended that the people contain a language acquisition device (LAD).
 It is comprised of grammatical rules which permit the children to understand the principles
of language which they generally listen.
Topic: 97- Inter-Actionist Perspective Development

 Inter-actionists argue that language development is both biological and social.

 They contend that language learning is affected by the desire of children to communicate
with others.
 Children conceive language with the brain that develops gradually and makes them to obtain
new understandings which they are convinced to report to others.
 The main scholar connected with this theory is Vygotsky. This model concentrates on
Vygotsky's model of collaborative learning.
 Collaborative learning is the way to go through discussions with more developed individuals
and it can help children both psychologically and phonetically in language development.
As discussed above, we can summarize the theories of language development as:

 According to learning perspective, we learn by reinforcement and punishment.

 Nativist perspective views that people are naturally inclined to learn language.
 Integrationists are of the view that we learn language through our interaction with others and
it views language development in social context.
Topic: 98- Components of Language

Following are the components of language:

 Phoneme
 Phonology
 Morphology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Pragmatics
Phoneme:

A phoneme is a basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of
meaning within a language. It doesn't have meaning by itself. Phonemes match up to the sounds of
the alphabet, although there is not always a one-to-one connection between a letter and a phoneme.

For example, the word ―hat‖ has three phonemes: 1- /h/ 2- /a/ 3- /t/

However, the word "shape," has five letters but only three phonemes: 1- /sh/ 2- /long-a/ 3- /p/

English language has around 45 different phonemes, which are associated to letters or combinations
of letters. A phoneme can have a specific pronunciation in one word and a different pronunciation
in another word.
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Phonology:

Phonology is the branch of language, which is concerned, with the orderly organization of sounds in
language. Generally, it has focus on the study of system of phonemes in language. It covers linguistic
analysis either at the level of word or at the levels of language where sound is assumed to be
structure for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology includes the study of equivalent
organizational systems of signs in language. The study of verbal communication structure within the
language is known as the phonology. The smallest unit of sound to formulate the language is called
the phoneme.

For example, Word ―CAT‖ contains three phonemes. Word ―HAT‖ contains three phonemes.
Word ―BAT‖ contains three phonemes.

The word phonology also refers to the phonological system (system of sounds) of the language. This
is the fundamental systems which a language is comprised of. Phonology is very often distinguished
from phonetics. Phonetics concerns with the physical production, audio communication and
understanding of the sounds. Phonology describes the way sounds function within a language to
encode the meaning. Phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics and phonology to theoretical
linguistics.

Topic: 99- Components of Language

Morphology:

The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of Morph means shape, form. And -ology means
the study of something.

The term is also used i:

1. Biology as the scientific study of structure of animals and plants

2. Geology as the study of formation and evolution of rocks and land forms.

Morphemes include base words, like: ―Cat‖ ―Cow‖ ―Dog‖ ―Goat‖

And affixes like:

Un- Un-planned, Un-seen, Un-pleasant

Re- Re-play, Re-tell, Re-call

Knowledge of the morphology is related to vocabulary development and reflects the smallest
building blocks for comprehension. Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest
meaningful unit of language. So, a morpheme is a series of phonemes that has a special meaning.
Some morphemes are individual words (such as "eat" or "water"). These are known as free
morphemes because they can exist on their own. Other morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other
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linguistic pieces that aren‘t full words on their own but do affect meaning such as the "-s" at the end
of ―cats‖ or the "re-" at the beginning of ―re-play‖.

Syntax:

Syntax is related to the structure of sentences and it determines which words to go where. Studying
of syntax allows us to understand the rules about how language works. It is believed that there are
certain rules that apply to all languages. Syntax is a set of rules for constructing full sentences out of
words and phrases. Every language has a different set of syntactic rules. In English, the smallest
form of a sentence is a noun and a verb phrase. Adjectives and adverbs can be added to the sentence
to provide further meaning. Word order matters in language. For example, the English sentences the
Ahmad ate the apple and the apple ate the Ahmad do not mean the same meaning, even though they
contain the exact same words.

Semantics:

Semantics is the study of meaning. What is meaning? How is meaning created in language? How do
people understand language and why do we understand it like we do? One of the main reasons we
use language is to pass meaning from one person to another, and semantics deals with it.
Grammatical structure of the language helps us understand the language. Semantics refers to the
ways in which a language conveys meaning. Semantics moves beyond the literal meaning of words in
language and is culture dependent.

Pragmatics:

It is the study of human actions, thoughts and linguistic signs, (words and sentences) in real
situations. Pragmatics refers to the ways the members of a community use the language. The way
they speak to their parents is not the same way we speak with our fellow children. The language used
in a formal conversation may have less resemblance to what we could hear at a lunch with our fellow
children. The conversational style that we use in our day-to-day conversation is much more different
from that of the language we use when we are reading a storybook for a kid. Pragmatics deals with
knowing the difference between the two styles and when to use which style.

As discussed above, we can summarize components of language as:

 Phoneme is the basic unit of language and is concerned with the sounds of alphabets.
 Phonology deals with the sounds in a language.
 Morphology is related to the vocabulary building.
 Syntax deals with the structure of sentence and the sequence of words in it.
 Semantics studies meanings in a language.
 Pragmatics studies human actions and their explanation by signs in language.

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Lecture: 25

(Topics: 100-106)
Topic: 100- Environmental Influences on Language: -

Topic: 101- Language Development at Preschool and Kindergarten Level: -

Topic: 102- Language Development at Elementary Level: -

Topic: 103- The school and language development: -

Topic: 104- Suggestions for improvement in children's language: -

Topic: 105- Activities for developing oral expression in the school system: -

Topic: 106- Activities for developing oral expression in the school system learning: -

Topic: 100- Environmental Influences on Language

Language development is never a static procedure; it is fairly a procedure that is always advancing.
One can contrast this with the physical environment of children. The rate of these developments is
affected by the environment which plays an essential part in the Language development of a kid.
Some language researchers see the similar attitude in teenager‘s language acquisition everywhere
throughout the world. However, other language specialists contend that context in which learning
happens clearly, impacts language acquisition.

One perspective clarifies the effect of environment on language development. It named the
behaviorist theory. Main advocator of this theory is B.F. Skinner. He recommended that language is
gained in the same manner as other behavior, through operant conditioning. In operant
conditioning, learning is characterized as changes in behavior as a result of interaction that happens
after a response. Skinner said that operant conditioning happens in language development when
sounds are made by a youngster and afterward reinforced by their guardian's responses. Result of
this reinforcement may be an energized smile. This makes the kid more prone to repeat the word
and associate it with an object or occasion. This operant conditioning consolidates with imitation to
permit quick language development to happen.

There is another perspective that explains the collaborations between inherent ability and
environmental impacts. Two fundamental sub-groups exist inside of this point of view:

Information-processing perspective of language development:

Some information processing scholars expect that kids comprehend complex language through
intuitive intellectual abilities consolidated with their environmental experiences. They concur with

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the biological theories that newborn children are conceived with a surprising capacity to examine
language. They additionally contend that these capacities are likely not adequate to account for the
greater part of their language development.

Social interaction perspective of language development:

Proponents of social interaction theories stress that social aptitudes and language experiences are
necessary to language development. An active child keeps the capacity to develop language will try
to convey what he wants to say. At the point when the child makes these efforts at language
development, parents provide the experiences that help him in this process.

As discussed above, we can summarize influence of environment on language.

 Language development is an ever changing process.

 Different perspectives exist that explain the effects of environment on language
development.
 Skinner believes that language is gained in the same manner as behavior.
 Another perspective sees inheritance as vital in influencing language development.
 Some view that children learn language through cognitive skills but some others
attach social context to it.
Topic: 101- Language Development at Preschool and Kindergarten Level

From birth Receptive Language Language learning begins since childbirth. Children at this stage
are conscious of the sounds in the surroundings. They pay
attention to the verbal communication of those close to them.
They cry if there is an unforeseen commotion. They wake up
by loud noise and feel still due to the noise.

Expressive Children formulate sounds which realize that they are

encountering agony or joy.
Language

0-3 months of Receptive Language At this stage, children form out how to swing to others when
age they talk. The children smile when listens to the voice. Truth be
told, they appear to perceive the well-known voice. They will
quiet at the noise of it on the off chance that they are weeping.
Children at this stage will also discontinue their action and go too
near to the sound of new voice. The children frequently
respond to soothing tones; it does not matter the voice is
familiar or not.

Expressive When an important individual comes in the vision, the child

Language smiles at. The children repeat the identical sound a lot and
―coo and goo‖ when they are satisfied.

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4-6 months Receptive Language At this stage, the children act in response to "no". The children
likewise are receptive to ups and downs in tone of voice except
to the sounds other than speech. For example, they are intrigued
by toys and different articles that formulate sounds. They
appreciate melody and beat. They are interested in ample
variety of novel sounds, for example the sound of toaster or
sounds of other machines.

Expressive Murmuring sounds happen when we play with the children.

Language They produce sounds when they are involved merrily in
activities. The children babble at this stage and the children
seems to be talking.

7-12 months Receptive This time period is thrilling and amusing as the children at this
Language time clearly listens when we spoke to him. The child looks at the
face when we call him by his name. Children discover the fun of
games. Children realize the names of familiar objects (Mamma,

Feeder, Glass). They respond to desires ("Give it to Pappa").

Expressive Language Sound of child's babbling changes. This is on the grounds that it
now incorporates more consonants, and additionally long and
short vowels. The child utilizes speech or different sounds keeping
in mind the end goal to stand out enough to be noticed. Also,
child's first words (most likely not talked unmistakably) have
appeared! ("Baba", "Cato", "Bye Bye", "Ta Ta)

1-2 years Receptive Children focal point is pictures in the book when we call their
Language names, and they can indicate body parts when they are asked (ear,
neck, and hand). They can understand commands ("Pull the
door!", "Don't go there"). They can understand basic questions
("What's in your name?"). They like to listen their stories. They
can sing melodies. They can say rhymes.

Expressive Language The child is builds up new words as time goes on. They can ask
two-word questions like "Whose papa?" "What's cat?" They can
combine two words in different ways to form

Sentence like "No catto", "More water").

2-3 years Receptive At this point little child will comprehend two stage summons
Language ("Get your socks and place them in the crate") and comprehend
differentiating ideas or implications like hot/cool, stop/go, in/on
and decent. He or she notifies sounds like the phone or doorbell
ringing and may point or get to be energized.

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Expressive Language He or she appears to have a word for nearly everything.
Articulations are typically one; a few words in length and relatives
can more often than not comprehend them. The baby may
inquire, or attract the attention for something by identification it
("Apple") or by

Its traits ("Red!").

3-4 years Receptive Language The child understands simple questions like "Whose?", "When?"
and "Why?‖ They can listen to us when we call them and even
from out of room.

Expressive Language Sentences are turning out to be longer as the youngster can
consolidate four or more words. The child discusses happenings,
campaigns and interesting encounters around him with his friends
and mates.

4-5 years Receptive Language At this stage, children are being able to value different stories.
They can answer crucial questions related to them. They are now
being able to observe nearly everything that is said before them
anywhere they are present. Their capacity to perceive sound
legitimately all the time ought not to be in uncertainty.

Expressive Language Children talk easily in a quite easy to listen manner. They can
develop long and clear-cut sentences ("We went to the hotel and
ate fish which was delicious; it was a great fun for all of us"). They
can narrate a lengthy story based upon their imagination. They are
now able to pronounce sounds more accurately. The children can
tell wonderful, exciting, artistic stories.

As discussed above, we can summarize language development language development at

pre-school and Kindergarten level as:

 Language development starts from birth when baby produces sounds to realize its existence
to others.
 During 0-3 months of age children reflects his emotions by listening the different sounds
and smiles at viewing different personalities.
 During 4-6 months children show their reactions by yes or no and produce babbling sounds.
 7-12 months is the age of fun and the babbling of children changes.
 Between 1-2 years of age, the children focus on pictures, they can indicate body parts and
there is increase in learning of words.
 During 2-3 years of age, comprehension of compound words develops, the child can
differentiate different ideas and develops the capacity to have words for nearly everything.
 During 3-4 years of age, the children listen more clearly when we call and his structure of
uttering sentences extends.
 During 4-5 years of age, the child can answer questions and can appreciate stories and can
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talk more clearly and more easily.
Topic: 102- Language Development at Elementary Level

As children go through elementary school years, they expand skills which make it workable for them
to read and write.

Vocabulary and grammar:

They turn out to be conscious of the procedures and perceptions connected with words and they
turn out to be more logical in their way to deal with words. This logical methodology is clear if
youngsters are requested the first thing that rings a bell when they heard a word. Amid the primary
school years, youngsters turn out to be progressively ready to comprehend and utilize complex
syntax. They figure out how to utilize language in a more associated manner. Presently they can
deliver relating sentences to each other and creating portrayals, characterizing stories that hang
together and bode well. Youngsters must have the capacity to depict things orally before they can be
relied upon to destroy those composed assignments.

Meta-linguistic awareness:

It eludes to the capacity to objectify language as a procedure and in addition an artifact. The idea of
meta-linguistic awareness is useful to clarifying the execution and exchange of linguistic knowledge
across languages (e.g., code exchanging and also interpretation among bilinguals). It can be narrated
as the capacity to deliberately reflect on nature of the language, by means of the subsequent skills:

1. Awareness that language has the potential more prominent than that of straightforward
images.
2. Awareness that words are distinct from their referents (meaning lie in our mind and not in
the names, i.e., Mishell is Mishell and Danyal is Danyal.
3. Awareness that language has a structure that that can be controlled (understanding that
language is impressionable: you can change and compose things in a wide range of courses
(for instance, if something is composed in a linguistically erroneous manner, you can
transform it).
Meta-linguistic awareness is also called "meta-linguistic capacity", which can be characterized
likewise as metacognition ("thinking about knowing"). Meta-linguistic awareness can likewise be
characterized as the capacity to think about the utilization of language. As Meta-linguistic awareness
develops, kids start to perceive that announcements may have a literal meaning. They start to make
more continuous and modern utilization of illustrations, for example, the likeness, "We stuffed the
room like sardines". Between the ages of 6 and 8 most kids start to develop their meta-linguistic
awareness and begin to perceive incongruity and mockery. These ideas require the kid to
comprehend the subtleties of an expression's social and cultural connection.

As discussed above, we can summarize language development at elementary level as:

 At this stage the children can progressively comprehend and utilize complex syntax.
 The child is able to use language in a more concise way.
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Topic: 103- The School and Language Development

 The teacher will let the students to read different books and will discover reading material
that is of interest for the children.
 The teacher will help the students to make associations between what they observe at school,
at home and in other day by day life routine
 The teacher will talk distinctly with the students and will help them comprehend the
conversation and will discuss issues they experience during comprehension of the
conversation.
Topic: 104- Suggestions for Improvement in Children's Language

 Develop interest in language through different activities like word games.

 Play activities
 Story –telling
 Dramatization
 Speaking and hearing poetry
 Informal conversations and discussion
Topic: 105- Activities for Developing Oral Expression in the School System

 Maintain eye contact.

 Remind students to speak loudly and articulate clearly.
 Have students summarize heard information.
 Model and guide sentence construction
 Compile a class booklet of students‘ phrases.
Topic: 106- Activities for Developing Oral Expression in the School System Learning

 Teach concept words

 Question to boost comprehension
 Teach for oral reading fluency
 Sentence completion
 Partner reading
 Monitored reading
 Repeated reading
Lecture: 26

(Topics: 107-115)
Topic: 107- Individual differences Nature and Concept of Individual Differences: -

Topic: 108- Areas of individual Differences-1: -

Topic: 109- Areas of individual Differences-2: -

Topic: 110- Areas of individual Differences-3: -

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Topic: 111- Areas of individual Differences-4: -

Topic: 112- Causes of individual differences-1: -

Topic: 113- Causes of individual difference-2: -

Topic: 114- Causes of individual difference-3: -

Topic: 115- Causes of individual difference-4: -

Topic: 107-Individual Differences

The word individual differences mean that individual have differences, no two persons are alike. All
the individuals‘ difference raised from each other can be in many respects. Children born of the
same parents and even the-twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked with the study
of individual differences. We all are different in physical appearance, mental abilities, emotions,
feelings, expressions, learning styles, motivations, habits, likes and dislike. Individual differences can
be many forms like:

 Physical forms like in height, weight, color, complexion strength etc. Everybody can
have different abilities and physical appearances, for example both brothers have different
complexions, skin color and different heights. we should accept these individual differences
to make our children successful.
 Difference in intelligence achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude, learning habits,
motor abilities, and skill. Everybody has different IQ Level and IQ level means that the
have different intelligence quotient one brother can be genius others can be average because
parents get their genes by seven races.
 Each man has an intellectual capacity through which he gains experience and
learning.
 Every person has the emotions of love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure and Pain
and even expressions styles can be different. We should accept these individual
differences to make our children successful.
Topic: 108- Areas of Individual Differences

Definitions of Individual Differences:

 Skinner, ―Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the
total personality‖.
 Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.: ―Individual differences are found in all psychological
characteristics, physical, mental abilities, and Knowledge, habit, personality and character
trait

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Topic: 109- Areas of Individual Differences

Individuals differ almost in every respect. They differ in physical as well as psychological
characteristics. The following are the areas of individual differences where individuals have
differences, which are as follows:

 Physical differences
 Age differences
 Sex differences
 Intellectual & mental differences
 Emotional differences
 Social Adjustment
 Differences in interest and mental abilities
Topic: 110- Areas of Individual Differences

Physical Differences:

 Man differs in his physical developments structurally and functionally. These differences are
seen in height, weight size of the body, structure of different parts of the body, color of hair,
skin, physical strength and precision.
Age Differences:

 This is also visible difference. Age factor determines the characteristics of a person. Age five
students, and age fifteen (15) students will have variety of differences in terms of height,
strength, emotions, and cognitive development.
Sex Differences:

 This is natural one. That is distinction between male and female individuals. This sex
differences gives male and female their characteristics relating to body, psychology, mental
abilities and cultural or social roles.
Intellectual & Mental Differences:

 This is the vital areas as far as educational psychology is concerned. Because educational
psychology main focus is on mental process and their manipulations in certain directions.
 Commonly intellectual differences are checked by intelligence Quotient (1Q) yard stick. This
is clear difference that the 1Q ability of one person (male or female) is different from
another one.
 Difference in intelligence level is seen in individuals into different categories such as genius,
gifted, superior, bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots on the basis of their intelligence level.
 Mental differences are noticed in the form of perception, concept formation, and
imagination, formation of imaging, memory and attention.
Topic: 111- Areas of Individual Differences

Emotional Differences:

 This is also very important factor which gives great distinguish status to a person against
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others. Those who have control over their emotional feelings show better learning result as
compare to those who are not well emotionally balance.
Social Adjustment:

 This area of individual differences means that how an individual is able to adjust to the new
changing environment. That adjustment degree is very from individual to individual.
Differences in Interest:

 Interest may refer as a motivating force that impels us to attend to a person, a thing, or an
activity. So in educational field, differences in interest means you observe some students like
a particular subject, teacher, hobby or profession than other.
Topic: 112- Causes of Individual Differences

Some of the main causes of individual differences are as under:

 Heredity:
One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is heredity.
Individuals inherit various physical traits like face with its features, color of eyes and hair,
type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands, color blindness, baldness, stub-finger and
tendency to certain diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits like intelligence,
abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. Now it is an admitted fact that heredity
differences result in the quantity and rate of physical as well as mental development being
different and different individuals.

 Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child‘s
environment are reflected in the changes in his personality. Psychologically speaking, a
person‘s environment consists of sum total of stimulation which he receives from
conception until his death.
Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and
cultural forces. All these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe
that individual differences are caused by both heredity and environment. Personality is the
outcome of mutual interaction between heredity and environment.
 Sex Differences:
Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in sex. The
physical development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys. Between the
age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier than the boys. After 15, boys start winning the
race.
Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are brave, hard,
choleric, efficient and competent.
 Age and intelligence:
Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age.
Many individuals differ because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are below
the average in intelligence and mental age find much difficulty in learning and the average
intelligent persons can learn quickly.

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 Temperament and Emotional Stability:

Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and slow,
some humorous and others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual is
differently affected by physical, mental and environmental factors. Differences in emotional
stability cause individual differences.

Other Causes:

 Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home background

lead to individual differences.
Topic: 113- Causes of Individual Differences

 Difference in Growth Rate:

The difference in individual growth rate is the difference in the rate at which
individuals progress or develop over time. This can be in terms of physical, mental,
emotional, or social development. The difference in individual growth rate can vary greatly
from person to person and is affected by a variety of factors such as genetics, environment,
and lifestyle.
 Difference in Socioeconomic Background:
The difference in socioeconomic background is the difference in the economic and
social status of two or more people or groups. Socioeconomic background is determined by
factors such as income, occupation, education, and social class. It can also be determined by
factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, and age. People with different socioeconomic
backgrounds may have different access to resources, opportunities, and privileges. This can
lead to disparities in quality of life, health, and access to education.
 Physiological Differences:
Psychological differences refer to the differences in the way people think, feel, and
behave. These differences can be due to a variety of factors such as culture, upbringing,
education, and life experiences. People may differ in their levels of intelligence, creativity,
motivation, and emotional intelligence. They may also differ in their levels of empathy, self-
control, and communication skills. Psychological differences can also be seen in the way
people respond to stress, cope with difficult situations, and form relationships with others.

 Innate ability learning differences due to hearing loss, visual impairment, speech
difficulty, inattention.
Topic: 114- Causes of Individual Differences

 Difference in Values:
Values are the things that are given importance by an individual. Some learners value
materialist life style other moral or religious life style etc. So, education must mold the mind
of young generation to have a balance values between materialism and spiritualism.
 Study Habits:
It is clearly observable that some students markedly differ from other students in
study habits. Some students are studious and study all the subjects with interest but other
may not. Some study in isolation and some in group.

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 Difference in Psychomotor Skills:

Psychomotor Skill is related to some skill acquisition. Some students differ in this
area also. Some students like football, other cricket, etc. Some students easily learn operating
a machine and some may not. A wise teacher should diagnose students‘ psychomotor skills
abilities and encourage them in that direction.
 Difference in Self Concept:
Difference in self-concept is the totality of attitudes, judgment, and values of an
individual relating to his behavior, abilities, and qualities. So, some students have positive
self-concept than boost their confidence level and perform better against those who have
negative self-image.
Topic: 115- Causes of Individual Differences

 Attitude ―An attitude is a particular feeling about something. It is partially rational and
partially emotional and is acquired, not inherent.‖
 Cognitive - our thoughts, beliefs, and ideas about something.
 Affective - feelings or emotions that something evokes. e.g., fear, sympathy, hate
 Behavioral - tendency or disposition to act in certain ways toward something
 Teacher, Friends/peer group, Parents, Teaching method, The language itself

Lecture: 27

(Topics: 116-120)
Topic: 116- Educational Provisions: -

Topic: 117- General Provisions-1: -

Topic: 118- General Provisions-2: -

Topic: 119- General Provisions-3: -

Topic: 120- Special provisions: -

Topic: 116- Educational Provisions

Whatever may be the causes, children differ in their learning abilities. It is the duty and responsibility
of any school system to provide for these differences so that every child is helped to rise to a height
quite commensuration with his own abilities. The following are a few of the important steps that a
school might take up in this direction.

 Proper knowledge of the individual‘s potentialities.

 The first step in making provision for the individual differences is to know about the
abilities, capacities, interests, aptitudes and other personality traits of individual pupils.
 For this purpose, help from intelligence test, cumulative record card, interest inventories,
attitude scales, aptitude tests and measures for assessing personality traits should be taken.
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Topic: 117- General Provisions

 Ability grouping
 In the light of the results derived from various tests for knowing individual differences in
terms of individual potentialities in various dimensions, the students in a class or area of
activity can be divided into homogenous groups.
 Such division can prove beneficial in adjusting instruction to varying individual differences.
 The curriculum should be as flexible and differentiated as possible.
 It should have the provision for a number of diversified courses and co-curricular
experiences.
Topic: 118- General Provisions

 Adjusting the method of teaching.

 Adopting special programmes or methods for individualizing instruction.
 The size of the class or section should be as small as possible.
 The teacher should keep in view the individual differences of his students while engaging
them in drill or practice work in classroom or assigning home task.
 Special coaching and guidance programme for both the dull and gifted children is most
helpful.
 Bright children need some instructional materials more advanced than those for the other
children. The slow learners also require reading materials different from the rest of the
group. The sensory handicapped and emotionally disturbed children also require special
material, equipment and space. In order to provide well for individual differences every
school should be properly equipped with such facilities and materials as will be needed for all
kinds of children.
Topic: 119- General Provisions

 Individual differences in learning

In a classroom, some children are quick learners and therefore, grasp the things in no
time. Likewise, some children are slow learners and therefore, takes time to follow
instructions or understand instructional material presented by the teacher. These differences
are natural, and teacher must know these differences and should take action according to the
potentials and abilities of children.
 Learning speed due to intelligence, attitude, attention span and motor skill.
 ADHD Children
ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is one of the most common
neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and
often lasts into adulthood. Children with ADHD may have trouble paying attention,
controlling impulsive behaviors (may act without thinking about what the result will be), or
be overly active. Teacher should assign challenging tasks to such students, for example,
making a map, drawing a picture, etc. These strategies will help students to stay on task and
foster better or concentration for children with ADHD.

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 Learning Disabilities, for example: Dyslexia.

Dyslexia is most commonly associated with trouble learning to read. Symptoms of
dyslexia in children include: problems learning the names and sounds of letters, spelling
that's unpredictable and inconsistent, confusion over letters that look similar and putting
letters the wrong way round (such as writing "b" instead of "d"). etc. Teacher must know
these learning disabilities and deal students accordingly.
 Learning and diversity
Diversity means that there are children with different potentials present in your class,
such as talented players, painters, poets, writers, and more. It is important to provide each
child with an outlet according to their potential and motivate them accordingly. Encourage
them to participate in sports activities so that their extra energy is utilized effectively,
enhancing their brain functioning and enabling them to focus better on their studies.
 Standard and assessment
Test should be developed keeping in view the average, slow and genius learners in
the classroom. It (test) should not be so difficult that no one could do it and nor it should be
quite easy that everyone could attempt it easily. The test should be conducted with a ratio of
60:40, where 60 percent of students should be able to attempt it.

Topic: 120- Special Provisions

 Provisions for Exceptional Children

 Gifted/Talented Children
 Emotionally Disturb Children
 Attention Deficit
 Hearing or visionary Problems
 Aggressive Children
 Hyper Active Children
a) Provisions for the Gifted/Talented Children
Marlance (1971) defined gifted and talented children as those with high demonstrated achievement
and / or high potential ability in any one of the following areas:

 General intellectual ability

 Specified academic aptitude
 Creative, productive thinking
 Leadership
 Visual and performing arts
 Psychomotor skills
This definition has been widely used, but required some elaboration. A gifted student is one who is
high in general intellectual ability and in achievement in several areas such as mathematics, science,
and English. Generally, a child who possesses IQ of 140 or above and is superior in most areas of
the school life or promises to be so is called a gifted child, strangely enough the gifted are forgotten
students in the class. Because they are able to take care of themselves academically, they get less

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attention from the teacher. Many gifted children display signs of apathy, boredom, unhappiness and
even maladjustment.

The first task that teachers face is identifying the area or areas of giftedness of the students.
Identification may be by an individual intelligence test, achievement tests and parental or teacher
observation. Aptitude test designed to predict specialized talents in art and music, architecture,
mechanics may also be used to identify talented students.

When the identification is done annually, new students not identified in prior years are found to be
gifted or talented. Accordingly, it is not uncommon for as many as 25% of the school population to
be identified as having a gift or a talent. It is also unwise to identify and label the gifted students;
least others feel that they are not gifted. The entire exercise should be done very discreetly.
Moreover, nearly every normally developing student has at least one area of high or potentially high
performance that should be identified and developed as that of exceptional children.

b) Educating the Gifted Children

Much can be accomplished with existing resources. A gifted student should have time to purse
topics more deeply than their classmates. Cluster of schools should combine their gifted children
regularly for special enrichment programmes. School should employ community expertise in such
fields as art, photography, journalisms, drama, and creative writing for their talented youngsters.

The key to educating the gifted children is to formulate individual programmes for them so that they
encounter daily challenges. Such education requires teachers who have received special training that
enables them to work with gifted students.

Special technique for educating the gifted fall along three lines

(a) Enrichment

(b) Acceleration

(c) Ability Grouping

(i) Enrichment

Enrichment is defined as experiences that are above and beyond the regular curriculum. Kirk (1972)
states that enrichment techniques usually follow one are more of these procedures.

 Teachers attempt to challenge gifted pupils by assigning extra reading and assignments and
permit them to participate in related extracurricular activities, for example, if parents can
arrange time, they could take a scientifically advanced student to special classes at an
institution.
 Grouping the gifted students of different schools so that they are together occasionally
enabling interested teachers to challenge their abilities by group discussion and independent
research.
 Providing special offerings, such as extra language or advanced science course.
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 Employing for each school system a special teacher who could more from school to school,
identify the gifted, aid regular teacher and actually work with the gifted in seminars or group
discussions busy schedule of work. It means providing challenging and meaningful work for
the gifted.
The ―Renzulli‖ model focuses on individual and small group investigations of aerial problems as the
key enrichment activities for gifted students. Included in it are projects directly related to the
school‘s curriculum? For example, students may engage in creative writing, drama, dance, and similar
expressive areas. In general, any enrichment activity is appropriate that enables students develop an
area of their giftedness.

(ii) Acceleration

Acceleration means some modification in the regular school programme that permits the gifted
student to complete the programme in less time or at an earlier age than usual (Getzels and Dillon,
1973). Double promotion is also an acceleration type. Acceleration can be of various types: school
admission based on mental age rather than chronological age, skipping classes, combining two years‘
work into one eliminating more basic course, early admission to high school/College.

Acceleration is important because curriculum is graded by age and every student is required to spend
one school year to complete each class. Not permitting student to learn the subject matter assigned
to a higher grade unnecessarily retards the educational development of many students. Stanley
(1977) presents strong arguments supporting two or more years of acceleration pair to high school
graduation by highly talented students. They conclude that enrichment, without any acceleration, will
be injurious to the educational development of the brilliant student.

(iii) Ability Grouping

Ability Grouping has definite possibilities for dealing with the gifted. There are certain objections
against grouping children according to mental abilities and segregating the gifted from the rest. It has
definite advantages over teaching a class of heterogeneous group. Gifted children must be identified
and grouped together in a special class so that the curriculum, instructional materials and teaching
techniques can be designed to meet their requirements. But segregation should be done discreetly
and without labeling the children.

(iv) Paul Torrance’s Guidelines to encouraging Giftedness

 Encourage manipulation and sensitivity to objects and ideas.

 Try to be tolerant of new ideas, no matter how far-fetched they may be.
 Be flexible in setting up lessons; permit some brainstorming.
 Maintain a relaxed classroom, tutoring or therapeutic atmosphere.
 Help the child who is creative learn to get along with other children.
 Present controversial problems and challenge accepted origins.
 Teach the basics of problem solving / creative processes.
 Teach them not to underrate their own creativity, dispel the sense of awe of masterpieces.
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(c) Provisions for the Slow Learners
The term slow learner‘ is commonly used with reference to children with IQs between about
80-90. Those with IQ of 90 or above are considered to be within the normal or above average
range. Ordinarily they have the ability to get along fairly well in a regular class-room without
much special help. Those with IQ below 75-80 on the other hand are usually classified as
retarded or mentally retarded. The child we call slow learner is one who is not necessarily
retarded or in need of special education but is likely to need some extra help in a regular class-
room. He is capable of learning just about anything that the average child is capable of it just
takes him longer. Students who are slow in learning one subject are frequently slow in learning
others. But this is not always the case. A child may be slow in reading, but is average or
above in learning, say mathematics. Different abilities are required for learning different
subjects.
(1) Identifying the Slow-Learner
In identifying the slow-learner the teacher can make use of intelligence test scores. But IQ
scores are not always true indicators of slowness in learning. Because two students are of
the same IQ score may have two different types of problems. Competency-based tests, an
improvement of traditional achievement tests in different school subject may also be used
to identify specific backwardness of children. Observation of students‘ behavior,
adjustment language difficulties, emotional problems etc. by parent and teachers can
provide useful information in identifying slow learner.

(2) Periodic Medical Examination

Deficiency in ability required for a particular task may cause slow or poor learning in
relation to that task. If the physical defect is recognized and corrected, the slow learner
becomes a normal learner. Our school systems, must, therefore, provide for periodic
medical examination of students, for taking remedial measures.

(d) Learning Handicaps in exceptional Children

Exceptional children are those who are considerably above or below the average of their age-
group in characteristic or behavior. Those above the average of their age-group are termed as
gifted or creative, and have been discussed earlier. Here we shall talk about these exceptional
children who are below the average of their age-group.

An exceptional child with a learning handicap/disability is one who differs from other children
so much in one or more characters, for example, in vision or in behavior that the child cannot
profit maximally from the typical pattern of instructions provided to normally developing
children. Change must be made in what is taught or how it is taught in order is provide for
handicapped exceptional children. A child is classified exceptional on the basis of careful
assessment/identification of various types of learning handicaps, so that they may participate in
programmes for handicapped children as defined by the state.

There are children who have a good vocabulary, who know what words mean, and who can use
words in conversation, but who are unable to learn to read. Such children are said to have
“dyslexia” which in itself merely means inability to read‖. There are also children who have

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what is called “hyperlixia” which means who can read at an early age, but who cannot
understand what is spoken to them. The word dyslexia has come to be associated with learning
disabilities generally, since so many of them related to the problem of reading. Actually, dyslexia
is but one type of learning disability, and there are two basic kinds: visual and auditory.

A child who is “visual dyslexic” has difficulty in translating written letter into round such a
child may also have difficulty is discriminating between two letters which are similar as ―b‖
and ―d‖ or ―n‖ and ―u‖ when written in text form. This often extends to difficulty in
recognizing the difference between such words as ―cat‖ and ―cap‖ or ―top‖ and ―tip‖ when
they are in print. Such children may have other nonbearing difficulties as well, as in the case
of a child who insists to play with a ball but who does not enjoy watching others play a ball
game because he or she cannot understand what is going on even though can she ―see‖ it.
A child who is an “auditory dyslexic” has difficulty in translating sound in to meaning.
Sometimes this shows up as difficulty in discriminating between sounds that are somewhat
similar: a child with such a difficulty will not discriminate between ―bat‖ and ―cat‖ when
they are given orally. He may also fail to recognize the similarity between ―milk‖ and ―silk‖.
A child with auditory dyslexia may also have difficulty remembering things told to him
orally.

Another type of difficulty that learner may have is “sequencing”, for example, they are
unable to put blocks in the same order as a model or to get the steps right in a long division
problem, or to get the letters in the right order in spelling (writing ―mlik‖ for milk‖).

A complete programme of diagnosis will include medical reports and other information. A
fairly complete list of things that can be done to identify various types of difficulties is given
below:

a. Evaluation of intelligence.
b. Visual-motor Perceptual Tests.
c. Personality Tests
d. Linguistic Evaluation
e. Reading Tests
f. Pinpointing of Behavioural Difficulties
g. Medical History Evaluation
h. Evaluation of Physical Development, Family Situation and Emotional Stresses in the
Home.
i. Physical Examination, both General and Neurological Including Visions and
Hearing Tests.
j. Assessment of Cognitive Development.
(e) Placement with a Teacher
Emotional crises, difficulty in interaction with the teachers and lack of proper
environmental setting may also cause slow learning. In order to find measures to prevent
failures in learning, each learner should be placed with the teacher with whom he can
interact most effectively. The positive effects of such interaction can bring about
remarkable changes in a student. In helping the slow learner the teacher should (i) look at

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the total child (development, maturation, motivation etc.) and (ii) examine the educational
setting (curriculum content, mode of instruction and the learning environment).

(f) Avoid Competition

Competition is especially harmful for slow-learners. This does not do so much good for
their self-concept. Competition causes the slow Learner stop trying and to feel even less
adequate than he did originally. It is supposed to contribute to frustration, discouragement
and feeling of worthlessness in them.
(g) Remedial Teaching
Teachers must provide remedial teaching/instructions for the slow learner. They have to
repeat their instruction/directions several times and in simple words, they should give
practice drill and review exercise lessons. They should introduce new material in small easy
steps, relating it to what he already knows. Short range incentives are more productive than
intrinsic motivation towards long range goals.

Non-Promotion

Some teachers argue in favour of detention or non-promotion of slow learners. But when a
youngster is not promoted, he perceives himself and is perceived by other as a failure. He
thinks that he has been punished. As dissatisfaction increases, he becomes a truant and
drop-out. The slow learner is not to be branded as a failure/non-learner, not to be
compared with others who are not really his peers. He is to be helped and listened to, and
should be encouraged and understood rather than beaten down, at home as well in school.
If possible Special Classes, especially by trained teachers may be started for slow learners
who have a strong need for accomplishments, which might be difficult for them in a regular
class. Each small success or accomplishment must be rewarded.

(h) A Disadvantaged Child

Is one who is (a) handicapped or disabled because of certain conditions, (b) denied the
opportunity to grow normally at his own natural rate (c) has been denied the basic /
universal rights of children i.e., a stable home, loving mother, a supportive father, (d) who
suffers from a continuing inadequacy of basic necessities of life. Thus, the term continuing
inadequacy is of basic necessities of life. Thus, the term disadvantaged refers to an inner
condition of a child resulting from an outer deprivation; there are several categories of
disadvantaged children, such as: Economically disadvantages, socially, culturally,
intellectually, educationally or linguistically disadvantaged.

(i) Causes of Disadvantaged Conditions

(a) Economic-poverty, poor occupational status, unemployment, poor
housing/diet/health clothing etc. or inadequate medical care, cleanliness, pre-natal
and post natal complications.
(b) Home and neighborhood-school inadequacy, crowded home, lack of play space,
slum type, homes.
(c) Defective child-rearing and parenting behavior, lack of cultural stimulation, parental
rejection or over-indulgence.
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(d) Intellectual, educational, retarded cognitive growth, delayed speech, over stimulation,
failure, stagnation, and dropout.
(e) Psychiatric problems, behaviour problems and disorders.
(j) Programme for the Disadvantaged
(a) Preventing programme for health, nutrition and care.
(b) Preparatory and pre-school education programmes
(c) Educational reform for adapting curricular, school, teachers teaching methods and
textbooks.
(d) Parent education and functional literacy programmes.
(e) Social and welfare programmes for adolescents/Youth/Families and communities.

Lecture: 28

(Topics: 121-130)
Topic: 121- Measurement of individual Differences Tests of General Intelligence: -

Topic: 122- Tests of Aptitude: -

Topic: 123- Interest Inventories: -

Topic: 124- Test of personality: -

Topic: 125- Competence Based Tests: -

Topic: 126- Multiple Choice Tests or Essays: -

Topic: 127- Computer Assisted Testing (CAT): -

Topic: 128- The Portfolio Approach: -

Topic: 129- Grade Equivalent Scores: -

Topic: 130- Curriculum Testing: -

Topic: 121- Measurement of Individual Differences: Tests of General Intelligence

Measurement is the assignment of a number to an object or event according to rule. This may
represent something physical, as when you step on the scales and note, with dismay or pleasure the
number that indicates your weight. Or it may be more subtle, as when you take a vocational aptitude
test and receive your score in medical or engineering aptitude test. In order to draw meaningful
comparison, measurement, must be meaningful. In order to have meaning, all measurements must
satisfy two basic criteria: they must be reliable and they must be valid.

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a) Reliability is the indication of the consistency of measurement, for example, if your weight
reads 140Ibs, one day, 240 pound the next day, and 40 pound the days after, your faith in the
precision of the scale would be secretly shaken. The same is true of psychological test. Our
measurements must be consistent over repeated tests of measurement. A good test should
yield roughly the same scores over repeated measurements, as long as that which is being
measured does not change dramatically.
b) Validity Measurements must also be valid, validity is an indication of the extent to which a
test measure what it is supposed to measure.
c) Correlation In order to give precise statements about reliability and validity, a statistical
technique called correlation may be utilized. It allows scientists to make predictions;
correlation is a statement about the strength of the association between two (or possibly
more) variables. If the correlation between two variables is high, the variables will tend to be
very together, that is, wherever one of the traits is found, chances are good that the other
trait will also be found. If we observe that people with bland hair usually have blue eye then
we would say that there is correlation between the variables: hair color and eye color. This is
not to say that having bland hair causes one to have blue eyes, but it does allow us to predict,
whenever we know that certain individuals have bland hair, that they are also likely to have
blue eyes. As discussed earlier, individuals differ in sensitive, affective and psychomotor
abilities. They differ almost in every respect-personality, attitude, interest, intelligence and
achievement. Individual differences can be identified and measured through finer
measurement instruments know as psychological test. A psychological is a pattern of stimuli,
selected and organized to elicit responses which reveal certain psychological characteristics in
the person who makes them.
The following psychological tests can be used by the teacher or psychologists to measure difference
among individuals.

Tests of General Intelligence:

Sometimes these tests are also referred to as tests of mental ability, tests of general ability or test of
scholastic aptitude, these tests measure the psychological traits termed to ―intelligence‖ which
provide the best possible single clue to the understanding of children‘s academic performances.
There are various tests of intelligence like standard-Binet intelligence test (revised), Wechsler
intelligence scale for children and various culture free and culture fair tests.

Topic: 122- Tests of Aptitude

 All measurements must satisfy two basic criteria: they must be:
o Reliable and they must be valid.
 These tests measure the possibilities of success in future performance.
 One of the most famous batteries, which measure children‘s different aptitudes, is
―differential aptitude test battery‖ which measures the following abilities.
o Verbal Reasoning
o Numerical Ability
o Abstract Reasoning
o Space Relations
o Mechanical Reasoning
o Clerical Speed and Accuracy
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o Language Usage
Topic: 123- Interest Inventories

 Strong Vocational Interest Blank and Kuder‘s Preference Record Vocational) are some of
the interest inventories that can be used to measure differences among individuals in their
interest.
 The modern version of strong vocational interest Bank is based on the typology (Holland
Codes) of psychologist John L. Holland. The newly revised inventory consists of 291 items,
each of which asks you to indicate your preference from three responses.
 The Kuder Preference Test, first published in 1938, was designed to measure the motivation
of high school and college students. This form provided vocational guidance.
Topic: 124- Test of Personality

 The MMPI, Bells Adjustment Inventory, Projective tests like ―Rorschach Ink Blot test.‖
 Originally developed in the late 1930s, the test has been revised and updated several times to
improve accuracy and validity. The MMPI-2 consists of 567 true-false questions and takes
approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete; the MMPI-2-RF has 338 true-false questions,
taking 35 to 50 minutes to finish.
 Thematic Apperception test, and other questionnaires can be used to measure personality
structure and adjustment, and difficulties of individuals.
Topic: 125- Competence Based Tests

 Tests of achievement, mostly teacher-made type, can be used to measure individual

differences in academic achievement. Practically, these tests as are prepared by teachers do
not measure the competence in learning various subjects. The competence-based tests are an
improvement over the traditional tests, and are not difficult to prepare such tests. Once the
teacher knows the learning competencies in various school subjects it becomes easy for the
teacher to prepare such tests.
 It must be noted that scores obtained by a student in any one of the tests may not be a sure
measure of his standing in the group. Scores on tests are influenced by a number of factors,
internal and external operating at the time of taking the test. For this purpose, scores
obtained by one test can be supplemented by scores obtained from other similar tests.
Topic: 126- Multiple Choice Tests or Essays

 One of the criticisms of the multiple-choice tests is that it rewards rote memorization rather
than true understanding. This can certainly happen if the test is poorly designed, but when
thoroughly researched and carefully prepared, the multiple choice test can assess a person‘s
ability to apply concepts to problem solving situations.
 Rather than break up the units of knowledge and isolating the pieces, as the critics typically
charge, a well-designed multiple choice test, such as SAT, demands that the students be able
to understand concepts and bring facts together. Research evidence clearly shows that the
SAT verbal score shares much in common with IQ, the correlation between them being an
extremely high + 0.80.
Essay Questions:

 There is the fear that standardized tests based only on essay questions and writing samples
may have an adverse effect on learning. Verbally adept but uninformed students may bluff
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their way through an essay exam. Similarly, the tactics used by some students or memorizing
or rotting the topics of subjects also affects learning process.
 Essay type exams however, illuminate the student‘s thought process in more detail, as
compared to multiple-choice tests. But for a teacher, with a large class of widely varying
abilities, interests and needs may have to rely on the multiple choice tests. It not only ensures
reliability of testing but also more importantly it permits free time to work with individual
students.
Topic: 127- Computer Assisted Testing

 The computer age has led to a high-tech form of testing called CAT. (Computer Assisted
Testing) Here, the individual sits at a computer keyboard, and the questions are presented on
the screen.
 The testing becomes personalized since the testing is interactive with the computer, in effect
custom designing the test to each student‘s skill level. For example, the question may get
progressively more difficult until a level is reached. When a student begins to get the
questions wrong, an easier set of questions suddenly appears. This branching of easier and
harder questions called going ―up the ladder‖ or ―down the chute‖ continues until the
student‘s true level of competence to reach.
 The educational testing services of USA are currently putting both the SAT and GRE
(Graduate Record Exam) on a computer format.
 Many people believe that CAT is viable, cost-effective and a big improvement over paper
and pencil testing.
Topic: 128- The Portfolio Approach

 Another testing technique, currently gaining in popularity is called the portfolio approach.
Just as an aspiring artist or model carries a portfolio of past work to a prospective employer,
so too does the student who selects examples of his or her best work over a term or even an
entire year of study. It is said that the portfolio approach places more emphasis on a
student‘s overall accomplishment than on the ability merely to score well on a single battery
of tests. Typical portfolios include original poetry, plan, short stories, essay and art projects.
Even in math, a student might produce a series of fractions, showing their relationships to
decimals, or an arrangement of dice to illustrate probabilities, or even present an essay on the
life of the Prophet ―Muhammad‖ (P.B.U.H).
 At the end of the year, the student hands over the portfolios to the teacher for evaluation.
Teachers of the new Millennium should be made aware of this approach and should be
given workshop preparation in learning this technique.
 The portfolio method can also be used to evaluate teachers, students and the curriculum
itself. A portfolio that includes, for example, ―samples of student‘s teacher developed plans
and materials, videotaped teaching episodes, and other teacher‘s reflections on his or her
own teaching can provide direct evidence of what a teacher knows and can do.
 Whether, the portfolio approach proves to be as valuable as it promises is still in question,
but there is no doubt that new testing methods will be employed as educational psychology
operates in the 21st century. New testing procedures are on the horizon, procedures
intended to bridge the gap between cognitive psychology and psychometric methods.

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Topic: 129- Grade Equivalent Scores

 Grade equivalent scores are based on relating a given student‘s score on a test to the average
scores found for other students in a particular grade, at the same time of years, and of
roughly the same age.
 For example, assume that in September, a large, representative sample of their graders (III
class, students) of the morning group, producer an average score of 30 on a certain
arithmetic test. If a given student is then tested, and receives a score of 30, that child would
be assigned a grade-equivalent score of 3.0 of the child did somewhat better than that and
had a score of say 3.4, it would indicate a performance equal to a third grade student in the
fourth month (December) of the school year. Grade equivalent scores are typically reported
in tenths of a year, so that a score of 5.9 refers to the ninth month (June) of the fifth grade,
and a score of 0.0 to the first day of kindergarten. Thus, the scores range from 0.0 (or
sometimes ko) through 12.9, representing the thirteen years of school from kindergarten
through grade 12. The first of September is given on the score as 0, whereas the end of
September as 0.1, the end of October as 0.2 and on until the end of June as 0.9. a note of
caution in this system is:
a) Children do not all grow and develop at the same yearly rate, never mind the same
monthly rate, so don‘t be overly concerned when a seemingly bright child suddenly
under performs the norms of a few months, that same child may quickly catch up and
even outperform the norms several months later.
b) Don‘t be too quick to use a precocious child‘s high score in same area as a reason to
have that child skip a grade or two. A third class (grader) might even get a grade
equivalent of 7.0 on a given test. This doesn‘t mean that the child is now ready for a fast
promotion to class-7th. What it does mean is that the third grader has certainly enquired
third-grade material and infects has done as well as a seventh grader when measured on a
third-grade test. However, there are many things the 7th grader has learned and is
expected to know which are simply not even part of a third-grader‘s consciousness and
which don‘t appear on a third grade test.
Topic: 130- Curriculum Testing

Virtually any curriculum that is more than five years old requires a thorough evaluation, this is
most obvious in field such as science, but should be done in all areas. This type of testing
shown answers the following:
a) To what degree have the curriculum‘s goals been reached?
b) Is the curriculum content appropriate in view of the mission‘s objectives.
c) Has the instruction been truly based on the curriculum.
d) Has the assessment measured the taught curriculum or planned.
Lecture: 29

(Topics: 131-138)
Topic: 131- Introduction of Intellectual Development: -

Topic: 132- Theories of intelligence-1: -

Topic: 133- Theories of intelligence-2: -

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Topic: 134- Issues and controversies: -

Topic: 135- Measurement of Intelligence Individual intelligence tests: -

Topic: 136- Individual intelligence tests: -

Topic: 137- Group intelligence Tests-1: -

Topic: 138- Group intelligence Tests-2: -

Topic 131- Introduction of Intellectual Development

Intellectual development is related to cognitive abilities and capacities. Cognition is the
study of the thought processes or activities of the human mind which lead to the acquisition of new
knowledge and skills. It includes all types of mental processes such as attending, thinking, imaging,
creating, and problem-solving to name a few. There is no consensus on what intelligence means.
Generally, intelligence is thought of as a combination of different attributes, for example, the ability
to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences, creativity, and interpersonal skills. Some
view intelligence as a single capacity while other believes that it is a collection of loosely related
abilities. Still, others believe that intelligence is the ability to think in the abstract (Sattler, 2001).
Intelligence is a complex trait that is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. These
varied beliefs have influenced the theoretical positions as well as the measures of intelligence.

Topic 132- Theories of Intelligence

There is a continuous debate among psychologists about whether intelligence is composed
of a single capacity or a number of specific capacities. Spearman suggested that there is a general
ability or intelligence (g) which is responsible for an individual's overall Success in different tasks.
Robert Sternberg (2003), another multitrait theorist, suggests that intelligence is made up of three
basic components hence the name, triarchic intelligence: Including analytical, creative, and practical
components. The analytical component deals with a person's ability to solve problems by analyzing
ideas and thinking critically. After reading the content, can you analyze it and state the pros and
cons? If students are practiced daily, then they can analyze exams. In Pakistan, when we go for
international tests, students got low scores in analytical because their reason is behind in the
curriculum and they did in less practice. In the examination, we ask what it means. What is the
definition of this? Can you describe this concept? Instead of asking can you analyze this theory or
can you write implications of this theory in your classroom, can you write the pinpoint of
weaknesses and strengths by giving the content you can ask to analyze it.

Creative intelligence refers to the ability to combine different ideas to form something novel
by thinking outside of the box. After reading the content, can you analyze it and state the pros and
cons? Creativity, I taught something to my students and then I asked them that create a new model.
I taught you the theory and based on this theory can you create a new shape or new models that
would be different from the model that you have already learned from the class but can you create

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something new? For example, you tell about the use of red color can develop new color by mixing
two colors. This type of creativity is the symbol of creativity always creates the new ways and
including innovations in dresses, and personalities whereas the practical intelligence is involved in
applying knowledge and skills to the different kinds of environment. Practical components simplification
Do you know how to apply this skill in the market? Do you know how to implicate this skill in the
classroom? Sternberg believes that people‘s intelligence can be enhanced by providing them with
opportunities to think analytically, creatively, and practically.

Topic 133- Theories of intelligence

In contrast to the view that intelligence is composed of a single or a small number of

overarching abilities, Howard Gardner suggests that an individual may exhibit several types of
intelligences. He categorized these intelligences into eight identifiable forms and argues that there
could be possibly more than these forms. He divided intelligence into eight areas and he argued that
in these areas always we can't confine intelligence as one entity but, it‘s a group of abilities and
capacities in these eight areas a person will respond to the environment and then he or she will be
considered intelligent. His list of intelligences includes the following: logical-mathematical, linguistic,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Related activities
Logical-mathematical ability to understand and use numerical patterns, mathematical operations,
reasoning and logic experimenting, calculating, solving logical puzzles, etc. A person is who knows
about the reasons for anything and can explain it logically. They didn‘t accept blindly they proved by
evidence. It‘s a skill of intelligence by symbol he is logical and mathematical does means he tries to
approve scientifically for example 4 2+2=4.Linguistic Ability to acquire and use functions of
language, express oneself, and comprehend others by reading, writing, playing word games, listening
to and telling stories, etc. Intelligence is needed for language learning. Metalinguistic people are easily
intelligent they learn the language and express them in front of others. Some scholars believe that
intelligence is not affected language learning. Although children have the natural ability to learn
language and do it without formal instructions, they do not learn language based on general
intelligence. For example, children are learned native languages. Spatial Ability to understand,
recognize and manipulate patterns, spaces, and objects navigating, designing, visualizing, drawing,
solving jigsaw puzzles, etc. Musical ability is to appreciate and use the components of music, singing,
creating tunes, humming, etc. Singers, dancers, etc. are born by birth with these abilities. Intelligent
man can make their name in any field of life. Bodily-kinesthetic Ability to coordinate and use fine-
and gross motor skills in a productive way dancing, running, cycling, swimming etc. Interpersonal
Ability is to interact with others in a productive way. They can smartly intervene in the minds of the
people and then he always wins their confidence and then people rely upon him and trust him that‘s
why they want to choose to make him friends. Intrapersonal Ability to appreciate one's own self to
guide one's own life. Naturalistic Ability is to appreciate the natural environment and understanding,
working with, and caring for Mother Nature, etc.

Additional Reading:

This is further elaborated in Table as follows.

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Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence Characteristics Related activities

Logical Ability to understand Experimenting, calculating, solving logical puzzles etc.
mathematical and use numerical
patterns,
mathematical
operations, reasoning
and logic.
Linguistic Ability to acquire and Reading, writing, playing word games, listening to and telling
use functions of stories etc.
language, express
oneself and
comprehend others.
Spatial Ability to understand, Navigating, designing, visualizing, drawing, solving jigsaw
recognize and puzzles etc.
manipulate patterns,
spaces and objects
Musical Ability to appreciate Singing, creating tunes, humming etc.
and use the
components of music
Bodily Ability to coordinate Dancing, running, cycling, swimming etc.
kinesthetic and use fine- and
gross motor skills in a
productive way
Interpersonal Ability to interact Leading, organizing, socializing etc.
with others in a
productive way
Intrapersonal Ability to appreciate Goal-setting, organizing, planning, dreaming, meditation etc.
one's own self to
guide one's own life
Naturalistic Ability to appreciate Understanding, working with and caring for mother nature
the natural etc.
environment
Topic 134- Issues and Controversies
One of the greatest controversies in the area of educational and
developmental psychology is whether intelligence is an inherited ability (nature) or
whether it can be developed by an individual's personal and contextual experiences
(nurture) (see O'Donnell, et al., 2012). Early psychologists view intelligence as an
inherent and fixed capacity that cannot be altered. This view is referred to as an
entity view of intelligence. However, others argue that context plays an important
role in developing intelligence and it can be improved with practice and a supportive
environment. This view is known as the incremental view of intelligence.
Topic 135- Measurement of Intelligence Individual Intelligence Tests
Whether intelligence is an inherited ability (nature) or whether it can be developed by an
individual's personal and contextual experiences (nurture). A number of standardized tests have
been used to measure intelligence. Although these tests give information about a rather narrow
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range of an individual's capabilities, they are popular with psychologists and educators because they
provide a reasonably fair picture of future success. What elements make up human intelligence?
Which areas have we measured? Intelligence is the name of analytical skill, a group of abilities,
expressed by creativity; it‘s the tough task of how we measure these traits. These standardized tests
measure analytical skills, Specific intelligence, General intelligence, sense of creativity, critical skills,
application of thoughts, comprehension skills, etc. Howard Gardner suggests that an individual may
exhibit several types of intelligence. Good intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are
consistent over time, and also demonstrate validity, meaning that they measure intelligence rather
than something else. Generally, intelligence tests have been divided into two broad categories,
including individual and group intelligence tests (see Berk, 2013). A group test consists of tests that
can be administered to a large group of people at one time. This is the opposite of an individual test,
which is administered to one person at a time.

Topic 136- Individual Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler scales are the two most commonly used individual tests
to measure intelligence. Alfred Binet constructed a measure of intelligence in 1905. He developed
the concept of mental age (MA) which represents a child's mental development in relation to the
other children. His test consisted of 30 items to assess mental processes and behaviors. Later, in
1912, William Stern introduced the intelligence quotient (IQ), which represents an individual's
mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100. Thus, if a child of 10 had a
mental age of 12 (that is performed on the test at the level of an average 12-year-old), then the child
was assigned an IQ of (12/10) X 100. Binet's test has been revised and adapted several times. The
latest version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale takes into account general intelligence along
with complex mental processes including fluid intelligence, knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
visual-spatial processing, and working memory. This test is successfully conducted with individuals
ranging from 2 years to adulthood. A special version of the test, named, the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood, includes fewer items with the verbal and non-verbal modes
of testing for children aged between 2 to 7.3 years.

Another commonly employed intelligence test is called the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children IV (WISC-IV). It targets children aged between 6 to 16 years (Adolescence) and offers a
measure of both general intelligence as well as other intellectual factors such as verbal reasoning,
perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. 85 percent of intellectually disabled
children receive IQ scores between 55 and 70. A score of 100 is considered average and a score
above 110 to 120 consider intelligent. A high score usually above 130 means the person has a lot
of potential. Here is detailed score ranges of IQ Test.50 to 60 intelligence these students don‘t take
education in normal schools. For them made special schools and give training. They didn‘t take
education. By using this yardstick, you can measure intelligence. Aptitude and achievement tests are
also used as indicators of an individual's intelligence. Aptitude tests refer to the person's potential to
perform a particular task in the future, whereas Achievement tests assess the actual knowledge and
skill of the person.

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Topic 137-138 Group Intelligence Tests
A rather quick and cost-effective way of measuring students' intelligence is to conduct the
test in a group. This helps to reduce the related expenses and saves time. There are tests that are
specifically designed for this purpose, for example, the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test and the
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT). However, group intelligence tests should be used with
caution since they have certain limitations. For example, they do not allow the examiner to develop
rapport and determine the student's level of anxiety. It is generally suggested that the scores obtained
from group intelligence tests should be supplemented with information from other sources.

Lecture: 30

(Topics: 139-144)
Topic: 139- Intellectual Development from Infancy to Childhood-1: -

Topic: 140- Intellectual Development from Infancy to Childhood-2: -

Topic: 141- Intellectual development at elementary level: -

Topic: 142- Information Processing Approach: -

Topic: 143- Intellectual Characteristics of Learners of: Preschool to higher secondary level: -

Topic: 144- Role of Teacher in Intellectual Development: -

Topic 139-Intellectual Development from Infancy to Childhood

Child development refers to how your child grows and changes over time at different levels
like physical maturity, Physical changes. It includes not only the physical changes that occur from
infancy to adolescence but also seeks to better understand their mental growth, cognition, and
intellectual capacities as well. Cognition refers to thinking and mind. Mind belongs to the
intelligence. As human personality have four aspects physical, emotional, mental, and social. The
balance of all these four aspects shows an intelligent man. Intelligent man who has the ability to
control the situation in the field and he has social interactions and moral stability. For example,
motivational speakers. A motivational speaker is a person who delivers speeches and presentations
aimed at inspiring and motivating individuals. The most fundamental emotions, known as the basic
emotions, are anger, happiness, and sadness. The fulfillment of three basic emotions makes the
human happy and vice versa. Children gain cognitive maturity as they age. With time and experience,
they advance their thinking skills and make transitions from simple to complex cognitive processes
which add to their intelligence as well. It emphasizes the processes (cognition) rather than the
products of mental activities (intelligence). It examines how children make cognitive and intellectual
advancements from infancy to childhood. In doing so, it also highlights the cognitive characteristics
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of learners at different periods of time. Children make cognitive and intellectual advancements from
infancy to childhood.

Topic 140-Intellectual Development from Infancy to Childhood

Piaget Cognitive Theory

Piaget believed those children‘s cognitive development progresses through four stages which
involve sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational periods.

These stages are treated as fixed and universal and represent a general sequence which is observable
in all types of cognitive change.

1. The sensory-motor stage. The sensorimotor stage is characterized by the first two years of life
during which infants think through their five senses or symbol. At the beginning of this stage, the
sensory reflexes of the child serve to make up for his/her intelligence. The child engages in circular
reactions (repeating chance behaviors) which help him/her to adapt to his/her surroundings. When
you give instructions child will respond quickly.
ii. The preoperational stage.

At the preoperational stage, as children grow, they enter the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
children have not yet developed the ability to think logically. Instead, they use their intuition and
perception to understand the world and solve problems. For instance, children at this stage are
unable to understand conservation, the idea that the amount of a substance remains the same
regardless of its container‘s shape or how many pieces and shapes the substance is transformed into
iii. The concrete operational stage
The concrete operational stage occurs approximately between ages 7 and 11 and is characterized by
children‘s ability to think logically about concrete objects. As children enter middle childhood, they
accomplish a number of cognitive advancements. For example, children at this stage perform mental
operations that follow logical rules. They are capable of thinking in more than one direction and are
capable to see a problem from different angles (decent ratio). Consequently, they understand that
certain characteristics remain the same even if they change their outward appearance (conservation).
Their understanding of space is more precise when compared with the preschool children. They are
capable of developing logical hierarchies and classification systems and can perform reversible
actions which demonstrate that the children have now developed logical, flexible, and organized
schemes than before.
iv. The formal operational stage.
The formal operational stage also called the post-operational stage occurs approximately between
ages 11 years of age to own word. The stage of formal operations is similar to the stage of concrete
operations in that both include the ability to engage in logical and systematic thinking. However,
learners with formal operational thinking are able to apply the wide repertoire of cognitive abilities
developed in the concrete operational stage to abstract and hypothetical situations. For example,
learners can generate hypotheses and think systematically about the hypotheses. It is at this stage
that learners are able to conduct ―thought experiments‖ and think in terms of metaphors, ironies,
analogies, and satire. However, not all learners will reach the formal operational stage.
Accompanying this stage, comes the individual's desire to get noticed, often referred to as adolescent

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egocentrism. This is a heightened self-consciousness phase in which the growing adolescents tend to
believe that others are interested in them in the same way as they are themselves
Vygotsky socio-cultural theory
Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural approach builds upon the role of language and cultural tools in
shaping human cognition and development. He believed that cultural influences, such as language,
instruction, social interactions, etc have a profound influence on children's cognitive advancements.
Topic 141-Intellectual Development At Elementary Level

Elementary Level starts from 6 years or Children begin elementary school around age 4 to
own word these years of childhood are called elementary years and elementary years have different
stages and levels in different countries. Children's cognitive development undergoes rapid changes
during the early years of school. A number of activities and strategies may help the elementary
school child to make cognitive progress at this stage.

These include, for example, allowing children to experiment, encouraging discovery learning, reading
with the children, and encouraging them to share ideas and opinions by Providing opportunities for
participation, such as through group discussions, brainstorming sessions, or team-building activities,
which can encourage people to share their ideas and opinions and asking them to make
comparisons, classify and categorize objects, things or events. What are the characteristics of
mammals? Which animals eat meat? Which animals eat both meat and grass? Using pictures to
classify objects can be especially useful for younger students or students who are visual learners, as it
can help them develop their observation and categorization skills and engaging them in drama, role-
playing and asking them to justify their answers and actions.

Topic 142-Information Processing Approach

How the mind processes information, which is a popular cognitive approach to

understanding how people acquire, store, and recall new information. The information processing
approach presents another major perspective that helps us to understand cognitive development and
its link with intelligence. This approach views the human brain as an active information processing
system, like a computer machine. The human mind is analogous to a computer in that new
information can be input, processed, stored, and later retrieved. Short-term memory and long-term
memory are two types of memory storage in the brain. Short-term memory is a memory system that
works as temporary storage for new information. Long-term memory refers to the storage of
information in the brain for an extended period of time, ranging from hours to years. It is the type
of memory that allows us to recall events, facts, and experiences from the past. It examines how
information enters a human mind, and how is it stored, processed, and retrieved when needed. It
emphasizes two major cognitive processes including memory and thinking. This approach views the
human brain as an active information-processing system. Overall, it is argued that children develop
and refine their mechanisms to acquire process, store and work with increasingly complex
information and skills over time. In doing so, they develop improved cognitive resources, that is, the
capacity and speed of processing information. This improved ability is further linked to better
memory and problem-solving skills.

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Topic143-Intellectual Characteristics of Learners of Preschool to Higher Secondary Level

Preschool Learners

Preschool children typically develop the ability to recognize previously seen objects by the age of 2-3
years. This is an important cognitive skill that allows them to make sense of their environment and
learn new things. As children grow and develop, they become better at recognizing objects and
categorizing them based on their similarities and differences. Preschool children also develop visual
preferences for certain types of objects, colors, and shapes. These preferences are often based on
their individual experiences and interests. For example, a child who loves animals may have a
preference for toys that depict animals or books about animals. Eye-hand coordination is the ability
to use visual information to guide hand movements. Preschool children develop this skill by
engaging in activities that require them to manipulate objects with their hands, such as playing with
blocks or drawing with crayons.

Distractibility and short attention span are common characteristics of preschool-aged children.
Preschool children are easily distracted by their surroundings, especially when there are multiple
stimuli competing for their attention. They may get sidetracked by interesting sounds, sights, or
people, and may have difficulty focusing on a specific task or activity for an extended period of time.
This is because their brains are still developing and they have not yet fully developed their ability to
filter out distractions. Preschool children also have a limited attention span, which means they can
only focus on a task or activity for a short amount of time before becoming restless or bored. This is
normal and expected at this age, as their brains are still developing and they are constantly exploring
and learning about their environment. It's important to keep in mind that variability in performance
from one assessment to the next is normal in preschool-aged children. It's also important to use
multiple measures to evaluate a child's development, rather than relying on a single assessment.

Topic 144: Higher Secondary Level

At the higher secondary level, learners typically demonstrate a range of intellectual characteristics,
which can be broadly categorized as follows: Students are typically capable of more advanced levels
of abstract reasoning and critical thinking. They are able to analyze complex information, draw
connections between ideas, and evaluate arguments based on evidence and logic.

Drawing logical inferences from verbal descriptions, and identifying similarities between opposite
concepts. Identifying differences between similar abstract words, interpreting proverbs, and breaking
down complex geometric figure into their component part

Topic144- Role of Teacher in Intellectual Development

The role of the teacher in supporting learners' intellectual development involves creating a
supportive and engaging learning environment that encourages exploration, inquiry, critical thinking,
creativity, and play. By providing guidance, feedback, and support, teachers can help learners
develop the skills and knowledge they need to succeed academically and in life.
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Teachers can provide real-world examples of addition to help students understand the practical
applications of the concept. For example, students can learn to add up the two apples, what will be
the result after adding the two apples and oranges? and 2+2= 4. . Vygotsky‘s introduced the
concepts of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to the
process by which a teacher provides support and guidance to help learners develop their skills and
knowledge. This can involve breaking down complex tasks into more manageable steps, providing
feedback and reinforcement, and modeling strategies and techniques. Teachers can encourage
learners to explore and inquire about the world around them by providing opportunities for hands-
on, experiential learning. This can involve incorporating activities that promote Teachers can
encourage learners to develop their creativity by providing opportunities for self-expression and
creative exploration. ZPD refers to certain cognitive abilities that are in the process of developing,
and that can be achieved with support from an adult or a capable peer.

This can involve incorporating activities that promote creativity, such as art projects, creative writing
assignments, and music or drama performances. Play is an important part of intellectual
development, and teachers can support learners' play in a variety of ways. This can involve providing
a range of play materials and opportunities for different types of play, such as object play, pretend
play, social play, and locomotors play. Teachers can also participate in play with learners to provide
guidance and support.

Lecture: 31

(Topics: 145-151)
Topic: 145- Forgetfulness: -

Topic: 146- Theories of forgetfulness: -

Topic: 147- Factors affecting transfer of learning: -

Topic: 148- Metacognition: -

Topic: 149- Transfer of Learning and instruction: -

Topic: 150- Meaning and Nature of Learning: -

Topic: 151- Learning difficulties: -

Topic 145- Forgetfulness

Forgetting (retention loss) refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and
stored in an individual's long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. It is subject to delicately balanced
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optimization that ensures that relevant memories recalled. Forgetting can be reduced by repetition
and more elaborate cognitive processing of information. Reviewing information in ways that involve
active retrieval seems to slow the rate of forgetting. Forgetting functions (amount remembered as a
function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. There are
many reasons why people may experience forgetfulness. Some of the most common reasons include:
Stress, anxiety, depression can cause forgetfulness, confusion, difficulty concentrating, and other
problems that disrupt daily activities For example, an academic anxiety. Alcoholism: Chronic
alcoholism can seriously impair mental abilities. Lack of Sleep: Sleep is an important for memory
consolidation, so not getting enough sleep can lead to forgetfulness. So, it is disturb your nervous
system and memory loss. You need to fulfill your sleep daily and you should set mind clock .it has
two types Body and mind clock. It is possible that if you have set your mind clock to a regular sleep
schedule of going to bed at 9 o'clock, your body may start to feel naturally sleepy or tired around
that time. Medications: Some medications, such as those used to treat anxiety and depression, can
cause memory problems as a side effect. Fatigue and lack of exercise can contribute to
forgetfulness because they can affect the functioning of the brain. When we are fatigued, our ability
to concentrate and remember things can be impaired. Exercise is important for brain health because
it helps to increase blood flow to the brain, which can improve cognitive function. Following a
routine can help with forgetfulness because it can help to establish habits and reduce the need for
relying on memory. Focusing on one thing at a time can also be helpful for memory because it
allows us to give our full attention to the task at hand, which can improve our ability to remember it
later. Creating memory triggers can be a useful technique for improving memory. This involves
associating new information with something that is already familiar to us in order to make it easier to
remember. For example, you to put papers in the bag and your bag is trigger .You can create triggers
and you can memorize things by triggers. You could set a reminder on your phone or computer to
remind you. This can help to create a mental connection that makes it easier to recall the
information later.

Topic 146-Theories of Forgetfulness

Different schools of thoughts explained why we don‘t able to memorize the things and how
do we get forgetfulness? These five theories include the displacement theory, decay theory,
interference theory, retrieval failure theory, and consolidation theory. Throughout the years,
psychologists have created five theories of forgetting in an attempt to explain which environmental
factors or cognitive abilities decay factors from which we don‘t remember and why memories slip
from our memories. Tulving (1974) argued that information would be more readily retrieved if the
cues present when the information was encoded were also present when its retrieval is required. The
Displacement Theory of forgetfulness is a theory that suggests that forgetting occurs when new
information interferes with the ability to recall old information. According to this theory, when new
information is learned, it can displace or push out old information from memory, making it more
difficult to recall. Cue-dependent forgetting: Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent
forgetting) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that
were present at the time the memory was encoded. Trace decay theory states that forgetting occur
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occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses
on time and the limited duration of short term memory. The duration of short-term memory seems
to be 30 seconds. When STM is 'full', new information displaces or 'pushes out‘ old information and
takes its place. Forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories.

Topic 147-Factors Affecting Transfer of Learning

These are following factors that affect the transfer of learning. Either, it is heredity factors or
environmental factors that disturb to transfer of learning. One learning is coming or one learning is
stored in your mind already and then you are learning something new and then the learning is
coming from another source and you have already information about one topic so you know these
type of learning can create an accident .Accident means to forget information or to create problem
in transferring memory or learning.

I. Impact of Culture: Culture can influence the way we learn and process information. For
example, cultural differences in communication styles or learning preferences can affect how
effectively we transfer learning from one context to another.
II. Learning Is Dynamic: Learning is not a one-time event, but rather a dynamic process that
involves ongoing practice and refinement of skills. This means that the transfer of learning
depends not only on the initial learning context, but also on subsequent experiences and
opportunities to use and apply the learning.
III. Mental Models: Mental models are cognitive frameworks that help us to understand and
interpret information. They can play a role in the transfer of learning by influencing how we
approach new situations and apply what we have learned.
IV. Learning Strategies: How you are learning? How your teacher is giving to information?
Learning strategies are techniques that we use to acquire and retain new information. The
use of effective learning strategies can improve the transfer of learning by helping us to
generalize and apply what we have learned in new situations.
V. Motivation to Learn: Motivation to learn can influence the transfer of learning by affecting
our willingness to engage with new information and apply what we have learned in different
contexts. Motivation has two types Intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.
VI. The Role of Technology: Technology can play a role in the transfer of learning by
providing opportunities for practice, and collaboration across different learning contexts.
VII. Positive transfer: This usually occurs when the two skills in question are similar in some
way.
VIII. Negative Transfer: This occurs when having learnt one skill, makes learning the second
skill more difficult.
Topic 148-Metacognition
Metacognition is the skill of thinking about your thinking, thinking about your knowing, thinking
about your information, and thinking about your actions. Metacognition is, put simply, thinking
about one's thinking. What did you do in the present or past? You will think what I do? Is it right or
wrong? Is it positive or negative? So, when you are analyzing your actions and thinking is called
metacognition. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's
understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one's thinking and
learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner. You are learning something and you are also
thinking about it. What I am doing? What I am learning? This is not good for me. This is good for
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me. So, when you are questioning yourself? When you‘re thinking about any action and behavior or
any thinking is called metacognition. Metacognition also involves knowing yourself as a learner; that,
knows your strengths and weaknesses as a learner. For example, if you can explain what your
strengths are in academic writing, exam taking, or other types of academic tasks, and then you are
Meta cognitively aware.

Topic 149- Transfer of Learning and Instruction:-

Transfer of Learning (Training) is a process of applying or carrying over the
knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, emotions, sleeping patterns or other responses
from one training situation (in which they were initially acquired) to another training
situation. How the parents are teaching their children to get these patterns from
them? How the teachers is teaching their students to get transfer of learning and how
it can be possible in a better or positive way. Thereby similarities and analogies
between previous and actual learning content and processes may play a crucial role.
Three types of Transfer of leaning are lateral transfer, sequential transfer and
vertical transfer.
I. Lateral transfer occurs when learners are able to solve different but similar problems of
equal complexity as soon as they have learned to solve one of them.
II. Sequential transfer happens in one and the same context.
III. Vertical transfer, on the other hand, requires that learning at a lower level
must be transferred to a higher level of cognitive skills with the help of
previously acquired knowledge.
Topic 150 - Meaning and Nature of Learning:-
Do you think everything that you are getting is learning? Whatever you are
rote memorization is that learning. You are storing the information into the mind
that is learning and you think you that learning when you are reading a book
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the
environment. This experience makes him to change or modify his behavior in order
to deal effectively with it. Learning means you are getting information and according
to information you are modifying your behavior. You learnt that aggressiveness is
not a good habit. So, did you change your behavior? If you change your behavior
then that is called learning. For Example, we give to get understanding of learning
that there is a hot cattle and then when you just touch it accidentally, then you will
burn your hand next time you will be careful and you will not touch the hot cattle it

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is called learning. Whenever, you will get some negative reward then you will not
repeated the action. When you will bring change into your personality and then you
will again repeat it because it was positive for you. Basically, modification of the
behavior is called learning. Therefore, learning is a change in behavior, influenced by
previous behavior. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests
and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning. So, the meaning of
learning does not mean that you are getting information blindly and you are storing it
into your mind and whenever you need then you are just getting it back this is not
called the learning that you have the degree of MA, M.Phil., PhD you think that you
are learner but you few didn‘t change yourself that you are highly qualified and you
your habits are same showing that you are uneducated .you can‘t control
aggressiveness you can‘t behave well with each other people you are not honest at
this stage.
Topic 151-Learning Difficulties:-

Learning means to learn and to modify the behavior. So what are the difficulties that people
are facing and then they are not able to modify behavior. The individual is constantly interacting
with and influenced by the environment. For example Dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia are
examples of learning disorders. Due to malfunction of brain students can‘t respond correctly.
Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects reading and language processing. People with dyslexia
may have difficulty decoding words, recognizing sight words, and comprehending written material.
For example teacher asked the students why you didn‘t read the words correctly so the child
responded that words are dancing that he actually could not concentrate on these words. Dyslexia
can cause difficulty with fine motor skills, which can affect handwriting ability. Inconsistent letter
formation, Irregular letter size and spacing, Difficulty with letter placement, Learning disabilities are
due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain functioning in a manner which affects.
One or more cognitive processes related to learning. Learning difficulties are problems with reading,
writing and/or math's. Learning disorders are specific, serious and ongoing problems with reading,
writing and/or math's, which are diagnosed by health professionals. For tackle the learning disorders
teacher should be concentrate on student‘s potential and explore the reasons why students are not
taking interest or not showing good performance in academics.

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Lecture: 32

(Topics: 152-160)
Topic: 152- Sources and Types of Individual Differences: -

Topic: 153- Types of Individual Differences: -

Topic: 154- Exceptional Children: -

Topic: 155- Types of Exceptional Children: -

Topic: 156- Gifted and talented children: -

Topic: 157- Characteristics of Gifted and talented children: -

Topic: 158- Issues of gifted children-1: -

Topic: 159- Issues of gifted children-2: -

Topic: 160- Education of gifted Children: -

Topic 152 - Sources and Types of Individual Differences:-

Individual differences refer to the ways in which people differ from one another in terms of
their characteristics, traits, attitude, aptitude, physical abilities, mental abilities, social abilities, liking
and disliking ,interests activities, choices, behaviors and that is normal or natural. The individual is
constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. Environment consists of physical,
intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. All these forces cause individual
differences. In addition to physical resources, access to educational and cultural resources can also
influence individual differences. Individuals who grow up in environments with limited access to
quality education and cultural experiences may have less opportunity to develop their cognitive
abilities, creativity, and social skills, which can impact their overall abilities and behaviors. Modern
psychologists believe that individual differences are caused by both heredity and environment.
Individuals not only differ among themselves with respect to a specific trait but differences may also
be noticed within the same individual when he is studied in respect of various traits.

Topic 153-Types of Individual Differences:-

Individual differences are normal. Everybody has differences in attitude, intelligence, choices
aptitude, habits, abilities, foods etc these differences are called normal differences because these
differences are not strange. That If somebody is choosing something else and the other person is
choosing something else and then these differences are called normal and God has created all
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human beings differently so we should accept these differences and what the reasons are behind to
make people different. So, these reasons or factors are many or multiple. How many these factors
are affecting those differences in personality of theses humans? Heredity factors are present from
birth, as they are determined by an individual's genetic makeup. Even siblings are different from
each other in term of their personalities .Psychologically speaking; a person‘s environment consists
of sum total of stimulation which he receives from conception until his death. Influence of caste,
race and nation: Caste, race, and nation are social constructs that can influence individual differences
in a number of ways. These constructs are often associated with cultural norms, beliefs, and values
that can shape individuals' experiences and opportunities in life.

Temperament and emotional stability: Everybody has different attitude and aptitude by birth or
through environment. Different people at one home they are getting different environment,
different attitude. If the elder son gets more attention, the middle son is getting lower attention and
the youngster‘s not getting as much attention then these things will create differences in their
personality‘s .Temperament can influence individual differences by shaping individuals' tendencies
towards certain behaviors and experiences. Emotional stability refers to an individual's ability to
manage and regulate their emotions in response to stressors and challenges. Emotional stability can
influence individual differences by shaping individuals' responses to stress and adversity. Individuals
have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities. One
child wants to be pilot other child wants to be a doctor, layer or teacher so everybody has different
choices. So, these choices can be through environment, natural abilities or aptitude .Because a
person has two types of intelligence general intelligence or aptitude and specific intelligence. Specific
attitude means that he has naturally aptitude to become a musician or actor, painter. People also
behave differently in their environment.

Topic 154-Exceptional Children:-

Exceptional children mean children who differ markedly from their peers to the degree that
special facilities, equipment, or methods are required to make their educational program effective.
Such children constitute about 2 to 7 percent of the average population. These children are more
neglected in terms of special provisions, particularly in the elementary school, than are children of
any other area of exceptionality. It is true that in Pakistan, the educational budget for normal
students is often limited, which can make it challenging to allocate resources for exceptional
children. However, there are several strategies that can be used to address this challenge and ensure
that exceptional children have access to the support and resources they need to succeed in school. In
Pakistan, there are a variety of indigenous tests and assessment tools that can be used to diagnose
exceptional children. Once a child has been identified as exceptional, it is important for teachers to
receive specialized training in order to provide appropriate accommodations and support.

Topic 155-Types of Exceptional Children:-

Exceptional children are special children they have some exception of intelligence, attitude,
aptitude etc. Exceptions can be positive or negative. There are multiple groups comprising the
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intellectually exceptional children. Gifted child is the child with superior intellect. Gifted children
exceed, in terms of intelligence generally fall within the range between 1Q, 130 and 180 or above
that is blessing from God that we have gifted children. The Physically Handicapped children are
those with impaired vision, children with impaired hearing, and children with speech handicaps,
children with orthopedic and neurological impairment. The emotionally disturbed children
include those with behavior problems and those who are socially maladjusted or the delinquents.
They cannot control their behavior positively and they always show behavioral trauma. Misbehavior
is very common in these children. The Multi-Handicapped refers to individuals who have multiple
disabilities or impairments that affect their ability to function in everyday life. These disabilities may
be physical, cognitive, sensory, or a combination of these, and can range in severity from mild to
profound. They may be at the time suffering from epilepsy .They may have cerebral palsy with
mental retardation and epilepsy. They may be deaf, blind and mentally handicapped. They may be
mentally defective, speech handicapped and suffer at the same time from behavior disturbances.

Topic 156-Gifted and Talented Children

Gagne (1985, 2000) defines gifted children as those who have high levels of innate ability,
in any domain of human ability, that places them within the top 10 percent of their age-peers—even
if their high potential is not yet being demonstrated as high performance. Talented children, by
contrast, are those whose abilities have already been translated into achievements, and who are
currently performing at a level that places them within the top 10 percent of their age-peers. Gifts
are natural abilities whereas talents are systematically developed skills.

Topic 157-Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Children

The have difference in their characteristics of both gifted and talented children. But general
characteristics are more intelligent, not followers, system makers, master mind and creating new
ideas etc. Ability to comprehend material several grade levels above their age peers. Surprising
emotional depth and sensitivity at a young age. They are very sensitive and more emotional
disturbance because they are not those people who can adjust well with the society whatever the
society is introducing the system and they will agree and fit in because they always see that many
wrong things are going in the society so they always think about .They are actually deep thinker and
bring new solutions for the problems. They are actually the blessings for the society and strong
sense of curiosity, enthusiastic about unique interests and topics, quirky or mature sense of humor,
creative thinking, leadership ability, talents in the fine arts, and psychomotor abilities.

Topic 158- Issues of Gifted Children 1:-

Gifted children can face a wide range of issues and challenges related to their exceptional
abilities and achievements.

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I. Self-Esteem Issues: Gifted children may struggle with self-esteem issues, especially if they
feel misunderstood or out of place among their peers.
II. Guilt: They may feel guilty about their talents or accomplishments, especially if they feel that
they have not earned them or that they are not using them to their full potential.
III. Perfectionism: They may struggle with perfectionism, setting high standards for themselves
that can be difficult to meet and leading to feelings of failure or anxiety.
IV. Control Issues: They may struggle with control issues, especially if they feel that their
environment or circumstances are not conducive to their talents or interests.
V. Unrealistic Expectations: Gifted children may face unrealistic expectations from others,
including parents, teachers, and peers, which can lead to pressure and stress. its need hard
work and team cooperation.
VI. Impatience: They may struggle with impatience, especially if they feel that they are not
being challenged or stimulated enough in their regular environment.
VII. Friendship Issues: They may struggle with forming friendships with peers who do not
share their interests or abilities, leading to feelings of isolation or loneliness.
VIII. Attention and Organization Issues: They may struggle with attention and organization
issues, especially if they have a lot of interests or commitments that they find difficult to
manage.
IX. Being bullied at times or even have to combat depression: Gifted children may be at a
higher risk of being bullied or experiencing depression, especially if they feel misunderstood
or marginalized by their peers or environment.
X. Talk them down: They may engage in negative self-talk, especially if they feel that they are
not living up to their own or others' expectations.
Topic 159-Issues of Gifted Children 2:-

Mood Swings: Gifted children may experience mood swings, especially if they are feeling
frustrated or unchallenged in their environment. Erratic Habits: Gifted children may exhibit erratic
habits, such as staying up late to read or pursue their interests, or becoming obsessed with a
particular subject or activity. Social difficulties, Feelings of sadness: They may experience
feelings of sadness or depression, especially if they feel that they are not living up to their own or
others' expectations. Becoming disengaged: They became disengaged, bored if they are not
challenged or stimulated enough in their environment which can lead towards the feelings of
frustration or restlessness. Overreacts to situations: They may overreact to the situations especially
when they felt that their abilities or talents are being overlooked or undervalued. Highly sensitive,
passionate: These children may be highly sensitive and passionate about their interests, which can
lead to intense emotional reactions or responses. They are very keen observer. Observes across
boundaries, makes connections: They may exhibit a strong ability to observe across boundaries
and make connections they always think that this universe is created and why this universe is created
and many school of thought we have and those school of thoughts explain with different point of
view about the creation of God, human and universe. What is the purpose behind this? Many
scientists have used too many ways for exploration of the world.

Topic 160- Education of Gifted Children

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Gifted education (also known as gifted and talented education (GATE), talented and gifted
programs (TAG) or G/T education is a broad group of special practices, procedures, and theories
used in the education of children who have been identified as gifted or talented. Inclusive education
classes are a good option for gifted children, as they provide opportunities for these children to
interact and learn alongside their peers with a range of abilities and disabilities. Much can be
accomplished with existing resources. A gifted student should have time to purse topics more deeply
than their classmates. Cluster of schools should combine their gifted children regularly for special
enrichment programme. The key to educating the gifted children is to formulate individual
programme for them so that they encounter daily challenges. Such education requires teachers who
have received special training that enables them to work with gifted students and engage the
students in problem solving activities. Kids are more likely to reach their potential when challenged
academically. Raises level of Instruction, acceleration and ability grouping the level of instruction
should be change for theses children‘s. Teacher introduces the projects and assignment or they work
in a group. Students find peers with similar intellectual pursuits and may fit in better than in a
general education classroom. Gifted programs help students with academic achievement,
socialization, and future success. While teachers can sometimes identify gifted children through their
questioning patterns or academic performance, it is important to note that giftedness can manifest in
many different ways and may not always be immediately apparent in a classroom setting.

Lecture: 33
(Topics: 161-165)
Topic: 161- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: -

Topic: 162- Differences in perceptions: ADHD versus high activity: -

Topic: 163- Causes of ADHD: -

Topic: 164- Teaching students with ADHD-1: -

Topic: 165- Teaching students with ADHD-2: -

Topic 161-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a problem with sustaining attention and

controlling impulses. In the classroom, students with ADHD may exhibit a range of behaviors in the
classroom that can make it difficult for them to learn and for others to teach or learn around them
its include fidget and squirm a lot, or have trouble remaining seated, or continually get distracted and
off task, or have trouble waiting for a turn, or blurt out answers and comments. The student may
shift continually from one activity to another, or have trouble playing quietly, or talk excessively
without listening to others or the student may misplace things and seem generally disorganized. It is
important for teachers to recognize that these behaviors are not intentional and are a result of the
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student's neurological differences. Teachers can help to support students with ADHD by providing
clear expectations, and positive reinforcement.

Additional Reading:-

Students with ADD experience persistent limitations in their attention span, are highly
distractible, have difficulty in concentrating and finishing tasks, and are impulsive. When these
conditions are accompanied by hyperactivity, the disorder is called attention-dficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD). Experts estimate a correlation between 25% and 70% for students with ADHD
and learning disabilities. Many students with ADHD are treated with medication such as Ritalin,
concerta, or metadate CD, which help them focus better in the classroom. Yet the use of behavioral
therapy, which is aimed at changing behavior and thought patterns to learn how to relate to others
and succeed, can significantly reduce or even eliminate the need for medication (Pelham et al., 2005).
ADHD is not listed as a distinct disability category in IDEA. However, students with ADHD may
qualify for special education services under the category of ―other health impairments‖ in IDEA or
under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Topic 162- Differences in Perceptions: ADHD Versus High Activity

A student with only a mild or occasional tendency to be restless, for example, may fit in well
outdoors playing soccer, but feel unusually restless indoors during class. It also should not be
surprising that teachers sometimes mistake a student who is merely rather active for a student with
ADHD, since any tendency to be physically active may contribute to problems with classroom
management. When teachers and educators compare students to one another, it can create a
competitive and stressful learning environment, where students may feel pressured to perform at a
certain level or meet certain expectations. This can lead to negative outcomes, such as reduced
motivation, increased anxiety, and decreased academic performance.

Topic 163-Causes of ADHD

It is important to consider both genetic and environmental factors, as both can play a role in
the development and expression of the disorder. Genetic factors are inherited from our parents and
determine many of our physical and behavioral traits. Cosmetic surgery has indeed advanced
significantly in recent decades, with the development of new techniques and technologies that allow
for more precise and effective procedures. Cosmetic surgery is primarily focused on changing the
appearance of a person's physical features, such as the shape or size of their nose, or other body
parts. Research shows that ADHD tends to run in families, with children‖ especially boys‖ of
parents, who had ADHD somewhat more likely than usual to experience the condition themselves,

It is possible that parents who formerly had ADHD may raise their children more strictly in an
effort to prevent their own condition in their children; yet their strictness, ironically, may trigger a bit
more tendency, rather than less, toward the restless distractibility characteristic of ADHD. On the
other hand (or is it ―on the third hand"?), the parents' strictness may also be a result, as well as a
cause of, a child's restlessness.
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Topic 164-Teaching Students with ADHD 1:-

Students with ADHD may face unique challenges in the classroom, but with the right
strategies and support, they can succeed academically and socially. Teachers should give extra
attention and support to students with ADHD. When a teacher asks questions or engages with
students in a positive and supportive way, it can help students with ADHD feel more valued. Being
a teacher I always pay attention to those children‘s who back benchers. When students‘ exhibits
sever attention-deficit, some medicines are advised. Medicines like Ritalin can reduce ADHD. We
cannot use these medicines for a long time. In severe cases we may advice medicines. Teacher can
use the technique of clear rules and procedures, for example, can reduce the ―noise‖ or chaotic
quality in the child's classroom life significantly. Teacher can help by making lists of tasks or of steps
in long tasks. It can help to divide focused work into small, short sessions rather than grouping it
into single, longer sessions. The goal for teachers, in essence, is to build the student's metacognitive
capacity, while at the same time, of course, treating the student with respect.

Topic 165- Teaching Students with ADHD 2:-

Which type of strategies that we can use with ADHD students? Sometimes a classmate can
be enlisted to model slower, more reflective styles of working, but in ways that do not imply undue
criticism of the student with ADHD. The more reflective student can complete a set of math
problems, for example, while explaining what he or she is thinking about while doing the work.
Sometimes the teacher can help by making lists of tasks or of steps in long tasks. It can help to
divide focused work into small, short sessions rather than grouping it into single, longer sessions for
examples presentations, assignments.

Lecture: 34

(Topics: 166-171)
Topic: 166- Intellectual disabilities: -

Topic: 167- Levels of support for individuals with intellectual disabilities-1: -

Topic: 168- Levels of support for individuals with intellectual disabilities-2: -

Topic: 169- Teaching students with intellectual disabilities-1: -

Topic: 170- Teaching students with intellectual disabilities-2: -

Topic: 171- Teaching students with intellectual disabilities-3: -

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Topic 166-Intellectual Disabilities

An intellectual disability is a significant limitation in a student's cognitive functioning and

daily adaptive behaviors. An IQ level below average is generally considered to be in the range of
intellectual disability. The student may have limited language or impaired speech and may not
perform well academically and students with intellectual disabilities have impairments to learning
that are broader and more significant. They score poorly on standardized tests of intelligence.

Topic 167-Levels of support for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities1:-

Disability is mild, teachers sometimes refer to a student with the disability simply as a slow
learner, particularly if the student has no formal, special supports for the disability, such as a
teaching assistant hired specifically to assist the student. A shadow teacher, also known as a one-on-
one aide or paraprofessional, is a trained professional who provides individualized support to a
student with special needs in an educational setting. In the context of intellectual disabilities, a
shadow teacher can be particularly helpful in providing additional support and accommodations to
students who may require more personalized attention and assistance in the classroom. If the
disability is more marked, then the student is more likely to be referred to either as having an
intellectual disability or as having mental retardation. They give training to students with the help of
pictures, videos, activities, tasks and reinforcement. Patience and time duration are important for
these children. Don‘t put the pressure on them. Work should be divided into segments and motivate
them.

Topic 168-Levels of support for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities-2:-

The level of support needed for a child with an intellectual disability will depend on the
individual needs of the child. Individual daily plans for individuals with intellectual disabilities can
help ensure that their daily needs are met and that they are able to participate in activities and
routines that promote their overall well-being. These are some examples of daily plans for specific
needs: Toilet training, food intake etc. Teacher devised individual plan according to the levels of
severity of impairment (mild, moderate and severe). Sign language can be a valuable tool in
supporting the communication and learning needs of students with intellectual disabilities. Sign
language is a visual language that uses hand gestures, facial expressions, and body language to
convey meaning, which can be helpful for individuals with language and communication challenges.
With the passage of time and age intellectual impairments are less; with maturity improvement can
also see. Traditionally the intensity or ―amount‖ of the disability was defined by scores on a
standardized test of scholastic aptitude (or ―IQ test‖), with lower scores indicating more severe
disability.

Topic 169- Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities-1:-

Those students who have intellectual disabilities they are called special children. They are
placed in special schools. So, they always need to special counseling from their teachers and teachers
are also expert in special education .They are expert in dealing all types of students. Intellectual
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disabilities of those students who have lower IQ and adaptability issues and they have different type
of issues that sometime you know the ratio and value in the amount of severity .It always depends
on the condition of the children that what kind of behavior they are showing if they are going
through lower IQ score and they have below the average IQ quotient they belong 50 to 60
intellectual quotient and they behaving like very weak in emotions, feeling, actions. So, teachers
should be very expert to deal with these students and they know how to deal with these students and
how the give them to task and how to ask them to follow these task and what type of activities
teachers are going to introduce and how these students will be respond. Because, these students will
response slow so teachers must be known that and should be patience to deal with these students.
These are the characteristics that teachers must have to deal with these students .When we talk
about intellectual disability it means that the student has three types of deficiencies are intelligence
deficiency and social skill deficiency and adjustment with the environment . So, these three types of
deficiencies the teacher need to tackle with. The other issue students of intellectual disability they are
facing actually. They are facing with the intelligence quotient with different amounts that they have
the intelligence they have three or four types of groups that below 100 quotient when students have
intellectual disability and if they belong to the group of intellectual disability between the 80 and 100
intelligence level and they can be educate in the special schools and the need less counseling but
those students who have below this group IQ level and they belong to 50 to 60 or 60 to 70 or 80
intelligence group then they need to more counseling and the will show severe behavioral problems
and very slow response .So, these things teacher must know that how the can diagnose these
intellectual disabilities by using standardized intelligence test and by using standardized social skill
test and then they will come to know the level of deficiencies students showing actually.

Students with limited needs, occasional or regular contact with professionals may be
necessary. For students with extensive needs, regular contact with professionals is essential. This
could involve daily or weekly meetings with a special education teacher or therapist to provide
ongoing support and guidance. Students with pervasive needs, continuous contact and monitoring
by professionals are necessary. This could involve having a team of professionals working with the
student to provide ongoing support and intervention. According the situation of the child it should
be alter. Giving more time and practice than usual and Include the student deliberately in group
activities. Learn social and academic skill and also sense of usefulness.

Topic 170-Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities-2:-

Students those belong to the intellectual disability group so how teachers can teach them by
using different strategies. These special children need special time and repetition of the task and also
the patience of the teacher needs actually. Adaptive and functional skills, being a useful member of
the society according to the intelligence we manage some activities which includes eating the food
independently, toilet training etc. We can control the aggression of that child by medication or
engage them in group tasks. In teaching addition and subtraction, for example, you can create
examples about the purchasing of common familiar objects (e.g. food) and about the need to make
or receive change for the purchases. Similar considerations apply to learning new reading or oral

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language vocabulary and try encouraging the student to learn words that are especially useful to the
student's own life.

Topic: 171- Teaching students with intellectual disabilities-3: -

Adaptive and functional skills are required for social learning of real life. Teaching adaptive and

functional skills for social learning is a crucial aspect of working with students with intellectual

disabilities. Adaptive skills are those skills that allow individuals to function independently and

participate in their communities, while functional skills are those skills that are necessary for daily

living, such as communication, self-care, and problem-solving. Teaching students with intellectual

disabilities requires a multifaceted approach that takes into account each student's unique strengths,

challenges, and learning needs. These are some general strategies that can be effective in working

with students with intellectual disabilities:

Use a variety of teaching methods: Students with intellectual disabilities may have different

learning styles and preferences, so it's important to use a variety of teaching methods to reach all

learners. This might include visual aids, hands-on activities, repetition and reinforcement, or verbal

instruction.

Focus on functional skills: Teaching functional skills that are relevant to daily life, such as

communication, social skills, and self-care, can be particularly important for students with

intellectual disabilities. These skills can help students become more independent and better able to

participate in their communities.

Provide accommodations and modifications: Accommodations and modifications, such as

extended time for assignments, simplified instructions, or the use of assistive technology, can help

students with intellectual disabilities access the curriculum and participate in classroom activities.

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Build positive relationships: Building positive relationships with students with intellectual

disabilities can help create a supportive and inclusive learning environment. This might involve

getting to know students on a personal level, providing encouragement and positive feedback, and

using humor and other forms of positive reinforcement.

Involve families and support systems: Involving families and support systems, such as

caregivers, therapists, and other professionals, can help ensure that students with intellectual

disabilities receive the support they need both inside and outside of the classroom. This might

involve regular communication, collaboration on goals and strategies, and sharing of resources and

information. By using these strategies and tailoring instruction to meet the unique needs of each

student, teachers can help students with intellectual disabilities reach their full potential and achieve

success both inside and outside of the classroom.

Lecture: 35
(Topics: 172-184)
Topic: 172- Behavioral disorders: -

Topic: 173- Causes of Behavioral disorders: -

Topic: 174- Strategies for teaching students with behavioral disorders-1: -

Topic: 175- Strategies for teaching students with behavioral disorders-2: -

Topic: 176- Identifying circumstances that trigger inappropriate behaviors: -

Topic: 177- Teaching interpersonal skills explicitly: -

Topic: 178- Fairness in disciplining behavioral issues: -

Topic: 179- Physical disabilities and sensory impairments: -

Topic: 180- Hearing loss: -

Topic: 181- Signs of hearing loss-1: -

Topic: 182- Signs of hearing loss-2: -

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Topic: 183- Teaching students with hearing loss-1: -

Topic: 184- Teaching students with hearing loss-2: -

Topic 172-Behavioral Disorders

Behavioral disorders are a diverse group of conditions in which a student chronically

performs highly inappropriate behaviors that are disruptive, aggressive or antisocial. A student with
this condition might seek attention, for example, by acting out disruptively in class. Behavioral
disorders can result from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and other
students with the condition might behave aggressively, be distractible and overly active, seem
anxious or withdrawn, or seem disconnected from everyday reality. Due to financial crisis both
parents are working and children are ignored children getting their guidance and advice from
internet. Parents should monitor the students so that we resolve behavioral issues in better way.

Topic 173-Causes of Behavioral Disorders

There are multiple causes of behavioral disorders General features in common (Kauffman,
2005; Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006): Physical illness or disability: Students are feeling that they
have some deficiency and they cannot work as other children are working such as malnutrition or
brain damage .They cannot respond like other children. Hereditary factors: Some behavioral
disorders may be linked to genetic factors, such as a family history of the disorder. Gender: Boys are
more aggressive than girls. Some child feel that I am alone and other children they have their
siblings. Environment: Exposure to toxins, poverty, social isolation, or trauma can contribute to
the development of behavioral disorders. Oppositional defiant disorder: Parenting style, family
conflict, and other family-related factors can contribute to the development of behavioral disorders.
Conduct disorder: These disorders may arise from a combination of genetic, environmental, and
social factors.

Topic 174-Strategies for Teaching Students with Behavioral Disorders

Identifying circumstances is that trigger inappropriate behaviors. Teachers should observe

the student during different activities and settings to identify patterns of behavior. Physiological
affects "including illness, fatigue, hunger, or side-effects from medication. Teachers should
communicate with parents and any medical professionals involved in the student's care to
understand the impact of medication or medical conditions on the student's behavior. We need to
identify main cause behind the behavior of the child so that we can tackle them. Physical features of
the classroom: Students with behavioral disorders may be more sensitive to environmental factors
such as temperature, lighting, and noise. Teachers should ensure that the classroom is comfortable
and free from distractions that could cause discomfort. Instructional choices or strategies: Teacher-
centered and student-centered approaches are two different approaches to teaching. The teacher-
centered approach is a traditional approach to teaching that places the teacher at the center of the
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learning process. The teacher is responsible for presenting the information, directing the activities,
and assessing the progress of students. The focus is on the teacher delivering content to the
students, and the students are expected to listen, learn, and follow instructions. The teacher-centered
approach is often characterized by lectures, direct instruction, and rote learning. You don‘t have any
choice to write according to your opinion or according to any other book .You should follow the
same book whatever I suggested. The student-centered approach is a more modern approach to
teaching that places the student at the center of the learning process. The focus is on engaging
students in the learning process, encouraging them to take ownership of their learning, and
providing opportunities for them to explore and discover new information. The teacher serves as a
facilitator, guiding students through the learning process and providing support and feedback as
needed. It is important for teachers to avoid labeling students with negative stereotypes or criticism.
Teachers play a crucial role in the development and success of their students. Motivating and
encouraging students is an important part of this role.

Topic 175-Strategies for Teaching Students with Behavioral Disorders

Teaching of interpersonal skills explicit: Teaching interpersonal skills explicitly is a valuable

strategy for helping students develop the social and emotional skills they need to succeed in school
and in life. Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to interact and communicate effectively with
others. Reading or assigning books and stories in which the characters model good social skills.
Moral stories can help students develop a sense of morality and ethical behavior. By portraying
characters who exhibit positive behaviors and values, students can learn to model these behaviors in
their own lives. Physical activity like swimming football etc can provide an outlet for excess energy
and aggression, which can reduce the likelihood of students engaging in disruptive behavior. Use of
positive reinforcement, extinction, generalization, and the like. Teachers can use a variety of
behavioral strategies to promote positive behavior and reduce inappropriate behavior. Positive
reinforcement involves providing rewards or praise for positive behavior. This can include verbal
praise, stickers, or other rewards. Contingency contracts, which are agreements between the teacher
and a student about exactly what work the student will do, how it will be rewarded, and what the
consequences will be if the agreement is not fulfilled. For example, , the contract might specify that
the student will complete all homework assignments by the due date and receive extra credit or a
small reward, such as a sticker, for each completed assignment. If the student fails to complete the
assignments on time, the consequences might include a loss of privileges or additional homework
etc.

Topic 176-Identifying Circumstances That Trigger Inappropriate Behaviors

Identifying circumstances that trigger inappropriate behaviors is an important step in

managing and preventing these behaviors. These are some circumstance that can trigger
inappropriate behaviors Home environment, Classroom environment, Peers attitude,
Isolation, Nutrition, Games and Physical excursion. The home environment can have a
significant impact on a student's behavior. Factors such as family conflict, stress etc can contribute
to inappropriate behaviors. Exposure to aggressive media can increase stress levels in students,
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which can lead to negative behaviors such as aggression, irritability, and impulsivity. It also increases
cortisol levels, which is a hormone that is released in response to stress. Students expose to abusive
language and negative attitudes, which can become normalized and lead to negative behavior.
Students may begin to use this language themselves or adopt negative attitudes towards others. To
address this issue, parents and teachers can establish guidelines and limitations for media
consumption, particularly when it comes to media that is known to be aggressive or violent. For
example, parents can limit screen time and monitor the content of movies and video games that
their children are exposed to. Additionally, teachers can promote positive behaviors and attitudes
through classroom discussions and lessons that emphasize respect, kindness, and empathy. The
classroom environment can also be a trigger for inappropriate behaviors. Factors such as noise,
Teacher Methodology, Teacher behavior towards students, overcrowding etc. Negative peer
pressure, bullying, and social isolation can all contribute to negative behavior. Students who are
hungry or have poor diets may be more irritable to negative behavior. Lack of physical activity or
opportunities for physical exercise can also be a trigger for inappropriate behaviors.

Topic 177-Teaching Interpersonal Skills Explicitly

Students with behavior disorders have had little opportunity to learn appropriate social skills.
Simple courtesies (like remembering to say please or thanks) may not be totally work. Body
language: Teachers can use nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice to
model appropriate social behavior. Visual supports such as pictures, symbols, and cue cards can help
students understand and remember important social skills. Individual Plans: Developing
individualized plans for each student and these plans can be developed in collaboration with the
student and can include specific goals and strategies for improving social skills. Games: Before the
game begins, it is important to set clear expectations for behavior. This can include reminding
students about the rules of the game, as well as specific expectations for how they should treat each
other during the game .how to play the game fairly and how to treat other players with respect. This
can include praising students for exhibiting positive social skills, such as taking turns, sharing, and
helping others. Games can be a helpful tool for promoting discipline and positive behavior in
students. Role plays: Role-playing scenarios can help students practice social skills in a safe and
supportive environment. This can include practicing how to ask for help, how to introduce one, and
how to handle conflicts with others. Reading Stories: Stories can be used to teach about empathy,
kindness, and other important social skills.

Topic 178-Fairness in Disciplining Behavioral Issues

Less Punishments, rather than relying solely on punishments, it is important to use a range
of disciplinary strategies that are appropriate for the situation and the student. This can include
positive reinforcement, modeling appropriate behavior, and teaching social skills. B.F. Skinner
identified three types of reinforcement in his operant conditioning theory positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves
adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future. For
example, if a student completes their homework on time and receives praise from their teacher, they
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are more likely to complete their homework on time in the future. Negative reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated in the future. For example, if a student is allowed to skip a difficult
assignment after completing an easier one, they are more likely to complete the easier assignment
quickly in the future to avoid the difficult assignment. Punishment: Punishment involves adding an
unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated in the future. For
example, if a student breaks a classroom rule and is given a detention, they are less likely to break
that rule in the future to avoid the punishment. Consulting with everyone involved in the case‖
especially parents, other specialists, and the student himself‖ and reaching an agreement before
adopting new strategies that differ significantly from the past. Records, collaboration with parents
and other professionals can be more productive and fair-minded.

Topic 179-Physical Disabilities and Sensory Impairments

Physical disabilities refer to any condition that affects a person's ability to move, use their
limbs, or perform physical activities and Sensory impairments refer to any condition that affects a
person's ability to receive or process sensory information, including sight, hearing, touch, taste, and
smell. Students with multiple disabilities can be a complicated case. Students with multiple
disabilities require a high level of support and specialized services to meet their unique needs. Special
education teachers who work with students with multiple disabilities are typically well trained and
have expertise in addressing the complex needs of these students. Identifying a student's disability
and creating an individualized plan is an important step in providing appropriate support and
accommodations. Providing accommodations, such as allowing the student to eat small, frequent
meals throughout the day, can help to address issues related to irregular eating patterns. Additionally,
providing a consistent routine and schedule can help to promote stability and reduce stress. Set
eating habits and toilet training. Vision or hearing problems, Ensuring that the classroom and
materials are accessible to students with physical disabilities and sensory impairments is essential.
This might include providing ramps, elevators, or other accessibility features, as well as ensuring that
materials are available in accessible formats, such as braille or large print. Serious sensory
impairments may also have other disabilities and therefore not be counted in statistics about sensory
impairments. Teachers can model appropriate behavior by demonstrating healthy eating habits and
social skills .This can help students to develop a clear understanding of what is expected and to learn
by example. Counseling can also provide a safe and supportive space for students to discuss their
concerns and receive guidance and support.

Topic 180-Hearing Loss

Hearing impairment refers to a partial or total inability to hear sounds. It can range from
mild to profound and can affect one or both ears. Hearing aids can be a very useful tool for people
with hearing impairment to hear and understand instructions. Sign language is a visual language that
uses hand gestures, facial expressions, and body language to convey meaning. It can be used as a
primary language for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. In identifying a student who may have
a hearing loss, therefore, teachers need to observe the student over an extended period of time and
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in as many situations as possible. In particular, look for a persistent combination of some of the
following, but look for them over repeated or numerous occasions (Luckner & Carter, 2001):
Delayed language or literacy skills, both written and oral, some ability (usually partial) to read lips,
less worldly knowledge than usual because of lack of involvement with oral, Dialogue and/or
delayed literacy, occasionally, tendency to social isolation because of awkwardness in
communication.
Topic 181-Signs of Hearing Loss

Even while assessing whether a student has a hearing loss may appear simple ("Just give a
hearing test!"), the evaluation is frequently ambiguous if it takes the student's daily experiences into
consideration. A serious or profound hearing loss: A significant or profound hearing loss usually
becomes apparent very fast, and as a result, frequently obtains special assistance (or at least receives
extra diagnosis) sooner. Mild or moderate hearing loss: Mild or moderate hearing loss is much more
common, however, and is more likely to be overlooked or mistaken for some other sort of learning
problem (Sherer, 2004). Students with a mild hearing loss sometimes have somewhat depressed (or
lowered) language and literacy skills they ought not always, and in any case so do some students
without any loss. They may also seem not to listen or attend to a speaker because of trouble in
locating the source of sounds ―but then again, sometimes students without loss also fail to listen,
though for entirely different reasons.
Students with hearing loss may frequently give incorrect answers to questions. Students' true ability
to manage in class depends on how well they combine cues and information from the entire context
of classroom life.
Topic 182: Signs of Hearing Loss

Signs of hearing loss that shows hearing issues looking towards other students' work.
When students are sitting in the classroom they always shows these signs and the teacher can easily
identify their hearing loss. When they are looking again and again towards their class fellows to ask
them different questions and they are asking questions from their teachers again and again .it is
showing that they have some problems either they are facing hearing issues or it can be any other
issue. Facial Expressions, Writing issues: students cannot understand well their teachers‘ instructions
so they always feel problem writing and the need assistance from their class fellows and teachers to
write properly that always sign of hearing loss. Consulting others continuously they are busy in
consulting with others to write, to understand , to oral express .Slow writing :They are slow writers
behind this there are several reasons .Students are not interested in the lecture so they are writing
slow and may be their habits to slow. Teachers should be aware of the indicators of hearing loss in
the classroom and should recommend a hearing screening if necessary.
Topic 183-Teaching Students with Hearing Loss

Take advantage of the student's residual hearing. Seat the student close to you if you are
doing the talking or close to key classmates if the students are in a work group. Keep competing
noise, such as unnecessary talking or whispering, to a minimum. Keep instructions concise and to-
the-point. Ask the student occasionally whether he or she understands. Use visual cues liberally.
Make charts and diagrams wherever appropriate to illustrate what you are saying. Look directly at
the student when you are speaking to him or her (to facilitate lip reading). Include the student in the
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community of the classroom: Enlist the help of one or more peers in "translating" oral comments
that the student may have missed.
Topic 184-Teaching Students with Hearing Loss

Gesture and point to key words or objects but within reason, not excessively. This can help
individuals with hearing loss follow along with what you are saying and understand the context of
the conversation. However, it is important to use this strategy within reason and not excessively, as
it can become distracting or confusing. Provide handouts or readings to review visually the points
that you make orally. Providing written materials can be helpful for individuals with hearing loss to
review the points that you make orally. This can also serve as a reference for future conversations.
Sign language is a visual language that can be used to communicate with individuals who are deaf or
hard of hearing. If you are not proficient in sign language, you can consider working with a sign
language interpreter or taking a course to learn basic signs.

Lecture: 36

(Topics: 185-195)
Topic: 185- Visual impairment: -

Topic: 186- Teaching students with visual impairment-1: -

Topic: 187- Teaching students with visual impairment-2: -

Topic: 188- Teaching students with visual impairment-3: -

Topic: 189- The value of including students with special needs: -

Topic: 190- Mentally retarded children: -

Topic: 191- Causes of mental retardation: -

Topic: 192- Education of mentally retarded children: -

Topic: 193- Students with Intellectual Disabilities: -

Topic: 194- Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities-4: -

Topic: 195- Students with Health and Sensory Impairments: -

Topic 185-Visual Impairment

Students with visual impairments have difficulty seeing even with corrective lenses. Most
commonly the difficulty has to do with refraction (the ability to focus), meaning that they may have
trouble focusing their eyes on objects at different distances. Some students may also experience a
limited field of view (called tunnel vision),which can make it difficult to see things that are not
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directly in front of them or be overly sensitive to light in general , which can make it uncomfortable
or even painful to be in brightly lit environments. As with hearing loss, labels for visual impairment
depend somewhat on the extent and nature of the problem. Both heredity and environmental
factors can play a role in the development of visual impairments. Many eye conditions are known to
have a genetic component, meaning that they are inherited from one's parents. For example,
conditions such as color blindness, retinitis etc. Environmental factors that may contribute to visual
impairments include poor nutrition, exposure to toxins, and injury to the eye. For example, a
traumatic injury to the eye can cause vision loss, and exposure to toxins such as mercury or lead can
damage the optic nerve or other structures in the eye. If a child complains that their vision is blurry
or they are having difficulty seeing things in the distance, this is also a sign that they may be
experiencing visual problems. It's important to take these complaints seriously and to schedule an
eye exam with an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Regular eye exams are important for children,
even if they do not exhibit any obvious signs of visual problems. Encouraging children to engage in
physical activities and limiting screen time can be beneficial for their overall health and well-being,
including their eye health.
Topic 186-Teaching Students with Visual Impairment-1

The treatment for students with visual impairments will depend on the extent and nature of
their impairment. Legal blindness means that the person has significant tunnel vision or else visual
acuity (sharpness of vision) of 20/200 or less, which means that he or she must be 20 feet away
from an object that a person with normal eyesight can see at 200 feet. For students with legal
blindness, accommodations may include providing materials in large print or braille, using audio
books or text-to-speech software, and providing assistive technology such as screen readers or
magnification software. Low vision means that a person has some vision usable for reading, but
often needs a special optical device such as a magnifying lens for doing so. For students with low
vision, accommodations may include using high-contrast materials, providing enlarged print or
magnification devices, and using lighting that reduces glare. Modifications may include adjusting the
font size or spacing on materials, or providing additional time for completing assignments or
assessments. Mild visual impairment a student will spend some or even all the time in a regular
class. Outdoor activities such as basketball, hiking, and cycling are great ways to divert children's
attention away from mobile devices, indoor games such as table tennis, ludo, and other games can
also be effective in promoting physical activity and reducing screen time.
Topic 187-Teaching Students with Visual Impairment-2

When teaching students with visual impairments, it is important to be aware of the signs and
symptoms that may indicate that the student is experiencing discomfort. These signs may include
The students may rub their eyes a lot, for example, blink more than usual, or hold books very close
to read them. They may complain of itchiness in their eyes, or of headaches, dizziness, or even
nausea after doing a lot of close eye work.
Students with visual impairments who require more specialized support, there are schools
that specialize in providing education and services for students with visual impairments. However,
it's worth noting that attending a school for the blind or visually impaired is not the right choice for
every student with a visual impairment. Some students may thrive in a mainstream classroom with
appropriate accommodations and modifications, while others may benefit from a combination of
mainstream and specialized services. The best approach will depend on the specific needs and

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challenges of the individual student. It may be helpful for teachers and school counselors to provide
information and resources to parents on the importance of a healthy diet for students with visual
impairments. A balanced and nutritious diet can help to support the health and well-being of
students with visual impairments, and may also help to improve their visual function. Some key
nutrients that may be particularly important for students with visual impairments include: - Vitamin
C, Vitamin D, take Juices etc.
Topic 188-Teaching Students with Visual Impairment-3

Use hands-on materials and providing experiences can be a great way to help students with
visual impairments access the curriculum and participate fully in the classroom. Wherever, they will
work, such as maps printed in three-dimensional relief or with different textures. If the student
knows how to read Braille (an alphabet for the blind using patterns of small bumps on a page), allow
him to do so. For students who are blind or have low vision, braille can be a valuable tool for
accessing written information and participating in the classroom. Recruit classmates to help explain
visual material when necessary to learn a bit of basic Braille and encourage classmates to do the
same, even if none of you ever become as skilled with it as the student himself or herself.
Topic 189-The Value of Including Students with Special Needs

The most notable additional benefit is that many teaching strategies that are good for
students with disabilities also turn out to benefit all students benefits like careful planning of
objectives, attention to individual differences among students, and establishment of a positive social
atmosphere in the classroom. Teaching students with either a hearing loss or a vision loss primarily
involves making use of the students' residual sensory abilities and insuring that the student is
included in and supported by the class as well as possible. Special schools can provide a valuable
resource for parents of children with special needs, including those with visual impairments or
intellectual disabilities. These schools can offer guidance and support to parents, as well as provide
tips and strategies for addressing the specific needs and challenges that their child may face.
Topic 190-Mentally Retarded Children

Mental retardation (or intellectual disability) means having below average intelligence and
skills necessary for daily life. It exists in children and adults whose brains do not develop properly or
function within the normal range. There are four levels of Intellectual Disability (ID):
1. Mild: Individuals with mild Intellectual Disability may have an intellectual functioning level
of 50-70.Individuals with mild ID are slower in all areas of conceptual development and
social and daily living skills. These individuals can learn practical life skills, which allow them
to function in ordinary life with minimal levels of support.
2. Moderate: Individuals with moderate ID may have an intellectual functioning level of 35-50.
They may have significant difficulties with academic learning and may need support with
activities of daily living, such as dressing and grooming. Individuals with moderate ID can
take care of themselves, travel to familiar places in their community, and learn basic skills
related to safety and health. Their self-care requires moderate support.
3. Severe: Individuals with severe ID may have an intellectual functioning level of 20-35. They
may have limited communication skills and may require significant support with activities of
daily living.

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4. Profound: Individuals with profound ID may have an intellectual functioning level below 20.
They may have significant physical and medical needs, as well as limited communication
skills.
Symptoms of Intellectual Disability will vary based on your child‘s level of disability and may
include:

 Failure to meet intellectual milestones

 Sitting, crawling, or walking later than other children

 Problems learning to talk or trouble speaking clearly

 Memory problems

 Inability to understand the consequences of actions

 Inability to think logically

 Childish behavior inconsistent with the child‘s age

 Lack of curiosity

 Learning difficulties

 IQ below 70

Topic 191-Causes of Mental Retardation

Intellectual disability (ID) or mental retardation can have multiple causes:

 Trauma before birth, such as an infection or exposure to alcohol, drugs, or other toxins can
disrupt normal brain development and lead to ID.

 Trauma during birth, such as oxygen deprivation or premature delivery can also lead to brain
damage and ID.
 Inherited disorders, such as phenylketonuria (PKU) or Tay-Sachs disease.

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 Chromosome abnormalities, such as Down syndrome can cause ID by disrupting normal

brain development.

 Lead or mercury poisoning.

 Severe malnutrition or other dietary issues.

 Severe cases of early childhood illness, such as whooping cough, measles, or meningitis.

 Brain injury, Traumatic brain injury, such as from a car accident or fall, can cause brain
damage.

Topic 192- Education of Mentally Retarded Children

Students with mild or moderate intellectual disabilities may be able to attend regular schools
and take classes alongside their non-disabled peers, depending on their individual needs and abilities.
Students with severe or profound intellectual disabilities may benefit from attending special schools.
. Vocational training and job skills programs can provide individuals with the opportunity to learn
and practice skills that are relevant to specific industries or trades, such as carpentry, auto repair, or
tailoring.
Individual Plans: The education of mentally retarded or intellectually disabled children typically
involves individualized plans and specialized programming that takes into account the child's specific
needs and abilities.
Education: Special education services may include specialized instruction, assistive technology, and
other accommodations that are designed to help the child access the curriculum and participate fully
in the classroom.
Social skills: Social skills training can help children with intellectual disabilities to develop
communication skills, improve their ability to form relationships, and navigate social situations.
Life skills: Life skills training can help children with intellectual disabilities to develop important
skills for independent living, such as personal hygiene, self-care, and household tasks.
Treatment may include: Behavior therapy: Behavior therapy can help children with intellectual
disabilities to learn positive behaviors and develop coping strategies for managing challenging
behaviors. Occupational therapy: Occupational therapy can help children with intellectual
disabilities to develop fine motor skills, coordination, and other skills needed for daily living.
Occupational therapy can help children with intellectual disabilities to develop fine motor skills,
coordination, and other skills needed for daily living. Counseling: Counseling can provide
emotional support and help children with intellectual disabilities to develop coping strategies for
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managing stress, anxiety, and other emotional challenges. Medication, in some cases medication
may be prescribed to manage symptoms of co-occurring conditions, such as ADHD or anxiety.
Topic 193-Students with Intellectual Disabilities

Those Students who are having intellectual disabilities they are called special children and
they deal with special provision. Aggression: Some students with intellectual disabilities may exhibit
aggressive behaviors, such as hitting, biting, or kicking. This may be due to frustration, difficulty
communicating, or other factors. Dependency: Some students with intellectual disabilities may have
difficulty with independence and may become overly dependent on caregivers or others for support.
Withdrawal from social activities: Some students with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty
with social skills and may withdraw from social activities or interactions. Attention-seeking behavior:
Some students with intellectual disabilities may seek attention through disruptive or attention-
seeking behaviors, such as acting out or misbehaving. Depression during adolescent and teen
years: Like many adolescents and teens, students with intellectual disabilities may experience
feelings of depression or anxiety, which can be exacerbated by the challenges associated with their
disability. Lack of impulse control: Some students with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty
with impulse control, which can lead to impulsive or risky behaviors. Passivity, tendency toward
self-injury and Stubbornness. It is important for caregivers, educators, and others to work together
to identify and address these behaviors, and to provide appropriate support and interventions to
help students with intellectual disabilities to manage these challenges and reach their full potential.
Topic 194-Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities

Teaching students with intellectual disabilities requires a tailored and individualized approach
that takes into account the unique needs and abilities of each student. They provide them teaching,
coaching and adjustment in the society. Students with intellectual disabilities may be placed into one
of four categories, based on the severity of their disability:
1. Mild disability (educable): Students with mild intellectual disabilities typically have an IQ between
50-70 and may be able to learn academic skills and concepts with additional support and
accommodations. They may benefit from inclusion in regular classrooms with additional support, or
specialized instruction in resource rooms or other settings.
2. Moderate disability (educable): Students with moderate intellectual disabilities typically have an IQ
between 35-50 and may require more intensive support and accommodations to learn academic
skills and concepts. They may benefit from special education classes or individualized instruction in
resource rooms or other settings.
3. Severe disability (trainable): Students with severe intellectual disabilities typically have an IQ
between 20-35 and may require specialized instruction and support to learn basic academic skills and
concepts. They may benefit from specialized schools or classes that are tailored to their specific
needs and abilities, as well as vocational training and job skills programs to help them develop
practical skills.
4. Profound disability (difficult to train): Students with profound intellectual disabilities typically
have an IQ below 20 and may have significant physical and medical needs in addition to their
cognitive challenges. They may require intensive support and care to meet their basic needs, and may

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benefit from specialized schools or residential care facilities that are tailored to their specific needs
and abilities.
Topic 195-Students with Health and Sensory Impairments

The typical characteristics of students with sensory impairments include total or partial loss
of vision, total or partial loss of hearing, and loss of significant degree of both hearing and vision.
Sensory impairment is the common term used to describe deafness, blindness, visual impairment,
hearing impairment and deaf blindness.it is not justifying one trait but basically it is the combination
of problems in senses and senses that if the person has partial loss in hearing, seeing or others senses
that is called sensory impairments. Whatever the degree or level of the problem is students face
these impairments. Students and teachers must know about how we can handle students with these
impairments. Instruction, including lectures, website, videos, overheads, handouts, and textbook
must be accessible to all students. Brail System and use recorded textbooks or equipment to enlarge
print (closed circuit television [CCTV]) or actual enlargements.

Lecture: 37

(Topics: 196-204)
Topic: 196- Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy): -

Topic: 197- Students Who Are Deaf: -

Topic: 198- Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome: -

Topic: 199- Causes of Autism: -

Topic: 200- Interventions-1: -

Topic: 201- Interventions-2: -

Topic: 202- Identification of problems in e-learning: -

Topic: 203- Issues related with e-learning: -

Topic: 204- Facilitating Complex Thinking: -

Topic 196-Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)

Epilepsy is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in which brain activity becomes
abnormal, causing seizures. Seizures are individual occurrences of abnormal electrical activity in the
brain apparently can be caused by almost any kind of damage to the brain. There are many causes of
seizures, including singular events like a medication reaction, lack of sufficient oxygen (hypoxia), low
blood sugar (hypoglycemia), infections, and physical trauma. Epilepsy, on the other hand, is a
chronic neurologic disorder that causes repeated seizure activity. In epilepsy the brain's electrical
rhythms have a tendency to become imbalanced, resulting in recurrent seizures. In patients with
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seizures, the normal electrical pattern is disrupted by sudden and synchronized bursts of electrical
energy that may briefly affect their consciousness, movements or sensations.
Topic 197-Students Who Are Deaf

Students who are deaf refer to students who have hearing loss to the extent that it affects
their ability to access auditory information. The main types of hearing loss are sorted into three
categories. Types of hearing loss include sensorineural (nerve-related), conductive (affecting the
outer or middle ear) or a mixed hearing loss (mixture of both types.)The most common type
of hearing loss is sensorineural. It is a permanent hearing loss that occurs when there is damage to
either the tiny hair-like cells of the inner ear, known as stereocilia, or the auditory nerve itself, which
prevents or weakens the transfer of nerve signals to the brain. Interference with transmission of the
nerve signals to the brain can lead to problems with speech clarity or loudness growth. For these
reasons, sensorineural hearing loss may mean difficulty understanding speech despite appropriate
volume.
A less common type of hearing loss is conductive hearing loss, which occurs when there is
an obstruction or damage to the outer or middle ear that prevents sound from being conducted
to the inner ear. Conductive hearing loss may be temporary or permanent, depending on the
cause. Mixed hearing loss commonly occurs when the ear sustains some sort of trauma. It also can
happen gradually over time when one hearing loss is compounded by another. For example, a
person with a long-standing conductive hearing loss might experience age-related hearing loss as
they age. Alternatively, a person with age-related hearing loss may have a temporary mixed hearing
loss due to wax impaction.
Sign Language is commonly used by students who are deaf as a means of communication.
Sign languages are visual languages that use a combination of hand gestures, facial expressions, and
body language to convey meaning Auslan interpreters and live remote captioning are two techniques
that can be provided to students who are deaf to help them access educational materials and
communicate with others. Each learner with a hearing loss should be assessed individually and
accommodations should be implemented based on the unique needs of each student.
Topic 198-Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological and developmental disorder that affects
how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave. Although autism can be
diagnosed at any age, it is described as a ―developmental disorder‖ because symptoms generally
appear in the first two years of life.
Asperger's syndrome is technically no longer a diagnosis on its own. It is now part of a
broader category called autism spectrum disorder

 Difficulty with social interactions, restricted interests, desire for sameness and distinctive
strengths.
 Hypersensitivities (to lights, sounds, tastes, etc.) This can affect individuals in a range of
ways, from mild discomfort to significant distress, and can impact their ability to function in
their daily lives.
 Difficulty with the give and take of conversation. They don‘t want to responed back to any
conversation and emotions.
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 Difficulty with nonverbal conversation skills (distance, loudness, tone, etc.)

 Uncoordinated movements or clumsiness.
Topic 199-Causes of Autism

Every disorder has multiple causes. There are multiple risk factors that can increase the chance of
having Autism which includes:

 Having an immediate family member who's autistic: There is a strong genetic component to
autism and having a sibling or parent with autism increases the risk of developing the
disorder.
 Certain genetic mutations: Some genetic mutations have been associated with an increased
risk of autism.
 Fragile X syndrome and other genetic disorders.
 Being born to older parents: Children born to older parents, particularly mothers over the
age of 35, are at a slightly higher risk of developing autism.
 Low birth weight.
 Metabolic imbalances.
 Exposure to heavy metals and environmental toxins.
 A maternal history of viral infections.
Topic 200- Interventions

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a commonly used intervention for individuals with
autism. ABA is a scientific approach to behavior analysis that focuses on observable behaviors and
their relationship to the environment. ABA uses a systematic approach to measure and analyze
behavior, and it emphasizes the use of single-subject design to show the relationship between
behavior and the environment. ABA interventions typically involve breaking down complex
behaviors into smaller, more manageable components, and using positive reinforcement to increase
desired behaviors and decrease unwanted behaviors. ABA interventions can be tailored to the
individual needs of the student, and may involve a range of techniques, such as prompting, shaping,
and modeling. A focus on behaviors of social relevance.
Additional Reading
There are many other interventions that may be helpful for students with autism, depending on their
specific needs and challenges. Some examples of other interventions include:
1. Speech therapy: Speech therapy can help students with autism develop communication skills, such
as language and social communication.
2. Occupational therapy: Occupational therapy can help students with autism develop skills related
to daily living, such as self-care and fine motor skills.
3. Social skills training: Social skills training can help students with autism develop social skills and
improve their ability to interact with others.
4. Sensory integration therapy: Sensory integration therapy can help students with autism manage
hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity to sensory stimuli.

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Topic 201-Interventions

Visual interventions with research support include the use of schedules, story-based
instruction, picture exchange systems, and structured teaching (e.g., TEACCH Autism
Project). Schedules can help individuals with autism understand and navigate their daily routines
and activities. Visual schedules, such as picture schedules or written schedules, can be particularly
helpful for individuals who struggle with verbal communication or have difficulty with transitions.
Story-based instruction involves using stories or narratives to teach social and communication skills.
This approach can be particularly effective for individuals with autism, who often benefit from
concrete and visual examples of social interactions. Picture exchange systems involve using pictures
or symbols to communicate wants and needs. This approach can be particularly helpful for
individuals who struggle with verbal communication. Structured teaching involves creating a
structured, organized learning environment that emphasizes visual supports and individualized
instruction. In many cases, visual supports are used as a package along with other interventions.
Targeted therapies (e.g., speech/language, OT) can be used to increase communication skills and
to improve independence in activities of daily living. Social Skill Therapy: Autistic child they dislike
socialization .They want to just involve with their own world so, how to motivate them to
participate in social learning and that should be included in the instruction teaching plan. Social skills
therapy is a type of intervention that focuses on helping individuals with autism develop social skills
and improve their ability to interact with others. Social skills therapy may involve a range of
techniques, such as modeling, role-playing, and feedback, to help individuals learn and practice social
skills in a supportive environment.

Topic 202 - Identification of Problems In E-Learning

Identifying problems in e-learning is an important step in addressing the challenges that

students may face when learning in an online environment. Some common problems that students
may encounter when participating in e-learning include:

1. Adaptability struggle: Students may struggle to adapt to the online learning environment,
particularly if they are used to traditional classroom instruction. The lack of face-to-face interaction,
the need to manage their own learning, and the use of technology may all present challenges for
students.

2. Technical issues: Technical issues, such as connectivity problems, software glitches, or hardware
failures, can disrupt students' learning and cause frustration. Technical issues may also prevent
students from accessing online resources or completing assignments.

3. Computer literacy: Students who are not familiar with technology or who lack computer literacy
skills may struggle with e-learning. They may have difficulty navigating online platforms, using
software applications, or accessing digital resources.

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4. Time management: E-learning requires students to manage their own time effectively, which can
be challenging for some students. Without the structure of regular class meetings and face-to-face
interactions with teachers, students may struggle to stay on task and meet deadlines.

5. Self-motivation: E-learning requires a high degree of self-motivation and self-discipline. Students

who lack motivation may struggle to stay engaged with the material, participate in online discussions,
or complete assignments.

Topic 203 - Issues Related with E-Learning

E-learning, like any other mode of learning, has its own set of challenges and issues that learner and
educators may face. Some common issues related to e-learning include:

 Visual learning (mode of presentation): Some learners may struggle with visual learning, and
may find it difficult to understand concepts that are presented primarily through text or
visual aids.
 Lack of clarity without instructor: Learners may struggle to understand complex or abstract
concepts without the guidance of an instructor, particularly if they are learning independently
or asynchronously.
 Class may feel isolated: E-learning can be a solitary experience, and learners may miss the
social interactions and sense of community that are often present in traditional classroom
settings.
 Decreased knowledge retention: Research suggests that learners may have lower levels of
knowledge retention with e-learning than with traditional classroom instruction. This may be
due to a variety of factors, including lack of engagement, distractions, and limited
opportunities for discussion and interaction.
 Plagiarism: With the abundance of information available online, learners may be tempted to
plagiarize or copy content without proper attribution.
 Technical difficulties: Technical issues such as connectivity problems, software glitches, or
hardware failures can disrupt learners' learning and cause frustration.
 Communication: Communication may be more challenging in e-learning environments,
particularly if learners are not able to meet with instructors or peers in person.
 Lack of interactivity: E-learning can be less interactive than traditional classroom instruction,
particularly if learners are engaging with recorded lectures or pre-recorded content.

Topic 204 - Facilitating Complex Thinking

How can we facilitate our complex thinking that general thinking we are thinking about
someone and different issues it is called thinking and complex thinking when we think deeply on any
issue , with logic is it complex thinking .There are two ways to administer, create and deal complex
thinking. Facilitating complex thinking is an important goal of education, as it helps students
develop critical thinking skills and the ability to solve complex problems.

Direct instruction: that is directed from teacher towards students. Teacher can use any teacher
strategy either can lecture method, discussion and question answer method. When it is directed
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through teacher towards students‘ guidance is called direct instruction. Direct instruction can be
effective in facilitating complex thinking by providing students with a clear understanding of the
concepts and skills they need to apply to more complex tasks.

Student centered instruction: Student-centered instruction involves giving students more control
over their learning and encouraging them to take an active role in their own learning. This approach
often involves problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning, or project-based learning, where
students work on complex tasks or projects that require them to apply their knowledge and skills in
creative and innovative ways. Student-centered instruction can be effective in facilitating complex
thinking by encouraging students to think critically, creatively, and independently.

Lecture: 38

(Topics: 205-211)
Topic: 205- Forms of Thinking: -

Topic: 206- Critical thinking: -

Topic: 207- Methods of development of CT-1: -

Topic: 208- Methods of development of CT-2: -

Topic: 209- Methods of development of CT-3-

Topic: 210- Importance of CT for students and teachers: -

Topic: 211- Richard Paul model for assessment of CT: -

Topic 205-Forms of Thinking

Three somewhat complex forms of thinking that are commonly pursued in classroom
learning:
Critical thinking: Critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information to
make rational judgments and decisions. We are making connections and going towards conclusion
of any situation so through connection when you understand the situation that means that you are
going through logic it involves questioning assumptions, considering different perspectives, and
being able to identify and evaluate arguments and evidence. Critical thinking is important for making
informed decisions, solving complex problems, and developing a deep understanding of concepts
and ideas.
Creative thinking: Creative thinking involves generating new ideas, perspectives, and solutions to
problems. It involves thinking outside the box and taking risks to explore new possibilities. Creative
thinking is important for innovation, problem-solving and developing new ideas and products.

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Problem-solving: Problem-solving involves identifying and analyzing problems, developing and
evaluating possible solutions, and implementing and monitoring solutions to ensure they are
effective. Problem-solving is important for making decisions, resolving conflicts, and achieving
goals.
Topic 206- Critical Thinking

Critical thinking requires skill at analyzing the reliability and validity of information, as well
as the attitude or disposition to do so. The skill and attitude may be displayed with regard to a
particular subject matter or topic, but in principle it can occur in any realm of knowledge. The
critical thinker asks key questions, evaluates the evidence for ideas, reasons for problems both
logically and objectively, and expresses ideas and conclusions clearly and precisely. To develop
critical thinking skills, it is important to engage in activities that require analytical and evaluative
thinking, such as analyzing texts, participating in debates or discussions, and solving complex
problems. Teachers can also support the development of critical thinking skills by providing
feedback and guidance, encouraging students to question assumptions and perspectives, and
modeling critical thinking behaviors and attitudes.
Topic 207-Methods of Development of Critical Thinking-1

There are several methods for developing critical thinking skills. Three common methods are:
1. Infusion approach: Critical thinking skills are integrated into the curriculum across all subject
areas. Teachers intentionally design activities and assignments that require students to engage in
critical thinking, such as analyzing texts, evaluating evidence, and solving complex problems. This
approach helps students understand the relevance and importance of critical thinking in all areas of
their learning.
2. Separate entity: In this approach, critical thinking is taught as a separate course or unit,
independent of other subject areas. Students learn specific critical thinking skills and strategies, such
as problem-solving, decision-making, and argument analysis, through structured lessons and
activities. This approach provides students with targeted instruction and practice in critical thinking.
3. Reflection: Students reflect on their own thinking and learning processes, and identify areas
where they need to improve their critical thinking skills. This approach encourages students to be
self-aware and reflective learners, and helps them develop metacognitive skills. Teachers can
facilitate reflection through activities such as journaling, class discussions, and self-assessments.
Topic 208-Methods of Development of Critical Thinking-2

These methods can be taught and practiced through a variety of activities, such as analyzing
texts, participating in debates or discussions, solving complex problems, and engaging in reflective
practices. Teachers can also support the development of these methods by providing feedback and
guidance, encouraging students to question assumptions and perspectives, and modeling critical
thinking behaviors and attitudes.

 Analysis: Breaking down complex information into smaller parts to understand how they
relate to each other.

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 Interpretation: Making sense of information by identifying patterns, themes, and

relationships.
 Inference: Drawing conclusions based on evidence and reasoning.
 Explanation: Communicating ideas clearly and logically, and supporting arguments with
evidence. For example can you explain this scenario?
 Self-regulation: Monitoring and evaluating one's own thinking processes and adjusting them
as needed. For example can you tell me your reasons?
 Open-mindedness: Being willing to consider different perspectives and ideas, and being
open to changing one's own beliefs and opinions. You should be open minded .you should
not be biased with someone. You should not show favoritism towards your students.
 Problem-solving: Identifying and analyzing problems, developing and evaluating possible
solutions, and implementing and monitoring solutions to ensure they are effective.
Topic 209-Methods of Development of Critical Thinking-3

There are multiple methods to develop critical thinking and instructor or parents can use any
method to develop critical thinking skill. Basically, critical thinking is always developing though a
process. There is no single method to create critical thinking skill but when the child will go through
a process of critical thinking then critical thinking will be easily created.
Know exactly what you want: Clearly defining the problem or issue you are trying to solve is an
important step in critical thinking. This helps to focus your thinking and guide your analysis and
evaluation of information. You are exploring information whatever you need to explain any
situation.
Deal with your biases: Recognizing and addressing your own biases is an important part of critical
thinking. It helps you to approach problems and issues with an open mind and consider multiple
perspectives.
Consider the consequences of your options: Evaluating the potential outcomes of different
options is an important part of critical thinking. It helps you to make informed decisions and choose
the best course of action.
Do your research: Gathering and analyzing information is a key component of critical thinking. It
helps you to make informed decisions and evaluate the validity and reliability of information.
Accept the fact that you're not always right: Being open to the possibility that your ideas or
opinions may be incorrect is an important attitude for critical thinking. It helps you to consider
alternative perspectives and evaluate evidence objectively.
Break it down: Breaking down complex problems or issues into smaller parts can help to clarify
your thinking and make it more manageable. This also helps to identify the underlying assumptions
and factors that may be influencing the problem.
Don't overcomplicate things: Keeping things simple and straightforward can help to avoid
confusion and unnecessary complexity. It also helps to focus your thinking on the key issues and
factors that are most relevant to the problem or issue at hand.
Topic 210-Importance of Critical Thinking CT for Students and Teachers

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Critical thinking will enable you to better express your thoughts, ideas, and beliefs. Better
communication helps others to understand you better, resulting in less frustration for both of you.
Critical thinking fosters creativity and out-of-the-box thinking that can be applied to any area of
your life. Critical thinking can help you better understand yourself, and in turn, help you avoid any
kind of negative or limiting beliefs, and focus more on your strengths. Being able to share your
thoughts can increase your quality of life.
Topic 211-Richard Paul Model for Assessment of CT

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking about any subject, content, or problem in which
the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. The model emphasizes that
critical thinking is not just a matter of acquiring knowledge or information, but is a process of
actively engaging with and improving one's own thinking. It involves taking control of the structures
inherent in thinking, such as assumptions, biases, and reasoning processes, and applying intellectual
standards to them, such as clarity, accuracy, and relevance. The Richard Paul Model also emphasizes
that critical thinking is not a one-time event, but is an ongoing process of self-improvement. It
requires individuals to be self-aware and reflective, to constantly evaluate their own thinking
processes, and to be willing to revise their beliefs and opinions in light of new information. Critical
thinking is the art of thinking about thinking in an intellectually disciplined manner. Critical thinkers
analyze thinking, assess thinking, and they improve thinking.

Lecture: 39
(Topics: 212-219)
Topic: 212- Issues in development of critical thinking: -

Topic: 213- Creative thinking: -

Topic: 214- Difference between CT and creative thinking: -

Topic: 215- Problem solving: -

Topic: 216- Problem solving in the classroom: -

Topic: 217- The effect of constraints-Well-structured versus ill structured problems: -

Topic: 218- Common obstacles to solving problems-1: -

Topic: 219- Common obstacles to solving problems-2: -

Topic 212-Issues in Development of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking does not mean that you are challenging someone‘s work or telling them that
they are wrong. Critical thinking means to find strength and weakness of any event or talk then
politely tell them that you can improve your thinking by adding this information. Critical thinking
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encourages you to be constructive, by considering the strengths and weaknesses of a claim and
differing sides to an argument. It helps you to clarify points, encourages deeper thought, and allows
you to determine whether information that you come across is accurate and reliable. This helps you
to form your own judgment, and drives research forward.
Topic 213-Creative Thinking

Creativity is the ability to make or do something new that is also useful or valued by others
(Gardner, 1993). The ―something‖ can be an object (like an essay or painting), a skill (like playing an
instrument), or an action (like using a familiar tool in a new way. Creative thinking is a very
important trait that people can polish; improve by going through the process of creativity.
Divergent Thinking: This is a mode of thinking that involves generating multiple ideas or
solutions to a problem. It is characterized by a free-flowing and open-ended approach to
thinking, where many different possibilities are explored. Divergent thinking is often associated
with creativity and innovation, and can be useful in brainstorming sessions and other contexts
where new ideas are needed.
Convergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is a kind of thinking that concentrates on finding
out one single best answer to questions and instructions that are oriented towards giving one
single solution, means convergent thinking deals with determining the link between different
ideas, so tasks of convergent have just one solution.
Topic 214-Difference Between Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking

Creative Thinking is going beyond the limitations and being original and fresh in one's ideas.
Critical Thinking, on the other hand, is more evaluative in nature and analyses a particular thing.
Hence, one can conclude that while Creative thinking is generative in purpose, Critical Thinking is
analytical in purpose. Creative Thinking tries to create something new, while critical thinking seeks
to assess worth or validity of something that already exists.
Topic 215: Problem Solving

Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying,
prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution. Problem solving,
the analysis and solution of tasks or situations that are complex or ambiguous and that pose
difficulties or obstacles of some kind. Problem-solving coping style refers to an approach to dealing
with stress or difficult situations that involves actively addressing the problem and trying to find a
solution. Overall, the problem-solving coping style can be an effective way to manage stress and
overcome challenges, but it may not be the best approach for everyone or every situation.
Sometimes, it may be more effective to use other coping strategies, such as seeking social support,
practicing relaxation techniques etc.
Topic 216: Problem Solving in the Classroom

Problem solving that is teaching strategy that we can use in the classroom students are generally used
to lecture method, discussion method and some other strategies. Problem solving is usually
considered that it is used to just produce the new knowledge and it is used to give skills to be
involve in to get new solution by thinking themselves or by working in a group to learn the
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collaboration and they will just include any situation, event by working together. Problem solving
happens in classrooms when teachers present tasks or challenges that are deliberately complex and
for which finding a solution is not straightforward or obvious.
The responses of students to such problems, as well as the strategies for assisting them, show the
key features of problem solving. A teacher should be promote and tells the students to complete
their work by doing on the problems and you should also use the reinforcement and you should
introduce or announce some tokens .Tokens mean that you can announce I will give two marks
more if the students will brings three ideas or solutions.
Topic 217: The Effect of Constraints-Well-Structured Versus Ill Structured Problems

A well-structured problem provides much of the information needed and can in principle be solved
using relatively few clearly understood rules. Classic examples are the word problems often taught in
math lessons. An ill-structured problem has the converse qualities: the information is not necessarily
within the problem, solution procedures are potentially quite numerous, and a multiple solutions are
likely.
Topic 218: Common Obstacles to Solving Problems

Four of the most common processes and factors are

1. Mental set
2. Functional fixedness
3. Unnecessary constraints
4. Irrelevant information
1. Mental set: Mental set refers to a tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has
worked in the past, even if that approach is not the most effective for the current problem. This can
limit creativity and prevent individuals from considering alternative solutions.
2. Functional fixedness: Functional fixedness is the tendency to see objects or concepts as having
only one function or use, which can limit the ability to see new uses or solutions. For example, if
someone is trying to fix a broken table leg, they may only see the leg as a support for the tabletop,
rather than considering other ways it could be used or modified to fix the problem.
3. Unnecessary constraints: Unnecessary constraints refer to the limitations that we place on
ourselves when trying to solve a problem. These constraints may not actually exist or may be
irrelevant to the problem, but they can limit our ability to see possible solutions. For example, if
someone is trying to find a way to transport a large object, they may assume that they can only use a
truck or a trailer, rather than considering other modes of transportation.
4. Irrelevant information: Irrelevant information can be a distraction that prevents individuals
from focusing on the relevant aspects of the problem. It can also lead individuals to make incorrect
assumptions or draw incorrect conclusions. For example, if someone is trying to solve a math
problem, irrelevant information in the problem statement may distract them from the key
information needed to solve the problem.

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Topic 219: Common Obstacles to Solving Problems

These are the common obstacles to solve the problems are:

 The discovery of the problem

 The decision to tackle the issue
 Understanding the problem
 Researching the available options
 Taking actions to achieve your goals
The discovery of the problem: This is the first step in the problem-solving process, which
involves recognizing that there is a problem or an issue that needs to be addressed. This may involve
gathering information, listening to feedback, or paying attention to changes in the environment.
The decision to tackle the issue: Once a problem has been identified, the next step is to make a
decision to address it. This may involve setting goals, identifying priorities, and determining what
resources are needed to solve the problem.
Understanding the problem: This step involves gaining a deeper understanding of the problem
by gathering information, analyzing data, and identifying the root causes of the problem. This may
involve asking questions, conducting research, or consulting with experts.
Researching the available options: Once the problem has been clearly defined and understood,
the next step is to research the available options for solving the problem. This may involve
brainstorming, evaluating different strategies, or considering the pros and cons of each option.
Taking actions to achieve your goals: The final step in the problem-solving process involves
taking action to implement the chosen solution. This may involve developing a plan, setting
deadlines, and monitoring progress to ensure that the solution is effective and sustainable.

Lecture: 40

(Topics: 220-227)
Topic: 220- Strategies to assist Problem solving:-

Topic: 221- Broad instructional Strategies to assist problem solving:-

Topic: 222- Teacher directed instruction: -

Topic: 223- Lecture and reading:-

Topic: 224- Advance organizers:-

Topic: 225- Recalling and relating prior knowledge:-

Topic: 226- Elaborating Information:-

Topic: 227- Organizing new information: -

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Topic: 220- Strategies to assist Problem solving:-

 Algorithms
 Heuristics
 Trial and Error
 Problem Analysis
 Working Backward
 Analogical Thinking
A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. There are multiple strategies
that can help us to find the solution of the problem, such as:

 Algorithms
 Heuristics
 Trial and Error
 Problem Analysis
 Working Backward
 Analogical Thinking
Just as there are cognitive obstacles to problem solving, there are also general strategies that help the
process be successful, regardless of the specific content of a problem (Thagard, 2005). One helpful
strategy is problem analysis—identifying the parts of the problem and working on each part
separately. Analysis is especially useful when a problem is ill-structured. Consider this problem, for
example: ―Devise a plan to improve bicycle transportation in the city.‖ Solving this problem is easier
if you identify its parts or component subproblems, such as (1) installing bicycle lanes on busy
streets, (2) educating cyclists and motorists to ride safely, (3) fixing potholes on streets used by
cyclists, and (4) revising traffic laws that interfere with cycling. Each separate subproblem is more
manageable than the original, general problem. The solution of each subproblem contributes the
solution of the whole, though of course is not equivalent to a whole solution.

Another helpful strategy is working backward from a final solution to the originally stated
problem. This approach is especially helpful when a problem is well-structured but also has elements
that are distracting or misleading when approached in a forward, normal direction. The water lily
problem described above is a good example: starting with the day when all the lake is covered (Day
100), ask what day would it therefore be half covered (by the terms of the problem, it would have to
be the day before, or Day 99). Working backward in this case encourages reframing the extra
information in the problem (i. e. the size of each water lily) as merely distracting, not as crucial to a
solution.

A third helpful strategy is analogical thinking using knowledge or experiences with similar features
or structures to help solve the problem at hand (Bassok, 2003). In devising a plan to improve
bicycling in the city, for example, an analogy of cars with bicycles is helpful in thinking of solutions:
improving conditions for both vehicles require many of the same measures (improving the
roadways, educating drivers). Even solving simpler, more basic problems is helped by considering
analogies. A first-grade student can partially decode unfamiliar printed words by analogy to words he
or she has learned already. If the child cannot yet read the word screen, for example, he can note

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that part of this word looks similar to words he may already know, such as seen or green, and from
this observation derive a clue about how to read the word screen. Teachers can assist this process, as
you might expect, by suggesting reasonable, helpful analogies for students to consider.

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides

you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). In other
words, an algorithm is a process or set of rules which must be followed to complete a particular task.
This is basically the step-by-step procedure to complete any task. All the tasks are followed a
particular algorithm, from making a cup of tea to make high scalable software. This is the way to
divide a task into several parts. If we draw an algorithm to complete a task then the task will be
easier to complete.

A heuristic is another type of problem-solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed

exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky &
Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A
―rule of thumb‖ is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when
making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for
making a rational decision.

Another well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, ―If at first you don‘t succeed, try, try
again‖ describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink
levels, and if that doesn‘t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn‘t jammed. Or maybe
the printer isn‘t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to
try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of
the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

Topic: 221- Broad instructional Strategies to assist problem solving:-

 Mastery learning
 Textbook readings
 Advance
 Organizers,
 Outlining
 Recalling
 Relating
 Elaborating
 Self-reflection
 Independent study
 Concept maps
Instructional strategies refer to the techniques instructors use to deliver their lessons. Effective
instructional strategies help students become actively involved in the learning process. When done
right, instructional strategies also support students in reaching their learning objectives.

Broad instructional strategies refer to the comprehensive set of teaching techniques and approaches
used to engage students in the learning process. Broad instructional strategies aim to create an

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effective and engaging learning environment for students, allowing them to develop the skills and
knowledge necessary to succeed.

Broad instructional strategies to assist problem solving are as:

 Mastery learning
 Textbook readings
 Advance organizers
 Outlining
 Recalling
 Relating
 Elaborating
 Self-reflection
 Independent study
 Concept maps
Because the forms of thinking just described—critical thinking, creativity and problem solving—are
broad and important educationally, it is not surprising that educators have identified strategies to
encourage their development. Some of the possibilities are shown in Table 9.1 and group several
instructional strategies along two dimensions: how much the strategy is student-centered and how
much a strategy depends on group interaction. It should be emphasized that the two-way
classification in Table 24 is not very precise, but it gives a useful framework for understanding the
options available for planning and implementing instruction. The more important of the two
dimensions in the table is the first one—the extent to which an instructional strategy is either
directed by the teacher or initiated by students. We take a closer look at this dimension in the next
part of this chapter, followed by discussion of group-oriented teaching strategies.

Definitions of Terms in Table 9.1 (Instructional strategies along two dimensions)

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Lecture Telling or explaining previously organized Information usually to a group.

Assigned reading Reading, usually individually, of previously organized information.
Advance organizers Brief overview, either verbally or graphically, of material about to be
covered in a lecture or text.
Outlining Writing important points of a lecture or reading, usually in a hierarchical
format.
Taking notes Writing important points of a lecture or reading, often organized according
to the learning needs of an individual student.
Concept maps Graphic depiction of relationships among a set of concepts, terms, or ideas;
usually organized by the student, but not always.
Madeline Hunter’s A set of strategies that emphasizes clear presentation of goals, the
“Effective explanation and modeling of tasks to students and careful monitoring of
Teaching” students' progress toward the goals.
Mastery learning This term refers to an instructional approach in which all students learn
material to an identically high level, even if some students require more
time than others to do so (Gentile, 2004).
Independent study In independent study, as the name implies, a student works alone a good
deal of the time, consulting with a teacher only occasionally.
Self-reflection It refers to thinking about beliefs and experiences in order to clarify their
personal meaning and importance.
Inquiry learning Inquiry-based learning is a learning process that engages students by
making real-world connections through exploration and high-level
questioning
Cooperative In this approach, students work on a task in groups and often are rewarded
learning either partially or completely for the success of the group as a whole.
Discovery learning Discovery learning is an educational approach where students actively
explore concepts. It encourages critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and
self-directed learning. Teachers act as facilitators, guiding and supporting
students as they make their own discoveries.
Direct instruction Direct instruction is often considered the ―traditional‖ approach to
teaching, as it describes the typical classroom in which a professor directly

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presents theoretical concepts, provides examples, and gives an assessment

of learning. It is a content-centered approach to learning that passively
engages students as listeners.
Recalling Bringing a fact, event, or situation back into one's mind; remember.
Relating Establish association, connection, or relation between two or more things.
Elaborating It means to explain something more fully. This could involve providing
more details, examples, or evidence to support the original meaning. It
could also involve breaking down the meaning into smaller parts and
exploring each of those parts in more depth.
Topic: 222- Teacher directed instruction:-

 Teacher-Directed instruction includes any strategies initiated and guided primarily

by the teacher
 A classic example is exposition or lecturing (simply telling or explaining important
information to students) combined with assigning reading from texts.
 But teacher-directed instruction also includes strategies that involve more active
response from students, such as encouraging students to elaborate on new
knowledge or to explain how new information relates to prior knowledge
 As the name implies, teacher-directed instruction includes any strategies initiated and guided
primarily by the teacher.
 A classic example is exposition or lecturing (simply telling or explaining important
information to students) combined with assigning reading from texts.
 But teacher-directed instruction also includes strategies that involve more active response
from students, such as encouraging students to elaborate on new knowledge or to explain
how new information relates to prior knowledge.
 Whatever their form, teacher-directed instructional methods normally include the organizing
of information on behalf of students, even if teachers also expect students to organize it
further on their own. Sometimes, therefore, teacher-directed methods are thought of as
transmitting knowledge from teacher to student as clearly and efficiently as possible, even if
they also require mental work on the part of the student.

Topic: 223- Lecture and reading:-

 The formal, verbal presentation of information or other material by an instructor to a

group of students or other learners.
 The lecture method is used mainly when groups are large or time is limited
 Lecture is the formal, verbal presentation of information or other material by an instructor
to a group of students or other learners.
 The lecture method is used mainly when groups are large or time is limited.
 Lectures and readings are traditional staples of educators, particularly with older students
(including university students). At their best, they pre-organize information so that (at least

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in theory) the student only has to remember what was said in the lecture or written in the
text in order to begin understanding it (Exley & Dennick, 2004). Their limitation is the
ambiguity of the responses they require: listening and reading are by nature quiet and
stationary, and do not in themselves indicate whether a student is comprehending or even
attending to the material. Educators sometimes complain that ―students are too passive‖
during lectures or when reading. Reading and lecture method can be made effective by
incorporating with other teaching strategies (such as questioning answering, etc.) then these
two strategies (reading and lecture) can be beneficial for both students and teachers as well.
But physical quietness is intrinsic to these activities, not to the students who do them. A
book just sits still, after all, unless a student makes an effort to read it, and a lecture may not
be heard unless a student makes the effort to listen to it.
Topic: 224- Advance organizers:-

 Advance Organizers is a brief overviews or introductions to new material before the

material itself is presented
 Advance Organizers partially organize the material on behalf of the students, so that
they know where to put it all, so to speak, as they learn them in more detail
 In spite of these problems, there are strategies for making lectures and readings effective. A
teacher can be especially careful about organizing information for students, and she can turn
part of the mental work over to students themselves. An example of the first approach is the
use of advance organizers.
 Advance organizers are a brief overviews or introductions to new material before the
material itself is presented (Ausubel, 1978).
 Textbook authors (including ourselves) often try deliberately to insert periodic advance
organizers to introduce new sections or chapters in the text.
 When used in a lecture, advance organizers are usually statements in the form of brief
introductory remarks, though sometimes diagrams showing relationships among key ideas
can also serve the same purpose (Robinson, et al., 2003).
 Whatever their form, advance organizers partially organize the material on behalf of the
students, so that they know where to put it all, so to speak, as they learn them in more detail.
Topic: 225- Recalling and relating prior knowledge: -

 Children and youth become more experienced in their academics; they tend to relate
new information to previously learned information more frequently and
automatically
 When presenting new concepts or ideas, the teacher can relate them to previously
learned ideas deliberately essentially modeling a memory strategy that students learn
to use for themselves
 Another strategy for improving teacher-directed instruction is to encourage students
to relate the new material to prior familiar knowledge. When one of us (Kelvin) first
learned a foreign language (in his case French), for example, he often noticed similarities
between French and English vocabulary. A French word for picture, for example, was
image, spelled exactly as it is in English. The French word for splendid was splendide,
spelled almost the same as in English, though not quite. Relating the French vocabulary to
English vocabulary helped in learning and remembering the French.

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 As children and youth become more experienced in their academics, they tend to
relate new information to previously learned information more frequently and
automatically (Goodwin, 1999; Oakhill, Hartt, & Samols, 2005). But teachers can also
facilitate students' use of this strategy. When presenting new concepts or ideas, the
teacher can relate them to previously learned ideas deliberately essentially modeling
a memory strategy that students learn to use for themselves. In a science class, for
example, she can say, this is another example of…, which we studied before"; in social
studies she can say, remember what we found out last time about the growth of the
railroads? We saw that…‖
 If students are relatively young or are struggling academically, it is especially
important to remind them of their prior knowledge. Teachers can periodically ask
questions like ―What do you already know about this topic?" or ―How will your new
knowledge about this topic change what you know already?" Whatever the age of students,
connecting new with prior knowledge is easier with help from someone more
knowledgeable, such as the teacher. When learning algorithms for multiplication, for
example, students may not at first see how multiplication is related to addition processes
which they probably learned previously (Burns, 2001). But if a teacher takes time to explain
the relationship and to give students time to explore it, then the new skill of multiplication
may be learned more easily.
Topic: 226- Elaborating Information: -

 Elaborating new information means asking questions about the new material,
inferring ideas and relationships among the new concepts. Such strategies are closely
related to the strategy of recalling prior knowledge
 Elaboration enriches the new information and connects it to other knowledge.
 In this sense elaboration makes the new learning more meaningful and less arbitrary
 Elaborating new information means asking questions about the new material, inferring ideas
and relationships among the new concepts. Such strategies are closely related to the strategy
of recalling prior knowledge.
 Elaboration enriches the new information and connects it to other knowledge.
 In this sense elaboration makes the new learning more meaningful and less arbitrary.
 A teacher can help students use elaboration by modeling this behavior. The teacher can
interrupt his or her explanation of an idea, for example, by asking how it relates to other
ideas, or by speculating about where the new concept or idea may lead. He or she can also
encourage students to do the same, and even give students questions to guide their thinking.
When giving examples of a concept, for example, a teacher can hold back from offering all
of the examples, and instead ask students to think of additional examples themselves. The
same tactic can work with assigned readings; if the reading includes examples, the teacher
can instruct students to find or make up additional examples of their own.
Topic: 227- Organizing new information: -

 Ask students to outline information read in a text or heard in a lecture

 Outlining works especially well when the information is already organized somewhat
hierarchically into a series of main topics, each with supporting subtopics or sub
points.
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 Outlining is basically a form of the more general strategy of taking notes, or writing
down key ideas and terms from a reading or lecture.
 There are many ways to organize new information that are especially well-suited to teacher-
directed instruction.
 A common way is simply to ask students to outline information read in a text or heard in a
lecture. Outlining works especially well when the information is already organized somewhat
hierarchically into a series of main topics, each with supporting subtopics or subpoints.
 Outlining is basically a form of the more general strategy of taking notes, or writing down
key ideas and terms from a reading or lecture.
 Research studies find that that the precise style or content of notes is less important that the
quantity of notes taken: more detail is usually better than less (Ward & Tatsukawa, 2003).
Written notes ensure that a student thinks about the material not only while writing it down,
but also when reading the notes later. These benefits are especially helpful when students are
relatively inexperienced at school learning in general (as in the earlier grade levels), or
relatively inexperienced about a specific topic or content in particular. Not surprisingly, such
students may also need more guidance than usual about what and how to write notes. It can
be helpful for the teacher to provide a note-taking guide, like the ones shown in below-
attached

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Lecture: 41

(Topics: 228-237)
Topic: 228- Concept maps-1: -

Topic: 229- Concept maps-2: -

Topic: 230- Mastery learnin-1: -

Topic: 231- Mastery learning-2: -

Topic: 232- Madeline Hunter's effective teaching model-1: -

Topic: 233- Madeline Hunter's effective teaching model-2: -

Topic: 234- Madeline Hunter's effective teaching model-3: -

Topic: 235- What are the limits of teacher-directed instruction?: -

Topic: 236- Direct instruction-1: -

Topic: 237- Direct instruction-2: -

Topic 228: Concept Maps-1: -

Concept maps, also known as mind maps or cognitive maps, are graphical tools used to visually
represent and organize knowledge or information around a central concept. They are a type of
diagram that helps individuals to understand, analyze, and structure complex ideas and relationships
between different concepts.

In a concept map, the central concept is placed at the center of the diagram, and related ideas or
sub-concepts are connected to it through lines or arrows. Each concept is represented by a node or
a box, and the relationships between concepts are depicted by connecting lines with descriptive
phrases or linking words. Most Concept maps depict ideas as boxes or circles (also called nodes),
which are structured hierarchically and connected with lines or arrows (also called arcs).

Topic 229: Concept Maps-2: -

Creating a concept map can be a straightforward process when broken down into five easy steps:

Choose the Main Concept: Start by deciding on the central idea or theme you want to focus on.
This concept will be placed at the center of your concept map and will serve as the main topic.

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Identify Key Concepts: Identify and list the key concepts or subtopics related to the main concept.
These are the main branches that will radiate out from the central idea. Write each concept in a
separate box or node.

Connect Concepts with Lines: Draw lines or arrows to connect the main concept to its key sub-
concepts. Each line should have a descriptive label that explains the relationship between the
connected concepts. This helps to clarify how the ideas are related.

Organize the Layout: Arrange the concepts and sub-concepts in a logical and visually pleasing
manner. Keep related concepts closer together and use spacing to create a clear hierarchy. You can
also use colors and symbols to differentiate between different categories or types of concepts.

Fine-Tune and Review: Review your concept map to ensure it effectively represents the
relationships between the concepts. Make any necessary adjustments to improve clarity and
coherence. Check if the map accurately reflects your understanding of the topic and makes logical
sense.

By following these five steps, you can create a well-structured and informative concept map that
visually communicates the connections and relationships between different ideas in a clear and
concise manner.

Topic 230: Mastery Learning-1: -

Mastery learning is an educational approach that focuses on ensuring students attain a high level of
proficiency or mastery in a specific subject or skill before moving on to more advanced topics. The
concept was first introduced by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom in the 1960s and has
since gained popularity in various educational settings. Mastery learning possess two challenges

Ethical Considerations: One ethical challenge related to mastery learning is ensuring equity and
fairness in the educational process. Since students‘ progress at their own pace, there may be
concerns about some students falling behind or being stigmatized if they require additional time and
support to achieve mastery. This could lead to potential feelings of inadequacy or frustration among
students who are struggling.

Additionally, teachers must ensure that all students have equal access to resources and support
necessary to succeed in the mastery learning environment. This could be challenging in schools with
limited resources or in disadvantaged communities where some students may have more barriers to
learning than others.

Implementation Approach: Another challenge lies in the implementation of mastery learning. It

requires a significant shift in traditional teaching methods and the adoption of a personalized,
student-centered approach. Some teachers may find it difficult to adjust to this new way of teaching
and managing the classroom, especially if they are accustomed to a more structured and uniform
approach.

Implementing mastery learning effectively also requires proper training and professional
development for teachers. They need to be equipped with the skills and strategies to differentiate
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instruction, provide timely and effective feedback, and manage the diverse learning needs of their
students.

Additionally, the assessment and grading process in mastery learning can be complex, as students
may need multiple attempts to demonstrate mastery. Teachers must strike a balance between giving
students enough opportunities for growth and ensuring that high standards for mastery are
maintained.

Topic 231: Mastery Learning-2: -

This term refers to an instructional approach in which all students learn material to an identically
high level, even if some students require more time than others to do so. In mastery learning, the
teacher directs learning, though sometimes only in the sense of finding, writing, and orchestrating
specific modules or units for students to learn. In one typical mastery learning program, the teacher
introduces a few new concepts or topics through a brief lecture or teacher-led demon.
In mastery learning, the role of the teacher is indeed crucial, but it differs from the traditional "one-
size-fits-all" approach to teaching. In mastery learning, the teacher takes on the role of a facilitator
and guide, providing personalized support to students as they progress through the curriculum at
their own pace. The teacher plays an active role in designing the curriculum and breaking it down
into specific learning objectives or modules. These learning objectives represent the essential
concepts or skills that students need to master. The teacher carefully plans the sequence of these
objectives, ensuring that they build upon one another logically.Before students embark on their
mastery learning journey, the teacher identifies the prerequisites required for each learning objective.
These prerequisites are the foundational knowledge or skills that students need to possess before
tackling a particular concept or skill. The teacher can then provide additional support or remediation
for students who lack these prerequisites. Once the curriculum is designed, the teacher creates
personalized learning paths for each student based on their current level of understanding and
progress. Students may start at different points in the curriculum, depending on their existing
knowledge and skills. The teacher guides each student on their unique learning journey, providing
appropriate resources, activities, and assessments aligned with their individual needs.
Topic 232: Madeline Hunter’s Effective teaching Model-1: -
Madeline Hunter's Effective Teaching Model is a widely recognized and influential instructional
framework that was developed by Madeline Hunter, an American educator, and author. The model
was first introduced in the 1970s and gained popularity in the field of education due to its systematic
and structured approach to teaching.

The "Seven Step Lesson Plan" of the Madeline Hunter's Effective Teaching Model are listed below.

Anticipatory Set (Focus): The teacher sets the stage for the lesson by activating students' prior
knowledge and capturing their interest. This step aims to create relevance and context for the new
material being taught.

Objective (Learning Outcomes): The teacher clearly states the lesson's learning objectives and
what students are expected to achieve by the end of the lesson. This step provides a clear focus for
the instruction.
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Input: In this step, the teacher delivers the new information or content to the students. It can
involve lectures, discussions, demonstrations, or other instructional methods.

Modeling: The teacher demonstrates the skills or processes that students need to learn. This step
shows students how to approach the learning task effectively.

Checking for Understanding: The teacher assesses whether students have understood the material
presented. This can be done through various formative assessment techniques, such as asking
questions, conducting quizzes, or having students summarize the key points.

Guided Practice: Students engage in structured activities where they apply the newly acquired
knowledge or skills. The teacher provides support and guidance during this practice phase.

Independent Practice: Students work independently to reinforce their learning. This step allows
students to practice what they have learned on their own.

Closure: The teacher reviews the key points of the lesson, emphasizes the main learning objectives,
and provides a conclusion to the lesson.

Topic 233: Madeline Hunter’s Effective teaching Model-2: -

Let's create an example of a "Seven Step Lesson Plan" using Madeline Hunter's Effective Teaching
Model for teaching a simple math concept of addition to elementary school students.

Objective: Students will be able to add two-digit numbers together using the regrouping method.

Standard: Fluently add and subtract within 100 using strategies based on place value, properties of
operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction.

Anticipatory Set (Focus): Show the students a short video or a real-life example of combining two
groups of objects to create a larger group. Ask questions to activate their prior knowledge on
addition, such as "How can we add two groups of things together?" or "What happens when you
add numbers?"

Input: Explain to the students that addition is a way to combine two or more numbers to find the
total. Introduce the concept of regrouping (carrying over) when adding two-digit numbers and show
examples of how it works.

Modeling: Write a two-digit addition problem on the board, such as 37 + 48, and demonstrate the
steps of regrouping. Walk the students through the process of adding the ones place first, and then
the tens place, carrying over when necessary.

Checking for Understanding: Ask the students to solve a few similar problems individually on
their mini-whiteboards or notebooks. Circulate around the class to observe their work and identify
any misconceptions.

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Guided Practice: Divide the students into small groups and give each group a set of two-digit
addition problems to solve. Provide support and guidance as they work through the problems
together. Encourage them to use the regrouping method when necessary.

Closure: Review the key points of the lesson, emphasizing the steps of regrouping in addition.
Summarize the concept and provide an opportunity for students to ask any remaining questions.

Independent Practice: Assign a set of two-digit addition problems as homework. Students should
complete the problems independently, using the regrouping method they learned in class.

Topic 234: Madeline Hunter’s Effective teaching Model-3: -

While using Madeline Hunter's Effective Teaching Model, there are several important considerations
and best practices to keep in mind to enhance its effectiveness. Here are some key points to take
care of:

Prepare Students to Learn: Set the stage for learning by engaging students' prior knowledge and
creating a positive and conducive learning environment. Use an anticipatory set to activate their
interest and establish relevance for the upcoming lesson.

Present Information clearly and explicitly: Deliver the new information or content in a clear and
straightforward manner. Avoid ambiguity and use language appropriate to the students' grade level
and understanding. Incorporate visuals, real-life examples, and practical applications to aid
comprehension.

Check for Understanding and Give Guided Practice: Continuously assess students'
understanding throughout the lesson. Use formative assessment techniques, such as asking
questions, using quizzes, or having students explain the concepts in their own words. Offer guided
practice to help students apply what they have learned under the teacher's guidance and support.

Provide for Independent Practice: After guided practice, allow students to work independently to
reinforce their learning. Assign relevant exercises or tasks that align with the lesson's objectives and
encourage critical thinking and problem-solving.

Independent Study: Encourage students to take responsibility for their learning beyond the
classroom. Assign additional reading materials, research topics, or projects that allow them to
explore the subject matter further independently.

Self-Reflection: Encourage students to reflect on their learning progress and identify areas of
strength and areas that need improvement. Self-reflection can promote meta cognition and help
students become more aware of their learning strategies and progress.

Topic 235: What is the Limits of Teacher-Directed Instruction? : -

Teacher-directed instruction, while it can be an effective teaching approach in many situations, also
has its limitations. Some of the main limits of teacher-directed instruction include:

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 Requires well-organized units of Instruction in Advance
 Organizing material on behalf of the students encourages students to be passive
 Direct instruction approaches sometimes contradict their own premises by requiring students to
do a bit of cognitive organizational work of their own
 In teacher-directed instruction, students are passive recipients of information, and their role is
mainly to listen, absorb, and follow the teacher's directions. This approach may limit students'
opportunities to take ownership of their learning and develop critical thinking skills.
 It often follows a predetermined path and pace, which may not suit the diverse learning needs
and styles of all students. Some students may struggle to keep up, while others might feel bored
or disengaged if the instruction is not challenging enough.

Topic 236: Direct Instruction-1: -

The Direct Instruction (DI) approach is a highly structured and teacher-centered instructional
method designed to deliver clear and explicit information to students. It emphasizes systematic
instruction, teacher-led lessons, and carefully planned curriculum materials. Direct Instruction is
known for its efficiency in conveying knowledge and skills to students in a straightforward and
organized manner.
 Instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by teachers
 The presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such as in a lecture or
demonstration
 Teacher-directed instruction involves explicitly teaching mathematical rules, concepts,
principles, and problem solving strategies.
 This often includes modeling a variety of examples and guiding students during their review and
practice.
Topic 237: Direct Instruction-2: -

The activities a teacher can use in direct instruction to present information to students are discussed
below:

Announcements:

The teacher can verbally communicate important updates, reminders, or schedule changes at the
beginning of the class or through digital platforms like learning management systems, email, or class
websites. Announcements can also be written on the board or projected on the screen for students
to read.

Module/Unit Introductions:

The teacher can start a new module or unit by providing an overview of the content and learning
objectives. This can be done through a brief lecture or a presentation. The teacher may use visual
aids like slides, charts, or images to illustrate key points and create interest in the upcoming topics.

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Descriptions/Modeling of Assignments and Learning Activities:

Before assigning tasks or activities, the teacher can provide clear instructions and expectations to
students. The teacher can model how to approach the assignment, demonstrate problem-solving
techniques, or walk through examples to help students understand the process.

Written or Video Lectures:

The teacher can deliver direct instruction through traditional written lectures, where the content is
presented in a structured written format. Alternatively, video lectures can be created and shared with
students. These recorded videos allow students to revisit the material at their own pace.

Demonstration Videos:

In subjects like science, art, or practical skills, the teacher can use demonstration videos to show
how certain processes or techniques are performed. These videos allow students to see the steps
clearly and understand the correct procedures.

Presentations:

The teacher can use presentations to organize information and present it in a visually engaging
manner. Presentations can include slides with text, images, diagrams, and multimedia elements to
support the content.

Discussions Moderated by Instructors:

The teacher can lead class discussions on specific topics to encourage active participation and critical
thinking among students. The teacher can pose thought-provoking questions, facilitate the exchange
of ideas, and provide guidance to keep the discussion focused and productive.

Interactive Tutorials:

Interactive tutorials or simulations can be used to engage students actively in the learning process.
These tutorials may include interactive quizzes, virtual labs, or problem-solving exercises that
provide immediate feedback to students.

In direct instruction, the teacher takes a central role in presenting information and guiding the
learning process. The activities mentioned above help ensure that students receive clear and explicit
instruction, making the learning experience more effective and structured. However, it's essential to
balance direct instruction with other instructional methods to promote active engagement and
deeper understanding among students

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Lecture: 42

(Topics: 238-247)
Topic: 238- Student-centered models of learning: -

Topic: 239- Inquiry learning-1: -

Topic: 240- Inquiry learning-2: -

Topic: 241- Cooperative learning-1: -

Topic: 242- Cooperative learning-2: -

Topic: 243- Cooperative learning-3: -

Topic: 244- Examples of cooperative and collaborative learning: -

Topic: 245- Jigsaw classroom: -

Topic: 246- Motivating students to learn-1: -

Topic: 247- Motivating students to learn-2: -

Topic: 238- Student-centered models of learning: -

The student-centered model of learning is an approach to education that places the student at the
center of the learning process. In this model, the focus is shifted from the traditional teacher-led
instruction to a more active and engaging learning experience for students. Student-centered learning
gives students the opportunity to decide two things: what material they learn and how they learn it.
In a student-centered model, the teacher acts as a facilitator or guide rather than the sole authority
figure in the classroom. The goal is to empower students to take ownership of their learning,
develop critical thinking skills, and become active participants in the educational process. In contrast
to teacher-centered approaches, SCL engages students as leaders and decision- makers in their own
learning. This concept is also sometimes referred to as personalized learning.
Topic: 239- Inquiry learning-1: -

Inquiry-based learning is a learning process that engages students by making real-world connections
through exploration and high level questioning. It is an approach to learning that encourages
students to engage in problem-solving and experiential learning. Inquiry learning encourages
students to develop their own questions, investigate topics of interest, and construct knowledge
through firsthand experiences and interactions with the learning environment. Rather than passively
receiving information from teachers, students are actively involved in the learning process, making
observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

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Inquiry-based learning has four types: Confirmation, structured, guided and open inquiry. The detail
is given below;
Confirmation Inquiry: It is a type of inquiry-based learning that focuses on verifying or confirming
existing knowledge or hypotheses. In confirmation inquiry, the primary objective is to collect
evidence that supports or validates a particular claim, theory, or explanation. In this approach,
students are typically provided with a hypothesis or statement, and their task is to design and
conduct experiments or investigations to gather data that either supports or refutes the given
hypothesis. The emphasis is on systematically testing and confirming existing knowledge or
understanding.
Structured Inquiry: In structured inquiry, teachers provide a clear framework or procedure for
students to follow while conducting their investigations. The teacher poses a question or problem,
and students design and carry out experiments or investigations to explore and find answers within
the provided structure. This approach allows students to develop their inquiry skills while still
receiving guidance and support from the teacher.
Guided Inquiry: Guided inquiry provides students with a general question or problem but allows
them more independence and autonomy in designing and conducting their investigations. The
teacher acts as a facilitator, offering guidance and support as students develop their research
questions, plan their investigations, and analyze their findings. This approach encourages students to
take ownership of their learning and develop critical thinking skills.
Open Inquiry: Open inquiry offers the highest level of student autonomy. In this approach,
students formulate their own research questions or problems to investigate, design their experiments
or investigations, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions. The teacher's role is primarily that
of a mentor or advisor, providing resources, feedback, and guidance as needed. Open inquiry fosters
creativity, independent thinking, and problem-solving skills.
Topic: 240- Inquiry learning-2: -

Strategies of inquiry learning refer to the specific approaches, techniques, and methods used to
facilitate and promote the process of inquiry-based learning. These strategies are designed to
encourage students to actively engage in exploring and investigating a topic or problem, develop
critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and construct their own understanding of the subject
matter. Some of the strategies are discussed below;
Case studies
The case study strategy of inquiry learning involves the in-depth examination and analysis of a
specific real-world scenario or situation. It is a method that allows students to explore complex
problems or situations, apply critical thinking skills, and develop a deeper understanding of the
subject matter through active investigation. In a case study, students are typically presented with a
detailed description of a real or hypothetical situation that poses a challenge or problem. They are
then tasked with analyzing the case, gathering relevant information, and formulating possible
solutions or explanations based on the available evidence.
Group projects:
The group project strategy of inquiry learning involves collaborative work among students in small
groups to explore a specific topic, problem, or research question. It encourages students to actively
engage in the inquiry process, share ideas, collaborate on tasks, and collectively construct knowledge
through their interactions and contributions. In a group project, students work together to
investigate a chosen topic or address a specific problem. They collaborate to gather information,
analyze data, conduct experiments, or carry out research activities relevant to their inquiry. The

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group members share responsibilities, exchange perspectives, and work towards a common goal of
understanding and addressing the inquiry topic.
Research projects:
The research project strategy of inquiry learning involves students engaging in independent
investigation and exploration of a specific research question or topic. It emphasizes the development
of research skills, critical thinking, and knowledge acquisition through a systematic and self-directed
inquiry process. In a research project, students formulate their own research question, design a
research plan, gather data or information, analyze findings, and draw conclusions based on their
research. This strategy encourages students to actively engage in the process of inquiry-based
learning and develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
Field work
The field work strategy of inquiry learning involves students actively engaging in firsthand
experiences and investigations in real-world settings outside of the traditional classroom. It provides
opportunities for students to directly observe, collect data, and make connections to the concepts or
topics they are studying, enhancing their understanding and application of knowledge. In field work,
students venture into the field, which could be a natural environment, a community setting, a
cultural site, or any relevant location related to their inquiry topic. They engage in data collection,
observations, interviews, surveys, experiments, or other activities to gather information and gain
insights that cannot be easily replicated in the classroom.
Topic: 241- Cooperative learning-1: -

Cooperative learning is a teaching method where students of mixed levels of ability are arranged into
groups and rewarded according to the group‘s success, rather than the success of an individual
member. In a cooperative learning setting, students typically have specific roles or tasks that
contribute to the overall success of the group. They interact, discuss ideas, share knowledge, and
provide feedback to one another. The goal is not only to enhance individual learning but also to
promote social skills, teamwork, and positive interdependence among group members. Cooperative
learning promotes active engagement, critical thinking, and communication skills. It encourages
students to learn from each other, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter. It also
helps develop important interpersonal skills, such as effective communication, active listening, and
conflict resolution. An example of a very popular cooperative learning activity that teachers use is
jigsaw, where each student is required to research one section of the material and then teach it to
other members of the group.
Topic: 242- Cooperative learning-2:-

Five basic elements that are typically required in any cooperative learning lesson are:
Positive Interdependence:
Students must rely on each other to achieve a common goal or complete a task. They understand
that their success is dependent on the success of their group mates. This element encourages
collaboration and fosters a sense of collective responsibility.
Individual Accountability:
Each student is held accountable for their own learning and contribution to the group. Assessments
and evaluations consider individual effort and understanding, ensuring that all students actively
participate and contribute to the group's success.

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Group Interaction and Communication:
Students engage in frequent and meaningful interactions with their groupmates. They discuss ideas,
share information, explain concepts to each other, and provide constructive feedback.
Communication skills, active listening, and effective collaboration are promoted within the group.
Social Skills Development:
Cooperative learning provides opportunities for students to develop social skills such as teamwork,
leadership, empathy, and conflict resolution. They learn to work effectively with others, respect
diverse perspectives, and engage in positive interactions within the group.
Group Processing:
Students reflect on their group's performance, discuss how effectively they worked together, and
identify areas for improvement. Group processing allows students to evaluate their collaborative
skills, develop strategies for better teamwork, and make adjustments for future cooperative learning
experiences.
These elements work together to create a cooperative learning environment that promotes active
engagement, critical thinking, effective communication, and social growth among students.
Topic: 243- Cooperative learning-3:-

Cooperative learning offers numerous merits and benefits for both students and the learning
environment. Some of the key merits of cooperative learning include:

 Cooperative learning increases individual responsibility in employees.

 They know that they have a specific task they should perform for the entire team to succeed.
 Cooperative learning promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Through active
engagement, students actively construct their knowledge by explaining concepts, discussing
ideas, and applying their understanding in real-world scenarios.
 Students develop essential social skills such as communication, teamwork, leadership,
empathy, and conflict resolution. They learn to work effectively with diverse peers,
appreciate different perspectives, and collaborate towards a common goal.
To implement cooperative learning effectively, you can consider the following eight principles:
1. Heterogeneous grouping
Heterogeneous grouping is a key principle of cooperative learning that involves forming groups with
students of diverse abilities, backgrounds, and skill levels. In this approach, students with different
strengths and weaknesses are intentionally placed together in order to maximize learning
opportunities and promote collaboration.
2. Teaching collaborative skills
Teaching collaborative skills is an important principle of cooperative learning. It involves explicitly
teaching students the necessary skills and strategies to effectively work together in a group setting.
By focusing on collaborative skills, students can develop the ability to communicate, collaborate, and
solve problems collectively.

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3. Group Autonomy
Group autonomy is a principle of cooperative learning that involves providing students with a
degree of independence and decision-making authority within their learning groups. It empowers
students to take ownership of their learning, encourages active engagement, and fosters a sense of
responsibility and accountability.
4. Maximum peer interactions
The principle of maximum peer interactions in cooperative learning emphasizes creating ample
opportunities for students to engage in meaningful interactions with their peers. It aims to foster
collaboration, promote active learning, and enhance students' understanding of concepts through
peer discussions and interactions.
5. Equal opportunity to participate
The principle of equal opportunity to participate in cooperative learning emphasizes ensuring that all
students have an equitable chance to contribute, engage, and actively participate in the learning
process. It aims to create an inclusive and supportive environment where every student's voice is
valued.
6. Individual accountability
The principle of individual accountability in cooperative learning emphasizes that each student is
responsible for their learning and contributes actively to the group's success. It ensures that every
student is held accountable for their individual effort, participation, and understanding within the
collaborative learning environment.
7. Positive interdependence
The principle of positive interdependence in cooperative learning emphasizes creating a sense of
shared responsibility and mutual reliance among group members. It encourages students to
understand that their individual success is closely tied to the success of the group as a whole.
8. Cooperation
The cooperation principle is at the core of cooperative learning and emphasizes the importance of
collaboration, teamwork, and shared effort among students. It promotes a cooperative and
supportive learning environment where students work together towards common goals.
Topic: 244- Examples of cooperative and collaborative learning: -

Cooperative learning and collaborative learning are both student-centered approaches that involve
students working together towards common goals. Some of the examples of cooperative and
collaborative teaching strategies are discussed below;
Think-Pair-Share
Think-pair-share cooperative teaching strategy is an instructional technique that promotes active
engagement, collaboration, and discussion among students. It involves the following steps:
Think: The teacher presents a question, problem, or prompt related to the lesson content. Students
are given time to individually think about their response or solution. This step encourages
independent thinking and reflection.

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Pair: Students are then paired up with a partner. They share their thoughts, ideas, or solutions with
each other in a structured discussion. This step promotes peer-to-peer interaction, active listening,
and the exchange of perspectives.
Share: After the pair discussion, the teacher facilitates a whole-class discussion where pairs share
their ideas or solutions with the entire class. Students can present their partner's ideas or contribute
their own thoughts. The teacher guides the sharing process, encourages respectful listening, and
facilitates the exploration of different viewpoints.
Jigsaw
The Jigsaw cooperative teaching strategy is an instructional technique that promotes cooperative
learning and interdependence among students. It involves dividing the class into small groups and
assigning each group member a unique piece of information or expertise related to a larger topic or
concept. Students then become "experts" in their assigned area and collaborate with members from
other groups who have different expertise. Together, they work towards mastering the entire topic
or concept.
Tea Party
The Tea party cooperative teaching strategy is a variation of the traditional cooperative learning
approach. It involves creating a simulated "tea party" scenario where students engage in
collaborative discussions and share their ideas or opinions on a specific topic. The strategy aims to
promote active participation, respectful dialogue, and the exchange of diverse viewpoints.
Round Robin
The Round Robin cooperative teaching strategy is an instructional technique that promotes equal
participation and collaboration among students in a structured and systematic way. It ensures that
each student has an opportunity to contribute their ideas or responses in a rotation.
Write Around

The Write Around cooperative teaching strategy is an instructional technique that encourages
collaborative writing and active engagement among students. It involves the sequential writing and
sharing of ideas within a group.
Topic: 245- Jigsaw classroom: -

Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy that enables each student of a ―home‖ group to specialize in
one aspect of a topic (For example, one group studies habitats of rainforest animals, other group
studies predators of rainforest animals). Jigsaw encourages cooperation and active learning and
promotes valuing all students‘ contributions. Jigsaw can be an efficient cooperative learning strategy.
Although the jigsaw assignment takes time in class, the instructor does not need to spend as much
time lecturing about the topic.
How the Jigsaw Classroom works:
Form Expert Groups: Divide the class into small groups, typically consisting of four to six
students. Assign each group member an expert area or topic related to a larger concept or text.

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Expert Study: Within their expert groups, students study and become knowledgeable about their
assigned topic. They become "experts" in that area, gathering information and understanding the key
concepts.
Jigsaw Groups: The students then leave their expert groups and form new groups called "jigsaw
groups." In the jigsaw groups, each member represents a different expert area. This means that each
jigsaw group will have at least one student who is an expert in each assigned topic.
Teach and Learn: In their jigsaw groups, students take turns teaching their assigned topics to their
group mates. Each student shares their knowledge, explains the concepts, and answers questions.
The other group members actively listen, ask clarifying questions, and take notes.
Reassemble Expert Groups: After the jigsaw group discussion, students return to their original
expert groups. In their expert groups, each student shares the information they learned from the
jigsaw group discussion. This helps ensure that all students in the expert group have a
comprehensive understanding of the entire topic or concept.
Here are examples of each step in the Jigsaw Classroom method:
Form Expert Groups: Let's say the topic of study is the Solar System. The class is divided into
expert groups with the following assignments:
Expert Group 1: The Sun
Expert Group 2: Mercury, Venus, and Earth
Expert Group 3: Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn
Expert Group 4: Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto
Expert Study: Within their expert groups, students conduct research and study their assigned
topics. For example:
Expert Group 1 researches the Sun, gathers information on its composition, characteristics, and role
in the Solar System.
Expert Group 2 focuses on Mercury, Venus, and Earth, studying their unique features, atmospheres,
and relative distances from the Sun.
Expert Group 3 delves into Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, examining their physical characteristics,
moons, and notable phenomena.
Expert Group 4 explores Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, investigating their properties, orbits, and
historical discoveries.
Jigsaw Groups: The class is now reorganized into jigsaw groups, where each group contains one
member from each expert group:
Jigsaw Group 1: Expert 1 from Group 1, Expert 1 from Group 2, Expert 1 from Group 3, and
Expert 1 from Group 4.
Jigsaw Group 2: Expert 2 from Group 1, Expert 2 from Group 2, Expert 2 from Group 3, and
Expert 2 from Group 4.
Jigsaw Group 3: Expert 3 from Group 1, Expert 3 from Group 2, Expert 3 from Group 3, and
Expert 3 from Group 4.
Teach and Learn: In their jigsaw groups, students take turns teaching their expertise to their peers:
In Jigsaw Group 1, Expert 1 from Group 1 teaches about the Sun, Expert 1 from Group 2 teaches
about Mercury, Venus, and Earth, and so on.
Each member of the jigsaw group listens, asks questions, and learns from the expertise shared by
their peers.
The process continues with Expert 2 and Expert 3 in subsequent rounds, where they teach their
respective areas of expertise.

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Reassemble Expert Groups: Finally, the class reconvenes the original expert groups:
Expert Group 1 members (the Sun experts) share what they have learned about the other celestial
bodies with their group members.
Expert Group 2, 3, and 4 members do the same, sharing the knowledge they gained in their jigsaw
groups.
This step allows for a comprehensive review and consolidation of the material within the expert
groups.
These examples illustrate how the Jigsaw Classroom method can be applied in the context of
studying the Solar System. Remember that the specific topics and assignments may vary depending
on the subject being studied and the objectives of the lesson.
Topic: 246- Motivating students to learn-1: -

Motivating students to learn is essential for their academic success and overall development. Here
are several techniques you can employ to motivate students:
Give students a sense of control:
Providing students with a sense of control involves giving them choices and opportunities to make
decisions about their learning. This can include allowing them to select topics for projects, giving
options for assignment formats, or encouraging them to set personal learning goals. By involving
students in decision-making, they feel a sense of ownership and autonomy, which increases their
motivation to learn.
Be clear about learning objectives:
Clearly communicate the learning objectives to students. When students understand what they are
expected to learn and why it is important, they are more likely to engage actively in the learning
process. Clear objectives help students see the purpose and relevance of their efforts, providing
motivation to achieve those goals.
Create a threat-free environment:
A threat-free environment is one where students feel safe to take risks, ask questions, and express
their opinions without fear of judgment or negative consequences. Encouraging open dialogue,
active listening, and respect for diverse perspectives helps students feel comfortable and supported.
When students feel safe, they are more willing to participate and engage in learning activities.
Change your scenery:

Sometimes a change in the learning environment can boost motivation. Consider taking students
outside for a class session, arranging the classroom differently, or organizing field trips related to the
subject matter. Changing the scenery adds novelty and variety, making the learning experience more
engaging and exciting.
Offer varied experiences:
Use a variety of teaching strategies and activities to cater to different learning styles and preferences.
Incorporate group work, hands-on activities, multimedia presentations, discussions, and experiential
learning opportunities. By offering varied experiences, students are more likely to stay engaged and
motivated, as it appeals to their individual strengths and interests.
Use positive competition:
Healthy competition can motivate students to excel. Encourage friendly competitions that focus on
personal improvement and growth rather than solely on winning. For example, you can create
classroom games, challenges, or contests that promote teamwork, problem-solving, and skill

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development. Positive competition fosters a sense of achievement and can spur students to push
themselves further.
Offer rewards:
Rewards can be used to recognize and reinforce students' efforts and achievements. They can be
tangible (such as certificates, small prizes, or classroom privileges) or intangible (like verbal praise or
public recognition). Rewards should be meaningful and aligned with students' interests and values,
encouraging them to strive for excellence and take pride in their accomplishments.
Give students responsibility:
Assign students meaningful responsibilities within the classroom, such as leading a discussion,
organizing a project, or mentoring their peers. Providing opportunities for students to take on
leadership roles and contribute to the learning community fosters a sense of purpose, autonomy,
and accountability. It empowers students and enhances their motivation to learn.
By implementing these techniques, educators can create a positive and empowering learning
environment that fosters students' intrinsic motivation and engagement.
Topic: 247- Motivating students to learn-2: -

Here are some other techniques you can employ to motivate students:
Promote growth mindset over fixed mindset:
Encourage students to adopt a growth mindset, which is the belief that abilities and intelligence can
be developed through effort and practice. Help students understand that challenges and setbacks are
opportunities for learning and growth, rather than indicators of failure. Emphasize the importance
of perseverance, resilience, and a positive attitude towards learning. By promoting a growth mindset,
students are more likely to embrace challenges, take risks, and persist in the face of obstacles.
Develop meaningful and respectful relationships with your students:
Building positive relationships with students is crucial for motivating them. Take the time to get to
know your students individually, showing genuine care, empathy, and respect for their backgrounds,
interests, and experiences. Establishing a supportive and trusting relationship creates a sense of
belonging and fosters intrinsic motivation. When students feel valued and understood, they are more
likely to be engaged and motivated to learn.
Grow a community of learners in your classroom:
Foster a collaborative and inclusive classroom environment where students feel like active
participants in a community of learners. Encourage teamwork, peer support, and open
communication among students. Create opportunities for students to collaborate, share ideas, and
learn from one another. When students feel connected to their peers and understand that learning is
a collective endeavor, it enhances motivation and engagement.
Establish high expectations and set clear goals:
Set high expectations for students' academic performance and behavior. Clearly communicate your
expectations and academic standards, ensuring that students understand what is required of them.
Along with high expectations, establish clear, specific, and achievable goals. Break down larger goals
into smaller, manageable steps, providing students with a roadmap to success. Clear goals and high
expectations motivate students to strive for excellence and give them a sense of direction.

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Be inspirational:
As an educator, inspire your students through your passion, enthusiasm, and love for the subject
matter. Share personal stories, real-world examples, and success stories that demonstrate the
relevance and importance of what they are learning. Use motivational quotes, videos, and anecdotes
to spark their curiosity and ignite their desire to learn. Your enthusiasm and belief in their potential
can have a profound impact on students' motivation and drive.
By incorporating these techniques into your teaching practice, you can create a positive and
motivating learning environment where students feel supported, engaged, and inspired to reach their
full potential.

Lecture: 43

(Topics: 248-256)
Topic: 248- Communication for the classroom teacher-1: -

Topic: 249- Communication for the classroom teacher-2: -

Topic: 250- Creativity in the classroom: -

Topic: 251- Strategies for creativity in the class room-1: -

Topic: 252- Strategies for creativity in the class room-2: -

Topic: 253- Student diversity; Individual styles of learning-1: -

Topic: 254- Student diversity; Individual styles of learning-2: -

Topic: 255- Multiple intelligence-1: -

Topic: 256- Multiple intelligence-2: -

Topic: 248- Communication for the classroom teacher-1: -

Teacher communication in the classroom is incredibly important and plays a significant role in
various aspects of the educational process. Effective communication helps teachers deliver clear
instructions, explanations, and presentations to students. It ensures that students understand the
learning objectives, tasks, and expectations, which promotes comprehension and engagement.
Communication for the classroom teacher plays a crucial role in creating an effective and engaging
learning environment. Here are some strategies to consider:
Create a safe environment:
Foster a supportive and inclusive atmosphere where students feel comfortable expressing their
thoughts and ideas without fear of judgment. Encourage open dialogue, respect for different
perspectives, and emphasize the value of diverse opinions.
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Encourage teamwork:
Promote collaboration and teamwork among students by incorporating group activities, projects,
and discussions. Assign group tasks that require active participation, cooperation, and problem-
solving. Encourage students to listen to and learn from one another.

Don't stand at the front of the classroom:

Instead of constantly remaining at the front of the classroom, move around and interact with
students. This helps create a sense of connection and accessibility. By circulating throughout the
classroom, you can engage with students, address their questions, and provide individual attention
when needed.
Use active listening exercises:

Incorporate activities that enhance active listening skills. For example, you can have students
participate in partner or small group discussions where they must summarize each other's ideas.
Another exercise is to have students take turns sharing their thoughts while others practice listening
attentively and paraphrasing what they hear.
Provide positive feedback:
Regularly acknowledge and appreciate students' efforts and achievements. Offer specific and
constructive feedback that highlights their strengths and areas for improvement. Recognize students'
contributions, ideas, and unique perspectives in class discussions. Positive reinforcement can
motivate students, boost their confidence, and foster a positive classroom atmosphere.
Remember, effective communication in the classroom involves active engagement, respect, and
creating an environment where students feel valued and supported in their learning journey.
Topic: 249- Communication for the classroom teacher-2: -

Communication fosters active participation and engagement from students. When teachers
effectively communicate with their students, they create a sense of connection and relevance to the
subject matter. This can enhance students' motivation, interest, and willingness to participate in class
activities and discussions. Communication between teachers and students helps build positive
relationships based on trust, respect, and empathy. When teachers actively listen, provide feedback,
and engage in meaningful conversations with students, they create a supportive and safe space for
learning. This can enhance students' overall well-being, self-confidence, and willingness to seek help
or guidance when needed. Here are some examples of teachers communication style;
Verbal communication: Teachers use spoken language to convey information, provide instructions,
ask questions, facilitate discussions, and deliver lectures. This includes classroom discussions, giving
explanations, asking and answering questions, and providing feedback to students.
Example: The teacher engages students in a class discussion about a historical event, encouraging
them to share their thoughts and perspectives.
Written communication: Teachers communicate with students through written materials, such as
handouts, assignments, quizzes, and exams. They may also provide written feedback on student
work to offer guidance and highlight areas of improvement.
Example: The teacher distributes a worksheet to students, explaining the instructions and
expectations in writing, and collects the completed worksheets for review and grading.
Non-verbal communication: Teachers use body language, facial expressions, and gestures to enhance
their message or convey emotions. Non-verbal cues can help reinforce verbal communication and
establish rapport with students.

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Example: The teacher smiles and nods encouragingly while a student presents a project, indicating
support and acknowledgement.
Whiteboard or blackboard usage: Teachers often write on whiteboards or blackboards to illustrate
concepts, demonstrate problem-solving steps, or highlight important information during a lesson.
This visual aid supports student understanding and retention.
Example: The teacher writes mathematical equations on the whiteboard, explaining each step aloud
to help students grasp the problem-solving process.
Personal interactions: Teachers engage in one-on-one or small group discussions with students to
provide individualized attention, guidance, and support.
Example: The teacher meets with a student during office hours to address questions, provide
additional explanations, and offer personalized feedback on their assignments.
Topic: 250- Creativity in the classroom: -

Creating activities that foster creativity in the classroom can be a great way to encourage students'
imagination, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Here are some activity ideas to promote
creativity in the classroom:
Creativity always starts with imagination:
This emphasizes the importance of nurturing students' imagination. Encourage them to envision
new possibilities, think outside the box, and explore different perspectives. Provide opportunities for
imaginative thinking through storytelling, role-playing, or creative writing exercises.
Set up learning activities that allow students to explore their creativity in relevant,
interesting, and worthwhile ways:
Design activities that connect with students' interests and real-world contexts. When learning is
meaningful and engaging, students are more likely to tap into their creativity. For example, if
studying a historical event, ask students to create a skit, write a poem, or design a visual
representation to express their understanding.
Value creativity and celebrate and reward it:
Recognize and appreciate creative efforts in the classroom. Showcase students' creative work, share
it with the school community, or organize events where students can present their creations.
Acknowledge and celebrate their unique approaches and ideas. Providing positive reinforcement can
motivate students to continue exploring their creativity.
Remove constraints for creativity and give students space and a framework in which they
can be creative:
Provide an environment that minimizes limitations and restrictions on students' creativity. Offer
them the freedom to explore ideas, take risks, and experiment without the fear of failure. However,
it's essential to provide a framework or guidelines that provide structure and focus, ensuring that
students' creativity remains purposeful and aligned with learning objectives.
By implementing these strategies, educators can cultivate a classroom culture that nurtures and
promotes creativity. When students are encouraged to imagine, given opportunities to explore their
creativity in meaningful ways, and supported in their creative endeavors, they are more likely to
develop and express their creative potential.
Topic: 251- Strategies for creativity in the class room-1: -

Set time aside for Journaling:

Journaling provides students with a space to freely express their thoughts, ideas, and emotions. It
promotes self-reflection, introspection, and creative thinking. By allocating specific time for

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journaling activities, students can explore their creativity through writing, drawing, or even using
multimedia tools.
Participate in five minutes of mindfulness each day:
Mindfulness exercises help students focus their attention and increase awareness of the present
moment. Taking a few minutes for mindfulness at the beginning or end of each class can create a
calm and focused atmosphere, allowing students to tap into their creativity more effectively.
Build brainstorming sessions:
Brainstorming is a powerful tool to generate ideas and encourage creative thinking. Allocate time for
structured brainstorming sessions where students can freely share their ideas, build upon each
other's suggestions, and explore different perspectives. This process stimulates creativity and
encourages collaboration.
Use gamification to encourage participation:
Gamification involves incorporating game elements into the learning process to increase
engagement and motivation. Design activities, quizzes, or challenges that require creative problem-
solving. Introduce rewards, leaderboards, or badges to recognize and incentivize students' creative
contributions.
Encourage risk-taking activities:
Creativity often thrives when students are willing to take risks and explore unconventional ideas.
Create a supportive environment where students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks.
Encourage them to think beyond the obvious solutions and embrace mistakes as learning
opportunities.
Leave the classroom more often:
Taking students outside the traditional classroom setting can stimulate creativity by providing new
environments and experiences. Conduct field trips, outdoor experiments, or nature walks that
encourage students to observe, explore, and connect with the world around them. These experiences
can inspire new ideas and perspectives.
Allow students to teach:
Giving students opportunities to teach their peers promotes creativity by requiring them to think
deeply about the subject matter and find creative ways to communicate and engage their classmates.
It encourages students to take ownership of their learning and develop their presentation and
communication skills.
By implementing these strategies, educators can create an environment that fosters creativity and
supports students in exploring their unique talents and ideas. Each strategy provides students with
different opportunities to engage their creativity and develop their creative thinking skills.
Topic: 252- Strategies for creativity in the class room-2: -

Diverse activities in the classroom can foster creativity by providing students with varied
opportunities to explore their imagination, engage in different modes of expression, and approach
problems from multiple angles. Offering diverse activities allows students to express their creativity
through various mediums. For example, some students may excel in visual arts, while others may
prefer writing or performing. By incorporating activities like drawing, painting, writing, drama,
music, or even coding, students can choose the mode of expression that resonates with them and
allows their creativity to flourish. Providing diverse problem-solving activities challenges students to
think critically and creatively. Some problems may require logical reasoning and analytical skills,
while others may demand innovative thinking and out-of-the-box solutions. By presenting a range of
problem-solving tasks, students can explore various strategies and develop flexible thinking skills.

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Topic: 253- Student diversity; Individual styles of learning-1: -

Student diversity in styles of learning refers to the fact that students have different preferences and
ways of processing information when it comes to learning new concepts and skills. While some
students may learn best through visual aids and demonstrations, others may prefer hands-on
activities or listening to lectures. Recognizing and accommodating these diverse learning styles is
important for educators to ensure that all students have the opportunity to learn effectively.
There are several commonly recognized styles of learning, including:
Visual learners: Visual learners prefer to see information presented visually, such as through
diagrams, charts, or images. They benefit from using visual aids to understand and remember
concepts.
Auditory learners: Auditory learners learn best through listening and speaking. They prefer lectures,
discussions, and audio materials to absorb information effectively. They may benefit from reading
aloud or using mnemonic devices to remember information.
Kinesthetic learners: Kinesthetic learners, also known as tactile learners, learn best through hands-
on experiences and physical activities. They thrive when they can engage in activities that involve
movement, touch, and manipulation of objects.
Reading/Writing learners: Reading/writing learners have a preference for reading and writing to
acquire and process information. They excel in activities such as reading textbooks, taking notes, and
writing summaries or essays.
Social learners: Social learners thrive in group settings and learn best through interactions with
others. They enjoy collaborative activities, discussions, and group projects where they can share
ideas and learn from their peers.
It's important to note that these styles of learning are not mutually exclusive, and students may have
a combination of preferences. In addition to these styles, other factors like culture, background, and
individual experiences can also influence students' learning preferences.

Topic: 254- Student diversity; Individual styles of learning-2: -

Multiple intelligence refers to a theory describing the different ways students learn and acquire
information. These multiple intelligences ranges from the use of words, numbers, pictures and
music, to the importance of social interactions, introspection, physical movement and being in tune
with nature. Multiple intelligences provide ample opportunities for group work in the classroom.
Group work allows students to collaborate, learn from each other, and apply their unique
intelligences to solve problems or complete tasks.
Topic: 255- Multiple intelligence-1: -
The concept of multiple intelligences was introduced by psychologist Howard Gardner. In 1983,
Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in his book titled "Frames of Mind: The
Theory of Multiple Intelligences." Gardner's theory challenged the traditional view of intelligence as
a single, unitary ability measured by IQ tests. Instead, he argued that intelligence is a multifaceted
construct and proposed the existence of multiple types of intelligences, each independent of the
others.
Howard Gardner initially proposed seven intelligences in his theory of multiple intelligences and
later added an eighth. Here are the intelligences as identified by Gardner:
Logical-mathematical intelligence: It relates to logical reasoning, problem-solving, and
mathematical abilities.
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Linguistic intelligence: This intelligence involves proficiency in language, including reading,
writing, speaking, and listening.
Interpersonal intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence refers to the ability to understand and
interact effectively with others. It involves skills such as empathy, communication, and social
interaction.
Intrapersonal intelligence: Intrapersonal intelligence relates to self-awareness, introspection, and
understanding one's own thoughts, feelings, and motivations.
Musical intelligence: Musical intelligence refers to the ability to appreciate, create, and understand
music. It includes skills such as rhythm, pitch, melody, and composition.
Spatial intelligence: This intelligence involves visual perception, spatial awareness, and the ability
to mentally manipulate and understand spatial relationships.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: This intelligence involves physical coordination, control, and
dexterity. It encompasses skills related to body movements, hand-eye coordination, and physical
expression.
Naturalistic intelligence: Naturalistic intelligence involves sensitivity and understanding of the
natural world, including plants, animals, and ecosystems.
It's important to note that Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that these intelligences
can be present in different combinations and strengths within individuals. Each person may have a
unique profile of intelligences, and they can vary in their relative strengths and preferences.
Topic: 256- Multiple intelligence-2: -

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intelligence is not a single, fixed
entity, but rather a collection of distinct cognitive abilities or intelligences. In his book "Frames of
Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences," Gardner proposed that there are multiple ways in
which individuals can be intelligent.
Gardner initially identified seven intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical,
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. He later added naturalistic intelligence as an
eighth category. According to Gardner, each of intelligence represents a different way of processing
information and solving problems, and individuals may possess varying strengths and combinations
of these intelligences.
Gardner argued that traditional measures of intelligence, such as IQ tests, predominantly focus on
linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities, neglecting other important aspects of human cognition.
He emphasized the importance of recognizing and valuing the diversity of intelligences present in
individuals.
Gardner's theory suggests that these intelligences are relatively independent of each other, meaning
that a person can excel in the one intelligence while not necessarily excelling in others. For example,
someone may have strong linguistic intelligence, being adept with words and language, but may not
possess the same level of proficiency in, say, musical or spatial intelligence.
The theory of multiple intelligences has significant implications for education. Gardner argued that
by acknowledging and accommodating the diverse intelligences, educators can design instruction
and assessment methods that cater to different learning styles and help students develop their unique

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strengths. It promotes a more inclusive and personalized approach to education, recognizing that
individuals have varied talents and aptitudes.
However, it's important to note that Gardner's theory has been subject to ongoing discussion and
critique within the field of psychology. Some argue that the concept of multiple intelligences lacks
empirical evidence and that the identified intelligences may not be entirely distinct from one another.
Nonetheless, the theory has influenced educational practices by emphasizing the importance of
recognizing and valuing diverse forms of intelligence in individuals.

Lecture: 44

(Topics: 257-263)
Topic: 257- Gender differences-1: -

Topic: 258- Gender differences-2: -

Topic: 259- Gender differences-3: -

Topic: 260- Gender differences-4: -

Topic: 261- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-1: -

Topic: 262- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-2: -

Topic: 263- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-3: -

Topic: 257- Gender differences-1: -

Gender differences refer to the variations or distinctions between males and females in terms of
their biological characteristics, psychological traits, behaviors, and societal roles. These differences
can be influenced by a combination of biological, social, and cultural factors. Females use more
affiliate language whereas males use more assertive language in conversations with both parents and
peers. Research suggests that males and females may exhibit variations in certain psychological traits
and cognitive abilities. For example, some studies indicate that females tend to score higher on tests
measuring verbal abilities and have better verbal memory, while males may perform better on spatial
tasks.
Topic: 258- Gender differences-2: -
Some researches indicate following differences in males and females.
Women working longer than men: This statement is not universally true and can vary depending
on the context. While women may spend more time on unpaid domestic work and caregiving
responsibilities, men may spend more time in paid employment. However, gender roles and
expectations can influence the division of labor within households and impact the amount of time
women and men spend in work-related activities.
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Inequality in employment and earnings: Gender inequality in employment and earnings refers to
the disparity between men and women in terms of job opportunities, career advancement, and
remuneration. Women, on average, tend to face challenges such as occupational segregation, limited
access to higher-level positions, wage gaps, and discrimination in the workplace. These factors
contribute to unequal opportunities and lower earnings for women compared to men.
Ownership inequality: Ownership inequality refers to the disparity in property and asset
ownership between genders. Historically, women have faced obstacles in terms of property rights,
land ownership, and access to financial resources. This inequality can limit women's economic
independence and their ability to accumulate wealth and assets.
Survival inequality: Survival inequality can refer to various aspects such as differences in life
expectancy and access to healthcare. In some contexts, women may face challenges related to
healthcare access, maternal mortality rates, and gender-based violence, which can contribute to
survival inequalities between genders.
Gender bias in the distribution of education and health: Gender bias in the distribution of
education and health refers to unequal access and opportunities for education and healthcare based
on gender. This can manifest in various ways, including disparities in school enrollment, literacy
rates, access to quality healthcare, and reproductive health services. These biases can limit women's
and girls' access to education and healthcare, affecting their overall well-being and opportunities for
personal and professional development.
Gender inequality in freedom of expression: Gender inequality in freedom of expression relates
to disparities in the ability of individuals, particularly women, to freely express themselves and
participate in public discourse. Cultural norms, social expectations, and gender-based discrimination
can restrict women's freedom of expression, leading to limitations on their voice, representation, and
participation in decision-making processes.

Topic: 259- Gender differences-3: -

Gender inequity has serious and long lasting consequences for women and other marginalized
gender. Exposure to violence, objectification, discrimination, and socioeconomic inequality can lead
to anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem. Gender inequity often translates into economic
disadvantages for women. Women may face wage gaps, limited access to higher-paying jobs and
leadership positions, occupational segregation, and discrimination in the workplace. These factors
contribute to lower earnings, financial insecurity, and a higher likelihood of poverty among women.
In societies where gender inequity persists, women may face barriers in accessing quality education.
Discrimination, cultural norms, early marriage, and gender-based violence can hinder girls'
education, leading to limited educational opportunities and lower literacy rates for women. This can
further perpetuate social and economic disadvantages for women.
Topic: 260- Gender differences-4: -
According to biological theories, gender differences in psychology and behavior are caused by
congenital factors, such as sex hormones, chromosomes, genes and heredity. Masculine people tend
to communicate affection by including their friends in activities and exchanging favors. Masculine
people tend to communicate with each other shoulder-to-shoulder (e.g., watching sports on
television). Masculine individuals may prefer or feel more comfortable engaging in activities that
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involve shared interests or experiences. In contrast, feminine people are more likely to communicate
weakness and vulnerability.
Topic: 261- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-1: -
Academic and cognitive differences in gender refer to observed variations in academic performance
and cognitive abilities between individuals of different genders. These differences are often
discussed in the context of educational settings and research studies.
Academic differences may refer to variations in academic achievement, interests, and choices of
subjects or fields of study. Studies have shown that, on average, there are differences in academic
performance between genders in certain subjects or domains. For example, in some regions, males
tend to have higher representation and perform better in STEM (science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics) fields, while females may excel in language and social sciences. It is important to
note that these are broad generalizations and do not apply to every individual.
Cognitive differences, on the other hand, pertain to variations in cognitive abilities and skills
between genders. Research has explored differences in areas such as spatial reasoning, verbal skills,
mathematical abilities, and problem-solving approaches. However, it is crucial to emphasize that
while some studies have identified average differences at the group level, there is significant overlap
between individuals of different genders, and individual differences within each gender group are
often larger than the average differences between them.
Generally, females show advantages in verbal fluency, perceptual speed, accuracy and fine motor
skills, while males outperform females in spatial, working memory and mathematical abilities.
Topic: 262- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-2: -
Males have slightly higher verbal and reasoning abilities than females and a more pronounced
superiority on spatial abilities. If the three abilities are combined to form general intelligence, the
mean for males is 4 IQ points higher than the mean for females. However, it's important to note
that these differences, even if statistically significant, do not imply that all males are superior to all
females in these abilities, nor do they determine the intelligence or capabilities of any given
individual.
Research on cognitive abilities and gender differences is a complex and ongoing field, and findings
can vary across studies and populations. It is also important to consider that the observed average
differences do not imply causation or determine the factors that contribute to these variations.
Additionally, individual variation within each gender group is generally larger than the average
differences between them. Many factors, including cultural influences, societal expectations,
educational opportunities, and individual experiences, contribute to an individual's cognitive
development and performance. It is essential to approach these findings with caution and avoid
making broad generalizations or assumptions about individuals based solely on their gender.
Recognizing and respecting the diversity and uniqueness of each person is crucial when discussing
cognitive abilities and intelligence.

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Topic: 263- Academic and cognitive differences in gender-3: -
There is a positive relationship between an individual's cognition (cognitive abilities, skills, or
processes) and their academic performance. In other words, individuals who have stronger cognitive
abilities tend to perform better academically. Research has consistently shown that cognitive abilities
play a significant role in academic achievement. Various aspects of cognition, such as working
memory, attention, information processing speed, executive functions, and problem-solving skills,
are involved in learning, understanding, and applying knowledge in an academic setting.
For example, strong verbal reasoning skills can aid in understanding and analyzing written texts,
while spatial abilities may contribute to success in subjects such as geometry or engineering.
Additionally, cognitive skills like critical thinking, logical reasoning, and memory can enhance overall
academic performance across different disciplines.
Lecture: 45
(Topics: 264-269)
Topic: 264- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-1: -
Topic: 265- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-2: -
Topic: 266- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-3: -
Topic: 267- Differences in cultural expectations and styles: -
Topic: 268- Bilingualism: language differences in the classroom-1: -
Topic: 269-Bilingualism: language differences in the classroom-2: -

Topic: 264- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-1: -

Gilligan's theory of moral development, proposed by psychologist Carol Gilligan, offers an
alternative perspective to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Gilligan's theory
focuses on the moral development of girls and women and suggests that there are gender differences
in how individuals approach ethical decision-making and moral reasoning.
Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's theory, which primarily focused on the moral development of boys
and men, was biased and did not adequately account for the experiences and perspectives of
females. According to Gilligan, women tend to emphasize care and relationships in their moral
decision-making, whereas men tend to prioritize justice and individual rights.
Gilligan's theory highlights the importance of empathy, compassion, and relational ethics in moral
decision-making. It emphasizes that care and concern for others should be recognized as significant
moral values, alongside principles of justice and rights.
Critics of Gilligan's theory argue that it reinforces gender stereotypes and fails to account for the
diversity of moral orientations within both genders. They also suggest that care-based ethics are not
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exclusive to females and that individuals of any gender can value care and relationships in their
moral decision-making.
Overall, Gilligan's theory of moral development challenges traditional perspectives and provides
insights into the moral development of girls and women, emphasizing the importance of care and
relationships in ethical decision-making. However, it is important to consider a range of perspectives
and individual differences in moral development.
Topic: 265- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-2: -
Gilligan‘s work on moral development outlines how a woman‘s morality is influenced by
relationships and how women form their moral and ethical foundation based on how their decisions
will affect others. Gilligan's research challenged the dominant theories of moral development at the
time, which primarily focused on the moral reasoning of males and did not adequately account for
the experiences and perspectives of females.
Gilligan argued that women's moral development is shaped by a different set of considerations
compared to men. She highlighted the importance of relationships and care for others in women's
moral decision-making processes. According to Gilligan, women tend to prioritize the impact of
their decisions on others and consider the well-being and needs of those involved.
This emphasis on relationships and interconnectedness influences how women form their moral and
ethical foundations. Rather than primarily focusing on principles of justice and individual rights, as
proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, Gilligan proposed that women's
moral orientation emphasizes care, empathy, and maintaining relationships.
In Gilligan's view, women's moral reasoning is grounded in an ethic of care, which takes into
account the interconnectedness of individuals and the importance of nurturing and maintaining
relationships. Women's moral decisions are often guided by a concern for the well-being of others,
avoiding harm, and promoting care and support.
Gilligan's work highlighted the significance of relational ethics and challenged the notion that
justice-oriented perspectives alone capture the complexity of moral development. She argued that
recognizing and valuing the ethics of care can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of
moral reasoning and promote a more inclusive and compassionate approach to ethics.
It is important to note that Gilligan's theory does not suggest that men are incapable of caring or
women are incapable of justice-oriented reasoning. Rather, she aimed to shed light on the unique
considerations and perspectives that can influence women's moral development and decision-
making processes.
Topic: 266- Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development-3: -
Gilligan proposed three stages of moral development in her theory:
Pre-conventional Stage: Similar to Kohlberg's theory, this stage reflects a self-centered approach
to morality. However, Gilligan emphasized that girls, in particular, often prioritize their own needs
and self-preservation over others due to societal expectations and gender socialization.
Conventional Stage: In this stage, individuals start to recognize the importance of social
relationships and care for others. Moral decisions are influenced by an understanding of
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responsibility and the impact of actions on others. Gilligan suggested that women tend to focus on
maintaining relationships and avoiding harm.
Post-conventional Stage: This stage reflects a higher level of moral reasoning that goes beyond
personal relationships and care. Individuals in this stage consider broader social and ethical
principles and strive for a balance between caring for others and addressing justice concerns.
Gilligan argued that both men and women can reach this stage of moral development.
Topic: 267- Differences in cultural expectations and styles: -
A culture is the system of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors that constitute the distinctive way of life.
For example, Western cultures tend to prioritize individualism, emphasizing personal independence,
self-expression, and individual rights. Asian cultures, on the other hand, often prioritize collectivism,
focusing on group harmony, family values, and societal obligations. Asian cultures generally place a
strong emphasis on hierarchy and respect for authority figures, such as parents, teachers, and elders.
Western cultures often have a more egalitarian outlook, promoting equality and challenging
authority when necessary.
Human expectations can vary significantly across different cultures due to the influence of various
factors, including history, religion, values, social norms, and geographical context. Each culture has
its own set of norms that define what is considered acceptable or appropriate behavior in various
situations. These norms shape people's expectations of how individuals should act, interact,
communicate, and fulfill their roles within society. Cultures often have distinct expectations
regarding gender roles, family structures, and social hierarchies. These expectations determine the
roles and responsibilities individuals are expected to fulfill and can influence their behavior and
aspirations.
Eye contact varies by culture
Eye contact refers to the act of looking directly into someone's eyes during communication. The
significance and interpretation of eye contact can vary widely across cultures. Here are a few
examples:
In many Western cultures, direct eye contact is generally considered a sign of attentiveness, sincerity,
and confidence. It is often encouraged during conversations as a way to establish trust and
engagement.
In some Asian cultures, prolonged or direct eye contact may be seen as a sign of disrespect,
aggression, or immodesty. Maintaining lower levels of eye contact or looking down can be perceived
as a sign of respect, politeness, and humility.
Social distance varies by culture
Social distance refers to the physical proximity or distance individuals maintain while interacting
with others. The acceptable social distance can differ among cultures due to various factors, such as
cultural norms, personal space preferences, and comfort levels. Here are a few examples:
In many Western cultures, individuals tend to prefer a larger personal space bubble during
interactions. This means they feel more comfortable with more physical distance between
themselves and others, especially with individuals they are not familiar with.
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In some Asian cultures, the concept of personal space is different. Individuals may be more
accustomed to closer physical proximity during conversations and may feel comfortable with a
smaller personal space bubble.
Topic: 268- Bilingualism: language differences in the classroom-1: -
Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use and understand two languages proficiently.
Bilingual individuals have the skills to communicate effectively in both languages, often switching
between them depending on the context, the people they are interacting with, or their personal
preferences. At one extreme are students who speak both English and another language fluently; at
the other extreme are those who speak only limited versions of both languages. In between are
students who speak their home (or heritage) language much better than English, as well as others
who have partially lost their heritage language in the process of learning English. Language
differences in the classroom can have an impact on bilingual students and their educational
experiences. Bilingual students who are still developing proficiency in the language of instruction
may face challenges in understanding and expressing themselves effectively. Limited language skills
can impede their comprehension of academic content, participation in classroom discussions, and
overall academic progress. Bilingual students may face difficulties in reading and writing in the
language of instruction. They might struggle with decoding words, understanding sentence
structures, or organizing their thoughts coherently in writing. These challenges can affect their ability
to comprehend texts, complete assignments, and demonstrate their knowledge effectively.
Topic: 269-Bilingualism: language differences in the classroom-2: -
Bilingual, meaning that they understand and use two languages difficulty focusing the student who
speaks both languages fluently has a definite cognitive advantage. Bilingual individuals have been
shown to demonstrate better attention control and selective focus. They are accustomed to filtering
out irrelevant language information and paying attention to relevant linguistic cues. This ability to
manage competing language systems can extend to other cognitive tasks, leading to enhanced
attention skills. Bilingualism promotes metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to think about
and analyze language as a system. Bilingual individuals have a deeper understanding of language
structure, grammar, and vocabulary due to their exposure to multiple linguistic systems. This
heightened metalinguistic awareness can transfer to improved literacy skills and language processing
abilities.
English is considered the lingua franca of the world, spoken by millions of people across different
countries and cultures. Proficiency in English allows students to communicate and connect with
people from diverse backgrounds, opening up opportunities for international collaboration, travel,
and employment. English is widely used as a medium of instruction in higher education institutions,
particularly in fields like science, technology, business, and humanities. Proficiency in English
enables students to access a broader range of educational resources, participate in academic
discussions, and pursue higher education opportunities abroad.

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