UNIT 4

UNIT 4

Basics of Data Link Layer

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24-2-2024
 Framing
• Framing refers to the process of adding specific headers and trailers to a block of
data as it moves from one layer of the network protocol stack to another, ensuring
that the data can be transmitted over the network medium and correctly
interpreted by the receiving device.
• Here's a breakdown of how framing works:
• Data Segmentation: Before data can be transmitted over a network, it is broken
down into smaller, more manageable units called frames. This segmentation is
necessary because network protocols typically have a maximum payload size they
can transmit at once.
• Adding Headers and Trailers: Once the data is segmented into frames, each frame is
encapsulated with additional information. This includes a header at the beginning of
the frame and a trailer at the end. The header contains essential information such as

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 Framing
source and destination addresses, frame type, sequence numbers, and other
control information needed for routing and error detection. The trailer often
includes error detection codes such as a checksum or cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) to ensure data integrity during transmission.
• Transmission: Once the frames are fully formed, they are transmitted over the
network medium. The framing ensures that the data can be accurately transmitted
over different types of physical media, such as copper wires, fiber optic cables, or
wireless connections.
• Reception and De-Framing: When the frames reach their destination, they are
received by the network interface of the receiving device. The receiving device then
removes the headers and trailers from each frame, a process known as de-framing
or stripping. The data is then passed up the protocol stack for further processing.

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 Framing
• Error Detection: Throughout the transmission process, error detection mechanisms
in the framing, such as checksums or CRCs, are used to detect any corruption or
errors in the transmitted data. If errors are detected, appropriate actions such as
requesting retransmission may be taken to ensure data integrity.
Difference between Packets and Frames
Packets:
• Packets are units of data at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model or the Internet
layer of the TCP/IP model.
• They contain network layer addressing information (such as IP addresses) used for
routing.
• Packets are generated when data from higher layers (such as the transport layer) is
segmented and encapsulated with network layer headers and trailers.
• Packets are typically routed independently through various network devices (such as
routers) based on the destination address
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University within the packet header.
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 Framing
Frames:
• Frames are units of data at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model or the link layer
of the TCP/IP model.
• They contain data link layer addressing information (such as MAC addresses) used for
local network communication.
• Frames are generated when packets are further segmented into smaller units and
encapsulated with data link layer headers and trailers.
• Frames are typically used for communication within a single network segment (such as a
LAN) and are delivered based on MAC addresses.

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 Error detection and error correction
• Error detection and error correction are crucial mechanisms in the data link layer of the
OSI model to ensure the integrity of data transmission over a communication channel.
Let's break down each concept:
Error Detection:
• Purpose: The primary goal of error detection is to determine whether the received data
contains any errors introduced during transmission.
• Techniques: Various techniques are used for error detection, such as:
 Checksums:
 Adding a checksum to the data, which is a small piece of data derived from the
original data, to detect errors. The receiver recalculates the checksum and
compares it to the received checksum. If they don't match, an error is
detected.
 Common checksum algorithms involve adding up the values of all bytes in the
data packet. The sum is then complemented (i.e., all bits are flipped) and
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 Error detection and error correction
truncated to a fixed size. The result becomes the checksum.
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
 Similar to a checksum but more sophisticated. It involves polynomial division
to generate a checksum, which is appended to the data. Like a checksum, the
receiver recalculates the CRC and checks for any discrepancy.
 The sender treats the data bits as coefficients of a polynomial, divides it by a
predetermined generator polynomial using polynomial division, and appends
the remainder (CRC) to the data. The receiver performs the same division and
checks if the remainder is zero.

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 Error detection and error correction
 Parity Checking:
 Adding an additional bit to each byte (or group of bytes) to ensure that the
total number of bits set to 1 is always odd (odd parity) or even (even parity). If
the parity of the received data doesn't match the expected parity, an error is
detected.
 The parity bit is calculated based on the number of bits set to 1 in the data. If
the total number of bits is odd, odd parity makes the parity bit 1, and if it's
even, even parity sets the parity bit to 0.
Error Correction:
• Purpose: While error detection identifies the presence of errors, error correction goes a
step further by attempting to fix those errors without requiring retransmission of the
entire data.
• Techniques: Error correction usually involves more sophisticated algorithms compared
to error detection:
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 Error detection and error correction
• Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ):
 This technique involves the receiver requesting retransmission of packets that are
detected to be erroneous. It's more about retransmission than correction.
 ARQ is a protocol for error control in data transmission, primarily focusing on
retransmitting data that is suspected to be corrupted.
Types of ARQ:
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ: The sender transmits one data frame at a time and waits for
an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver. If the ACK is not received within a
timeout period or if a negative acknowledgment (NACK) is received, the sender
retransmits the frame.
 Selective Repeat ARQ: The sender can transmit multiple frames before receiving an
acknowledgment. The receiver acknowledges correctly received frames individually,
and the sender only retransmits frames for which NACKs are received.

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 Error detection and error correction
 Go-Back-N ARQ: Similar to selective repeat ARQ, but upon receiving a NACK for a
particular frame, the sender retransmits that frame and all subsequent frames.
• Forward Error Correction (FEC):
 FEC is a technique used to detect and correct errors in transmitted data without the
need for retransmission. Unlike ARQ, FEC adds redundancy to the transmitted data,
allowing the receiver to reconstruct the original data even in the presence of errors.
 FEC involves encoding the data with redundant information before transmission,
typically using mathematical algorithms like Reed-Solomon codes, convolutional
codes, or Turbo codes.
 Upon reception, the receiver uses the redundant information to detect and correct
errors. The effectiveness of FEC depends on the encoding and decoding algorithms
used, as well as the amount of redundancy added.

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 Stop and Wait protocol
• The Stop-and-Wait protocol is a simple method used in data communications to ensure
reliable transmission between a sender and a receiver.
• It's often utilized in scenarios where error-free transmission is crucial.
• It is the simplest protocol of a category called Automatic Repeat-Request (ARQ).
Here is how the Stop-and-Wait protocol works:
 Sender Transmits Frame:
 The sender starts by transmitting a single frame containing data to the receiver.
 Once the frame is sent, the sender starts a timer to wait for an acknowledgment
(ACK) from the receiver.
 Receiver Receives Frame:
 The receiver receives the frame sent by the sender.
 If the frame is error-free and successfully received, the receiver sends an ACK frame
back to the sender. The ACK indicates that the frame was received correctly.

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 Stop and Wait protocol
 Sender Waits for ACK:
 After sending the frame, the sender enters a waiting state, expecting to receive an
ACK from the receiver.
 If the sender receives the ACK within a predefined timeout period, it acknowledges
successful transmission and moves on to sending the next frame.
 Timeout Handling:
 If the sender doesn't receive an ACK within the timeout period, it assumes that the
frame was lost or damaged during transmission.
 Upon timeout expiration, the sender retransmits the same frame.
 The sender resets the timer and waits again for an acknowledgment.
 Receiver Processing ACK:
 Upon receiving a frame from the sender, the receiver checks for errors.
 If the frame is error-free, the receiver sends an ACK back to the sender.
 If the frame is damaged or lost, the receiver discards it without sending an ACK,
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triggering the sender to retransmit the frame. 24-02-2024
 Stop and Wait protocol
Scenario 1

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 Stop and Wait protocol
Scenario 2

• If a data segment does not

reach the destination, a
timeout event will occur in
the sender entity, thus
indicating that the ACK
message never arrived.
• In such a case, this entity will
send the message again.

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 Stop and Wait protocol
Scenario 3
• A second case is when the
data segment reaches the
destination, but there is a
failure in the ACK message
transmission.
• So, a timeout occurs on the
sender side, which
retransmits the data
segment. Thus, the receiver
will get a duplicate segment,
ignore it, and send the
corresponding ack message
again.
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 Stop and Wait protocol
Scenario 4
• when the ACK messages arrive
after the timeout.
• The sender retransmits the
data segment, receiving the
ack from the first transmission
after that. At this point, the
sender entity can already send
the following segment.
• The other entity will receive a
duplicate packet, ignore it, and
send a new ACK. So, the
sender will receive a duplicate
ACK message, ignoring it

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 Stop and Wait protocol
Scenario 4
• when the ACK messages arrive
after the timeout.
• The sender retransmits the
data segment, receiving the
ack from the first transmission
after that. At this point, the
sender entity can already send
the following segment.
• The other entity will receive a
duplicate packet, ignore it, and
send a new ACK. So, the
sender will receive a duplicate
ACK message, ignoring it

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 Sliding Window Protocol
• The sliding window protocol is a method used in computer networking to
efficiently manage the flow of data between two networked devices, typically
over unreliable communication channels such as those found in packet-switched
networks like the Internet.
• It ensures reliable and sequential delivery of data packets while optimizing the
utilization of available network bandwidth.
Here's how the sliding window protocol works:
 Window Size: The sender and receiver agree upon a window size, which
determines the maximum number of unacknowledged packets that can be sent
before waiting for acknowledgments.
 Sender's Side: The sender divides the data to be transmitted into smaller
packets. It maintains a sending window, which is a subset of the sequence of
packets yet to be acknowledged by the receiver. The size of this window is
determined by the agreed-upon window size.
 Receiver's Side: The receiver maintains a receiving window, representing the
range of acceptable sequence numbers for incoming packets. It sends
acknowledgment messages back to the sender indicating the highest sequence
number received and acknowledged successfully.
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 Sliding Window Protocol
 Sliding Mechanism: As acknowledgments are received, the sender "slides" the
sending window to include new packets that haven't been acknowledged yet.
This allows the sender to continuously transmit new packets without waiting for
acknowledgment of every single packet.
 Flow Control: The sliding window protocol includes flow control mechanisms to
prevent overwhelming the receiver or the network with too many packets. The
receiver can specify its window size, indicating how many packets it can accept
at a time, thus regulating the flow of data from the sender.
0
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 0
2 1
2

3
3

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 Channel Allocation Problem
 The channel allocation problem refers to the task of assigning communication
channels, such as frequencies, time slots, or codes, to different users or
communication sessions in a communication network.
 This problem arises in various network environments, including wireless
communication systems, cellular networks, and satellite communication
systems.
 Efficient channel allocation is crucial for optimizing network performance,
maximizing throughput, minimizing interference, and ensuring fair access to
resources among users.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

 In FDMA, the available frequency spectrum is divided into multiple non-overlapping

frequency bands.
 Each band is allocated to a single user or communication session.
 The channel allocation problem in FDMA involves determining which users or sessions
are assigned to which frequency bands.
 The objective is to minimize interference between users and maximize the utilization of
the frequency spectrum.

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 Channel Allocation Problem
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
 In TDMA, the available time is divided into discrete time slots.
 Each time slot is allocated to a single user or communication session for
exclusive use during that time slot.
 The channel allocation problem in TDMA involves scheduling users or sessions
to time slots.
 The objective is to ensure that each user gets fair access to the time slots and
that interference between users is minimized.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
 In CDMA, users share the same frequency band simultaneously.
 Each user is assigned a unique spreading code that is used to encode and
decode their transmissions.
 The channel allocation problem in CDMA involves selecting appropriate
spreading codes for users to minimize interference.
 The objective is to maximize the number of users that can be accommodated
within the available bandwidth while maintaining acceptable levels of signal
quality.

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Multiple Access Protocols

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 ALOHA

 ALOHA is one of the earliest multiple access protocols developed for shared
communication channels.
 It was created at the University of Hawaii in the 1970s to manage
communication between various islands using radio channels, thus named,
Advocates of Linux Open-source Hawaii Association
 ALOHA operates on the principle of random access, where stations transmit
data whenever they have packets to send, without coordinating with other
stations.
 ALOHA is a random access protocol designed for shared communication
channels, where multiple users or stations contend for access.

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 ALOHA

There are two main variants of ALOHA:

• Pure ALOHA:
 In Pure ALOHA, stations can transmit data frames at any time.
 When a station has data to send, it waits for the next available time slot and
transmits the frame.
 After transmitting, the station waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the
receiver. If no ACK is received within a specified time (typically due to a
collision), the station assumes that the frame was not successfully received.
 If a collision occurs (i.e., if two or more stations transmit simultaneously), the
frames collide and become garbled. Colliding stations detect the collision when
they fail to receive an ACK.

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 ALOHA

 After detecting a collision, stations wait for a random amount of time (backoff
time) before attempting to retransmit the frame. This randomization helps in
reducing the likelihood of collisions upon retransmission.
• Slotted ALOHA:
 Slotted ALOHA introduces a time slot structure to coordinate
transmissions.
 Time is divided into discrete slots, and stations are only allowed to
transmit at the beginning of each time slot.
 This synchronization reduces the chance of collisions because stations are
constrained to transmit only at specific times.
 If a station has data to send, it waits for the next available time slot and
transmits the frame. If a collision occurs, it is detected immediately at the
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 ALOHA

Benefits of ALOHA:
 Simplicity: ALOHA is simple to implement and does not require complex
coordination mechanisms.
 Decentralization: Stations can transmit independently without needing central
coordination.
 Flexibility: ALOHA allows stations to transmit data whenever they have packets
to send, making it suitable for scenarios where traffic patterns are
unpredictable.
 Efficiency: While ALOHA suffers from collisions, its random access nature
allows for the utilization of available bandwidth, especially when the network
load is low.

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 ALOHA

Drawbacks of ALOHA:
 Low Efficiency: ALOHA suffers from low efficiency, especially under high
network loads, due to the high probability of collisions and subsequent
retransmissions.
 Vulnerability to Collisions: Collisions result in wasted bandwidth and decrease
overall network throughput.
 Limited Scalability: ALOHA's performance degrades as the number of stations
increases, particularly in congested environments.

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a multiple access protocol used in

network communication systems to regulate access to shared communication
channels.
 Unlike ALOHA, which relies solely on random access, CSMA protocols
incorporate a mechanism for stations to sense the channel before transmitting,
hence the term "carrier sense.“
 The goal is to reduce the probability of collisions by allowing stations to defer
transmission when they detect activity on the channel.
There are two different versions of CSMA:
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CD)

 CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. It's a
multiple access protocol used in Ethernet networks to regulate access to the
shared communication medium, typically a coaxial cable or twisted-pair copper
cable.
Here's a detailed explanation of CSMA/CD:
 Carrier Sense:
 Before a station transmits data, it listens to the network to check if the
channel is idle. If the channel is busy (i.e., another station is transmitting),
the station defers its transmission and waits for the channel to become idle.
 Multiple Access:
 Once the channel is sensed as idle, the station begins transmitting its data
frame.
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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CD)

Collision Detection:
 While transmitting, the station continues to monitor the channel for any
collisions. This is done by comparing the signal it is transmitting with the signal it
is receiving.
 If the station detects that its own transmitted signal differs from what it's
receiving (indicating a collision), it aborts the transmission immediately.
Handling Collisions:
 After aborting the transmission due to a collision, the station initiates a collision
recovery process.
 The recovery process involves the station waiting for a random backoff time
before attempting to retransmit the frame. The backoff time is calculated based
on a binary exponential backoff algorithm, which helps in reducing the
likelihood of collisions during retransmission.
 The station then retransmits the frame once the backoff time elapses, following
the same steps of carrier sensing and collision detection.
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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CD)

Benefits of CSMA/CD:
 Collision Detection: CSMA/CD allows stations to detect collisions quickly,
minimizing the duration of collisions and reducing wasted bandwidth.
 Fairness: By detecting collisions and initiating a random backoff process,
CSMA/CD ensures fair access to the network among contending stations.
 Efficiency: While collisions still occur, CSMA/CD's collision detection and
recovery mechanisms help improve network efficiency compared to pure
random access protocols like ALOHA.
Drawbacks of CSMA/CD:
 Performance Degradation: CSMA/CD's performance degrades as network size
and traffic load increase, especially in heavily congested networks.
 Limited to Half-Duplex: CSMA/CD operates in half-duplex mode, meaning
stations cannot transmit and receive simultaneously on the same channel. This
limitation can impact overall network throughput.
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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CA)
 Carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a protocol for
carrier transmission in 802.11 networks.
 It means that it is a network protocol that uses to avoid a collision rather than
allowing it to occur, and it does not deal with the recovery of packets after a
collision.
Here is how it works:
• Virtual Carrier Sensing:
 In addition to listening for ongoing transmissions, CSMA/CA devices use
virtual carrier sensing to estimate the busy state of the channel.
 This estimation is based on the duration of the received frames and
acknowledgments from other devices.

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CA)
 When a device receives a frame from another device, it interprets the
duration of the frame as an indication of how long the channel will remain
busy. Similarly, when it receives an acknowledgment frame, it also considers
the channel as busy for a certain duration.
 Based on these estimations, a device determines whether it should defer its
transmission or proceed with sending its data.
 The goal of virtual carrier sensing is to reduce the likelihood of collisions by
providing a more accurate assessment of channel availability compared to
physical carrier sensing alone.
Frame Duration Estimation:
 When a device receives a frame from another device, it examines the duration
field in the frame header.

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CA)
 The duration field indicates how long the transmitting device expects to occupy
the channel with its transmission, including the data frame itself and any
subsequent acknowledgment frames.
 The receiving device interprets this duration as an estimation of how long the
channel will remain busy due to the ongoing transmission.
 By analyzing the duration field, the receiving device can make an informed
decision about whether to defer its own transmission until the channel becomes
idle again.
Acknowledgment Frame Consideration:
 Similarly, when a device sends a data frame and receives an acknowledgment
(ACK) frame from the recipient, it also considers the channel as busy for a
certain duration.

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CA)
 The ACK frame indicates that the recipient has successfully received the data
frame and is ready to accept new transmissions.
 However, the ACK frame itself occupies the channel for a brief period, during
which other devices should refrain from transmitting to avoid collisions.
 The receiving device takes into account the duration of the ACK frame when
estimating the duration for which the channel will remain busy.
Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS): CSMA/CA employs a mechanism
involving RTS and CTS frames to avoid collisions.
 When a device wants to transmit data, it first sends an RTS frame to the
intended recipient. Upon receiving the RTS frame, if the recipient is ready to
receive data and the channel is clear, it sends back a CTS frame to the sender.
 This exchange of RTS and CTS frames reserves the channel for data transmission,
reducing the likelihood of collisions.
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 Wireless Networking
• Wireless networking refers to the communication technology that enables
devices to connect and communicate with each other without the need for
physical wired connections.
Here's an overview of wireless networking:
Basic Components:
• Wireless Access Points (APs): These are devices that create wireless local area
networks (WLANs) by broadcasting radio signals. They serve as hubs for
connecting wireless devices to a wired network infrastructure.
• Wireless Network Interface Cards (NICs): These are hardware components
installed in computers, laptops, smartphones, and other devices to enable
wireless connectivity. They allow devices to send and receive data over wireless
networks.

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 Wireless Networking
Working of Wireless Network
• Radio frequency (RF) technology involves the transmission of radio waves across
the air. When a device sends out a radio signal, it generates an invisible field that
spreads out through space.
• In a wireless network, the key component is the access point (AP). Its main job is
to emit a signal that computers can detect and connect to wirelessly. Access
points often act as bridges between wireless networks and wired ones, like the
internet.
• To connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers must have
wireless network adapters. Generally, computers have these adapters built into
the device.

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 Types of Wireless Networks
Infrastructure Mode:
• In infrastructure mode, wireless devices communicate through a central access
point (AP).
• The access point serves as a hub for wireless devices to connect to the network.
• Devices communicate with each other and access resources (such as the
internet) through the access point.
• Infrastructure mode is commonly used in environments such as homes, offices,
and public Wi-Fi hotspots.
• The access point is configured with network settings, including a unique service
set identifier (SSID), security settings (e.g., encryption type and passphrase), and
network mode (e.g., 802.11b/g/n/ac).

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 Types of Wireless Networks
• The SSID is the name of the wireless network that client devices use to identify
and connect to the network.
• Security settings, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) or WPA2 encryption,
ensure that wireless communications are encrypted and secure from
unauthorized access.
• Once configured, the access point broadcasts the wireless signal, allowing client
devices within its coverage area to detect the network.
• Client devices scan for available wireless networks, identify the SSID of the
network they wish to join, and authenticate themselves using the specified
security credentials.

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 Types of Wireless Networks
Ad-hoc Mode (Peer-to-Peer):
• Ad-hoc mode enables wireless devices to communicate directly with each other
without the need for a central access point.
• Devices form a temporary network on-the-fly, with each device acting as both a
transmitter and receiver.
• Ad-hoc networks are often used for peer-to-peer file sharing, multiplayer
gaming, and collaboration in settings where infrastructure mode is unavailable
or impractical, such as ad-hoc meetings or emergency situations.

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 Wireless standards
• Wireless standards refer to the set of rules, protocols, and specifications that
define how wireless communication technologies operate.
• These standards are established by various organizations such as the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU), and industry consortiums like the Wi-Fi Alliance and the 3rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
• These standards ensure interoperability between different devices and
networks, enabling seamless communication.
Here are some key aspects of wireless standards:
• Frequency Bands: Wireless communication operates within specific frequency
bands allocated by regulatory bodies. Different standards may utilize different
frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz for Wi-Fi, or various bands for
cellular communication like 3G, Poornima
4G, and 5G.
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 Wireless standards
• Modulation Techniques: Modulation refers to the method used to encode data
onto radio waves for transmission. Different standards use various modulation
techniques to achieve different data rates, coverage, and resilience to
interference. Common modulation schemes include Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), and Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
• Data Rates: Wireless standards define the maximum data rates that can be
achieved under ideal conditions. These rates can vary significantly between
standards and are influenced by factors such as channel bandwidth, modulation
scheme, and signal processing techniques.
• Range and Coverage: The range of wireless communication refers to the
maximum distance over which devices can reliably exchange data.
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 Wireless standards
• Security: Security is a crucial aspect of wireless communication standards to
protect data from unauthorized access, interception, and tampering. Standards
typically include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms to
ensure the confidentiality and integrity of transmitted data.
• Interoperability: Interoperability ensures that devices from different
manufacturers can communicate with each other seamlessly. Wireless standards
define common protocols, signaling formats, and procedures to enable
interoperability between compliant devices and networks.

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 Wireless standards
• Security: Security is a crucial aspect of wireless communication standards to
protect data from unauthorized access, interception, and tampering. Standards
typically include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms to
ensure the confidentiality and integrity of transmitted data.
• Interoperability: Interoperability ensures that devices from different
manufacturers can communicate with each other seamlessly. Wireless standards
define common protocols, signaling formats, and procedures to enable
interoperability between compliant devices and networks.

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 Wireless standards
Some common wireless standards include:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): A family of wireless networking standards commonly used
for local area networking (LAN) and internet access.
• Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology for connecting devices over short
distances.
• Cellular standards (e.g., GSM, CDMA, LTE, 5G): Standards for mobile
communication networks providing voice and data services to mobile devices.
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4): A low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication
standard commonly used in smart home, industrial, and healthcare applications.

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 wireless LAN standards: IEEE 802.11a
• IEEE 802.11a is a standard within the IEEE 802.11 family of wireless local area
network (WLAN) protocols.
• It operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and was one of the first standards to
offer high-speed wireless networking.
Here's an explanation of its key features:
• Frequency Band: IEEE 802.11a operates in the 5 GHz frequency band, which
helps to reduce interference from other devices operating in the more crowded
2.4 GHz band used by earlier WLAN standards like 802.11b and 802.11g.
• Data Rate: IEEE 802.11a supports data rates up to 54 Mbps. This higher data
rate makes it suitable for applications requiring high bandwidth, such as
multimedia streaming, video conferencing, and large file transfers.

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05-03-2024
 wireless LAN standards: IEEE 802.11a
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM): 802.11a uses OFDM
modulation, which divides the available spectrum into multiple subchannels.
This allows for more efficient use of the bandwidth and helps mitigate the
effects of multipath interference, improving overall signal quality and reliability.
• Channels: IEEE 802.11a provides for up to 12 non-overlapping channels in the 5
GHz band, offering greater flexibility and reducing the likelihood of interference
compared to the 2.4 GHz band, which has only three non-overlapping channels.
• Range and Interference: While the 5 GHz band used by 802.11a can offer better
throughput and reduced interference, it typically has a shorter range compared
to 2.4 GHz WLAN standards. Walls and other obstacles can also attenuate signals
more effectively at higher frequencies, impacting the range of 802.11a
networks.
Poornima University
05-03-2024
 wireless LAN standards: IEEE 802.11a
• Compatibility: IEEE 802.11a is not directly compatible with older WLAN
standards like 802.11b or 802.11g due to differences in frequency band and
modulation techniques. However, most modern WLAN devices support multiple
standards, including backward compatibility with older standards, allowing them
to communicate with devices using different WLAN standards.

Poornima University
05-03-2024