A Report on

Study the role of ION IMPLANTATION

in 180 nm CMOS process
By:

Siddharth Jha

Enrollment No. : BT21EC026

Department Of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Mizoram

Semi-Conductor Laboratory
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
Sector 72, S.A.S Nagar -160071 (Mohali) Punjab, India
Under the guidance of:
Mr. Rajeev Ranjan Kumar
(Sci./ Engr.-SF, VFD)
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the work presented in the project report entitled “To study the Role of
ION IMPLANTATION in 180 nm CMOS Process” (VFD) is an authentic record of my own
work during the summer training from 28 May 2024 to 26 July 2024, in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in National Institute of
Technology, Mizoram.

Further I declare that this is my original work and the analysis and the findings under the
supervision of Mr. Rajeev Ranjan Kumar are for academic purpose.

Siddharth Jha

Enrollment No: BT21EC026

Sector 72, Mohali, Punjab

 Certificate

This is to certify that the project entitled “To Study the role of ION IMPLANTATION in 180 nm
CMOS Process” completed by SIDDHARTH JHA, SCL Serial NO. ST00655 is an authentic work
carried out by him at Semi-conductor Laboratory, S.A.S Nagar during summer training from
28 May 2024 to 26 July 2024 under my guidance. The matter embodied in this project work
has been submitted for the award of Bachelor of Technology to the best of my knowledge and
belief. The contents of this report, in full or in parts, will be not submitted to any other Institute
or University for the award of any degree.

MR. RAJEEV RANJAN KUMAR MRS. CHUMKI SAHA

Engineer /Scientist-SF, VFD, SCL (HEAD, VFD)
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this project.

First and foremost, I am highly indebted to Mr. Rajeev Ranjan Kumar (Sci/Eng-SF, VFD)
for their invaluable guidance, continuous encouragement, and constructive feedback
throughout this project. Their insightful suggestions were pivotal in the completion of this
work.

I also wish to extend my thanks to Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL) for providing the
necessary resources and support. The assistance provided by the staff and faculty members of
Ion Implantation was greatly appreciated.

Special thanks to Mrs. Chumki Saha (Head, VFD) for insights, suggestions and all the help
that ii strongly needed during the training period.

I would like to extend my thanks to Mr. Manoj Wadhwa (Group Head, VMFG) for his
support and cooperation and letting me undertake the project in VFD. Without the support
that I have received, this project wouldn’t have been completed on time.

Lastly, I thank all those who, directly or indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this
venture.

Siddharth Jha
Enrollment No: BT21EC026
 Abstract

The field of Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) fabrication has been a cornerstone in the
advancement of modern electronics, enabling the development of complex and highly
integrated semiconductor devices. This project report delves into the comprehensive study of
VLSI fabrication processes, highlighting the critical stages, technologies, and innovations
that drive this domain.

The report begins with an overview of the semiconductor industry, emphasizing the
importance of VLSI technology in contemporary electronic systems. It explores the
fundamental principles of semiconductor physics and material science that underpin VLSI
fabrication. Detailed discussions cover the sequential steps involved in the fabrication
process, including photolithography, ion implantation, etching, and metallization, each of
which is critical for defining the microstructures and electrical properties of VLSI circuits.

Advanced techniques such as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapor Deposition
(PVD), and Chemical Mechanical Planarization (CMP) are examined for their roles in
enhancing fabrication precision and yield. The report also addresses the challenges of scaling,
discussing Moore's Law and the transition from planar to FinFET and Gate-All-Around
(GAA) transistors as part of the industry's ongoing efforts to maintain performance
improvements while mitigating power consumption and heat dissipation issues.

The report concludes with a discussion on future trends and the potential of emerging
technologies and the integration of VLSI with flexible and wearable electronics. These
frontiers promise to extend the capabilities of VLSI fabrication beyond traditional limits,
paving the way for the next generation of electronic devices.

Overall, this project provides a thorough understanding of VLSI fabrication, illustrating its
significance in the evolution of electronics and its continuous innovation trajectory.
Introduction to Semiconductor Laboratory
The Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), formerly known as Semiconductor Complex Limited,
is a pivotal institution in India's strategic electronics sector. It operates under the Ministry of
Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY), Government of India, and is an autonomous
body that has been at the forefront of semiconductor technology development in the country.
This report provides an in-depth look at SCL, detailing its establishment, role, and the state-of-
the-art facilities it houses.

Establishment and Evolution

SCL was initially established in Chandigarh (Punjab) in 1983, with the primary goal to
manufacture VLSI (very large-scale integration) and VLSI-based systems and subsystems. The
Cabinet of India approved the formation of SCL in 1976, marking a significant step toward
achieving India's semiconductor manufacturing ambitions. In 2022, SCL underwent a
transformation when administrative control was transferred from the Department of Space to
MeitY, reflecting a strategic shift and an emphasis on expanding its role in the semiconductor
industry (SCL).

Role and Contributions

SCL's role extends beyond manufacturing to encompass research and development in
semiconductor technology. It specializes in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS),
semiconductor processing, and the design and development of very-large-scale integration
(VLSI) devices. Furthermore, SCL is engaged in developing systems for telecommunications,
space, and defence applications, thereby contributing to the nation's self-reliance in strategic
electronics.
One of the key ways SCL supports India's semiconductor objectives is by providing a base for
semiconductor design and development. It has the expertise and facilities necessary to foster a
pool of skilled semiconductor engineers and designers, which is crucial for the growth of the
domestic semiconductor industry.

Facilities
SCL is equipped with a comprehensive infrastructure that allows for end-to-end solutions in
the development of Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Opto-electronics
Devices, and MEMS. The laboratory boasts a clean room facility for semiconductor
manufacturing, which is essential for maintaining the purity of materials and ensuring the high
quality of semiconductor devices (MeitY).
To bolster India's semiconductor manufacturing and R&D ecosystem, the Union Cabinet
approved the modernization of SCL. This modernization plan is expected to further enhance
the capabilities of SCL and enable it to play a pivotal role in India's Semiconductor Mission.
Additionally, MeitY has collaborated with the Boston Consulting Group to develop a long-term
vision and execution roadmap for SCL, which is referred to as SCL 2.0.
The laboratory's facilities are not limited to manufacturing alone. It is also equipped with
advanced design and simulation tools that enable the development of sophisticated
semiconductor devices. SCL's infrastructure supports the entire cycle of semiconductor device
fabrication, from design to testing, which is integral for producing reliable and high-
performance electronic components.

DEPARTMENTS
Research and Development (R&D)

Technology Development Department (TDD)

The R&D department is the backbone of SCL, fostering innovation and technological
advancement in semiconductor technology. It specializes in the design and development of
very-large-scale integration (VLSI) devices, which are integral to modern electronics (SCL).
The department's work encompasses a broad spectrum of semiconductor processing techniques
and aims to enhance the capabilities of Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Opto-
electronic Devices, and Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS).

Design Department

VLSI Design
The design department at SCL is tasked with the conceptualization and development of
semiconductor devices. This team works closely with R&D to create designs that are not only
innovative but also practical for manufacturing. The department's expertise in VLSI design is
crucial for developing systems that meet specific application requirements, ensuring that SCL's
products are tailored to the needs of various industries (SCL).

Fabrication Department

CMOS & MEMS Fabrication

The fabrication department is where designs come to life. This department is responsible for
the actual manufacturing of semiconductor devices. It involves a complex process of layering
and etching semiconductor materials to create the intricate structures that form the basis of
ASICs, MEMS, and opto-electronic devices. The fabrication process requires a high degree of
precision and control, making this department a critical component of SCL's operations (SCL).

Assembly and Packaging Department

VLSI Assembly & Packaging

Once the semiconductor devices have been fabricated, they move on to the assembly and
packaging department. Here, the devices are assembled into their final form and packaged for
distribution. This department ensures that the devices are protected from environmental factors
and are ready for integration into larger systems. The assembly and packaging process is a vital
step in maintaining the quality and reliability of the products (SCL).

Testing and Reliability Assurance Department

VLSI & MEMS Testing

Quality control is paramount in the semiconductor industry, and the testing and reliability
assurance department at SCL is dedicated to this purpose. This department conducts rigorous
testing on all semiconductor devices to ensure they meet the required specifications and
performance standards. Reliability assurance is also a key function, as it guarantees the long-
term performance and durability of the devices. Through various stress tests and evaluations,
this department plays a crucial role in upholding SCL's reputation for excellence (SCL).

System Development Department

 System Development
The system development department is focused on integrating semiconductor devices into
complete systems. This includes developing the software and hardware required to operate the
devices and ensuring compatibility with other components. The department works on creating
solutions that are not only technologically advanced but also user-friendly and accessible to a
wide range of customers (SCL).

Products of SCL
SC1203-0: Single Channel 14-Bit, 10 MSPS, CCD Analog Signal Processor with
On-Chip Voltage Reference
 Fully integrated, high-performance analog signal processor for CCD applications
 Features a single channel architecture to sample and condition outputs of CCD arrays
 Includes correlated double sampler, programmable gain amplifier, and offset correction
DAC
 14-bit, 10 MSPS analog-to-digital converter with differential, pipeline architecture
 Supports power-down mode to reduce power consumption
 Fabricated using SCL's 180nm CMOS standard logic process
 Designed for imaging applications

SC1261-0T1: 8-Bit, 100 MSPS, Low Power Pipeline Analog-to-Digital

Converter (ADC)
 8-bit, 100 MSPS analog-to-digital converter
 Uses a low-power pipeline architecture with digital error correction
 Supports differential or single-ended analog inputs
 Designed for high-speed imaging and data acquisition applications
 Fabricated using SCL's 180nm CMOS standard logic process

SC1004-2: 16-Bit Buffer 3-State Output (Cold Sparing, Hot Insertion & 5V
Tolerant Input) (Radiation Tolerant)
 16-bit buffer with 3-state output
 Supports cold sparing, hot insertion, and 5V tolerant input
 Radiation tolerant design
 Targeted for space and other high-reliability applications

SC1124-0: 16-Bit Transceiver 3-State Output (Cold Sparing, Hot Insertion & 5V
Tolerant Input) (Radiation Tolerant)
 16-bit transceiver with 3-state output
 Supports cold sparing, hot insertion, and 5V tolerant input
 Radiation tolerant design
 Intended for space and other high-reliability applications
In summary, SCL offers a range of analog, digital, and mixed-signal semiconductor products
focused on applications such as imaging, data acquisition, and space/defense systems. The
products leverage SCL's 180nm CMOS technology and incorporate features like radiation
tolerance, low power, and high performance.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL) is a cornerstone of India's ambition to
become a global semiconductor powerhouse. With its advanced facilities, SCL is well-
equipped to lead research and development efforts in the semiconductor sector. The laboratory's
role in providing a base for semiconductor design and development is vital for nurturing talent
and fostering innovation in this highly specialized field. The government's commitment to
modernizing SCL and developing a strategic roadmap for its future underscores the importance
of this institution in achieving India's semiconductor objectives.

SCL's evolution from a VLSI manufacturer to a comprehensive R&D hub for semiconductor
technology exemplifies India's progress in the strategic electronics domain. As SCL continues
to expand its capabilities and collaborate with global industry leaders, its contribution to the
semiconductor industry will undoubtedly grow, reinforcing India's position in the global
semiconductor landscape.
Introduction to VLSI
1. Historical Background

The evolution of VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology has been a cornerstone of
the rapid advancements in the electronics and semiconductor industries. The journey began
with the invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and
William Shockley. This breakthrough led to the development of integrated circuits (ICs) in the
late 1950s and early 1960s by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce. The early ICs contained a small
number of transistors, but as technology advanced, the ability to integrate more transistors onto
a single chip improved significantly.

The term VLSI emerged in the 1970s when the number of transistors on a single chip exceeded
10,000. The ability to integrate such a large number of transistors allowed for the creation of
complex circuits and systems on a single chip, revolutionizing the electronics industry. The
progression from SSI (Small Scale Integration) to MSI (Medium Scale Integration), LSI (Large
Scale Integration), and finally to VLSI marked a significant leap in the capabilities of electronic
devices.

2. Importance of VLSI

VLSI technology is crucial because it enables the design and manufacturing of highly complex
and efficient electronic circuits. It has several key benefits:

 Miniaturization: VLSI technology allows for the integration of millions of transistors

on a single chip, significantly reducing the size of electronic devices. This
miniaturization has enabled the development of compact and portable devices, such as
smartphones and laptops.
 Performance: By integrating more transistors on a chip, VLSI technology improves
the performance of electronic devices. It allows for faster processing speeds and greater
functionality, which are essential for modern applications in computing,
telecommunications, and multimedia.
 Power Efficiency: Advances in VLSI have led to the development of low-power
circuits, which are essential for battery-operated devices. Power-efficient VLSI designs
are crucial for extending the battery life of portable devices and reducing the energy
consumption of large-scale data centers.
 Cost Reduction: The ability to integrate more functionality onto a single chip reduces
the need for multiple discrete components, lowering the overall cost of electronic
systems. This cost reduction has made advanced technology more accessible and
affordable to a broader range of consumers.

3. VLSI Design Process

The VLSI design process is complex and involves several stages, each requiring specialized
tools and expertise. The main stages of VLSI design include:
  Specification: This initial stage involves defining the functionality, performance, and
physical requirements of the chip. Specifications are typically based on the intended
application and market requirements.
 Architectural Design: At this stage, the overall architecture of the chip is designed.
This includes defining the major functional blocks, their interactions, and the data flow
between them. The architectural design serves as a blueprint for the subsequent stages
of the design process.
 Logic Design: In this stage, the functional blocks defined in the architectural design are
translated into a detailed logical representation. This involves designing the
combinational and sequential logic circuits that implement the desired functionality.
 Circuit Design: The logical design is then converted into a circuit-level design. This
involves selecting the appropriate transistor-level implementations for the logic gates
and other components. The circuit design stage ensures that the design meets the
required performance, power, and area constraints.
 Physical Design: During physical design, the circuit design is translated into a layout
that can be fabricated on a silicon wafer. This involves placing the transistors and other
components on the chip and routing the interconnections between them. The physical
design stage also includes optimizing the layout for performance, power, and
manufacturability.
 Verification and Testing: Throughout the design process, extensive verification and
testing are performed to ensure that the design meets the specifications and functions
correctly. This includes simulation, formal verification, and physical testing of
fabricated prototypes.
 Fabrication: Once the design is finalized and verified, it is sent to a semiconductor
foundry for fabrication. The foundry uses photolithography and other processes to
create the chip on a silicon wafer.

4. VLSI Technologies

Several technologies and methodologies are used in VLSI design, each offering different trade-
offs in terms of performance, power, and area. Some of the key technologies include:

 CMOS Technology: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS)

technology is the dominant technology for VLSI design. CMOS transistors offer low
power consumption and high noise immunity, making them ideal for a wide range of
applications.
 SOI Technology: Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) technology improves performance and
reduces power consumption by isolating the transistors from the bulk silicon substrate.
This reduces parasitic capacitance and improves the overall efficiency of the circuit.
 FinFET Technology: Fin Field-Effect Transistor (FinFET) technology is a type of
multi-gate transistor that offers improved control over the channel and reduces leakage
current. FinFETs are widely used in advanced VLSI designs for their superior
performance and power characteristics.
 FPGA Technology: Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are programmable
devices that can be configured to implement custom logic circuits. FPGAs offer
flexibility and rapid prototyping capabilities, making them ideal for development and
testing of VLSI designs.

5. Challenges in VLSI Fabrication

Despite the advancements in VLSI fabrication technology, several challenges remain in the
manufacturing of complex integrated circuits:

 Scaling: As the feature sizes of transistors continue to shrink, maintaining control over
the fabrication process becomes increasingly difficult. Scaling down to nanometer
dimensions introduces challenges related to lithography, etching, and material
properties.
 Yield: Ensuring high yield, or the percentage of functional chips from a wafer, is critical
for cost-effective manufacturing. Defects introduced during fabrication can lead to
lower yield, increasing the overall cost of production.
 Process Variability: Variations in the fabrication process can lead to differences in the
performance and characteristics of the fabricated chips. Managing and mitigating
process variability is essential to ensure consistent quality and reliability.
 Thermal Management: High-performance VLSI designs generate significant heat,
which can affect the reliability and lifespan of the chip. Effective thermal management
techniques are essential to dissipate heat and maintain the optimal operating
temperature.
 Materials and Interfaces: As devices scale down, the choice of materials and the
quality of interfaces between different materials become critical. Issues such as
electromigration, stress migration, and interface quality must be carefully managed to
ensure reliable device operation.
The Significance of Silicon in VLSI
Abundance and Semiconductor Properties
Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, making it readily available
and relatively inexpensive. Its properties as a semiconductor make it ideal for VLSI
applications. Unlike metals, silicon's electrical conductivity can be controlled through doping,
which involves adding small amounts of impurities to alter its electrical characteristics. This
tunability is crucial for creating the various components of integrated circuits, such as
transistors, diodes, and resistors.

Advantages of Silicon in VLSI

Silicon has several advantages that make it the material of choice for VLSI fabrication:
 Thermal Stability: Silicon maintains its semiconductor properties over a wide range
of temperatures, making it suitable for high-temperature processes and reliable
operation in electronic devices.
 Oxide Layer Formation: Silicon naturally forms a stable oxide layer (SiO2) when
exposed to oxygen, which is used as an insulator in MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors). This oxide layer is critical for isolating
different components on a chip.
 Compatibility with Existing Fabrication Techniques: The extensive research and
development in silicon-based technology have led to well-established fabrication
techniques, making it easier to produce high-quality silicon wafers and devices.

Current Trends and Challenges

As VLSI technology progresses, the industry faces challenges related to scaling down device
dimensions. The physical and quantum effects that emerge at nanometer scales require
innovative solutions in materials science and fabrication techniques. However, silicon
continues to be the primary material for VLSI, with ongoing research aimed at enhancing its
properties and overcoming these challenges.

From Sand to Silicon: The Purification Process

Extracting Silicon from Sand

The primary source of silicon is quartz sand, which contains silicon dioxide (SiO2). The first
step in the purification process involves reducing silicon dioxide to silicon. This is typically
done using a carbothermic reduction process in an electric arc furnace:
SiO2+2C→Si+2CO
This reaction produces metallurgical-grade silicon with about 98-99% purity, which is
insufficient for semiconductor applications.

Purifying Silicon to Semiconductor Grade

To achieve the ultra-high purity required for semiconductor-grade silicon, further purification
is necessary. This is done through a process called the Siemens process, which involves the
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of silicon from trichlorosilane (SiHCl3):
1. Production of Trichlorosilane: Metallurgical-grade silicon is reacted with hydrogen
chloride gas to produce trichlorosilane:
Si+3HCl→SiHCl3+H2
2. Distillation: Trichlorosilane is purified through fractional distillation to remove
impurities.
3. Decomposition: The purified trichlorosilane is then decomposed at high temperatures
in a hydrogen atmosphere to deposit pure silicon on heated rods:
SiHCl3+H2→Si+3HCl
This process yields polycrystalline silicon rods with a purity of 99.9999999% (9N), which is
suitable for growing single crystal silicon ingots.
 Silicon wafer

The Czochralski Method: Growing Single Crystal Ingots

The Process
The Czochralski (CZ) method is the most widely used technique for producing single crystal
silicon ingots. The steps involved in this method are:
1. Melting: High-purity polycrystalline silicon is placed in a quartz crucible and melted
at around 1,420°C (2,588°F) in a furnace.
2. Seeding: A seed crystal with the desired orientation (typically <100> or <111>) is
dipped into the molten silicon.
3. Crystal Growth: The seed crystal is slowly pulled upwards and rotated. As it is
withdrawn, silicon atoms attach to the seed crystal and solidify in the same crystalline
orientation, forming a single crystal ingot.
4. Controlled Environment: The growth process is carefully controlled to maintain a
uniform temperature gradient and pulling speed, ensuring the ingot has a consistent
diameter and high crystal quality.

Advantages and Challenges

The CZ method allows for the production of large diameter ingots, which is essential for
manufacturing large wafers used in modern VLSI fabrication. However, it also introduces
oxygen impurities from the quartz crucible, which must be managed to prevent defects in the
final devices.

Evaluation and Wafer Production

Crystal Quality Assessment
Once the ingot is grown, it undergoes rigorous evaluation to ensure it meets the required
specifications. This includes:
 Orientation: X-ray diffraction techniques are used to confirm the crystal orientation.
 Resistivity: Electrical resistivity measurements are performed to ensure the ingot has
the correct doping concentration.
 Defects: The ingot is inspected for crystal defects, such as dislocations or precipitates,
using techniques like etch pit density (EPD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Slicing the Ingot into Wafers

The ingot is sliced into thin wafers using a diamond wire saw. This process requires precision
to minimize wafer thickness variation and surface damage. Typical wafer thicknesses range
from 200 to 775 micrometres, depending on the application.

Wafer Polishing
After slicing, the wafers undergo several steps to achieve a smooth, defect-free surface:
  Lapping: Mechanical abrasion is used to remove saw marks and achieve a flat surface.
 Etching: Chemical etching removes damaged layers from the wafer surface.
 Polishing: Chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) gives the wafers a mirror-like finish,
essential for high-resolution photolithography.

The Role of Single Crystal Silicon in Device Fabrication

Electrical and Structural Uniformity
Single crystal silicon wafers provide a uniform substrate with minimal defects, which is critical
for the performance and reliability of VLSI devices. The consistent crystal structure allows for
precise control of electrical properties through doping and fabrication processes.

Integration of Complex Circuits

The ability to integrate billions of transistors on a single silicon wafer is fundamental to VLSI
technology. Single crystal silicon's uniformity ensures that each transistor operates predictably,
which is essential for the complex, high-density circuits used in modern electronics.
Yield and Performance
High-quality single crystal silicon reduces the occurrence of defects that can degrade device
performance and yield. Any imperfections in the crystal lattice can cause variations in electrical
characteristics, leading to faulty or underperforming devices. By using single crystal silicon,
manufacturers can achieve higher yields of functional devices, reducing costs and improving
overall performance.
Conclusion
The manufacturing of single crystal silicon is a cornerstone of VLSI fabrication, enabling the
production of semiconductors that power the electronic devices integral to modern life. The
Czochralski method, along with advanced purification and evaluation techniques, ensures that
silicon wafers meet the stringent requirements for high-performance integrated circuits. As the
semiconductor industry continues to innovate and push the boundaries of technology, the
importance of high-quality single crystal silicon remains paramount. The ongoing
advancements in crystal growth, evaluation, and wafer processing techniques will ensure that
silicon continues to be the material of choice for VLSI and beyond.
FABRICATION LAB AND CLEANROOMS
Overview
A fabrication lab, often referred to as a "fab," is a facility where integrated circuits (ICs)
are manufactured. A crucial component of a fab is the cleanroom, which is designed to
maintain extremely low levels of particulates, such as dust and airborne microbes that
could interfere with the fabrication process.

Types of Contamination
Contaminants in cleanrooms include:

1. Metallic Impurities: Alkali metals in common chemicals, known as mobile ionic

contaminants (MICs).
2. Organic Contamination: Carbon-based substances like lubricants and bacteria.
3. Native Oxides: Oxide layers on wafer surfaces due to air exposure.
4. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD): Static charge transfers that can damage
microchips.

Cleanroom

Clean Room
A cleanroom is a controlled environment that minimizes pollutants like dust, airborne
microbes, aerosol particles, and chemical vapours. It also controls other environmental
parameters such as light, humidity, pressure, and temperature. These controls are
essential for ensuring the high quality and reliability of semiconductor devices.

Cleanroom Parameters

Key parameters of a cleanroom include:

• Temperature: 22°C to 23°C

• Humidity: 30-50% RH
• Lighting: Yellow light to avoid UV rays
• Air Flow: Vertical laminar flow from ceiling to floor at 20-50 ft/min

The air flows through perforated floors, circulates back to the ceiling, and passes
through filtration systems, primarily High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters.
Ultra Low Particulate Air (ULPA) filters are used in areas requiring stringent
cleanliness.

Cleanroom Classification
Cleanrooms are classified based on the number of particles per cubic meter, as defined by
ISO standards and the Federal Standard 209E (FS 209E). The following table outlines the
classification:
Class Maximum particles/ft3 ISO
equivale
≥0.1 μm ≥0.2 μm ≥0.3 μm ≥0.5 μm ≥5 μm nt

1 35 7.5 3 1 0.007 ISO 3

10 350 75 30 10 0.07 ISO 4

100 3,500 750 300 100 0.7 ISO 5

1,000 35,000 7,500 3000 1,000 7 ISO 6

10,000 350,000 75,000 30,000 10,000 70 ISO 7

100,000 3.5×106 750,000 300,000 100,000 830 ISO 8

SCL maintains various cleanliness levels, including Class 1 (laser marking tool room),
Class 10 (diffusion, wet etching, and gowning room), Class 100 (lithography room), and
Class 1000 (lab corridor).
Cleanroom Protocols

Strict protocols are followed to maintain cleanroom standards:

• Garments: Personnel wear cleanroom garments, including hairnets, shoe covers,

beard covers, gowning gloves, hoods, coveralls, and boot covers.
• Entry Procedures: Personnel enter the cleanroom by walking on a sticky mat and
passing through airlocks and air showers to remove contaminants.
• Environmental Control: Temperature and humidity are controlled to prevent
contamination.
• Personnel Training: Workers are trained rigorously on contamination control and
cleanroom protocols.
• Regular Maintenance: Cleanrooms and equipment are regularly cleaned and
maintained.

Garments

Gowning Area
Gowning:

Gowning

De-Gowning:

De - gowning

Cleanroom Environment Control

 • Airflow Management: The airflow is managed through HEPA and ULPA filters,
ensuring that the air entering the cleanroom is free of particulates. Vertical laminar
flow systems help in maintaining a consistent, unidirectional flow of air from
ceiling to floor, passing through perforated floors and back through the filtration
system.
• Pressure Differentials: Maintaining a higher pressure in the cleanroom compared
to adjacent areas (Gray areas) prevents the infiltration of contaminants.
• Conductive Flooring: The flooring is conductive to allow static charges to be
discharged, reducing the risk of ESD.
• Temperature and Humidity: Maintaining temperature between 22°C to 23°C
and humidity between 30-50% RH prevents additional contamination and ensures
the integrity of the IC fabrication process.
• Lighting: Yellow lighting is used to avoid UV rays that can interfere with certain
fabrication processes.
• Monitoring Systems: Continuous monitoring systems are essential for detecting
and responding to any contamination events immediately.

Importance of Cleanrooms in Fabrication

In a fabrication lab, cleanrooms are crucial for producing integrated circuits (ICs) due to
the nanoscale structures involved, which can be affected by even the tiniest particles.
The cleanroom environment is meticulously maintained to prevent any form of
contamination that could compromise the integrity of the ICs.

The need for cleanrooms in IC fabrication is driven by several factors:

1. Dust and Particulate Contaminants: Even microscopic particles can damage the
delicate structures on a chip.
2. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD): Static charges generated by workers or
equipment can damage the chips, necessitating effective discharge mechanisms.
3. Chemical Contaminants: Various toxic gases used or generated during the IC
fabrication process must be controlled to provide a safe working environment.

By adhering to these stringent cleanroom protocols and environmental controls,

fabrication labs ensure the production of high-quality and reliable ICs, meeting the
stringent standards required for advanced electronic devices.
VLSI Fabrication Process
Diffusion
The diffusion process marks the beginning of IC fabrication, crucial for creating
integrated circuits. It involves heating wafers in furnaces where gases are introduced.
These gases react with the wafer surface, either depositing a film directly or
incorporating the wafer material into the film.

Types of Diffusion Processes:

• Oxidation: This process grows a SiO2 layer used to insulate between

conducting layers and as a mask against diffusion and ion implantation. It occurs
via a chemical reaction between oxygen and water at around 1000°C, consuming
about 44% of the silicon substrate.

Fig 2.4 Oxidation reaction with

substrate Oxidation is of two types: -
i) Dry Oxidation: -
Si + O2 → SiO2 (1000*C /1050 *C)
Oxygen atoms diffuse through the Silicon dioxide and react with Silicon to grow
the oxide layer. Because of this volume expansion of the silicon dioxide layer
occurs (up to 30%).
ii) Wet Oxidation: -
Si + 2H2O (vapour) → SiO2 + 2H2 (850*C/ 1000*C)
Water vapours are not directly introduced in the chamber. O2 and H2 are burned
in the backend of furnace to produce pure H2O which react with the wafer in
furnace.
• Annealing: This high-temperature process involves heating wafers to
reorganize the silicon wafer or deposited films without further film growth. It
provides activation energy for implanted species and reduces stress from upper
layers.

It has two types of furnaces: -

1) Alloying furnace: Employed in backend.

2) Sintering furnace: Employed in frontend.

Fig 2.5 annealing of silicon wafer

• Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD): LPCVD

employs chemical reactions on the wafer surface to deposit a solid by-product,
which remains while other materials are pumped away. Operating at low
temperatures and pressures enables precise control over deposition rates.

Fig 2.6 LPCVD

Lithography
Lithography is pivotal in IC fabrication for creating intricate patterns on the wafer
surface using photoresist and light exposure. The precision and accuracy of lithographic
devices are governed by optical laws, light wave interactions, and lens numerical
apertures, crucial for defining finer integrated circuit features.

Steps in Lithography:

1. Surface Cleaning: Wafer surfaces are treated to remove organic or inorganic

contaminants using solutions containing H2O2, trichloroethylene, acetone, or methanol.

2. Prebake and Priming: The wafer surface is heated to make it hydrophobic before
applying a primer. Hexamethyldisilane (HMDS) is a commonly used primer to enhance
the adhesion of photoresist (organic material) to the wafer.

3. Anti-Reflective Coating: This step reduces standing wave patterns caused by

light interference on the photoresist. It includes:

1. Top Anti-Reflective Coating

2. Bottom Anti-Reflective Coating

4. Spin Coating of Photoresist: The wafer is placed on a spinner, and photoresist is

applied and spun. The spinning speed determines the thickness of the photoresist layer.
Photoresist consists of:

• Resist
• Photo-Active Compound
• Solvent There are two types:
• Positive Photoresist: Becomes highly soluble in the developer solution upon light
exposure. Contains Diazo naphthoquinone (DNQ) and Novolac Resin.
• Negative Photoresist: Becomes insoluble in the developer solution upon light
exposure.

5. Soft Baking: Aims to evaporate the coating solvent and densify the resist after
spin coating. Typically conducted at 75°C-85°C for 45 seconds on a hot plate.

6. Exposure: Involves shining light through a photomask onto the photoresist-

coated wafer. Three exposure techniques are used:

• Contact Printing
• Proximity Printing
• Projection Printing
7. Post Exposure Baking: Thermal treatment to facilitate molecular movement and
rearrangement of photoresist molecules after exposure. Usually performed on a hot plate
at 110°C-130°C for about 1 minute.
8. Development: The exposed photoresist section undergoes a chemical reaction,
changing to a liquid state, leaving residues. This process dissolves residues and removes
liquid photoresist using a developer solution.

9. Hard Baking: Ensures complete removal of remaining residues and hardens the
photoresist to protect underlying layers during subsequent processes.

10. Strip and Clean: Removal and cleaning of the photoresist from the wafer using
metrology tools. The wafer then undergoes the above processes again as needed.

Lithography process steps

Process instruments involved in Photolithography:

1. Stepper: --

“Stepper" is short for step-and-repeat. A small part of wafer is

exposed then it moves a step away and repeats the same process.

• Mask patterns 5 times bigger than printed.

• Critical dimension >350 nm.
• Uses Hg (Mercury) Arc Lamp(365nm)
• Works in MUV region.

Working mechanism of stepper:

 stepper machine

2. Scanner: -- A type of stepper which moves the wafer

and

Reticle with respect to each other during the exposure.

Exposes only a slit of light. After that takes a step away and repeats.
• Mask patterns 4 times bigger than printed.
• Critical dimension < 350 nm.
• Uses KrF Excimer (excited dimer) Laser(248nm)
• Works in DUV region.

Working mechanism of scanner:

Fig 2.9 Scanner machine

ETCHING
Etching is the process of selectively removing unneeded material from the wafer surface
using chemical or physical means. There are two primary methods:

• Dry Etch: Utilizes plasma or etchant gases to physically or chemically interact

with the material.
• Wet Etch: Uses liquid chemicals or etchants to dissolve the material.

Parameters to characterize any etch processes: -

1. Etch Rate: -
Measure of how fast the material is removed from wafer surface.
Etch Rate= del d/del t (Ao/min)
Where del d: - change in layer thickness and del t: - process time (min)
2. Selectivity: -
Ratio of etch rates of desired layer and etch rate of undesired layer.
Selectivity= ER desired layer/ER undesired layer
3. Anisotropy: -
Usually given as a ratio between the horizontal etch rate to the vertical etch rate.
Anisotropy = 1-dH/dV
Where dH and dV: - etch rate in the horizontal and vertical direction
respectively.

Isotropic and anisotropic

Wet Etch
Wet etching involves using liquid chemicals to remove materials from a wafer. It is:

• Isotropic: Etches uniformly in all directions.

• Limitations: Challenging to control etching time and unsuitable for sub-micron

patterns.
• Advantages: High selectivity, minimal material damage, relatively inexpensive
equipment, Batch system, high throughput
• Disadvantages: Isotropic Profile, poor directivity, High chemical usage,
Chemical hazards

Wet etch process

Wet Etch Applications:

• High selectivity
• It is widely used for strip etch process, such as nitride strip and titanium strip, etc.
• Also widely used for CVD film quality control (buffered oxide etch or BOE).
• Test wafers strip, clean and reuse.

Dry Etch
Dry Etching
Dry etching is a process where plasma, a gas-generated ionized state, is used to
selectively remove layers or materials without the use of liquid chemicals, ensuring
good anisotropy.
Plasma Overview
Plasma is a partially ionized gas where electrons and ions coexist in equal numbers,
maintaining overall electrical neutrality at a macroscopic level. It exhibits conductivity
due to the free movement of electrons. Plasma consists primarily of ions, electrons, and
free radicals.

Plasma Etching

Plasma etching is applied in various types of dry etching processes:

1. Dielectric Etching (Oxide and Nitride): Includes contact and via etching.
2. Single Crystal Silicon Etching: Used for processes like STI (shallow trench
isolation) and deep trench for capacitors.

3. Polysilicon Etching: Applied in gate and local interconnections.

4. Metal Etching: Involves etching of metal interconnections such as

Ti/TiN/AlCu/Ti/TiN metal stacks.

Types of Dry Etching

a) Physical Dry Etching: Relies on high-energy particle beams (ions, electrons, or

photons) to remove substrate atoms. It is non-reactive, removing only unmasked material.

b) Chemical Dry Etching: Involves plasma-generated free radicals that chemically

react with the material surface. This process is typically isotropic and highly selective.

c) Reactive Ion Etching (RIE): Combines both physical and chemical mechanisms
to achieve precise etching with increased speed. Ionization facilitates the creation of
reactive species from etchant molecules.

Types of Dry etching

 Ion Implantation
Ion implantation is a materials engineering process where ions are accelerated by an
electric field and embedded into a solid to alter its physical, chemical, or electrical
properties:

• Process: Ionized atoms or molecules are accelerated and penetrate the target
material, coming to rest due to interactions with silicon atoms.
• Control: Distribution and dose of dopants are precisely controlled by varying the
ion source and adjusting the electric field, which determines the ions' kinetic
energy.
• Challenges: Implantation can damage the crystal structure and leave dopants
electrically inactive. To address this, a thermal annealing step is performed, often
using a Rapid Thermal Anneal (RTA) tool, to repair damage and activate dopants
by incorporating them into the silicon lattice structure.
• Channelling: Controlled by wafer tilt, screen oxide layers, or pre-amorphization
to prevent ions from avoiding collisions with silicon atoms.

Different CMOS doping

Stopping Mechanisms: -

Two possibilities when a high energy ion enters a solid (such as single crystal Si):

1. Electronic Stopping: Positively charged ion slows down as it passes

through the clouds of electrons surrounding the Si atoms.

2. Nuclear stopping: Ion scatters as it encounters the positively charged

nuclei of silicon atoms.
Ion Implantation Tool Components:

• Ion Source: Generates ions, commonly using a Freeman ion source.

• Extraction Electrode and Ion Analyzer: Collects and forms ions into a beam.
• Acceleration Column: Accelerates ions in an electric field.
• Scanning System: Scans the small-diameter ion beam across the entire wafer.

• Process Chamber: Houses the implantation process, including scanning system,

end station with vacuum load locks, wafer handler system, and computer control
system.

Ion implanter tool

Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)

CMP Tool
Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) is a crucial technology used to achieve the
optimal flatness of a wafer surface before the next layer of information is added:

Need for CMP: -

• To meet Depth of Focus (DoF) value

• To avoid formation of metal stringers

• To enable multi-level interconnection

• To avoid inadequate step coverage of metal lines

Without CMP

With CMP

• Mechanism: Involves a held wafer rotating against a polyurethane pad in an

orbital motion, using slurry containing additives and typically silica or ceria
particles to abrasively remove material.
• CMP Mechanism for Metal Polish: Combines chemical oxidation and
mechanical abrasion.
• Pattern Density Effects: Regions with narrowly spaced features often polish
faster than widely spaced ones.
 • Slurry Composition: Varies based on the surface being polished. For example:

o Oxide Slurry: Often an alkaline medium with fine silica powder.

o Tungsten Slurry: May include alumina or silica powder in hydrogen

peroxide.
o Copper Slurry: Typically, a basic solution with alumina powder and an
ammonia complexing agent to dissolve copper oxides.
• Polishing Pad: Usually made of porous polyurethane material that requires
regular conditioning to maintain effectiveness.

Factors Affecting CMP:

• Selectivity: Different materials polish at different rates, crucial for uniformity and
planarity.
• Overburden: Excess material deposited prior to polishing, affecting total polish
time.

• Endpoint Detection: Critical for determining when planarization is complete,

using methods like motor current and optical endpoint detection.

CMP Setup

• Pad Surface: Equipped with rotation and concentric grooves to facilitate slurry
transport across the pad-wafer interface. The slurry loosens the wafer surface for
material removal by the pad.
• Polishing Pad: The surface properties influence material removal and process
quality. Continuous reconditioning by abrasion is needed as the pad degrades.
• Reconditioning Tools: Often include rotating abrasives or conditioning disks
made of stainless steel or electroplated diamond.
Thin Film Deposition
Thin Film Deposition applies a very thin film of material, ranging from a few
nanometres to about 100 micrometres, onto a substrate surface or previously deposited
coating to form layers. This technology is divided into two main categories: Chemical
Deposition and Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD).
Parameters in thin film: -
• Step Coverage- Ability to cover/coat over steps/topography.
o Sidewall step coverage =
b/a

o Bottom step coverage=

d/a

• Conformity- Ability to follow topography. Conformity= b/c

• Overhang- Extent of extra deposition on corne Overhang = (c-b)/b

• Aspect Ratio- Ratio between the height/depth to the space /diameter

of a gap. AR= h/w

Fig 2.17 parameters for thin film

1. Chemical Deposition: Involves a volatile fluid precursor that produces a

chemical change on the surface, resulting in a chemically deposited coating.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is used to produce the highest-purity, highest-
performance solid materials in the semiconductor industry today.

Types of CVD

• APCVD (Atmospheric Pressure CVD):

 Used for depositing Boron Phosphorous Silicate Glass (BPSG) at 400°C.
The precursor for silicon is TEOS, with O3 as the oxidizer. Boron and
phosphorus dopants use TEB and TMPO, respectively. This method ensures
uniform coverage over active areas.

• PECVD (Plasma Enhanced CVD):

Utilizes plasma to enhance deposition processes at lower temperatures

(<450°C), preventing diffusion issues, especially for SiO2 on Al. RF-induced
plasma energizes reactant gases into radicals, enhancing reactivity. It offers
control over stress and high deposition rates (~8000Å/min). However, it can
lead to plasma damage and impure films with hydrogen incorporation. Used
for SixNy deposition, combining N2O with SiH4 for SiO2 and NH3 with
SiH4 for Si3N4.

• HDP-CVD (High Density Plasma CVD):

Creates high-density plasma at low pressure using high-power RF energy.

Incorporates Bias RF for physical sputtering and chemical etching alongside
deposition, crucial for processes like Passivation, VIA-USG, and STI.
Achieves excellent gap filling across diverse geometries.

• MOCVD (Metal Organic CVD):

Deposition method for single or polycrystalline thin films using metal-

organic reagents containing target metals. Reagents are introduced via a
showerhead onto heated wafers (~400°C), suitable for Ti/TiN deposition in
vias while avoiding damage to aluminium layers.
• MCVD (Metal CVD):

Deposition of CVD tungsten in two stages: silane reduction for nucleation

layer deposition and high-rate blanket deposition with hydrogen reduction to
achieve desired thickness. Crucial for filling holes and trenches in multilevel
metallization.

Aspect Ratio
2. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD): Involves releasing material from a
source and depositing it on a substrate using mechanical, electromechanical, or
thermodynamic processes. The most common PVD technique is sputtering.

Sputtering Process:

• Mechanism: A target material is bombarded with high-energy particles in a

vacuum chamber containing an inert gas, usually Argon. A negative electric
charge is placed on the target material, causing plasma to form and glow.
Atoms are 'sputtered off' the target by collisions with Argon gas atoms and are
deposited as a thin film on the substrate.
• Applications: Widely used for coating substrates like silicon wafers or solar
panels.
• Techniques: Include ion beam and ion-assisted sputtering, reactive sputtering
in an oxygen gas environment, gas flow, and magnetron sputtering.

Types of PVD Sputtering:

1. DC Sputtering:

DC sputtering involves applying a negative DC voltage to the target

electrode, while the wafer sits on a grounded bottom electrode in an
argon gas-filled chamber. The gas is ionized to form plasma, and Ar+
ions bombard the target, dislodging atoms that deposit onto the wafer
through the plasma. It is primarily used for depositing metal layers such
as Al, W, Ti, and silicides.

2. RF (Radio Frequency) Sputtering:

RF sputtering is utilized for depositing insulators via PVD. Regular

supply of electrons to the insulator surface prevents the accumulation of
positive charge on the negatively charged electrode. This is achieved by
applying radio frequency (RF) AC voltage.

3. Magnetron Sputtering:

In DC and RF sputtering, ionization efficiency from energetic collisions

between electrons and gas atoms is typically low, resulting in low
deposition rates. Magnetron sputtering addresses this by using magnets
to increase the percentage of electrons involved in ionization events. A
magnetic field placed behind the target traps electrons near its surface,
causing them to spiral until colliding with an Ar atom. This significantly
enhances ionization and sputtering efficiencies. The orbital motion of
 electrons increases the probability of collision with neutral species,
creating ions.

4. IMP (Ion Metal Plasma) Sputtering:

IMP sputtering involves ionizing metal clusters ejected from the target
using ionizing coils. This ionization charges titanium or aluminium metal
atoms, attracting them vertically towards the wafer. Uniform deposition
is achieved even if the atoms are initially ejected at different angles from
the target due to the attractive forces exerted by the ionized particles.

YIELD

Yield represents the fraction or percentage of good chips produced in a manufacturing

process. A good chip meets all parametric and functional tests specified for the product.
Yield is essential for understanding defect inspection and defect review processes.

Defects and Yield:

A defect is an imperfection or undesired effect that deviates from specified

requirements. Detecting and controlling defects is crucial to maintain a high yield, as
some defects can render a device non-functional.

Yield

Defect Inspection:

• Involves scanning the wafer for defects.

• Detects any deviation from a reference as a defect.

• Aims to find and rectify defects to improve yield.

Defect Review:

• Classifies defects captured during wafer inspection.

 • Stores defect images for future reference.
Defect Analysis:

Defect analysis is primarily conducted using microscopes, including:

1. Optical Microscope:

• Uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify small samples.

• Ensures precise organization and guidance of light rays through the

instrument.

• Illumination is critical for achieving high-quality images in microscopy,

photomicrography, and digital imaging.

2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):

• Observes and analyses the surface microstructure of a bulk sample using a

finely focused beam of energetic electrons.

• An electron optical system forms the electron probe, which is scanned

across the sample surface in a raster pattern.

• Various signals are generated through the interaction of the electron beam
with the sample, which are collected and analysed by appropriate
detectors.

• For imaging, the signal amplitude obtained at each position in the raster
pattern is assembled to form an image.

• SEM provides high resolution and depth of focus, easily adjustable

magnification ranges, and minimal sample preparation requirements.

• The high resolution (very small probe size) is due to the low mass and
short wavelength of energetic electrons (0.007 nm at 30 kV).

• High brightness electron sources and electron optics allow the formation
and manipulation of fine focused electron beams for probing the sample
surface.
 Project
Ion Implantation

Ion implantation is a crucial process in semiconductor manufacturing, used to introduce

dopants into a silicon wafer to modify its electrical properties. This technique offers precise
control over dopant concentration and distribution, enabling the creation of complex
semiconductor devices with specific characteristics. Below is an in-depth discussion of ion
implantation, covering its principles, equipment, processes, effects on the silicon lattice,
defects, and applications.

1. Principles of Ion Implantation

Ion implantation involves accelerating ions of a desired dopant species to high energies and
directing them onto the silicon wafer. The ions penetrate the surface and embed themselves
within the lattice, altering the electrical properties of the silicon.
1.1. Dopant Species
The choice of dopant species is crucial in determining the electrical characteristics of the
silicon. Common dopant species include:
 Boron (B): Used for p-type doping, boron atoms accept electrons, creating holes
(positive charge carriers) in the silicon lattice. Boron is preferred due to its small atomic
size, which allows for shallow junctions and precise control over the doping profile.
 Phosphorus (P): Used for n-type doping, phosphorus atoms donate electrons, creating
negative charge carriers. Phosphorus has a relatively high solubility in silicon, making
it suitable for high-concentration doping.
 Arsenic (As): Also used for n-type doping, arsenic atoms donate electrons. Arsenic's
larger atomic size compared to phosphorus results in slower diffusion rates, which is
beneficial for creating well-defined, shallow junctions.
 Antimony (Sb): Another n-type dopant, antimony has even larger atomic size and
slower diffusion rates than arsenic, providing additional options for tailoring doping
profiles.
1.2. Energy and Dose
The energy and dose of the implanted ions are critical parameters in the ion implantation
process:
 Energy: The energy of the ions, typically ranging from a few keV (kilo-electron volts)
to several MeV (mega-electron volts), determines the depth of ion penetration into the
silicon wafer. Higher energies result in deeper implantation, which is necessary for
creating buried layers or wells. Lower energies are used for shallow junctions and
surface modifications.
  Dose: The dose, measured in ions per square centimeter (ions/cm²), represents the total
number of ions implanted into the wafer. The dose determines the concentration of
dopants in the silicon. Low doses are used for adjusting threshold voltages, while high
doses are required for source/drain regions and other heavily doped areas.

2. Ion Implantation Equipment

Ion implantation systems are highly sophisticated and consist of several key components:
2.1. Ion Source
The ion source is the heart of the ion implantation system, generating ions from the dopant
material. It typically involves ionizing a dopant gas or vapor using electrical discharges or
electron bombardment. Common types of ion sources include:
 Plasma-Based Sources: These sources use a plasma to ionize the dopant gas. The
plasma is created by applying a high voltage across a low-pressure gas, causing
ionization and the formation of positive ions.
 Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) Sources: ECR sources use a combination of
magnetic and electric fields to generate a high-density plasma, producing a large
number of ions with high efficiency.
 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Sources: ICP sources use an inductive coil to
generate a plasma, providing a high ionization efficiency and stable ion beam.
2.2. Accelerator
The accelerator increases the energy of the ions to the desired level using electric fields. This
process ensures that the ions have sufficient energy to penetrate the silicon wafer to the required
depth. The accelerator typically consists of:
 Extraction Electrode: Positioned near the ion source, this electrode extracts ions from
the plasma and directs them into the acceleration stage.
 Electrostatic Lenses: These lenses focus and steer the ion beam, ensuring a narrow,
well-defined beam profile.
 Acceleration Tube: This component applies a high voltage across a series of electrodes,
accelerating the ions to the desired energy.
2.3. Mass Analyzer
The mass analyzer separates ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio, ensuring that only the
desired dopant species reach the wafer. This step is crucial for preventing contamination by
unwanted elements. The mass analyzer typically consists of:
 Magnetic Sector: A magnetic field bends the ion beam, causing ions with different
mass-to-charge ratios to follow different trajectories. Only ions with the desired mass-
to-charge ratio pass through an aperture to the next stage.
  Quadrupole Mass Filter: This device uses oscillating electric fields to selectively
transmit ions of a specific mass-to-charge ratio, providing high-resolution mass
separation.
2.4. Beam Line
The beam line directs the ion beam towards the wafer. It includes focusing and steering
mechanisms to ensure uniform ion distribution across the wafer surface. Key components of
the beam line include:
 Focusing Elements: Electrostatic or magnetic lenses focus the ion beam to a fine point,
ensuring precise control over the implantation area.
 Steering Elements: These elements adjust the direction of the ion beam, allowing for
uniform coverage of the wafer surface.
 Beam Scanner: A scanning system moves the ion beam across the wafer, ensuring even
distribution of ions over the entire surface.
2.5. End Station
The end station holds the silicon wafer and allows precise control over its position and
orientation. It can also include cooling systems to manage the heat generated during
implantation. Components of the end station include:
 Wafer Holder: A mechanical system that securely holds the wafer in place during
implantation.
 Alignment System: Ensures precise alignment of the wafer with the ion beam, critical
for achieving uniform doping profiles.
 Cooling System: Maintains the wafer at a stable temperature, preventing thermal
damage and ensuring consistent implantation results.

3. Ion Implantation Process

The ion implantation process can be divided into several stages:
3.1. Pre-implantation Preparation
Before implantation, the silicon wafer undergoes cleaning to remove any surface contaminants.
This step ensures that the implanted ions can penetrate the surface without interference.
Common cleaning techniques include:
 Chemical Cleaning: Using solvents and acids to remove organic residues and
inorganic contaminants.
 Plasma Cleaning: Exposing the wafer to a plasma to remove organic contaminants and
improve surface adhesion.
3.2. Implantation
During implantation, the dopant ions are accelerated and directed onto the wafer. The process
parameters, such as energy, dose, and angle of incidence, are carefully controlled to achieve
the desired doping profile. Key considerations during implantation include:
 Uniformity: Ensuring that the ion beam is evenly distributed across the wafer surface
to achieve uniform doping.
 Dose Control: Precisely controlling the number of ions implanted to achieve the
desired concentration.
 Angle of Incidence: Adjusting the angle at which ions strike the wafer to control the
depth and distribution of dopants.
3.3. Post-implantation Annealing
After implantation, the wafer typically undergoes annealing to repair the damage caused by ion
bombardment and to activate the dopants. Annealing involves heating the wafer to high
temperatures, allowing the silicon atoms to move and the dopant atoms to occupy substitutional
sites in the lattice. Common annealing techniques include:
 Rapid Thermal Annealing (RTA): Heating the wafer to high temperatures for short
periods (seconds to minutes) using lamps or lasers. RTA minimizes diffusion while
effectively repairing damage and activating dopants.
 Furnace Annealing: Heating the wafer in a furnace for longer periods (minutes to
hours). Furnace annealing provides uniform heating but can result in more significant
dopant diffusion.
3.4. Activation and Diffusion
Annealing also helps in activating the dopants, meaning that the dopant atoms are incorporated
into the silicon lattice and contribute free carriers (electrons or holes). Additionally, annealing
can cause dopant diffusion, which can be controlled to adjust the doping profile further. Factors
influencing activation and diffusion include:
 Temperature: Higher temperatures increase dopant diffusion rates and enhance
activation but can lead to unwanted spreading of the dopant profile.
 Time: Longer annealing times increase diffusion and activation but can also result in
greater dopant redistribution.
 Ambient Atmosphere: The atmosphere in which annealing is performed (e.g., inert
gas, oxygen) can influence the diffusion and activation processes.

4. Channeling and Shadowing Effects

Ion implantation is not without its challenges, and two significant effects that must be managed
are channeling and shadowing.
4.1. Channeling
Channeling occurs when implanted ions travel along the crystallographic planes or axes of the
silicon lattice, penetrating deeper than intended. This effect can lead to non-uniform dopant
distribution and complicate the control of doping profiles. Factors influencing channeling
include:
 Crystal Orientation: The orientation of the silicon wafer relative to the ion beam can
affect the likelihood of channeling. Tilting the wafer at a small angle can reduce
channeling by disrupting the aligned pathways in the crystal lattice.
 Ion Species: Heavier ions are less prone to channeling compared to lighter ions due to
their larger mass and greater scattering probability.
 Implantation Energy: Higher energy ions are more likely to channel because they can
penetrate deeper along the crystallographic pathways.

Methods to minimize channeling include:

 Tilting the Wafer: Implanting at an angle to the wafer surface reduces the likelihood
of ions traveling along the channels.
 Pre-amorphization: Creating an amorphous layer on the wafer surface before
implantation disrupts the crystalline structure and reduces channeling effects.

4.2. Shadowing
Shadowing occurs when certain areas of the wafer are shielded from the ion beam by
topographical features, such as raised patterns or structures on the wafer surface. This effect
can lead to non-uniform doping and variations in device performance. Factors influencing
shadowing include:
 Surface Topography: The presence of raised or recessed features on the wafer surface
can create shadowed regions where fewer ions are implanted.
 Beam Angle: The angle of the ion beam relative to the wafer surface can exacerbate or
mitigate shadowing effects. Adjusting the beam angle and using multiple implantation
steps can help achieve more uniform doping.
  Masking: Masks used during implantation to define specific regions can also create
shadowed areas. Proper mask design and alignment are crucial to minimizing
shadowing.
Careful control of implantation parameters and wafer handling can reduce the impact of
shadowing, ensuring more uniform doping profiles across the wafer.

5. Defects Induced by Ion Implantation

Defects
Ion implantation, while crucial for doping semiconductors, inevitably introduces various
defects into the silicon lattice. Understanding and managing these defects are essential for
ensuring the quality and performance of the final semiconductor devices.
5.1. Point Defects
Point defects are individual atoms or vacancies in the silicon lattice that disrupt the perfect
crystalline structure. Common point defects include:
 Vacancies: Missing silicon atoms in the lattice.
 Interstitials: Silicon atoms displaced from their regular lattice positions into the spaces
between atoms.
 Substitutional Defects: Dopant atoms occupying silicon lattice sites.
These point defects can recombine during annealing, helping to repair some of the lattice
damage.
5.2. Line Defects (Dislocations)

Line defects or dislocations are disruptions in the lattice that extend along a line. They can form
during implantation due to the high-energy collisions and can propagate during subsequent
thermal processes. Dislocations can act as sites for leakage currents and negatively impact
device performance.
5.3. Planar Defects

Planer Defects
Planar defects, such as stacking faults and twin boundaries, occur when there is a misalignment
of the silicon crystal planes. These defects can form due to excessive lattice damage during
high-dose implantation. Planar defects can trap carriers and affect the mobility and lifetime of
charge carriers in the silicon.
5.4. Volume Defects (Clusters and Voids)
Volume defects are larger-scale disruptions in the silicon lattice that can form clusters of
vacancies or interstitials. These defects can create regions of high stress and strain within the
silicon, leading to further defects and impacting the mechanical integrity of the wafer.

6. Applications of Ion Implantation

Ion implantation is used in various stages of semiconductor device fabrication, each with
specific goals and requirements.
6.1. Well Formation
In CMOS technology, ion implantation is used to form n-wells and p-wells, which are regions
with different doping types that define the basic structure of transistors. Well formation
involves implanting dopants at specific depths and concentrations to create the desired
electrical characteristics. Precise control over well doping is essential for optimizing device
performance and minimizing leakage currents.
6.2. Source and Drain Doping
The source and drain regions of MOSFETs are heavily doped using ion implantation to create
regions with high carrier concentrations, ensuring efficient current flow. Source/drain doping
involves implanting n-type or p-type dopants at high doses to create low-resistance contacts.
The implantation parameters, such as energy and dose, are carefully controlled to achieve the
desired doping profiles and minimize short-channel effects.
6.3. Threshold Voltage Adjustment
By implanting specific dopants under the gate region, the threshold voltage of transistors can
be precisely controlled, optimizing the device's performance. Threshold voltage adjustment
involves low-dose implants that fine-tune the electrical characteristics of the transistor channel.
This step is crucial for achieving consistent device performance across a wafer and ensuring
proper operation at different power levels.
6.4. Isolation and Junction Formation
Ion implantation is used to create isolation regions between devices and form p-n junctions,
which are essential for the operation of diodes, transistors, and other semiconductor devices.
Isolation regions are typically created using high-energy implants to achieve deep, well-defined
doping profiles. Junction formation involves creating regions with opposite doping types,
enabling the rectifying behavior of diodes and the switching behavior of transistors.
6.5. Doping of Thin Films
In advanced semiconductor technologies, ion implantation is also used to dope thin films and
other materials integrated into the device structure. Thin film doping involves precise control
over implantation parameters to achieve uniform doping profiles in materials such as silicon-
germanium (SiGe), silicon carbide (SiC), and gallium nitride (GaN). This step is essential for
optimizing the electrical and optical properties of advanced materials used in high-performance
and optoelectronic devices.

7. Types of Ion Implantation Techniques

Ion implantation is a versatile process that can be tailored to specific applications and device
structures through various techniques:
7.1. Retrograde Well Implant
Retrograde well implants involve creating doping profiles that increase in concentration with
depth, forming wells with a lower surface concentration and higher concentration deeper in the
silicon. This technique is used to reduce the electric field near the surface, minimizing short-
channel effects and improving device performance. Retrograde wells are essential for deep
submicron CMOS technologies, where controlling the electric field is critical for maintaining
device reliability and performance.
7.2. Halo Implant
Halo implants, also known as pocket implants, are used to create regions of opposite doping
near the source and drain regions of a transistor. These regions help to control the threshold
voltage and reduce short-channel effects by counteracting the electric field from the source and
drain. Halo implants are particularly useful in advanced CMOS technologies, where scaling
down the transistor dimensions increases the risk of short-channel effects and threshold voltage
variations.
7.3. Lightly Doped Drain (LDD) Implant
LDD implants are used to create lightly doped regions between the heavily doped source/drain
and the channel region of a MOSFET. These regions help to reduce the electric field near the
drain, minimizing hot carrier effects and improving device reliability. LDD implants are
essential for maintaining the performance and longevity of MOSFETs in high-speed and high-
power applications.
7.4. Source/Drain Implant
Source/drain implants involve heavily doping the regions at the ends of the transistor channel
to create low-resistance contacts. These implants are critical for ensuring efficient current flow
between the source, drain, and channel regions. The source/drain implant process must be
carefully controlled to achieve the desired doping concentration and depth while minimizing
short-channel effects and maintaining device performance.
7.5. Anti-Punchthrough Implant
Anti-punchthrough implants are used to prevent punchthrough, a condition where the depletion
regions of the source and drain merge, and causing leakage currents. This technique involves
creating a doped region beneath the channel to control the vertical electric field and prevent
punchthrough. Anti-punchthrough implants are crucial for maintaining the integrity and
performance of transistors in deep submicron technologies, where short-channel effects are
more pronounced.
7.6. Anti-Latchup Implant
Latchup is a condition where a parasitic thyristor structure within a CMOS circuit is
inadvertently activated, leading to a short circuit and potential device failure. Anti-latchup
implants involve creating heavily doped regions to isolate the parasitic structures and prevent
latchup from occurring. These implants are essential for ensuring the robustness and reliability
of CMOS circuits, particularly in high-density and high-speed applications.

8. Stopping Mechanisms in Ion Implantation

The stopping mechanism of ions in silicon is critical for determining the depth and distribution
of the implanted dopants. The stopping mechanisms can be categorized into two main types:
nuclear stopping and electronic stopping.

Stopping Mechanism
8.1. Nuclear Stopping
Nuclear stopping occurs when the implanted ions collide with the silicon atoms, transferring
energy through elastic collisions. This mechanism dominates at low ion energies and is
responsible for displacing silicon atoms, creating vacancies and interstitials. Nuclear stopping
can be controlled by adjusting the ion energy and dose to achieve the desired doping profile.
8.2. Electronic Stopping
Electronic stopping occurs when the implanted ions interact with the electrons in the silicon
lattice, losing energy through inelastic collisions. This mechanism dominates at high ion
energies and results in the ion slowing down without significant lattice damage. Electronic
stopping is influenced by factors such as ion energy, charge state, and the electronic structure
of the silicon.

Conclusion
Ion implantation is a cornerstone of modern semiconductor manufacturing, enabling precise
control over dopant distribution and concentration. Its versatility and precision make it
indispensable for fabricating a wide range of semiconductor devices, from basic transistors to
complex integrated circuits. However, managing the defects induced by ion implantation is
crucial for maintaining device performance and reliability. Through careful control of
implantation parameters, innovative techniques, and advanced equipment, ion implantation
continues to evolve, meeting the demands of next-generation electronic devices and ensuring
higher performance, greater reliability, and enhanced functionality.