DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

Title: DNA Biochemistry and Transfer.

Author: Festus Wamukoko.

Institution: University of the People.

CHEM 3212-01 Biochemistry - AY2024-T4

Instructor: Robert James

Learning Journal Unit 2.

Due Date: 26th. April 2024.

1
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

Title: DNA Biochemistry and Transfer.

Introduction.

The journey of genetics from its historical roots to the intricate biochemistry of DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) reveals pivotal insights into the mechanisms governing life.

Gregor Mendel, renowned as the father of modern genetics, laid the groundwork

through his meticulous pea plant experiments, championing inheritance laws. His

contemporary, Thomas Hunt Morgan, expanded this foundation by establishing the

chromosomal basis of heredity using Drosophila.

Part 1: Historical Foundations of Genetics

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884):

Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, is often identified as the father of modern genetics.

In the 1860s, Mendel conducted groundbreaking experiments on pea plants, carefully

tracking traits across generations. Despite not knowing genes or DNA existence,

Mendel's work established the laws of inheritance, highlighting the existence of discrete

hereditary units (later termed genes) and the principles of dominant and recessive traits.

Tools Used: Mendel's experiments relied on simple tools like a microscope for

observations and controlled breeding methods for garden peas.

2
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

Significance: Mendel's discoveries laid the foundation for modern genetics, providing a

quantitative framework to understand genetic inheritance. His work led to the

development of the chromosomal theory of inheritance, pivotal in shaping our current

understanding of genetic mechanisms.

Phenotype Expression: Mendel's laws elucidate how genetic information (genotype)

manifests as observable traits (phenotype), providing a fundamental link between

genotype and phenotype (Biography.com Editors, 2021).

Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945):

Thomas Hunt Morgan, an American biologist, furthered the study of genetics by

focusing on the role of chromosomes in inheritance. In the early 20th century, Morgan

conducted extensive research using the fruit fly Drosophila, demonstrating that genes

are located on chromosomes and are responsible for specific traits.

Tools Used: Morgan utilized microscopes for cytological studies and developed

breeding techniques to analyze patterns of inheritance.

Significance: Morgan's research solidified the chromosomal theory of inheritance and

highlighted the linkage between genes and chromosomes, establishing the basis for

understanding genetic mapping and sex-linked traits.

Phenotype Expression: Morgan's work emphasized how specific genes (located on

chromosomes) influence phenotypic traits, contributing to our understanding of genetic

linkage and recombination (Kenney & Borisy, 2009).

3
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

Part 2: Biochemistry of Genes and DNA Processes

Components of DNA and their chemical structures.

Understanding the biochemistry of genes is fundamental for unraveling the intricate

mechanisms of gene regulation. Genes, segments of DNA, encode genetic information

critical for cellular functions (Ahern et al., 2018). DNA, the blueprint of life, consists of

nucleotides composed of a phosphate group that provides a negative charge and links

adjacent nucleotides together. Deoxyribose sugar is composed of a five-carbon sugar

that forms the backbone of the DNA strand., and nitrogenous bases—adenine (A),

thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The bases pair specifically: A with T (via

two hydrogen bonds) and C with G (via three hydrogen bonds). The sequence of these

bases forms the genetic code (Alberts et al., 2002).

The chemistry between AT and GC pairing concerning stability and variance among

organisms.

The stability and specificity of DNA are rooted in base pairing as outlined by Bohlin

and colleagues (2017), A pairs with T through two hydrogen bonds, and G pairs with C

through three hydrogen bonds. This pairing is pivotal in DNA's double-helical structure

and influences genetic variability across species. These interactions are vital in

conferring stability to higher-order structures of DNA and RNA (ribonucleic acid)

transcripts. For example, mutations tend to make DNA more AT-rich, mainly because

cytosine can change to thymine through deamination. In studies with Escherichia coli

bacteria, researchers noticed a strong link between genetic fitness and GC content when

4
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

they tested synthetic versions of a GFP gene with different GC levels. This suggests that

higher GC content might be linked to stronger bacterial natural selection.

GC-rich DNA is favored because it forms a more stable structure than AT-rich DNA.

This stability comes at a cost, as it requires more energy for guanine and cytosine to

stack together than adenine and thymine. GC-rich genomes may also be preferred

because they use less energy-demanding amino acids. Bacteria often deactivate or

"silence" foreign DNA rich in AT base pairs, such as from viruses.

Conversely, when microbes evolve in symbiosis, their DNA might become more AT-

rich due to relaxed natural selection, AT mutation bias, and loss of DNA repair abilities.

Non-coding regions of microbial DNA are typically more AT-rich, possibly because

these areas face less evolutionary pressure than coding sections (Bohlin et al., 2017).

DNA replication and the occurrence of mutations, deletions, duplications, and repair of

damaged DNA.

DNA replication ensures uninterrupted transmission of genetic information during cell

division. Enzymes like DNA polymerase synthesize new DNA strands, correcting errors

through proofreading mechanisms. Mutations—changes in DNA sequence—can result

from replication errors, chemical damage, or external factors affecting gene function

(Ahern et al., 2018). In addition, DNA repair mechanisms are essential in both

prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, with evolutionarily conserved proteins. Cells

have evolved sophisticated methods to detect and repair DNA damage caused by

environmental factors or replication errors. Since DNA is crucial for cell division, DNA

repair is tightly regulated with the cell cycle (G1, S, G2, M phases). Checkpoint

5
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

mechanisms during the cell cycle ensure DNA integrity before replication and division.

Failure in these checkpoints can result in DNA damage accumulation and mutations

(Clancy, 2008).

3 processes by which DNA is transferred from one cell to another.

According to research, Bacterial DNA transfer occurs through transformation,

transduction (mediated by bacteriophages), and conjugation (plasmid-mediated). These

mechanisms are studied to understand horizontal gene transfer (HGT). While yeast can

take up DNA in certain conditions, eukaryotes lack known natural DNA uptake

methods. In HGT between Wolbachia and Aedes aegypti, bacteriophages may facilitate

gene transfer. Giant viruses might also mediate bacterial-to-eukaryote DNA transfer,

although unconfirmed. Alphaproteobacteria, like Agrobacterium and Rhizobium, known

for symbiotic or pathogenic interactions with eukaryotes, often transfer DNA. Their

mobilome, containing shared plasmids, facilitates gene mobility, contributing to their

ability to transfer DNA to eukaryotic cells (Lacroix & Citovsky, 2016).

Conclusion:

The biochemistry of genes unfolds the marvels of DNA, encoding life's blueprints

through intricate base-pairing mechanisms. This molecular choreography orchestrates

genetic expression and stability, with implications for evolution and disease. DNA

repair mechanisms ensure fidelity and are critical for cellular integrity across kingdoms.

However, horizontal gene transfer mediated by diverse agents underscores genetic

fluidity in microbial evolution and symbiosis. Understanding these processes elucidates

life's origins and holds promise for biotechnological innovations. Understanding the

6
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

biochemistry of DNA, including its structure, replication, and transfer mechanisms, is

fundamental to deciphering genetic regulation and phenotype expression. As our

knowledge expands, so does our appreciation of the complex interplay between genes

and traits, highlighting the continual exploration and discovery that defines the field of

genetics.

1101 Words.

7
 DNA Biochemistry and Transfer

References:

Ahern, K., Rajagopal , I., & Tan, T. (2018, September 15). Biochemistry Free and Easy |

Biochemistry and Biophysics | Oregon State University. Biochem.oregonstate.edu.

https://biochem.oregonstate.edu/content/biochemistry-free-and-easy

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2002). The

Structure and Function of DNA. Nih.gov; Garland Science.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26821/

Biography.com Editors. (2021, May 21). Gregor Mendel - Life, Experiments & Facts.

Biography. https://www.biography.com/scientists/gregor-mendel

Bohlin, J., Eldholm, V., Pettersson, J. H. O., Brynildsrud, O., & Snipen, L. (2017). The

nucleotide composition of microbial genomes indicates differential patterns of selection

on core and accessory genomes. BMC Genomics, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-

017-3543-7

Clancy, S. (2008). Mutation, DNA Repair, and DNA Integrity | Learn Science at Scitable.

Www.nature.com. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-damage-repair-

mechanisms-for-maintaining-dna-344/#:~:text=During%20the%20cell%20cycle%2C

%20checkpoint

Kenney, D. E., & Borisy, G. G. (2009). Thomas Hunt Morgan at the Marine Biological

Laboratory: Naturalist and Experimentalist. Genetics, 181(3), 841–846.

https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.109.101659

Lacroix, B., & Citovsky, V. (2016). Transfer of DNA from Bacteria to Eukaryotes. MBio,

7(4). https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00863-16