General Navigation

On Basics
of Navigation Units Calculate TAS
↓
if (300kts don't apply
TAs
02 Visual
Flight Rule (UFR)
Navigation
with Pressure Altitude 7000ft CAS= 125 compressibility factor
The Earth 1.852km 1. 15SM
6080ff Ex: Ground Features
=
+NM = = =

OAT = +5
ecliptic: the plane in which the Earth orbits the Sun 1 SM= 5280 fh "Power line"
⑦ ②
&

from Earth, the apparent of the Sun

·

movement ↑ 139
At 3.6 =

Nm) Night flight

·

problem -> in
identifying colors

Brown
shape of the Earth, based the surface
geoid: irregular a)
on Res

Navigation techniques
1 inch 2.54cm VER
↳
=

othe oceans influenced only by gravity and centrifugal forces

Y
My
~ged
mountains 10
m/s 20 kts
Contour indicate
close
together steep slope
=

15c · lines a

Rate of 1 3.28 ft
change of daylight
m
duration
=
·

If QNH corrections needed: levels curve

hypometric chart refer
meridian?great
are · on
circle
->
greatest at equinoxes On a
if QNH high you lower the pressure altitude (if you have more
pressure
it's like if you're at sea level) to altitude
->
directly proportional to Son's declination
1 = 60
Speed
60NM =
·
visual checkpoint: visual position that coincides

WGS 84: international standard ellipsoid 1 = INM

(correct all
450N/S
with
position on chart

circle
-> equator is the
only true
great Converting
Mach-TES
units with ES-B
Great Circles
average climb/descent
and Rhumb lines
W
Earth circumference:
23.58
Ex: Convert 154 SM-NM OATthEs
Diameter:
Great Circles
· 21 '600NM 1)
Aligh NM with SM
NM
verticaldistance(itis CNm)
40'000 Gradient
degrees (0)
12700km
Eg. TAS Biggest
am
CAS circle
· ·

draw sphere
a ·

Si
154SM=134NM
= =

you can on a

Position 2) Read
↑
air density ·
a circle on the surface of a
sphere which lies in a
plane passing through the sphere's center

verticaldistance(itsCNm)
15 154

Departure (NM Olongitude [min] = ·

cos(late *
on EC-B
you can
only convert from fftom (and not fottokm)
Gradient (%) =
·
Represents the shortest distance between two
points

Chicken Tikka Massala ·

Vertex is the location on the surface of earth with the
highest
gradient (.) =
vertical distance (ft7
latitude NorS (two vertices)
I Departure instance between latitude increases
D) horizontal distance (f7 A Hitude CAS TAs Mach constant
a
270
-> At vertex, the track either
090(flying East) flying west

I
a is or

·P
P I GONM
Convergence
S

long 5] .sin(lat)
·
S
=

7
RODK/] gradient (.). GS /rt]

"
↑

= N TN
M a

airspeed
55N

Ng
↑gl son
-

I
35
c. Conversion ↳, 55
no
angle X2 =

long [] sin(lat) Equator

parallel of latitude ROD =
GS.5 for 3 Slope

Speed [Its] (NM/min)

meridinga
small
circle

Irainta
latitude latile
e prime gradicule ROD
C5. angle for any slope
gl= geocentric
glgeographic
=

6g I
⑱
12 O I
30W SOE 150E
3 go
&
+90
18 0

240 4

egatora
ICE-T Rhumb lines
LATiTUDE
Indicated Calibrated Equivalent True line that meridian at
crosses same
angle
·

v ~ vadensity TAS
line of constant direction the surface of the earth
CAS.2;.ALLA
· on

irection CAS
&
=
position compressibilit
+

equator: rhumb line

·

Isogonal: equal magnetic variation.

Converge at north and south
geographic and
magnetic pole
· Isocinal: equal dip Convert unite with EGB
·

parallel of latitude: rhumb line

meridian:
·
Aclinic: zero dip (magnetic equator) ·
rhumb line

Agonic line: magnetic variation Imp Gal US Gal 7

Imp = 85 USG
(A =
zero, Clinic: dip)
zero +

TKE =
distance off-track. SO Drift: Difference between TH and TT ⑪ ②
Track Error that
↑
you are

Angle
distance
along track
Track error: Difference between TV
actually flying
and TT
(not planned track)
Relationship
ISO
INM
ThE =

& TKE
4 5NM
Northern hemisphere
Effective TAS: TAS. COSIWCA)
To
get back on track
---
TKE = 3.60 = 50 great circle
(230
3
THE2 =
310 = 18

Triangle
35
Deviation velocities (TOU)
↑ S

230 sign of rhumb line

18
+1
-

1 W

somPass de
Talia manneric reialian I
re
reading
Question using
flight computer and wind
·

W if WCA noo -> calculate effective TAS =

COSCWCA). TAs
WEST is best
direction of
&E
Magnetic track
angle: a line referenced to

East least Magnetic North

&
ead
is

reckoning (DR)
(longitudinal axis refers to
heading)
Magnetic variation due to the
Bearing is with respect to heading Formula valid for 3
glide path:
changing
·

changes position
·

of magnetic material the earth

"forecasted wind"
in
·
ROD = GS. 5
10 in 5
years
·

ROD Speed Factor (SF). glide path angle

Navigation climb and descent 100
=
in -

*
istances TAS calculated at the altitude
·
Average is reference Rule of thumb

Departure [NMT Olong [min].cos(lat) long TAS

in climb: reference altitude
tS+Gi IES
· =

=/ altitude)
= *
·
=
↑
small departure + initial alt

t high altitude Air distance) Ground distance

~
in descent: reference altitude =
= / altitude) final alt
big dep
A
+
->

#AS
because of earth e

S
corntr

at the reference altitude

Average wind is also
·
=

#Ne
 05 Time
On Charts Projections Local time
mean LMT

Chart requirement
convergence factor:a fi Earth rotates at
15 (rid
·

salef =

stesand
Mean Sun at anti-meridian at 80% or

Chart O' for mercator meridian parallel to each other Lambert Mean Sun at meridian at 12:00
convergency:
as are

Great that (12), detail

scale are number are close means we show small area with
great rhomb
line
standard time
small scale are number that are
far apart (1/1000d, means
everything is small compared to
original
conformal chart:
straight chart standard found
line
approximates great difference List +2.3 in the Amanac
·
on a circle time Air
are in
·

Mercator straight line great circle

-

Time decided arbitrarily by countries (does not follow to rule

precisely
·

·
Great circle curves are convex to the nearer pale
Difference between Great circle and Rhumb line increases with
increasing latitude
·

0 Practical
Convergence factor
·

=
use

Scale correct at the

equator but the
higher the latitude, VOR variation at the station
sweetstric
· ·
is use
the more countries are
deformed
NDB variation at the airplane
·

use

Greenwich

Lambert conformal conic charl

Sunset and Sunrise

·
constant of come (n)
(convergence factor) = sin (parallel of origin) convergence
= lat 7% sin(poo

· Polar circles at 66.5"N/S

convergence factor is cone/360
the
opening of
-> the
·
Polar axis with a 66.5 inclination with the ecliptic plane
On 21st december,
parallel of origin (standard parallel paralle B) above 66.5x
·
sun never rises
standard
·
= A +
SUMMER
Small scale
=>

2. ·
On 21st June, sun never rises above 66.55
-> is the latitude chart when the earth is correctly represented I
sets above
on a
convergence le
and never 66.5N
scale reaches its minimum value Sco
-> is the
parallel at which the
Big
Standard
·

Cancer/Capricorn: 23.5 N/S

parallels
·

are the
->
latitudes when scale is correctly represented ->
highest latitude sun reaches 98% above horizon,
occurs
year
once a

Scale winter
different parallel (correct parallels).
·

varies with at standard

·
Scales contracts between standard
parallels and
expands outside
Morning civil twilight:
·

Great Lambert the 5% below the celestial horizon

circles to the
parallel of origin Centre of
·

in are concave
·
Sun

Period from centre of Sun 6% below horizon until upper

limb of the sun
appears
atthe horizon

Solstice: summer/winter, when reaches its

highest lowest declination
point son

Polar
Stereographic chart ·

Equinoxe (equi-night): the influence

of latitudes on duration of daylight is at it's smallest

·
Great circles are concave to the pole
·
Rhumb line are concave to the pole
·
Scale is minimum at north pole

Convergency: Wong[:7
The circles
higher the latitude, the
great they straight lines
·
more are