Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

A COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data input, process it according to some specified
instructions, output the information and store the results for future use.

A computer is an electric device that accepts information in form of instructions called a program and
character called data, processes information and output the results

A computer is an electric device which works under control of stored programs automatically accepting data,
processing it, stores it and produces information which is a result of processing.

History and Evolution of Computers

The first electronic computers were produced around 1940’s and this was after a gradual change from the
traditional processing aids.

The computer started with the origin of calculation in the 19th Century with a man invented machine called
the Abacus. It was used for volume computing in China and Japan.

In 1614, logarithm tables were developed by a Scottish Mathematician known as John Napier. He
subsequently invented a rod of bones which was in use 3 (three) years later after his logarithm invention
called Napier’s bones.

In the year 1620, slide rule was invented by William Oughtred an English man

In 1623 Francis Bacon developed the idea of using binary numbers which are described as the binary codes.
The Mechanical Era (Early Discovery)
In 1642 a French Man called Blaise Pascal invented a calculating machine which had got both the ability to
add and subtract numbers however it had difficult in multiplication and division. It was called the Pascal’s
Arithmetic Machine.

In 1671 another calculating machine with abilities of multiplying and dividing numbers was invented by a
German mathematician Gottfried Von Leibniz called the Leibniz calculator.

The Start of a Computer

Jacquard Weaving Loom, at around 1802, Joseph Jacquard a French textile manufacturer developed a
machine called the Jacquard Weaving Loom. It was the first machine which stored programs for weaving on
the punched cards.

Analytical engine, in 1822 Charles Babbage a professor of mathematics invented a machine which he
completed in 1834 called the Analytical Engine which was able to combine arithmetic and process data on its
own.
Lady Ada produced programs to be used by this analytical engine and she is claimed to be the first
programmer and it was names after her honour called Ada Programming Language.
Between 1847-54 George Bole discovered the Boolean Algebra.

The Tabulator, in the mid 1880’s Dr. Herman Hollerith discovered a machine which had capabilities of
detecting data stored in terms of punched holes on the cards called the Hollerith’s Tabulator. It used punched
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cards that stored information and also tabulated data.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Other developments
In 1900 the magnetic storage media principles like Magnetic Tapes was discovered by Valdermar Poolson.
At 1906 thermionic values were invented by the Lee De Forest.

In 1938 Claude Shannon established how the Boolean Algebra could be applied in the design of computers
logical circuits.

In 1937 automatic sequence controlled calculator (ASCC) was developed, punched paper tape to be used as
an input medium.

In 1941, the calculating machines, the Z3 and Z4 were developed by Ronald Zuse and the machines had the
ability to use programs. Colossus was developed by Alan Turing and the machines were value based.

In 1946 ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator was in use. It consumed a lot of power and
was cooled by water.

In 1946 Von Neumann gave a report on the design of the computer today.

Computer generations
Computer generations refer to the technological advancement of computers which has been characterised
into four generation.

First Generation
These were the earliest time computers which were in use from around the mid 1950’s to late 1950’s. They
had the following characteristics
- They used vacuum tubes for to store and process information.
- They used magnetic drum memories.
- They had low memory of about 2 kilobytes
- They used punched cards for input and output.
- Programming was done in machine and assembly language
- The consumed a lot of power and generated a great deal of heat.
- They were short lived and needed a standby technician
- They did not use operating system
- They were slow when processing information.

Examples of computers in the 1st generation include

- ENIAC – Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator
- LEO – Lyon’s Electronic Office
- EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Valuable Automatic Computer (Invented by Dr. John Von
Newman)
- EDSAC – Electronic Delar Storage Automatic computer in 1949 at Cambridge University
- UNIAC – Universal Accounting Computer
- IBM 650 – International Business Machine.
- ACE – Automatic Computer Engine.

Second Generation (1959 – 1964)

They were computers which ranged from late 1950’s to early 1960’s. They were computers which used
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transistors.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

Characteristics
- They used transistors for internal operation.
- They used magnetic core memories
- They were more reliable than those of the first generation.
- They consumes less power compared to those of the first generation
- Their memory size increased to 32 kilobytes and stored much information
- They had high speed when processing information than those of the first generation.
- They were smaller in size than the first generation.
- They generated less heat.
- They had no operating system.
- They used high level programming languages fro programming like COBOL-Common Business
Oriented Language, FORTRAN- Formula Translation
- There was the introduction of super computers like the LARC – Livermore Automix Research
Computer and IBM 300 series, ATLAS, IBM 7030.
Examples of computers in the second generation include.
- NCR 501
- IBM 7094
- CDC 6600 Mainframe computers.
Transistor is an electric switch which allows electricity to pass through a tune moment sometime it does
not allow electricity to pass through.

Third Generation of Computers (1965 – 1970)

These computers came in the mid 1960’s and used integrated circuit made on silicon chip
Characteristics
- They had integrated circuit (IC) on silicon chip for internal operation.
- They were faster when processing data
- There was introduction of the operating system.
- They had high storage capacity than those of the 2nd generation
- They used simpler programming language like BASIC – Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code)
- They were reliable than those of the 2nd generation.
- They were smaller than those of the 2nd generation.
- They were cheaper
- There was the introduction of the keyboard and the monitor
- They consumed less power and generated less heat
- They used magnetic discs for storing data
- Mini computers were commonly used
- They had increased primary memory.
Examples of computers include;
- ICL 900 Series
- IBM 360

Fourth Generation
These existed between 1971 to date
Characteristics
- They used Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC)
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- They use high speed of about 50 million instructions per second.

- The memory in the fourth generation computers includes Bubble and Magnetic drum memory.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
- There was introduction of the Pentium Pro-chip which contained about 5 million transistors.
- There was introduction of types of software.
- There was the development of a Graphical User Interface (GUI)
- Computers became cheap and powerful.
- There was the development of microprocessor.
- Personal Computers (PC’s) came into existence.

The next generation of computers will be the fifth generation, and computers are expected to be; thinking
like human beings, use of automatic robotics, to have parallel processing, voice recognition, decreased size
and cost, to have self organisation, to have an improved speed and power processing.

Characteristics of computers
For a device to be characterised as a computer it must manifest some or all of the following characteristics.
i) Speed. Computers are quite fast in their operations in that their speed is measured in millions of
instructions per second (MIPS).
ii) Accuracy. Computers hardly make mistakes, they are capable of detecting and correcting any
mistakes made. It is therefore follows that if wrong data is fed into the computer, wrong results
are expected out hence a saying “Garbage in, Garbage out”.
iii) Diligence. This is the ability of a computer to perform the same task over and over again for a
long time without getting tired or bored
iv) Artificial intelligence. Computers are artificially intelligent . they can respond to requests given
to them and provide solutions . this is accomplished by its program ability that it can be taught to
make a decision and function
v) Automation. Computers also work automatically, they do not need any supervision in order to
perform programmed routines.
vi) Versatility. A computer can perform a number of tasks at the same time

Uses of computers
i) Computers maintain and control business operations.
ii) Computer provide the required information more effectively and accurately
iii) The are used to store data
iv) They provide employment to people
v) They are used for research
vi) They are used for entertainment like playing music, games and movies
vii) They can be used to safeguard information
viii) They are used in weather forecasting.
ix) They are used in document processing.
x) They can be used to calculate numbers
xi) They are used for stealing

Areas where computers are used

i) Computer and police. Computers provide the police force with a very versatile tool in retrieving
data about suspected criminals.
ii) Computers in industry. Computers control of work which is monotonous and dangerous jobs like
welding and highly complex jobs process control.

In industry machines are controlled by the computers which has reduced on the time lag between
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important events. Computerised systems eliminate a number of error that could be made by
human beings
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iii) Computers in transport.
Computers are used in providing guidance to vehicles in braking, acceleration, routing and
measurements.
Today landing air crafts are controlled by computers. Traffic jam is controlled by computerised
lights which are put in most busy junctions like round abouts.
iv) Computers games. Computers provide amusement facilities rather than in business applications.
Some computer games are based on traditional games like chess. Some games like adventure,
dangerous and dragons provide the opportunity to test your memory and ability to think.
v) Computers and medical science
Blind people can read from ordinary books by using a laser scanner, which recognises the shape
of printed letters and converts them into speech using a voice synthesizer. Blind people can also
know by and calculations through the voice synthesizer.

In hospitals computers are used for monitoring patients, raising the alarms of the heart stops
beating or if breathing fails beyond a certain level.

Computer controlled scanners can built up a picture of a patient slice by slice measuring the
strength of rays which have been sent through the body. A computer uses the graph to show the
abnormalities which can’t be seen from outside.

Computers could also be useful as medical experts helping to diagnose and treat illness where
there are no fully qualified doctors available.

vi) Computers in schools. Teachers use computers in carrying out research and they use computers
to make their lessons interesting.

Main uses of computers in an organisation

i) Preparation of payroll. The computer is able to calculate the gross pay, PAYE tax on the income
of employees, NSSF and after the deductions the net pay of the employees is determined.
ii) Stock control. The records of stock on respect of the goods purchased and sold are maintained by
the computer. The computer contains the information regarding the items purchased, sold, price,
stock reference and the re-order level.
iii) Records of debtors. The computer maintains the record of debtors. The records help to ensure
that debtors pay in time. The computer points any overdue debtors.
iv) Budgetary control. Computers are used to prepare budgets and ensure the proper implementation
of these budgets. The computer can alert the management when the actual performance of the
organisation varies from the planned programme.
v) Production control. Computers are used to control the production level. If due to any interruption
the production for a specified time, the re-a scheduling of work becomes essential. In such
cases, the computer will help the management in making correct decisions

Advantages of using computers

i) Computers can store large amount of data as compared to human beings.
ii) Computers are very fast in their operations which saves which saves time and promotes
efficiency.
iii) Computers are accurate in their operations hence they reduce output of wrong information.
iv) Computers are able to work for very long hours without getting tired, bored or hungry.
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v) The running cost of computers became very cheap in the long run compared to the force of
human beings.
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vi) Computers can work on any problem provided relevant instructions set (programs) are used or
input.
vii) Computers are flexible that is to say they can adopt to any workload without much strain.
viii) Computers produce reliable information.
ix) Computers do not need fulltime supervision when doing the operation because they are
automatic.
x) Computers can be used for research because they can draw lots of facts.
xi) Computers simplify work for man.

Disadvantages of using computers

i) Computers are costly; therefore if it is possible to carry out the processing tasks without
employing the use of computers, the computerisation is needless.
ii) Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can
become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
iii) Changing from the old, manual system is a gradual process during which there is interruption in
the normal working environment
iv) In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old manual
systems. For this reason standby procedures are necessary but expensive
v) Controlling the computer master files contents is difficult exercise due to the fact that the
contents of the master files of the computer based systems are non-human sensible. There is a
fear of such contents suffer from fraudulent acts by the people who know them.
vi) Computers can easily break down at any time for example when processing the document and
time make it unavailable.
vii) They are expensive. The use of computers requires high initial cost.
viii) Computers cannot be operated by illiterate people.
ix) Computers can lead to unemployment of human beings because one computer can do work
which can be done by many people.
x) Computers cause fatigue as a result of spending long hours while using them.
xi) Computers are affected by viruses that destroy the operations and cause loss of information.
xii) Piracy or hacking computer promotes crimes like piracy which is the stealing from one’s
computer illegally and hacking the accessing of a computer or a network illegally.
xiii) Computers lead to moral decay by the introduction of pornographic pictures on the internet
xiv) Computers reduce face to face interaction of staff for example people studying in distance
learning.
xv) Computers do not have alternatives to try new ways of doing a task.

Computers and health risks

Prolonged use of computers can lead to health risks such as
i) Repetitive stress injury which include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.
ii) Computers lead to eye strain
iii) Computers lead to lower back pain
iv) Computers lead to muscle fatigue.
v) Computers also lead to emotional fatigue

Repetitive stress injury, this is a king of muscle skeletal disorder of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments
and joints on that tendon.
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Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), is the inflammation of the nerve that connects the forearm to the palm of the
wrist
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Factors causing disorders
- Prolonged typing
- Prolonged mouse usage.
- Continual shifting between the mouse and the keyboard

Precautions to prevent these types of injuries include

- Take frequent breaks during the computer session to exercise the arms and hands.
- Place the wrist between the keyboard and the edge of the keyboard of the desk.
- Place the mouse at least six inches from the edge of the desk

Precautions to prevent such risks

- Pay attention to sitting posture
- Take frequent breaks to stand up, walk around or stretch every 30 to 60 minutes.
- Place the display device about an arms length away from the eyes with the top of the screen at
eye level or below.
- Adjust the lighting in the room
- Ensure that the workplace is designed ergonomically.
Ergonomics means incorporating comfort, efficiency and soft into the design of items in the
workplace.

Computer Ethics
Computer ethics are moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information system

Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are

- Unauthorised access an use of computer systems
- Software piracy
- Information accuracy
- Intellectual property rights
- Cords of conducts
Unauthorised access is the use of a computer or a network without permission.
A cracker or a Hacker is someone who tries to access a computer or a network illegally. Examples of
unauthorised use of computers are
- An employee using a company computer to send a personal e-mail
- Some one gaining access to a bank computer and performing unauthorised transfer.
One way to prevent unauthorised access and unauthorised use of computers is to utilise access controls

Software piracy
It refers to as the unauthorised and illegal duplication of copyrighted software. Software piracy is the most
common form of software theft.
Buying or purchasing software only provides a consumer with a licence agreement or the right to use the
software.
A single user licence agreement or end user licence agreement is the most common type of licence included
with software packages purchased by individual users.
A single user licence agreement usually permits a consumer to;
- Install the software on only one computer.
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- Make one copy for backup.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Software sit licence
This gives the buyer a right to install the software on multiple computers not a single sit like a school
computer laboratory.
A network site piracy
Allows network users to share a single copy of the software which resides on the network server.

Risks of software piracy.

- Increases the charge of spreading computer viruses
- No technical support for the software can be received.
- Drive up the software cost for illegal users
Information piracy
- It refers to the right of individuals or organisations to restrict the collections and use of
information about them.

COMPONENTS, CLASSIFICATION CATEGORIES AND FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS

Computer system is the collection of components that work together to solve or accomplish problems/tasks
using a computer. The components of a computer system include
i) Computer Hardware. These are the physical components of a computer. They are tangible and
can be seen
ii) Computer Software. These are the instructions arranged logically describing to the computer
how different tasks are done.
iii) Human Ware. This refers to the people who are trained in the use and operation of a computer.
iv) Data/Information. Data refers to the raw facts which do not have much meaning to the user.
Information is the processed data which is meaningful to the user.

Classification of computers
Computers can be classified in three bread categories
i) By functionality
ii) By purpose
iii) By size and processing power

Classification by functionality/process
In this classification computers are categorised according to how data is presented and processed. They are
three kinds of computers which include
i) Digital Computers. These are computers which process data that is represented in form of
discrete values or separate form.
Discrete values are numbers that can be defined like 1, 2, 3,.. etc. examples include digital
watches etc.
Characteristics of digital computers
- Not continuous (discrete) pulses
- Can only have one of the voltage levels
- Voltage jumps between levels
ii) Analog Computers. These are computers which process data that is in continuous form or
measurable quantities/units like pressure, thickness of steel plates, electrical voltages.
Analog computers are normally used for scientific work and to engineer functions such as
- The control of temperatures
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- Thickness of steel plates

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Examples include those used in application like thermometers, voltmeters. The output from
Analog computers is often in form of smooth graphs from which information can be read.

iii) Hybrid Computers. These are computers which have combined features of digital and Analog
computers.

Characteristics of Analog Computers

i) Data is represented in continuous form
ii) They can have any voltage
iii) They have continuous voltage
iv) Wavy voltage has time progresses

The Hybrid computers are further classified according to the work that they are designed for. These are
categorised into two classes
i) Special purpose computers. These are computers designed to handle a particular task. Their
form of operation is restricted in a relative like Digital watches and pocket calculators.
ii) General purpose computers. These are computers designed to solve a wide range of problems.
They can be adopted to perform a particular task or solve specific problems by means of
specially written programs

General purpose/Dedicated computers

These are general purpose computers that are committed to some processing tasks though are capable of a
variety of tasks.

A typical computer of this type can perform calculations, keep date and time, process documents, store
databases

Classification by size and processing power

Computers in this classification are in four main groups
- Super computers
- Mainframe computers
- Mini computers
- Microcomputers

i) Super Computers. A super computer is the fastest, largest, most powerful and most expensive
computer used for applications that requires complex and sophisticated mathematical
calculations. Super computers are mainly used for scientific research, weather forecasting and
weapons research

Characteristics of super computers

- They are large in size and have the largest storage capacity.
- They are expensive
- They are powerful
- They can be used by 1000 people at the same time
- They are faster when processing information 66 times faster than the microcomputers
- They have special power supply
- They are kept in air conditioned rooms
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- They are used in large scientific research centres and weather forecasting centres
- They use many applications compared to other computers.
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ii) Mainframe computers. These are general purpose computers with high capacity of main
storage, having a range of input and output devices, used by 500-1000 users at the same time and
in most cases several CPU’s

They are very expensive computers. They can be used by 500-1000 users at a time. They are
therefore used by governments, big companies and banks

Characteristics of mainframe computers

- They have large storage capacity
- They are faster when processing data
- They can be used by 500 – 1000 users at the same time each with a special keyboard and a
monitor.
- They need special power supply
- They are used by large software companies and universities
-
iii) Minicomputers. This is a scaled down version of mainframe computer with a range of input
devices and can be used between 50 – 500 users at a time.
Characteristics of minicomputers
- Minicomputers are physically smaller than the mainframe and can be used by 50 to 500
connected users at a time.
- They are easier to manufacture and maintain hence cheaper than the mainframe.
- Minicomputers are also known as mid-range servers which can normally support to several
hundreds of users at a time.
- Minicomputers were developed in for use in process control systems while mainframes were
mainly used for commercial applications.

Characteristics of minicomputers
- They can be used by 50 – 500 people at a time
- They are smaller in size
- They are kept in air conditioned places
- They are slower than the mainframe
- They are used in medium sized companies
- They do not need special power supply
- They are less powerful than the mainframes

Microcomputers
This is a small sized computer used by one person at a time and can perform all its input, process, output and
storage activities by its self
Characteristics
- They have microprocessors used in processing
- They have rechargeable batteries
- They are used during conferences and meetings
- They have better applications compared to the 1st computers

Types of microcomputers
i) Desktop computer. This is designed so that the system unit, input devices, output devices and
any other device fit entirely on a desk or a table.
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- They are used in business, offices, schools etc.

- They have a separate keyboard, system unit, CPU and a mouse.
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ii) A tower model computer. This is a tall and narrow system unit that usually sit on the flow.

iii) Notebook computer/laptops. This is a portable personal computer, small enough to fit or to be
held on the laps that even if on is moving, he/she can work
- They are held the laps
- They are smaller than the desktops
- Its CPU, monitor, keyboard and a mouse are combined together.
- They carry several functions
- They can be used while one is moving
-
iv) A handheld computer/Palmtops/PDA. This is a small computer, portable that can fit in the
hand of the user like cell phones.
- They are extremely small
- They are designed to be held in the palm.
- They are used by one person.
- They are wireless
- They can perform several tasks
- They are used to make calls, fax and numbers.
-
v) An internet appliance is a computer with limited functions whose main purpose is to connect to
the internet. From home.

vi) Network computers. These are computers without their own local storage disks but instead use
another big computer called a server for their storage and processing. They are the cheapest in all
forms of computers
vii) Servers. These are computers with high processing and large storage on which other computers
are connected like the network computers.

Terms related to the classification of computers systems

i) Personal computer (PC). This is a computer that can be used by one person at a time.
ii) Stand alone computer. This is a computer that is not connected to a network and is capable of
performing the operations in the information processing cycle.
iii) A server computer. This is a host or a central computer that manages the resources on a
network.
A server provides a centralised storage area for programs, data and information
A dedicated server, is a server that performs specific tasks
A file server is a server that stores and manages files
A print server is a server that manages printers and print jobs
A database server is a server that stores and provides access to databases
A network server is a server that manages network traffic like Domain Network Server (DSN
iv) A client computer is a computer that can access the resources on a network.
v) A network computer is a computer designed specifically to connect to a network especially the
internet.
vi) A workstation computer is a more expensive and powerful desktop computer. This workstation
can also refer to any client computer on a network
vii) A terminal is a device that sends and receives information. It has a monitor and a keyboard.
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Kinds of terminals
i) A dump terminal. This is a terminal which has no processing power, cannot act as a stand alone
computer and must be connected to a server to operate.
ii) An intelligent terminal. This has memory and processor so that it can perform some functions,
independent of the host computer. Examples of intelligent terminals include
a) An EPOS- Electronic Point of Sale terminal is a terminal used to record purchases at the
point where the customer purchases the product or services.
b) EFTPOS = Electronic Fund Transfer Point of Sale is a terminal able to account after
reading the customers debt card.
c) An Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is a self service banking machine attached to host
computers through a telephone network.
d) An Embedded system is any appliance that is containing a microprocessor which is pre-
programmed to perform a dedicated task. Examples of embedded systems are washing
machines, rice cookers, microwaves, ovens, video recorders, laser printers and calculators

COMPUTER HARD WARE

This is defined as the physical and tangible components of a computer. The function of these components is
typically divided into four categories namely
 In put hard ware
 Output hard ware
 Storage hard ware
 CPU
Although processors are considered to be hard ware portion of their function, they are associated with soft
ware. Because microprocessors have both hard ware and software aspects, they are called firm ware.

(A)IN PUT HARD WARE.

This consists of components that provide information and instructions to the and they include:
I. KEY BOARD
This is a type writer like device that allows the user to the computer. Some key boards have special
function keys , track balls and touch sensitive regions that let user’s finger motion move on the
screen.
II. MOUSE
This is defined as pointing in put device that is designed to be gripped by one hand. It is also defined
as a pointing input device that helps the user to navigate through the graphical interface of the
computer.
A mouse has a detection device usually a ball at the bottom that enables to control the motion of the
screen pointer or cursor when the mouse is moved on a flat surface.
As the mouse is moved on a flat surface the cursor pointer moves across the screen to select items
commands on the screen.
Examples of mice include
 Micro mouse 
 Serial mouse  Apple desktop mouse
 Optical mouse  Mechanical mouse
 Bus mouse  Optical mouse
III. JOY STICK
This is a pointing device that a user in various directions to move the cursor or other graphical
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components on the search.

It is sometimes defined as a popular pointing device that is used for playing computer games and
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
other tasks as well.
IV. SCANNERS(OPTICAL SCANNER)
This is a computer input device that uses light sensing equipment to scan paper or any other medium
and changing them into digital signals that can be understood by digital computers.
In some scanners for example flat bed scanners, the object to be scanned is facing down on a flat
piece of glass and scanned by a light mechanism that passes under the object.
Other scanners work by putting in a sheet of paper which is scanned as it passes on a on a stationery
scanning machine as the common office fax machines.
Examples of scanners include;
 Flat bed scanners
 Hand held scanners

V. LIGHT PEN
This is an electronic pointer that allows the user to modify designs on screen. This is defined as a
machine with a light sensitive tip that is used to draw directly on the computer’s video screen. Light
pens have light sensors that identify with [portion when the screen is passed over light pens are
often used in computer aid manufacture technology because of their flexibility .
Other input devices include;

VI. MICRO PHONES

This is a device for converting sound into signals that can be stored , manufactured and played
back by the computer.

VII. MODEM
This stands for Modulation Demodulation. This is a device that connects a computer to a
telephone ;line and allows information to be transmitted or received from one computer to
another Each computer that receives information should be connected to a modem .
A modem converts digitals signals that are transmitted by a telephone line to the receiving
modem which converts them back to digital that the receiving computer can understand.

VIII. VOICE RECOGNITION MODULE

This is a device that conducts spoken words into information that a computer can recognize.

OUTPUT HARDWARE
These are computer hardware which bring out information on the user’s disposal.
 Monitor
 Printer
 Loud speakers
 Plotters
 Spectacles

a) MONITOR
This is a device that gives or shows information on the computer . most computers today display
information using the monitor ( a part from portable laptops)
They display information using the Cathode Ray tube (CRT)

TYPES OF MONITORS
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i. monochrome monitor
This is a single color monitor . It is like a black and white television.
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ii. Colour Monitors.
These are also known as graphic monitors which display text and graphics in colours

iii. the touch screen

This is the screen / Monitor where the user just touch on the desired icon and the monitor
performs the actions you want .

b) PRINTERS
These are devices used to produce hard copies of information on paper.
There are four types of printers commonly used namely;
 Dot matrix printers
 Daisy wheel printers
 Inkjet / DeskJet printers
 Laser jet printers
Dot matrix printers
These use a series of dots to form character, pictures and drawing. They are very lust and
expensive.
i) Daisy wheel printers
These produce the best letter quality output equivalent to that of a typewriter . They are slower
and more expensive than dot matrix.
ii) inkjet/DeskJet printers.
These spray small droplets of ink to create characters or pictures.
They produce fine quality prints at a high speed. They can even print color and very expensive
to purchase and operate.
iii) LaserJet printers.
These produce a high quality prints at a very high speed and they combine pictures and text.
They are somehow cheap to buy.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS
Printers are classified into two ways. i.e.
Impact printers and Non impact printers

IMPACT PRINTERS
These are printers that use a hammer method of printing of characters. They are very energetic
and hence much force is applied. They can print on papers, transparencies, clothes, plastic
materials.
They include dot matrix, Epson Daisy wheel e.tc
THEIR ADVANTAGES
 They can be used in commercial printing because they are flexible and capable of printing
various and heavy graphics.
 These printers are easier to maintain.
 They are cheap

THEIR DISADVANTAGES
 They are noisy during operation.
 They have a lower print resolution compared to other types.
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 They have over heating especially during long printings.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
NON IMPACT PRINTERS
These are printers that use chemical losses or heat to form characters and graphics . They use force
to print and include inkjet , laser jet e.t.c.
Examples of Non Impact Printers
i) Inkjet / DeskJet. This uses ink (liquid) contained in cartridges e.g. Hew let. Packard, canon.
ii) LaserJet Printers: This give out the best print out but are expensive. use powder and
resemble photo copiers

COMPARISON OF PRINTERS
PRINTER COST SPEED NOISE QUALITY
Dot matrix Inexpensive Fast Whisper Very High
Daisy wheel More expensive Slower Quiet Higher
Inkjet Expensive High Quiet Fine
Laser jet Cheap High Quiet High

C) LOUD SPEAKERS
These produce sound output. With today’s multimedia programmes, speakers have been such an
important necessity.
The quality is mainly measure in walls of power output.
Most speakers use a cone – shaped diagram to produce sound.

D) PLOTTERS
These are used to print best graphics called diagrams.
They are used by engineers , architects e.t.c.
They function like rizonic hands by drawing on papers. They are also used in hospitals.

E) SECTACLES.
These are common in modern computer games especially on flight wars like ordinary sun glasses.

STORAGE DEVICES
Storage devices are devices that help the computer user to store information in or outside the
computer for future use. Storage devices are divided into two ways namely;
i) Primary storage devices.
ii) Secondary storage devices

PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES

These are storage devices that are found inside the Central processing box . They are used for
immediate storage and they include

HARD DISK
A hard disk is the brain of the computer . It is where all necessary programs that are required in
the computer are stored.

A hard disk is a metallic magnetic media housed in a rigid box free from contamination residing
inside the computer.
NB(i) No computer can function/work without a hard disk.
(ii) No program can be run in the computer when it is not stored on the hard disk.
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A computer without a hard disk is like a human being without the brain.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
ADVANTAGES OF A HARD DISK
i) It acts as the brain of the computer .
ii) It has a wider storage capacity / store a lot of data.
iii) It provides a safe storage of data since it is metallic.
iv). Helps to access files / many programmes.
v) . It gives out information at a high speed.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING A HARD DISK

i) Information can easily be lost in case of malfunction.
ii) The disk can fail to run due to vibration or un necessary shakings.
iii). All information can disappear due to virus attacks.
iv). Since it is metallic, it expands and contract and this lead to data loss.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These are storage devices that are found outside the CPU box.
Examples
I. Floppy disk V. Punched cards
II. Flash VI. DVD(Digital Versatile Disk
III. CD VII. VCD(Video Compact Disk)
IV. Tapes
a) FLOPPY DISK(DISKETTE)
This is a portable disk used to store data or information. It uses magnetic properties to store information. A
diskette is inserted or put into a mechanism called a floppy disk drive .
b). COMPACT DISK(CD)
This is a pan cake shaped device that is used to store data /information.
There are three types of compact disks namely; i) CD-ROM(Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
ii) CD-R
iii) CD-W
i. CD-ROM
These are compact disks whereby you just read but you cannot erase or delete anything or write on
them
ii. CD-R
This is a compact disk that can be written on but once.
iii. CD-W
This disk can be written on as many times as you want. This means that after writing on it , you can
erase/delete the data and write again.

c)DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK(DVD)

These look like CDs except that DVDs have got a very big storage capacity than CDs . DVDs can hold an
entire movie unlike VCDs which hold half a movie.

d)VIDEO COMPACT DISK(VCD)

These look like CDs except that these are visual. They enhance learning.

e) ZIP DRIVE
These are related to diskettes but they are larger than diskettes in terms of size and storage capacity.
They have a storage capacity of 1000MB to 20GB
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
f)PUNCHED CARDS
This is a rectangular card used to store data . These cards were first used in the first generation computers
before disks were introduced. To store data , these cards were inserted in a computer drive and the computer
could punch a number of holes in rows to represent the stored data . The cards would get destroyed easily
and they could keep a few sentences.

(g)MAGNETIC TAPES
These look like video tapes . They are made up of plastic and coated with magnetic iron oxide.

CARE FOR A HARD DISK

-It should not be over loaded with information .
- It should kept away from moisture.
- It should be cleaned with dry soft cloth.
- It should be kept away from magnetic materials like radio speakers.

PROPER CARE FOR DISKETTES.

 Do not bend or fold a diskette .
 Do not write directly on a diskette with a ball pen or a pencil.
 Do not touch the exposed surface of a diskette .
 Do not expose diskettes to any kind of liquid or fluids.
 Do not leave diskettes in the drives.
 Hold the diskettes at the corners.
 Do not expose diskettes to direct sun lights or intensive heat.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HARD DISK AND A FLOPPY DISK

HARD DISK FLOPPY DISK

1. Metallic Plastic
2. Fixed in the computer . It flexible
3. Reads information faster Stores less information.
4. Exposed to less risks. Exposed to more risks

COMPUTER CARE AND COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE

 Computers should be kept in a dust free environment with good ventilation.
 Dust computer covers should be used to cover computers when not in use.
 Foods and drinks should not be allowed near the computers.
 Computers should be kept in a cool / dry place free from moisture.
 In areas of power problems , it is important to use either a stabilizer or an un interrupted
power supply to ensure steady power supply.
 Computers should be regularly serviced at least twice a year or more frequently especially
when the environment is dusty.
 Computers must be rest on a firm table as shaking may damage the hard disk.
 Computers should not be exposed to direct sun light or heat.
 Avoid diskettes that come from out because they may come with a computer virus.

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING A COMPUTER HARDWARE(PC)

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Processor speed:
A good computer must have a higher processor speed.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Memory capacity:
A good computer hard ware should have sufficient memory to handle heavy applications that
require a lot of memory space in order to run.
Warranty:
This is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of
selling a product in case of mal functions or failure.
Cost:
The cost of the Hard ware matters a lot when making the selection for the computer hard ware.
Upgradeability and compatility:
When buying a computer , the best option would be to get one that can be easily upgraded to
accommodate emergent technologies.
Portability:
The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major consideration because
smaller devices enhance mobility.
User needs:
When selecting computer hard ware , consider the unique needs of the user. For example , if a
user has a special disability like inability to use their hands, consider buying input devices that
capture data through voice input.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

This is where all instructions and data are processed. The CPU is a metallic box in which the
computer is kept . It Keeps delicate parts of a computer . The CPU is where all activities of a
computer take place hence it is called the Central Processing Unit .
The CPU reads and interprets the programs and therefore coordinates the processing activities .
i) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
ii) The Control Unit (CU)
iii) Memory.
THE INTERNAL STRUCURE OF A CPU

MEMORY ARITHEMETIC CONTROL UNIT

LOGIC UNIT (ALU) (CU)

PRIMARY
MEMORY

SECONDARY
MEMORY

i) COMPUTER MEMORY
This is a mechanism that allows a computer to store many programs that allow it to perform tasks.

TYPES OF MEMORY
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I) Primary memory (Internal storage )

II) Secondary memory(External storage)
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

PRIMARY MEMORY
This is the most important fundamental or basic memory for immediate processing needs.
It is classified into two types.
a) RAM – Random Access Memory
b). ROM- Read Only Memory
RAM
This is known as a temporary memory . With this type of memory data get lost when power is
switched off . It can be compared to a small calculator where calculations are done and when it is
switched off , the figures get lost. RAM is also known as Volatile Memory because the information
is lost when power is switched off .

TYPES OF RAM
Static RAM – It holds data/ content as long as there is power.
Dynamic RAM – This is ram that can hold data / content for a short period of time even when power is
on.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
- IT is a primary memory device that stores results after processing .
- It is a\ Lesser memory because data in it can be accessed any time.
- You can read and write on it .
- It is volatile because it loses its content when power is switched off.
-It is applied in application packaged like ms – word , ms excel.

ROM.
ROM contains programs that are permanently coded / stored in the computer. It stores the soft ware
that runs the computer . With this memory even if power is switched off , the content cannot be lost
as Rom is non volatile memory.

The difference between Ram and Rom is that Ram is temporary while Rom is permanent .

TYPES OF ROM
 Mask read only memory, once written by the manufacturer, cannot be changed.
 Programmable read only memory (PROM), This allows the user to alter it only once after
content is written on it.
 Erasable programmable read only memory(EPROM). This is a transparent quartz window that
allows content to be erased by exposing it to ultra violent.
 Electronically erasable read only memory (EEPROM), this kind of ROM can erased and re
programmed using electricity.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM
1. You can read from it but you cannot write on it or change it .
2. It stores computer languages or programs
3. It is non volatile because information cannot get lost when power is off .
4. It is applied in systems soft ware like DOS (Disk Operating System), windows etc
5. It gives the CPU the start up procedure
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES
 BUFFERS – This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the central
processing unit or in-built in put or output.
 REGISTERS – These hold one piece of data at a time and are found inside the central
processing unit.
 CACHE memory - this allows the processor to access data and instructions even more
faster than it would have taken to fetch it from a relatively slow dram.

SECONDARY MEMORY
This is the memory found outside the CPU box .
The secondary memory devices include ;
i)Floppy disk
ii)Flash disk
iii)CD-ROM
THE ARITHEMATIC LOGIC UNIT
This is a component in a CPU that handles or deals with all arithmetic and logic operation in the
computer.
This part of the CPU performs all mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction etc
1). ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS.
These include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
2). COMPARISON OPERATIONS
This involves comparing one data item to another and determine if the first
item is greater than, equal to or less than the other item.
3). LOGICAL OPERATIONS.
This works with conditions and logical operations such as AND, OR and NOT

THE CONTROL UNIT

This unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer. For every instruction , the
control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle or instruction cycle .

THE FOUR BASIC OPERATIONS OF MACHINE CYCLE

1) FETCHING.
This is the process of obtaining a program / instruction or data item from memory.
The time taken to fetch is called instruction time or I – time.
2). DECODING.
This is the process of translating the instructions into commands the computer
understands.
3). EXECUTING.
This is the process of carrying out the commands.
The time taken to decode and execute is called execution time or e- time
4). STORING.
This is the process of writing the results to memory.

DATA ENCODING
To encode in computer terms is to translate data from the form it is entered into the computer to a form
that can be processed by the computer i.e. Binary form.
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Although there are many types of encoding systems that can be processed by computers to represent data
, only two have become mostly commonly used i.e.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

i)ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

ii) EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

a) ASCII
This is the most widely used encoding system .
In this case , each character is represented by 8 binary digits (one binary digit is known as a bit)
8 binary digits are known as a byte.
e.g i) 01000001
ii)010000010 etc

b)EBCDIC
This encoding system is basically used in very big computers

BOOTING A COMPUTER.
This refers to the starting or restarting a computer.
There are two types of booting namely
i)Cold booting
ii)Warm booting
a)COLD BOOTING; This refers to the starting of the computer by switching it on directly from the
main power supply i.e. the wall switch, then stabilizer , the Un Interruptable Power Supply (UPS) , the
system unit and monitor.

b)WARM BOOTING; This refers to the restarting of a computer simply pressing Ctrl + Alt + Del keys
on the key board at the same time.

NB: Boot disk is a floppy disk that contains certain operating system commands that will start up the
computer.

BOOTING PROCESS OF A COMPUTER

The steps that occur during a cold boot using the windows operating system are;
1. The power supply sends electrical signals to the motherboard and other devices located in
the system unit.
2. The Central Processing Unit resets itself looks for the Rom that contains BIOS.
3. The BIOS executes the Power On Self Test (POST) to make sure that the computer
hardware is connected properly and operating correctly.
4. The results of the POST are compared with data in the CMOS chip on the mother board.
5. If the POST is completed successfully , BIOS looks for the boot program that loads the
operating system .
6. Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and executed , which then loads
the kernel of the operating system into RAM.
7. The operating system loads system configuration information and then remainder of the
operating system is loaded into RAM , desktop and icons display on the screen.

Note: BIOS – Basic input and Output system

POST – Power On Self Test
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RAM – Random Access Memory

CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Kernel : This is a core of an operating system responsible for managing memory , files and
devices. Maintaining the computer clock and starting application

UNITS OF A COMPUTER HELD INFORMATION.

The computer memory capacity is measured in terms of bits , bytes ,kilobytes , Megabytes and
Gigabytes i.e.
i)8 bits 1 byte
ii)1 kilobyte(KB) 1024 bytes(210)
iii)1Megabyte(MB) 1048576 bytes(220)
iv)1 Gigabyte(GB) 1073741824 bytes(230)
Example
1 Kilobyte 210 bytes
Soln
210 = 2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2
= 8x8x8x2
= 64x16
10
2 bytes = 1024 bytes
Example II
1 Mega byte = 220 bytes
220= 2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2
= 16x16x16x16x16
20
2 = 1048576 bytes
Example III
30
1 Gigabyte = 2
= 2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2
= 16x16x16x16x16
= 1048576 bytes

2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2
= 16x64
= 1024
30
2 = 1024 x 1048576
= 1073741824
Example IV
Mathematically calculate the number of bytes in 147 GB
1 GB = 230 bytes
147 GB = 147 (230) bytes
147GB = 147 (2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2)
= 64X16 =1024
2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2
=1024
2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2X2
=1024
= 147(1024X1024X1024)
= 147X1073741824
147GB = 157840048128 bytes
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
THE PROCESSOR SPEED
The speed at which the computer processor executes command/ instructions is determined by its
clock speed . The system clock speed is measured in hertz.

A hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles per second in a signal.
1 Kilo hertz (KHz) = 1000Hz
1 Mega hertz(MHz) = 1000000Hz
1 Giga hertz (GHz) = 10000000000Hz

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
These are various programs that control the operation of computer in its day today running.
It can also be defined as the computer programs that enable the hard ware to work.
Computer software is called LIFE of a computer
 A PROGRAM; These are instructions that provide solutions and tell a computer what to do e.g.
micro soft office
 A PACKAGE; This refers to a set of programs that can be brought to perform various duties e.g.
Accounting packages, spread sheets , ms word

SOFTWARE

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE

Operating Utility Programming

system programs languages

Low level
programming
languages
Operating system
for standalone
computers
High level
programming
languages
Operating system
for networked
Custom/tailo
computers Off
red packages shelf/canned
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packages
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING A SOFTWARE
 Authenticity: The soft ware must be original and accompanied by the developer’s license.
 Documentation : The soft ware must have manuals prepared by the developers having
details on how to install, use and maintain the soft ware.
 User needs: The needs of the people determines the type of operating system and
Application programs. E.g. if a user wants to type a document most often he or she should go
for a word processor.
 Reliability and security: people are more comfortable with soft ware that offers good
security to confidential and private information.
 User friendliness: the measure of how easy one can user can be able to operate the computer
using such or any soft ware. Some programmes are more user friendly than others.
 Cost: Many people go for soft ware (specific) because it is cheap.
 Compatibility and system configuration the computer should always be able to run soft ware
according to its system set up.
 Portability: this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed on more than one
computer. This is why most soft ware developers now produce soft ware that can be installed on many
computers

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software is classified in two ways ;
i) Systems software ii) Application software

a) SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
This is the basic software that allows the computer to carry out operations.
OR
These are programs that control the way a computer operates.
These programs facilitate the computers general operations
The systems software is grouped into these categories;
i) Firm ware language.
ii) Utility programs iv) Net working software
iii) The programming v) The operating system
FIRM WARE:
This is also referred to as stored logic . It is a combination of soft ware and hard ware recoded
permanently on the electronic chip . Usually a firm ware is read only memory (ROM).

UTILITY PROGRAMS
These are software tools that carryout system organization and maintainace activities eg deleting
unwanted programs that may cause abnormal operation of a computer.
In other words these programs perform tasks related to the maintainance of of the computer.
Utility programs include the following
i) File management program
ii) Disk maintenance program
 Virus protection program(Antivirus)

COMPUTER VIRUSES
A virus is a program that copies itself into other programs and spreads through multiple computers.
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Viruses are often designed to affect , or infect , a computer negatively by altering the way it
normally works without the knowledge or permission of the owner.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUSES.
Worms: These sit in the computers’ memory , re-write themselves constantly into the memory until
when the system runs out of memory and crushes.
Trojan Horse: These are small program s that hide within the lawful software and looks like a
legitimate program but executes when a certain condition or action is triggered.
Time bombs: These are kinds of logic bombs that are set off at a particular date. They always execute
when that time comes.
Polymorphic virus: This modifies its program code each time it attaches itself to another program
/ file that even an antivirus has difficulty in detecting it.
Boot sector virus: It resides in the boot sector of a floppy disk or the master boot record of a hard
disk and executes when the computers starts up.
Trojans: These are failed / incomplete computer games which can make the screen go off and some
times make the cursor disappear.
Jokes: These are amusing things on the screen e.g. messages like your computer is about to explode,
Please run away. They appear and disappear about a few seconds.
Droppers: This on the other hand, they are good. This is because the perform tasks like compressing
files, previewing video clips etcetera.
File Virus: This attacks itself to program files and is loaded into memory when the infected
program file is running.
Macro virus: This uses macro language of an application e.g. Word processors or spreadsheets to hide
the virus code.
SOURCES OF VIRUSES
-Contact with contaminated systems
These include diskettes used on contaminated system and could become contaminated . If the same
diskettes are used on another system , the virus will spread.
Pirated software
This introduces a risk of virus spread if contaminated and destruct the system.
-Fake games
Through these, Virus spread very fast.
-Freeware and shareware programs.
Commonly available on the bulletin Board system (BBS). Generally a registered to be sent directly to
the author .These should be treated with care.
-Updates of software distributed via internet or other networks.
Software distributed via Netware fairly obvious target for virus programs as they provide a built
in method for wide spread and anonymous propaganda.
PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT VIRUS INFECTIONS
1. Do not use secondary storage devices like diskettes , cds e.t.c. from un known sources.
2. Always scan external storage devices for viruses using virus guards before using them.
3. Isolate any devices suspected of having the virus.
4. Always scan for viruses on all computers at least once every month.
5. Always create backup (Duplicate ) copies of all programs and files kept safely such that
when the system crushes , one use those copies.
6. Always take care when downloading anything from the Internet.
7. Never start up the computer when the floppy disk is in the drive.
8. Ensure that all E-mails are from a trusted source before opening or executing any e-mail
attachment.
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9. Install an anti – virus utility and update its virus components frequently for detecting and
removing viruses.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
ANTI- VIRUS : This is a utility program that prevents , detects and removes viruses from
the computer’s memory or storage devices. Examples include;
 V- Shield
 Norton Anti virus
 MacAfee
 Dr Solomon.

SYMPTOMS/SIGNS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES:

 Failure of the computer to start.
 Computer programs may take long to load.
 Programs and files can disappear mysteriously.
 Computers may freeze (hanging)
 Computers may display irritating (frustrating) messages
 Computers displaying corrupted files
 Failure of computers to do print jobs
 A computer may fail to solve or access a file to save.
 A computer may indicate that storage devices are full when they still have enough space

HOW COMPUTERS CAN BE PROTECTED FROM VIRUSES:

i. Discouraging external diskettes especially those having viruses.
ii. Installing up-to-date antivirus program versions and carrying out regular virus scans.
iii. Scanning all downloads from the Internet especially freeware and shareware programs.
iv. Educating the users about viruses and how they affect us.
v. Ensure that E-mails are from trusted sources before opening or executing an E-mail
attachment.
vi. Write-protect the recovery disk before using it.
vii. Backup important file regularly
viii. Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening them.
Examples of virus scanning software:
- McAfee - Norton anti virus
- AVG - Kaspersky Internet Security
- Norton Antivirus - Thunder byte
- Penicillin - Dr. Solomon etc.

QN Differentiate between a hacker, cracker and a pirate.

- A Hacker: This is a person who works in a skillful but undisciplined way such as a person
illegally accesses computer systems especially when data is on a network.

- CRACKER: This is a person who breaks into someone else's computer system, often on a
network, bypasses passwords or a license in computer programs; or in other ways intentionally
breaches computer security. A cracker can be doing this for profit, maliciously, for some
altruistic purpose or cause, or because the challenge is there.
- PIRATE: He is a person who steals away computers documents that are valuable to an
organization.
A BUG
Refers to an error in the computer system that causes unnecessary actions.
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There are two types of bugs i)Soft ware bug ii)Hardware bugs
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A DEBUGER
This is the utility software used during testing of new programs and may tress the flow of the program
and display various values as requested.

FUNCTIONS OF UTILITY SOFTWARE.

-They provide an easier way of managing files .
-Optimizes the use of available RAM and disk storage.
-Monitors the system use of memory and storage space resources.
-Recover lost data and prevents its loss.
-Compress large files to require less storage space .
-Protect data from other users by denying them access to the system .
-Protect the monitor when it is on for long periods .

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
This is the media used by programmers to write com programs in a language that can be understood by
both computers and man . Computers can only understand one language called

MACHINE CODE composed and is known as binary digits (BITS)

For other languages to be understood by the computer it uses language processors\routines in a process
referred to as interpretation.
There are two categories of programming languages namely;
Low level languages
High level languages.
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES.
These are strongly related with the processor as they use simple memories like English abbreviations e.g.
ADD for addition , MOV for move etc . There are two types of low level languages namely;

a)Machine code
This is a 1st generation language consisting of binary digits (Os and Is) only .
One character is represented by 8 binary digits eg character A can appear as 01000001. This language is
very difficult to understand by human beings.
b)Assembly languages
This is a 2nd generation language and the first to use alphabetical symbol to write codes . It translates the
assembly codes into machine language to be understood by the computer.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES.

These are 3rd generation language s whose instructions resemble human languages , hence making it
easier to learn and understand .
Instructions are given in an English like a statement.
The syntax , punctuation and grammar and the meaning of such statements do not reflect the internal
code of any particular computer.
They were originally built for specific operations i.e. scientific or business purpose i.e. PASCAL ,
COBOL , BASIC , FORTAN , C , Ct , Ctt etc

4GL; FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES

These are also high level languages which make programming much easier as they consist of natural
languages which are very close to English or human language.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
5GLS; FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGES.
These are also high level languages which are used in systems which can perform what human beings
can do e.g. Robot , they think and reason like human s because of the programs installed in them are
extensively used in artificial intelligent projects like space exploration.

HTML ; HYPER TEXT MARKUP LANGUAGES.

This is a language used to create web pages on the Internet.

INTERPRETERS/ ROUTINES
This is a language used to change high level languages to Machine code. They include;
i. Compilers
These change a program written in a high level language into a machine code.
ii. Interpreters.
These change the source program line by line while the program is running.
iii. Assemblers.
These change / translate assembly instructions into binary code/ machine code.
iv. Linkers.
These combine compiled programs and determine where a program will be located
in memory.

EXAMPLES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

BASIC : Beginners’ All Purpose Symbolic Instruction code
It is used for personal computing and education applications. It was developed in 1964 at Dartmouth
College.

COBOL : Common Business Oriented Language.

This is the most common widely used in business applications as accounting , payroll , inventory
control and Banking systems.

FORTAN: Formula Translation:

This is used for scientific calculations where processing consists of large complex formula.

C,C+,C++
These are structured languages used in object oriented programming for developing windows and
Macintosh soft ware.

DADA: This was named after Augusta Ada Bryon for the United States Department of Defense for
developing weapons systems and in industry environment for controlling time system and audio
formation.

ALGOL: Algorithmic Language.

This was developed for computer manufacturers and for mathematical and science research projects.

APL: A Programming Language.

This a programming language that comprises of simple mathematical language that can be used by
scientists and analytical business applications.

PASCAL:
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Named after a noted Mathematician and philosopher who invented a [particular calculating machine
at the age of 19. It was used as a teaching tool to teach the concept of a structured programming.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

Systems Analyst: This is a person who is responsible for the analysis, design and implementation of a
business system on the computer.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems Analysis is the way of solving business problems using computer technology. So we need
someone who is good at problem-solving, who knows about business operations and who has a strong
background in relevant areas of computer science.
Thus, in order to be successful, a systems analyst must possess at least the following attributes:-
1) Communication skills. Effective communication is vital to the success of any systems project.
The analyst is the medium through which communication should flow smoothly.
2) Problem-solving skills: Systems are developed to solve problems. An analyst must have wide
experience in solving problems by:
 Defining the problem, if necessary, break up a complex problem into smaller ones.
 Analyzing the problem; try to determine its cause.
 Consider alternatives for removing the cause.
 Evaluate these alternatives; what are their benefits and disadvantages.
 Choose the best alternative
3) Business knowledge: It is important for the analyst to completely understand the business
environment for which the system is being developed.
4) Technical knowledge: Analysts should be well–trained in relevant area of computer
1) A school has decided to use a computer for its store stock control. Describe the process of
system analysis from the time the decision was made to proceed with computerization until
final testing.
- Specify the output requirements
- Design documents or screen displays
- Gather data for input and storage
- File structure/access/design
- Data security/Backup files
- Design system flow chats
- Implementation stage i.e. pilot/intermediate/parallel running
- Testing strategy and Training
- Hardware/software requirements
- Programming / algorithm
- Validation / user manuals
- Technical and user documentation
2) Give two reasons why it may be necessary to modify this system in the future.
i) There could be new government legislation
ii) Changes in hardware
iii) Changes in software
iv) Improved operating efficiency/ease of use

1.4. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model used in project management that
describes the stages involved in an information system development project from an initial feasibility study
through maintenance of the completed application.
The System Development is the interactive process which consists of the following stages/phases:-
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1) Investigation
2) Analysis
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
3) Design phase
4) Coding
5) Testing
6) Implementation
7) Maintenance
1. Preliminary Investigation (Feasibility study): For a system to be started, one should decide
whether a computer system is needed. One of the most tedious tasks is to recognize the real
problem of the pre-installed system. The analysis has to spend hours and days for understanding
the fault in the system. This fault could have however overcome if the Preliminary Investigation
before installing the system was properly done. This is the first stage of the development of the
system. In this stage the analyst makes a survey by gathering all the available information needed
for the system elements and allocation of the requirements to the software.
2. Analysis of the requirement: An analyst has to specify what the new system needs to be able to
do. The analyst understands the nature of the information and the functions of the software which
is required for the system. The analyst makes a brief survey of the requirements and tries to analyze
the performance of the system which is to be developed. He also makes sure that he gets enough
information and resources for building the appropriate system.
3. System Design: This is where the details are drawn up on input and output. The analyst actually
makes number of designs of the system on paper or on the computer and sees to it that the rough
image made of the system comprises of all the requirements or not. Once this is done, the analyst
selects and finalizes a best suited design for the development of the system.
4. System Coding: The analyst translates the code or the programs in such a way that they become
in machine readable form. The coding step is very time consuming and involves number of rooms
for errors.

5. System Testing: Once the analyst is through with the coding stage he tests the systems and sees to it
that it is working as per the expectations or not. He corrects the flaws in the system if any.
6. System Implementation: This is one of the most vital phase as in this phase the analyst actually gives
the system to the customer and expects for a positive feedback.
7. System Maintenance: The last stage of the SDLC is that the analyst needs to maintain the system and
see to it that it working within the standards set. He needs to maintain the system by removing the
defects of flaws occurred

NET WORKINIG SOFT WARE

This is a type of soft ware used to establish communication between two or more computers by
linking them using a communication channel like cables to create a computer net work.

THE OPERATING SYSTEM.(OS)

This basic soft ware controls the computer operations. Or This is the main program that controls the
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execution of user applications and enable the user access the Hard ware and soft ware resources of the
computer.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
The operating system ensures that the computer operates in reliable way.

RESOURCES UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

The processor;
The operating system arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a particular
task or all the processor to service another.
The main memory;
The operating system determines which task will remain in the memory waiting for execution.
Input/output devices and ports:
The operating system has a the ability to control the flow of data from the time of input to the time
the user receives it as information.
Secondary storage devices.
The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary storage devices.
Communication devices and ports:
The operating system controls the overall communication process between various tasks on
computers.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM.

1. Hardware management.
It enables the computer to communicate with various peripheral devices so as to ensure their
efficient running e.g. mouse, key board , printer , loud speakers , plotters etc
2. Data or file management
The OS organizes data on different storage devices such as flash disks , floppy disks etc
3. The operating system enables the booting of a computer to take place
4.It helps to mediate between the computer user and computer system .This enables a computer
user to interact with the computer and obtain results .
5.The operating system co-ordinates all activities in the various parts of the computer.
6.It alerts the computer user and reports errors and loss of data.
Software management.
7. The operating system provides a mechanism of initiating new programs in the computer eg
Encarta , micro soft office.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system can be classified according to;
1. Number of tasks handled concurrently
2. Number of Users
3. Human computer interface.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TASKS HANDLED

CONCURRENTLY
1. Single Program Operating system.
This allows processing of only one user program in the main memory at a time . A user must exit
from one program before loading and running another program e.g. Micro soft disk operating
system(Ms Dos) from micro soft Corporation.
2. Multi Task Operating System
This is a type of operating system that allows a single central processing unit (CPU) to execute
what appears to be more than one program at the same time. However, internally only one program
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is being executed at a time.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF USERS.
1. Single User Operating System.
A single User operating system is designed for use by only one person . It can not support more
than one person and runs only one user application at a time.
2. Multi User Operating System .
This one allows more than one user to interactively use the computer. It can be installed on a computer
is accessed by many people at the same time. Examples are UNIX, Novel and Windows NT/2000,
Linux.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HUMAN INTERFACE

The term human computer interface refers to the method of interaction between the computer and
the user and determines how easily the user can command or operate the computer . This is why a
lot of time has been taken by the soft ware developers in trying to come up with user friendly
interface.
1. Command Line Interface.
The user interacts with a computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a command line
. A computer reads the instruction from command line and executes them . For a command to be
user friendly , the words used should be descriptive verbs e.g. print , copy , e.t.c.
This is common with early versions of M<s Dos, Pc Dos, Operating System/2 and Unix.
2. Menu Driven Interface.
This type of interface provides the user with a list of options to choose from. This interface is
suitable for beginners who may have difficulties in recalling commands , e.g. “Enter any key to
continue”.
3. Inventory Control .
Enter your Choice

i. I to enter data items

ii V to view items details
iii E or e to view a field in a record
iv D to display the edited record or file.
v. Q to quit the program , please enter your choice.

4. The Graphical User Interface.

This type of interface represents commands as small icons. Icons can be selected to issue command
using point devices like a mouse.

SECTION B: Paper 1
DOS & WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
Getting started with Windows XP
The Windows desktop; is the working area of the Windows XP screen. It is called a desktop because on
it, you can place electronic versions of things you have on your regular desk.
A Windows Desktop is shown as follows:
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

My
Computer
Icon

Recycle
Bin

ICO
N

Start Quick Launch Taskba DESKTOP Notification

Button Toolbar r Area

Windows screen Elements

ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
DESKTOP It is the working area of the Windows XP screen consisting of program icons,
a taskbar and a Start menu.
ICON A graphic representation of an object that you can select and open; such as a
drive, a disk, a folder, a document or a program.
My Computer It is an icon that provides access to the drives, folders and files on your
icon computer.
Quick Launch It is an area to the right of the Start button that contains shortcut icons for
Toolbar commonly used programs.
RECYCLE BIN It is a temporary storage area for files that you have deleted. Files can either
be recovered or permanently removed from the Recycle Bin.
NOTIFICATION An area on the right side of the taskbar, formerly called the system tray or
AREA status area, where the clock and system notifications display. These
notifications keep you informed about processes that are occurring in the
background such as network connections, antivirus software checking and
other utility programs.
START It is the button on the left side of the taskbar that is used to start programs,
BUTTON change system settings, fond Windows help or shutdown the computer.
TASK BAR It displays the start button and the name of any open documents. The taskbar
may also display shortcut buttons for other programs.
MOUSE An arrow; I-beam or other
POINTER
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Parts of a Window
Title Close
bar button
Menu bar

Toolbar

Address
bar

LEFT
PANE

Status bar
SCREEN ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
ADDRESS It is a toolbar that displays the organizational path to the active file,
folder or Window.
CLOSE BUTTON It is a shortcut button in a title bar that closes a Window or a
program.
LEFT PANE In the My Computer window, a pane at the left that displays
information and commonly used tools.
MENU It is a list of commands with in a category.
MENU BAR It is the bar beneath the blue title bar that lists the names of menu
categories for example; File, Edit; View and so on.
SCREEN TIP It is a small box activated by pointing to a button or other screen
object, which displays the name of the screen element.
STATUS BAR It is a horizontal bar at the bottom of the document which provides
information about the current state of what you are viewing in the
window for example; the page number of a document.
TITLE BAR It displays the program icon, the name of the document and the
name of the program. In addition, the Minimize, Maximize/Restore
Down and Close buttons are grouped on the right side of the title
bar.
TOOL BAR It is a row of buttons that activate commands such as Undo or Bold,
with a single click of the left mouse button.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Status bar

Status
bar

Screen
Tip

Screen
Tips

Shortcut menu

Sub menu

Shortcut menu

1. Define the following:

- File Icon: It is a graphical representation of a program or an application.

- List Box: It offers a list of choices that can be selected from. Usually list boxes contain options
to the text boxes.
- Control panel: is a nifty control panel applet that allows you to easily configure which
programs run when your computer starts.
- Screen saver: It is a utility that causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving image or a
back screen if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specific period of time.

- Pop up menus: A menu that, when requested, is displayed next to the object with which it is
associated. A menu that can be set to appear when a specified mouse button is pressed in a
window. A pop-menu consists of multiple menu items.
- Window: It is a rectangular area on a screen defined by specific borders called window
borders.
- Pop down Menus: It is a menu of options that appears below the item when the computer
user clicks on it. It comes down from the top of the computer screen, in the gray area
Task bar: A bar commonly located at the bottom of Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98,
Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows XP operating systems that displays
the programs that are currently running.
- Toggle buttons:
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A toggle button is a button that represents a setting with two states--on and off. Toggle
buttons look similar to command buttons and display a graphic or text (or both) to identify the
button.
 Commands buttons: These initiate an action in progress such as canceling a command
or confirming to process the required action.
 Text box: This offers a rectangular space for typing in additional information. This
information may be either a file name or a path.
 Drop-down list boxes: These offer options like the list boxes except that initially they
look like text boxes with an arrow pointing down on the right of the box.
 Options buttons: These represent a group of mutually exclusive options only one of
which can be selected. For example, in the dialog box you can only select either Center
or Tile but not both.
 Check boxes: These offer non-exclusive options in a group of options. All check boxes
can be selected or un-selected depending on what is desired.

SYSTEMS START-UP AND CONFIGURATION

2. What is meant by the following terms?

Bootable/ Start-up disk: It is a diskette that contains DOS and Windows commands needed to start and
use the computer.
System configuration: System configuration is the process of setting up your hardware devices and
assigning resources to them so that they work together without problems. It is the changing of computer
settings e.g. by changing the system clock, network drivers etc.
Uninstalling: This refers to deleting software from the computer memory.
Trouble shooting: It refers to the correcting and rectifying of error mistakes in a computer.
Installation: This is the running a software into the computer.
Device drivers: Device drivers are software programs that tell the operating system how to
communicate with a device.
OR: These are software programs that help different computer hardware to operate effectively.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

Operating system can be identified as below.
a. Desktop operating System
b. Windows operating system
c. Net working operating system
d.. P.d.a operating system

a. DESKTOP OPERATING SYSTEM:

These are commonly used on personal computers, normally stand alone personal computers and they
include:

1. DOS (DISK OPERATING SYSTEM)

These are two types of disk operating system currently used in micro computers.
These include PD-DOS, PC1-DOS, which was developed by IBM corporation and MS-DOS, which
was developed by micro soft corporation. To complete the desktop application, the environment disc
operating system loads with the windows 3X.
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2. Ms (Micro-soft) Windows 98. The micro soft corporation developed these two operating
systems due to technological advancement over the windows 3X. There are 32 utilities to
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
provide better multi – tasking (working with various applications at the same time) and faster
video display gives. There ability for plug and play provides a better way of installing new
peripheral e.g. mouse, joysticks, printers e.t.c. They also entail (force) the improved net work
support power management and file locking, they offer improved battery binary life and
productivity for laptop users.

There new interface that provide the users with various options of starting application
programmes. This can be done either from the short cut folder or the casketing do start menu.
Unlike Windows 95, windows 98 provides better DVD support and its integration with the
internet explorer makes it an ideal tool for web browsers.

3. Operating system -2 (OS-2): This is another desktop operating system which offers multi-
tasking abilities. It was designed for the IBM operation a. Desktop operating System which
collaboratively developed this operating system.

4. BeOS (be operating system): This Be operating system is one of the recent developments in
the operating system. It was built due to the increased demand in the multi media industry for
robust and longer file holding abilities. It 64 by bit file system and can handle files of up to 18
million Terabytes. This makes it ideal to handle files that include videos, sound and three divers’
oral images (3 d images). Its main disadvantage is that the current version is complicated and
needs only people with a lot of technical knowledge.

b. WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM.

Originally called windows operating system, is an operating system from Micro soft. It is both
desktop operating system as well as a net work operating system both for small and big corporate
organizations. It has many features than earlier Micro soft operating system. It’s main in reliability
and manageability with the help of active directory.

c. NET WORKING OPERATING SYSTEM:

These are designed to be used on several computers that do exist on net work. although at times they
can be installed or stand alone on a computer. Examples include:
 Moraile net ware:
These boosts of net work directory services (NDS) which is its strong point. NDS
maintains a directory of net work resources and limits access to authenticated users only. NDS is
useful in areas, which are interconnected. Therefore, applications and services can be offered on
a group, for individual, per client basis.
 Windows NT 4.0:
This has all the features, which are conceived from the 32 bit operating system of
windows 95 and windows 98. But with internal security and the net work abilities there by
offering a more stable, strong and secure platform which is ideal for component enterprises.
 Unix:
This is a multi user, multitasking, time saving system which was developed by
AT and t. Belly collaboratively for mini and main frame computers. Some other
versions of Unix like Scounix can also be found on large personal computers.
 Linux:
This is unity in every way expect for the name. It is a composite free sort ware
especially GNU soft ware from the free soft ware foundation. In the name of this system is GNU/LINIX.
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Currently, it is increasingly being used as a backend sewer. It is supported by companies like Dell and
IBM makes it an industrial straight operating system.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

d.. Pda OPERATING SYSTEM:

These systems are specifically designed for the hand held computers, personal digital
assistants. Normally these operating systems per driven or touch screen sensitive.

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING SYSTEM

Design:
The basic design of the computer hard ware e.g. is it an IBM compatible
or an Apple computer.
User friendliness or human computer interface:
For example is it command lined based, menu driven or graphical user interface based.
Availability:
The availability of a soft ware in the market e.g. Microsoft based operating system are very
common.
Cost:
How expensive is the operating system? The lower the price of the operating system, the more
chances of buying an operating system and the higher the price of the operating system, the lower the
chances of buying an operating system.
Reliability:
how reliable the operating system? I.e. can it run with out crashing or hanging that’s to say stops
responding to commands?

APPLICATION / PROGRAMME SOFTWARE

These are programs that make a computer perform different tasks of the user like processing ,
accounting , graphical generation.

They are called application programs because the direct the processing of a particular use of the
computer . They include:-
Word processors, Spread sheets , Data base , presentation , desktop . publishing , graphics processing
and communication.

CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 They are menu driven i.e. a user makes a choice out of a number of options.
 They are user-friendly i.e. there are messages that appear on the screen that guide the user.
 They are targeted to a wide range of users with common objectives.
 They are designed for power and flexibility i.e. they ensure that most figures are addressed
regardless of the hardware.
 The software is machine independent i.e. it is designed to work on a wide range of activities

FORMS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application packages are made available to purchase from the Application Service Provider (ASP) either
on the website or from written stores. The Software is made available in the following forms:-
1. Packaged software: (Standard Software ,Vendor – Off shelf Software) This is the application
software that is commercial, copyrighted and designed to meet the needs of a wide range of users.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
2. Custom software: (In- House developed software/tailored): This is tailor-made software or the
software developed at the user's request to perform specific functions as required by that particular
user.
3. Freeware: This is software that is copyrighted and provided to the user at no cost.
4. Shareware: This is also copyrighted software distributed free of charge for a trial period and
payment is required after the trial period expires.
5. Public-domain software: This is free software donated for public use and has no copyright
restrictions.

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE.

WORD PROCESSOR
These are used in creation , editing , formatting , saving and printing of documents such as letters ,
reports , labels , memos, advertisements, poems e.t.c.
Word processing applications include the following; Micro soft Word, word perfect, word pad, Note
pad, word pad.

SPREAD SHEETS
These are simple grids of cells arranged in rows and columns used in creation, handling and
maintenance of numerical data (Performance of calculations) such as budgeting , whatif analysis , past
planning e.t.c.
spreadsheet applications include ; Micro soft excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Visual calc,
Micro soft works, e.t.c.

DATABASES
These are used in creation of and management of large information related to a particular topic or
subject e.g. Mailing list, Customers’ information, product details, employees payroll information e.t.c.
The applications For Database are; Oracle, Lotus Pro, Database iv, Microsoft Access

PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
These are used in creation of computer based slide shows using sophisticated graphics, styles , effects
, transitions and animations to strengthen / enhance images which are employed during meeting s or
seminars to enhance the speakers idea graphically .
The application for presentation software is Micro soft power point.

DESKTOP PUBLISHING
These are used to combine text and graphics to create a publication . E.g. Newsletters, Brochures,
prospectus e.t.c.
The Desktop publication application include; Adobe page maker, Microsoft publisher., Ventura and
Microsoft Dream weaver.

GRAPHICS PROCESSING.
These are use d in the creation and manipulation of anything of graphics ranging from charts , paints
and draw , image editing e.t.c.
The Graphics applications include; Adobe photo shop, Ms photo draw, Coral draw.

COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE
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|These are used in exchange of messages with people , sending and receiving of data via computer
from different areas in the world .
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
The communication software applications include; Netscape, Ms Navigator, Eudora, Comet Bird,
Internet Explorer, e.t.c

THE DISK OPERATING SYSTEM.

This is an operating system which is the main system control program.
It is in charge of the computer disks drives and it announces its self by displaying C/>- (Dos Prompt)
signifying the end of the boot system (Starting process).
Dos was developed in 1981 by micro soft corporation and is an example of command line interface
(CLI).

FUNCTIONS OF DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

 It processes commands which are reserved words / instructions for a computer to perform
particular tasks e.g. Edit, exit, dir e.t.c.
 It controls programs on how they run .
 It manages various auxiliary (Secondary devices) e.g. printers , key board, monitor.
 It manages system resources such as memory.

DOS FILE STRUCTURE

A computer file is like a paper folder which holds related information .
Dos files can be up to 8 characters long using letters , numbers or a certain symbols plus a file
extension that uses only three characters e.g. Bernard doc.
These files are stored in directories organized in the root directory which should not be removed .
Branching out from the root directory , users create the main directory which contain sub directories
to organize programs and data files.

Desktop Root Directory

-My computer Main Directory
-31/2 Floppy (A:)
-Disk 1 part 01 (C:) Sub folders
-(D:)
-Web folder
- My documents.
- Online services

SPECIAL PURPPOSE EXTENSION

Disk Operating System uses certain extensions with its own files . These extensions should not be
used unless ,they they have the correct meaning . They include;
.Com Dos External command files.

.exe Executable files (using the same operating system).

.bat Batch files (Program Utilities, virus guards and Dos commands).

.sys System files (drivers and other programs).

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.hlp Help programs.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
BASIC LAY OUT FOR VARIOUS DRIVES

A drive is an area on the computer where secondary storage devices are inserted for reading ,
writing and retrieval of data.
Dos works with different parts of the computer but needs to be told which drive to use . Drives are
indicated by letters in the following ways:-
Drive A: 1st diskette drive

Drive B: 2nd diskette drive

Drive C: Hard disk ( Local disk / Fixed disk drive)

Drive D: CD – Rom drive

Drive E: Zip / second movable Hard disk
Drive F: System drives (Net work drives)

COMPUTER COMMUNICATION ,INTERNET AND INTRANET

COMMUNICATION.
this is the transfer of data/ information from one computer to another . This occurs after connecting
one computer to another (Net working)

INTERNET
This a computer net work which links millions of computers worldwide. Or This is a global computer
network .
It can also be defined as a worldwide system of information connected computers.
When a computer is connected to the computer, it becomes capable with establishing contact with any
other computer worldwide. The Internet uses a set of standards (Rules) to connect . these standards are
called Internet Protocols or Transmission Control Protocols(TCPs).
INTRANET .
This is a local area net work which uses internet protocols to connect computers within an organization.
It is a private net work that is accessible to only authorized members.
EXTRANET.
This is a wide area net work which uses internet protocols to connect computers within an organization.
It is a private net work that is accessible to only authorized members.

FUNCTIONS OF INTERNET
The Internet has got a wide range of functions , that is why it is liked by many organization and it
can be used to achieve the following :-

Easy communication and collaboration. The Internet helps people to exchange messages among
business associates and friends . And receive messages.

Entertainment. The Internet provides interactive video games, music, plays, therefore helping people
to spend their leisure time and develop talents.
The Internet provides access to information. Through surfing , people get information from all parts
of the world Like sports , news papers and others.
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Participation in discussion. It enable users to exchange their opinions and ideas with other people all
over the world. These enhance/promote social interaction.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Business transactions. It enables people to advertize their products to all people allover the world .
Purchasing and selling products without physical contact between the buyer and seller. I.e. E-
Commerce. This means use of computers to carryout trade(Electronic commerce).
E- Learning. This is the acquisition of knowledge , skills using computers without physical contact.
The Internet allows people to down load programs and other files from other connected computers in all
parts of the world. These programs are downloaded free of charge e.g. application programs, antivirus
programs, games, music players e.t.c.

The Internet provides job opportunities. For instance people who work in the Internet cafes and
Internet providers.
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERNET
It causes viruses to the computer.
It displays pornographic videos which lead to immorality.
It is only used by the educated few.
It has no data security since the net work is accessible to everybody.
It is expensive since payments are made to access the services on it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INTERNET

 It is an open net work . This means that it is accessible to everybody.
 It is a wide area net i.e. it covers all parts of the world.
 It is slow in transmitting data because of the great distance it covers.
 It is not a physical connection. I.e. No wires are used to connect computers worldwide.
 It is payable. I.e. users are charged money to access the services on the Internet.
 It is expensive to install.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INTRANET

 It is a closed net work. i.e. it is accessed by only the workers of the organization.
 It is a local area net work (LAN) i.e. It covers a single organization.
 It is a physical net work. Cables, wires are used to connect the computers.
 It is easy in transmitting data.
 It is not payable by the members of the organization.
 It is not expensive to install.

HISTORY OF THE INTRERNET

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks linked together
Interconnection of computers was began by the US department of Defense in 1963. Then research of the
internet was founded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA).
Interconnection of computers initially was made to aid communication among the scientists who worked
in widely separate areas.

In late 1980s , the government of USA begun to remove restrictions on who should access and use
Internet and commercialization of the Internet begun.
In 1990s . The Internet quickly expanded to include Universities , companies , libraries , Schools,
Individuals and Families.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the group that oversees research and sets standards and
guidelines for many areas of the Internet.
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An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that supplies connections to the Internet, usually for a
monthly fee.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Users may connect to their ISPs through a LAN, or through a dial-up access.
With dial-up access, the user uses a computer, a modem and a regular telephone line to dial into an ISP.
A dial-up connection is a slow speed technology.
WHILE
Some users opt for high-speed technologies such as Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) or Cable television
Internet Services.
The Internet uses an IP address to send data to a computer at a specific destination.
An IP (Internet protocol) address is a number that uniquely identifies each computer or device connected
to the Internet.
Each IP address consists of four (4) groups of number, each separated by a period (e.g. 192.168.3.3)
A domain name is the text version of an IP address, which makes the all numeric IP address easier to
remember and use.
The domain name system (DNS) is the system on the Internet that stores the domain names and their
corresponding IP address.
The domain name server (DNS): This translates the domain name into its associated IP address, so that
data can route to the correct computer.
A domain name includes:
www.monitor.co.ug
www.jomayi.co.ug
Each domain name contains a Top-level domain (TLD) abbreviation that identifies the type of
organization that is associated with the domain.
Top Level Domain Type of domain

Com Commercial organizations, business and companies

Org Non-profitable organization
Net Network providers
Edu Educational institutions
Gov Government agencies
Mil Military organization

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for assigning
and controlling TLDs.

COUNTRY CODE COUNTRY NAME

ug Uganda
tz Tanzania
sa South Africa
au Australia
jp Japan
uk United Kingdom
eg Egypt

A Server
is the host or central computer that manages the resources on a network. A server.

A server provides a centralized storage area for programs, data and information.
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A dedicated server is a server that performs a specific task.

The following are types of servers: -
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
i. Web servers: It supplies web pages to clients over the Internet
ii. Network servers: Manages network traffic
iii. Audio/video servers: bring multimedia capabilities to Web sites by enabling them to
broadcast streaming multimedia content.
iv. Mail servers: Provide access to e-mails over the network
v. News servers: News servers act as a distribution and delivery source for the thousands of
public news groups currently accessible over the USENET news network. USENET is a
worldwide bulletin board system that can be accessed through the Internet or through many
online services
vi. Telnet servers: These enable a user to log on to a host computer and perform tasks as if they're
working on the remote computer itself.
vii. Database servers: Stores and provides access to database.
viii. Print server: manages print and print jobs/ allows several computers to share a print
COMPUTER NET WORKING.
This is the act of linking computers so that users can extend data or store hard wares eg printers

COMPUTER NETWORK
What is a Network?
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via communications devices and
media.
Communications devices: This device that enables two or more computers to exchange items such as
data, instructions and information. Examples include: -
 Modems
 Cable modems
 Network Interface Card
 Bridge
 Multiplexer
 Switch
Networks allows user to share resources, such as hardware, software, data and information.
Factors Affecting Transmission Rate of a Network
i) Transfer rate: This is the speed of transmitting data and information. Transfer rate are usually
expressed in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (kbps), or megabits per second (mbps).
ii) The transfer rate of a transmission medium depends on the medium’s bandwidth and its speed.
iii) The Network Topology: It refers to the physical layout of a network. This means that start networks
have fewer collisions and usually run faster.
iv) Capacity of hardware: These include; switches, hubs and network interface card and they have their
own maximum speed.
v) The server: It should have the RAM of the high speed and the capacity of the hard disk.
vi) Location of software and file: Storing software on the workstation hard disks reduce network traffic
and speed up performance

TYPES OF NETWORKS:
1. Personal Area network (PAN): It is a computer network used for communication among computer
devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax
machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners.
2. Virtual Private Network (VPN): It is a network accessed by the employees in any given company.
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A Virtual Private Network provides the user with a secure connection to the network using the Internet
as if the user had a private line.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
3. Local area network (LAN): It is a network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or
building. Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology.
4. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): It is a LAN that uses no physical wires, but wireless media
such as radio waves.
5. Campus Area Network (CAN): A network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a
specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, or a military
base.
6. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two
or more Local Area Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the
boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a
Metropolitan Area Network.
7. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively
broad geographic area (i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
8. Global Area Network (GAN): Global area networks (GAN) specifications are in development by
several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for
supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage
areas, etc
Advantages of using a network
1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
2. Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable savings
when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not
have to worry about illegal copying of programs.
4. Centralized Software Management. All the software can be loaded on one computer known as the
File Server.
5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone
computers.
6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-mail
system.
7. Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many users to
work on a document or project concurrently.
8. Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from computers throughout the
school.
Disadvantages of installing a school Network
1. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs of
installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation
may require the services of a technician.
2. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and
expertise.
3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer,
when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt.
4. Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of
cables.
Peer-to-peer network
A Peer-to-peer network is a network where by each computer can share the hardware, data or information
located on any other computer on the network.
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Each computer on a peer-to peer network stores files on its own storage devices.
Each computer on the network contains both the network operating system and application software.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A peer-to-peer network is a simple, inexpensive network that typically connects less than 10 computers
together.
It is ideal for home and small business users Fig. 4: peer to peer illustration

Peer-to-peer environment

Computer Computer Computer

Client/Server Network
A client/Server Network is a network that has one or more computers acting as a server while the other
computers. i.e. clients on the network can request services from the server.
 A client/Server network typically provides an efficient means to connect 10 or more computers
together.
 Most client/server networks have a network administrator who is in charge of the network.

Server Computer Computer Computer

Client/Server environment

Components of a Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network can be made of several standard components namely:-
1) Connecting or cabling system. LANs do not use the telephone network, they instead use some
other cabling or connection system, either wired or wireless.
2) Microcomputers with Interface Cards: Two or more computers are required along with network
interface card.
3) Network operating system: The network operating system software manages the activity of the
network.
4) Other shared devices: Printers, fax machines, scanners, storage devices and their peripheral
devices may be added to the network as necessary and shared by all users.
5) Bridges and gateways: A Local Area Network may stand alone, but it may also connect to other
networks either similar or different in technology.
A bridge is an interface that enables similar networks to communicate.
A gateway is an interface that enables similar networks to communicate such as a LAN with a
WAN

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Definition:
Network topology is defined as the physical layout of network hardware. These include:-
 Computers
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 Cables e.g. fiber optic cables, shielded twisted pair, wireless networks etc.
 Networking devices. E.g. Switches, hubs, repeaters, bridges and routers.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Three commonly used topologies are:
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
1. Bus Topology (Linear):
Commonly referred to as a linear bus. All the devices on a bus topology are connected by one single
cable, which proceeds from one computer to the next. This topology is rarely used and would only be
suitable for a home, office or small business with only a few hosts.

2. Ring topology
A frame called a token, travels around the ring and stops at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it
adds that data and the addressing information to the frame. The advantage of using his is that there are no
collisions of data packets.

3. Star Topology:
This is the most commonly used architecture in Local Area Networks (LANs) and resembles spokes
in a bicycle wheel. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub,
switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

4. Tree Network topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub
devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This
bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in
the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub
connection points) alone.
5. Mesh Topology
The mesh topology connects all; devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance. It is
used in Wide Area Networks (WANs) to interconnect LANs and for critical networks. The mesh topology
is expensive and difficult to implement.

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM .

Microsoft windows is a graphical interface (GUI) which is enabling the users to create and manage files
effectively. Windows makes computers easier to use because of the menus in which users become more
productive as they do need to memorize sets of command for each application.
Examples of Windows operating system.

Windows Nt. Windows 2006

Windows 2000 Windows 2007
Windows 2001 Windows 2008
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Windows 2002 Windows 2010

Windows 2003 Windows XP
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

Windows Dark Edition

ADVANTAGES OF WIDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

 It enables the user to start and work with the computer application very easily.
 It enables the user to run more than one application at a time.
 /it enables the user to transfer information between / among programs.
 It enables the user to organize and manage file created in the application programs.

DISADVANTAGES OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM.

 Programs can be corrupted or damaged in case power goes off abruptly.
 Shortcuts can easily be deleted or replaced.
 Microsoft windows is expensive in terms of system and hard ware requirements.
COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING
Data communication: is the process of transferring information from one computer to other using
communication devices. These include; Wires, cables, modems e.t.c.
THE BASIC MODE OF COMMUNICATION CONSISTS OF:
A Sending device: This is the device that initiates an instruction to transmit data , instruction or
information.
A Communication device. This id a device that converts data , instructions / information from a
sending device into the signals that can be carried by a communication channel e.g. modem converts
digital signals into analog signals.
Digital signals: Consists of individual electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together.
Analog signal: Consists of continuous electrical waves e.g. human speech.
A communication channel, this is the path through which signals are sent e.g. standard telephone line.
A communication device: This is a device that receives signals from the communication channel and
converts them into a form understood by a receiving device. E.g. Modem.
A receiving device: This is a computer (device) that accepts signals from another computer (device). For
example computer B accepts signals from computer A.
communication software , This consists of programs that manage the transmission of data ,
instructions and information between computers.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
These enable two or more computers to exchange items e.g. data, instructions, and information with each
other.
MODEM. This is a communication device that interchanges between signals. This converts digital
signals into analog signals and analog signal into digital signals (Modulation Demodulation)
TYPES OF MODEMS.
Dial up modem. This is a modem used to dial to the internet provider before being connected to the
internet.
ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)
Is a set of standards for digital transmission of data over a standard copper telephone line.
DSL(Digital subscriber Lines)
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These provide high speed connection to the internet over a regular copper telephone line.
CABLE MODEM: Sends and receive data over a cable television.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
T. carrier Line: This is a digital line that carries multiple signals over a single communication line
using the multiplexing technique. T3 line = 28 T-1 lines in speed.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a service that carries voice data, video and multimedia at
extremely high speed.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A Transmission media consists of materials / techniques capable of carrying one or more signals.
Forms of Transmission media include;
a) Physical Transmission media. This one use wires, cables, or other physical materials to send
communication signals.
b) Wireless Transmission media. Send communication signals through the air or space using radio
microwave or infrared signals.

PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The physical transmission media include the following;
i) HUB (Concentrator / Multistation Access Unit (MAU)
Is a device that provides a central point for cables on a network.
ii) A Repeater.
is a device that accepts a signal from a transmission medium ,amplifies it and re-
transmits it over a medium.
iii) Bridge.
Is a device that connects two LANs using the same protocol e.g. Ethernet.

iv) Gateway
Is a combination of hardware and software that connects networks
That use different protocols.
v) Router
Is an intelligent communication device that sends communication
Traffic to an appropriate network using the faster available path.
E.g. Cisco 827-4v Router.
vi) MULTIPLEXER.
Is a communication device that combines two or more input signals
from various devices into a single stream of data and then transmits it
over a single transmission media.
vii) NIC. (Network Interface Cards). (LAN adapter)
is an expansion card that enable a computer or device to connect to a
network e.g. Ethernet card.
NB: A signal travels over a long distance, it undergoes a reduction in strength, and an occurrence is
called ATTENUATION.
TWISTED-PAIRED CABLE consists of one or more twisted-pair wire bundled together.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

 Speed $ throughput: 0-100

Mbps
 Cost: moderately expensive
 Media $ connector size:
Each twisted-pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper wire that
Medium to large are twisted together (to reduce noise).
 Maximum cable length:
100m Noise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade communications.
SHIELDED-TWISTED PAIR (STP) cable has a metal wrapper around
each twisted pair wire to further reduce noise.

 Speed $ throughput: 10-100-

Outer 1000 Mbps
jacket Twisted  Cost: least expensive
pair  Media $ connector size: Small
 Maximum cable length: 100m
Shielded-twisted pair cables are used in environment susceptible (vulnerable/disposed) to noise, such as in
a local area network.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP) CABLE:
This does not have this metal wrapper for shielding noise.UTP cables are commonly used in telephone
networks because it is inexpensive and easy to install.
Twisted
pair

Twisted pair cables are categorized into five groups, Cat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

COAXIAL CABLE:
This cable resembles the cable used to connect antenna to the television set. It consists of a single copper
wire surrounded by at least three layers, and these are;
a) an insulating material
b) a woven or braided metal
c) and a plastic outer coating
Coaxial cable is insulated more heavily than twisted-pair cable.
 Speed $ throughput: 0-100 Mbps
 Cost: moderate
 Media $ connector size: Medium to
Advantages of fiber-optic cables over cableslarge
that use wire;
 Maximum cable length: 100m
1) They have faster data transmission
2) Carry significantly more signals than wire cables
3) Small size and much thinner and lighter than cables.
4) They less susceptible to noise from other devices
5) Have better security for signals during transmission
Disadvantages of fiber-optic cables
a) They are difficult to install
b) Are more expensive than wire cables.

NB. Noise is an electrical disturbance that can degrade communication. Speed is 0 – 100mbps, Cost
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1.-BROAD CAST RADIO. This is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals
through the air.
A transmitter is needed to send the broadcast signal and the receiver is needed to receive signals.
From the wireless devices.
A Bluetooth is a kind of short range broadcast radio communication device which transmits data at the
rate of 1mbps among blue tooth enabled devices. E.g Desktop computers , notebook computers ,
handheld computers , internet appliances , cellular telephones and printers.
. Cellular radio: is form of broadcast radio that is widely used for mobile communications,
specifically cellular telephones.
Personal; Communication Services(PCS) is a set of technologies used for completely digital cellular
devices e.g. .Cellular phones , fax modems e.t.c.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Is the most popular Personal Communication Service
technology because of its fast transmission speed and low cost.
2. MICROWAVES are radio waves that provide high speed signal transmission. This involves sending
signals from one micro wave station to another.
Microwave transmission is used where installing physical transmission media is impossible e.g.
deserts ,lakes but light of sight transmission is available.
3. A COMMUNICATION SATELITE is the space that receives microwaves signals from the earth
based station , amplifies signals and broadcast the signals back over a wide area to many earth based
stations.
Applications of communication satellites include Television and radio broadcasts, video conferencing ,
paging, Global Positioning Systems.
Advantages of satellites
 Lots of data can be sent simultaneously.
 Allows high quality broad band communication across continents.
Disadvantages of Satellites
 The fee to launch a satellite is extremely expensive
 The infrastructure needed to access satellite communication is also expensive.

5. INFRARED RAY: Is a wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared light waves .It
requires line of sight transmission
BASEBAND AND BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
 Baseband transmission: This transmits only one signal at a time. E.g. digital subscriber Lines
(DSL) and Cable Television.
 Broadband transmission: This can transmit multiple signals simultaneously.
NB: Broadband transmission transmits signals at a much faster speed.
.
FACTORS AFFFECTING THE RATE OF DATA TRANSMISSION
These include;
 Transmission rate (higher frequency, higher bandwidth ).
 Line configuration (point to point and multipoint)
 Serial verses parallel transmission.
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 Direction of Transmission flow (Simple, half and duplex).

 Transmission Mode (synchronous or synchronous).
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Packet switching.
 Protocols.
TRANSMISSION RATE: The amount of data transmitted on a channel depends on the wave
frequency . (Cycle of waves per second). Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
Band Width is the range of frequencies. Difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies. More
data is sent to several frequencies within a particular bandwidth.
LINE CONFIGURATION:
These are ways of connecting communication lines.
 Point to point. This directly connects the sending and receiving devices, such as terminal with a
central computer.
 Multiple line; A multiple line is a single line that interconnects several communications devices to
one computer.
SERIAL AND PARALLEL TRANSMISSION.
Data is transmitted in two ways:
 Serial data transmission: This is where by bits are transmitted sequentially one after another.
Serial transmission is a way most data flows over a twisted-pair telephone line.
 Parallel data transmission: It is where by bits are through separate lines simultaneously. For
example parallel lines are sued to transmit data from a computer’s CPU to a printer.
DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION FLOW.
1. Direction of Transmission:
Direction of transmission has three ways
 Simplex transmission, data can travel in only one direction e.g. tradition TV antenna.
 Half duplex: It is where by data travels in both directions but only in one direction at a time. This
arrangement resembles traffic on one –Lane Bridge.
 Full duplex: Data is transmitted back and forth at the same time. This arrangement resembles
mobile traffic on two-way street. An example is where by two people on the telephone are talking
and listening simultaneously.
.
TRANSMISSION MODE (ASYNCHRONOUS Vs SYNCHRONOUS)
In asynchronous , data is transmitted or sent as one character (byte ) at a time especially in micro
computers. This makes transmission method slow. It uses “start” and “ stop” bit. While synchronous
transmission sends data in blocks.
NB: a start bit makes the beginning of byte and a stop bit makes the end of a byte.
PACKET SWITCHING (GETTING MORE DATA ON A NETWORK): A packet is a fixed length
block of data for transmission. Packet switching is a technique for dividing electronic messages into
packets for transmission over a network to their destination through the most appropriate route.
It can handle large volume traffic in a network, this is commonly used in large networks e.g. Telnet.
NB:A packet .
This is a basic unit of data transmitted over the network(internet) . Packets can also be referred to as data
segments on the internet.

PROTOCOLS: A communication protocol is a set of rules governing the exchange of data between
hardware and software components on a communication network.
A communication protocol will specify the receiving device will acknowledge sending devices
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(handshaking), error detection techniques, timing of message exchange, e.t..c.

TELECOMMUNICATION is the process of transferring information from one computer to another
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
via telephone lines.
NETWORKING is the computer to computer communication where by a group of computers can
share files and have access to other devices like printers and scanners that are also connected to the
network.
4.3.6 TRANSFER RATES OF VARIOUS COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA
TYPE OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA TRANSFER RATE

10Base-T (Ethernet) 10 Mbps-megabits/sec

Twisted pair cable 100Base-T (Fast Ethernet) 100 Mbps
1000Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet) 1000 Mbps
Token ring

10Base2 (Thin Wire Ethernet) 10 Mbps

Coaxial cable 10Base5 (Thick Wire Ethernet) 10 Mbps

10Base-F (Ethernet) 10 Mbps

100Base-FX (Fast Ethernet) 100 Mbps
Fiber-optic cable FDDI (Fiber Distributed–Data 100 Mbps
Interface) token ring

Broadcast radio Up to 2 Mbps

Microwave 45 Mbps
Communications 50 Mbps
satellites

Cellular radio 9,600 bps to 14.4 Kbps

Infrared 1 to 4 Mbps
TYPES OF CONNECTION
a) Physical Connection
This requires servers , client stations , hardware devices e.t.c with a network card where the wire the
wire providing the communication pathway is connected.
b) Logical Connection. Is performed by software programs which requires a user to enter a password to
log on the network server.
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
A Network operating system (NOS) is the system software that organizes and coordinates the activities of
the Local Area Network (LAN).

TASKS PERFORMED BY NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

 Administration of system users
 System maintenance tasks such as backup.
 File management tasks
 Prioritizing print jobs on the network.
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 Monitoring security on network resources.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
OPERATING SYSTEM THAT SUPPORTS NETWORKS
OPERATING SYSTEM REQUIRES SEPARATE OS NET WORK FORM
IBM OS/2 Wrap Client / Server
Linux Client / Server
Microsoft Windows 95,Windows 98, Peer-to- Peer
and Windows ME.
Microsoft Windows NT, Windows Client / Server
2000, Windows XP
Novell Net ware Client / Server
SpartaCom LANtastic Peer-to- Peer
Sun Solaris Client / Server
UNIX Client / Server

THE TELEPHONE NETWORK

The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the world telephone system that handles voice
oriented telephone calls. It is an integral part of computer communication today.
Data, instructions and information can be sent over the telephone network using dial up lines or
dedicated line.

A DIAL UP LINE Is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines for
communications.
Advantages
 It is no more than making regular telephone call.
 Computers at two locations can establish a connection using a modem and telephone Network.
Disadvantages
 The user can not control the quality of the connection because the telephone company’s
switching office randomly selects the line for connection.

A DEDICATED LINE is a permanent connection between two communication devices.

Dedicated lines can be digital or analog. Digital Dedicated lines include ISDN Lines, Digital Subscriber
lines, Cable TV lines, T- carrier lines, ATM.
Advantages
 There is immediate contact.
 Tone of voice helps communication.
Disadvantages-
 It may take long time to get some one on phone.
 Call is successful only when the person to contact is present.
 Time zone problems between different countries.

USES OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Uses of data communication include.
1. Voice mail
2. Fax
3. E- mail
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4. BBS
5. Instant messaging
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
6. Chat rooms
7. Newsgroups
8. Internet telephony
9. Videoconferencing
10. Groupware
11. Telecommuting
12. Global Positioning System.
13. E- commerce

VOICE MAIL
Voice mail functions like an answering machine and allows a caller to leave a voice message ,
which is stored in a voice mail box, for the called party.
A called party can listen to the message , add comments to a message, and reply or forward a
message to another voice mailbox in the voice mail system.
FAX
A facsimile (Fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives documents over telephone lines.
Documents sent or received via a fax machine are known as faxes.
Fax capability can also be added to the computer using a fax modem.
Advantages of fax
 Hard copies are available
 Slow in sending big documents
 Wasteful of paper when junk faxes are sent
ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)
Electronic Mail is the transmission of messages via computer Network e.g .LAN or the Internet.
Such messages can be a simple text or can include an attachment. E.g. Word processing documents,
graphical image, video clip. E.t.c.
Components of an E-mail message
To: It carries the e-mail address of the recipient
Cc: (Carbon copy): It allows the sending message to a third party while allowing other recipients.
Bcc: (Blind carbon copy): Allows sending messages to a third party without allowing other recipients.
Message: It is a theme of an E-mail message.

Advantages of E-mail over ordinary mails:

i. Ability to send messages to multiple recipients.
ii. It is convenient when receiving and delivering messages.
iii. It is cheap compared to ordinary mails
iv. Enables sending large files through attachments. Can be used for advertising
v. Messages can be sent anywhere in the world.
vi. E-mail messages can be sent at any time
vii. Records and copies are kept automatically

Disadvantages of using E-mails

i) There is always a risk of virus
ii) It is easy to get on junk mail lists.
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iii) It is not secure

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

BBS (BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)

Is a computer that maintains a centralized collection of electronic messages. The use of BBS is
declining because the internet can be used to access many of the same services.

INSTANT MESSAGING
Is a computer communication service that notifies a user when one or more people are online and
then allow the user to exchange messages or files with them . The program used for this service is
instant messenger.

CHAT ROOMS
Is location on an internet server that permits users to chat with each other by typing lines of text
on the computer. Most web browsers include a chat client.
A web browser is a computer program that allows the user to access and view web pages on
the Internet . E.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Netscape Navigator, Comet bird, Mozilla fire fox.

NEWSGROUND S (DISCUSSION GROUP)

Is an online area where users conduct written discussion about a particular subject. To participate
in a discussion , a user sends a message to the news group and others in the newsgroup reply to the
message.
A thread or threaded discussion consists of the original message and all subsequent related
replies.
A Usenet: is the where collection of internet newsgroups.
A news server: is a computer that stores and distributes newsgroup messages . A news group is not a
live conversation like a chat room.

INTERNET TELEPHONY/ VOICE OVER IP (VOIP)

Is a web based telephone service that allows a user to talk to others for just the cost of the internet
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connection. A microphone, a sound card , and special Internet telephony soft ware are required for
conducting internet telephony.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
VIDEO CONFERENCING
A video conference is a meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a
network or the internet to transmit audio and video data.
A video conferencing software with microphone , speakers and digital cameras attached to the
computer to participate in a video conference.
GROUPWARE
Is a software application that helps groups of people work together and share information over a
network.
It enables members of a workgroup to communicate , manage projects ,schedule meetings and make
group decisions.
TELECOMMUTING
Is a work arrangement so that employees may work away from the standard workplace of a company
but communicate with the office using some kinds of communication technology.
Advantages
 Reduces the expenses of traveling to and from work.
 Eliminates traveling during un safe weather conditions.
 Allows a flexible work schedule for employees.
 Favors the disabled employees.
 Reduces Air pollution caused by vehicles driven to and from work.
 Reduces costs incurred by the employers. E.g. less office space, Furniture.

Disadvantages
 Face to face interaction is reduced among the working staff.
 Work has to stop if any component of communication system fails to work.
 Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
 Data security may be jeopardized (destroyed).

Global Positioning System(GPS)

Consists of one or more earth based receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by the satellite in
order to determine the recievers’ geographical position.
Uses Of GPS
 To locate a person or an object.
 To ascertain the best route between two points.
 Monitor the movements of a person or object .
 Create a map.

ELECTRONIC COMMERCE(E-commerce)
is a financial business transactions that occurs over an electronic network such as the Internet.
Online banking and online shopping are two popular types of e-commerce that uses either electric data
interchange(EDI) or Electronic money (e-money).
E- Commerce can be grouped into three basic models:
Business-to – consumer(B2C) e-commerce consists of selling goods to the general public.
Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce occurs when one consumer sells goods directly to another,
such as online auction.
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Business-to – business (B2B) e- commerce consists of business providing goods and services to other
businesses.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
 Transactions occur instantaneously and globally , thus save time for participation on both
ends .
 Transactions occur 24 hours per day.
 Businesses have access to millions of people with Internet connections.
 Business has the ability to gather customer information, analyze it and react if possible.
 Information can be changed and be available quickly.
 Customers can compare prices easily.
 Feedback can be immediate.
 Manufacturers buy and sell directly, avoiding the cost of the middlemen.
 Distribution costs for information is reduced or eliminated.

INTERNET
This is the worldwide collection of Networks linked together.
INTRANET
Is the small version of the Internet used within an organization.
EXTRANET
This is a wide area network of an organization whose access is only to limited authorized members. E.g.
Embassies in different countries share information via a network (Extranet)
NB
To prevent unauthorized access to data and information, an intranet or extranet is often protected by a
firewall.
A firewall is a general term that refers to both hardware and software used to restrict access to data and
information on a network
CONNECTING THE COMPUTER TO THE INTERNET
There are several requirements for the computer to be connected to the internet. They include the
following;
 Browser for example Internet Explorer, Comet bird, Mozilla Fire Fox, e.t.c.
 A computer with a serial port for external modem or an expansion slot for internal modem.
 A modem (Either internal or External)
 Communication soft ware (Out look express, Netscape,)
 An account with the internet service provider, Internet Account and Connection wizard.
 An ISP (Internet Service Provider) , an online service e.g. Microsoft Network , America
Online(AOL).
Factors affecting communication speed on the Internet: -
 Computer processing speed. The higher the processor speed the higher the computer speed.
 Connection, speed of Internet Service Provider’s server
 Bandwidth: It is the speed at which your computer can send and receive information) is measured
in either Kbps (kilobits per second) or Mbps (megabits per second).
 Traffic on the Internet. Absence of traffic on the internet leads to transmission of large volumes of
data.
 Internet protocols
 Direction of transmission e.g. Full duplex and half duplex
 Mode of transmission
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
The internet uses an IP address system to send data to a computer at a specific destination.
An IP(Internet Protocol) address is a number that uniquely identifies each computer device
connected to the Internet. Each IP address consists of four groups of numbers each separated by a
period. E.g. 216.200.47.93. The number in each group is between 0 and 255.
In general, the first portion of each IP address identifies the network and last portion identifies the
specific computer.
A DOMAIN NAME: This is the text version of an IP address which makes the all numeric IP address
easier to remember and use. E.g. WWW.bsksch.Com.
The Domain Name System (DNS), is the system on the internet that stores the domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses.
The Domain Name System Server translates the domain name into its IP address so that data can route to
the correct computer.
Advantages of using an Internet
a. It facilitates advertisements
b. It provides education and online training courses.
c. It provides entertainment and leisure, such as online games and music, magazines and vacation
planning guides.
d. It facilitates trade and commerce e.g. online shopping, placing orders etc.
e. Easy access to huge information and research. For example news, weather reports and airline
schedules.
f. Internet provides online banking services and manages investments.
g. Provides online for goods and services.
h. People can communicate with each other through chatting, e-mails among others.
i. Internet enables downloading of files, listening to music and watching sports.
Disadvantages of using an Internet
a. It promotes immorality
b. It promotes conmen. These are people who take advantage of the Internet and take away people’s
money.
c. Bargaining cannot take place since there are no physical people.
Advantages of having Internet at school
a. Students are able to learn at their pace (at their wish) since lessons will not be supervised.
b. Topics can be accessed on the Internet by the students.
c. Instruction materials like homework, presentations and assignments can be made available online.
d. Students will access current information on the Internet
e. It provides interactive programs like games, chatting, E-mails etc.
f. It enables getting long term contacts from other countries (Pen pals).
Disadvantages of having Internet at school
i. Promotes laziness to students
ii. Internet will consume much of students' time
i. Pornography will be surfed
HISTORY OF THE INTERNET
The Internet has its root in a networking project called ARPANET started by Pentagon’s Advanced
Research Project Agency.
The goal of the project was to build a network that allowed scientists at different locations to
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share information and work together on military and scientific projects.

This could function even if part of the net work were disabled or destroyed by a disaster e.g. a
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
nuclear attack.
The ARPANET became functional in September 1969 linking Scientific and Academic
researchers in the US.
In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected its huge network of five super
computer centers called NSFNet to the Arpanet and this structure of complex networks and host
became the Internet.
The NSF Net serve as the major back borne network on the Internet Until 1995 and then
returned its status to a research network.
Today a variety of corporations provide networks to handle the Internet traffic. These Networks
along with Telephone companies, cable and satellite companies and government all contribute towards
the internal structure of the Internet.
Today , the Internet remains a public cooperative and independent Network . however , the
World Wide Web Consortium(W3C) is the group that oversees research and sets standards and
guidelines for many areas of the internet.

Starting the internet connection wizard

 Click on the start menu and select programs.
 Point to Accessories, select internet tools then click internet connection wizard.
 It starts and prompts you to making selections and it provides certain information.
With connection through a modem.
 The Internet service provider supplies the most information needed.
With connection through a /network.
 The Network administrator supplies information on the name of the proxy server , the
internet, connection name , username and password for logging the network, e-mail address ,
server type , the net work uses e.g. POP3 e.t.c.

THE NATURE AND TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

WIRELESS/DEDICATED/DIRECT CONNECTION.
This allows a computer to be directly linked to all functions of the internet . To establish it, the
company / organization must either own or lease a communication link that is attached to the
network usually internal link connected to the LAN.
Advantages
 The computer is always connected to the internet.
 Files that are opened form other hosts, go directly to your computer.
 Response times with the internet are much faster .

SLIP/PPP CONNECTIONS (HARD WIRED ACCESS)

Serial line internet protocol and point to point protocol are communication protocols that enable a
computer to communicate using TCP/IP protocols over Standard telephone lines and high speed .
Advantages
 The connection is established on a dial in basis and therefore lasts as long as the telephone
connection is active.
 They allow the user to use the telephone lines to make the computer a true network participant.
 They also allow for lower connection costs than if a person was using direct , dedicated
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connection especially if they are supported by the ISP.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
DIAL – UP CONNECTION
This is where the computer uses a modem and has to be dialed in order to be connected.
The other computer dialed, has a direct connection to the Internet and it act as a gateway to the Internet.
One must have a modem attached to the computer where by the telephone line runs from it to a telephone
wall jack.
TYPES OF DIAL – UP CONNECTIVITY SERVICES
TCP/IP ACCOUNT: Is a family of protocols governing data transmission across Networks.
SHELL ACCOUNT: This is time consuming and tedious, no graphics and sound.

GETTING CONNECTED
 Switch on the modem. If it is external, double click on the configured dial up net work icon.
(Dialog box for “connected to” appears.
 Press the connect button and it will connect to the server.
 If the connection is successful, the terminal window will come where you are prompted for user
name and password.
 If the combination is correct, the third prompt comes where you have to type PPP.
 Press F7 for continuing the login process.
 Once connected, one gets a message box specifying the connection speed and elapsed time.
 After all these steps, one can start the browser and then start surfing.
ISP: Internet Service Provider is the company which provides internet services usually on a monthly fee.
FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN ISP
Technical support services(User help)
Consider a company with an equaled level of technical expertise , dedicated support services and
good technical support team where by professionals are available whenever a problem is encountered
to give answers to questions every time.
Reliability
Consider a company which is committed to implement new interactive mediums and setting
standards in Internet Service.
Customer service.
Consider a company that is aimed with deep understanding of customer needs.
Costs/Affordability
Consider a company with economic understanding where by the charges for the services rendered is
affordable.
Reputation in the field.
Consider a company with a good reputation (good image) in the field where e by many people can visit
your site.
Advantages of having an ISP
 Most of the days’ activities like server management and housekeeping are left with the ISP.
COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET PROTOCOLS
A protocol is a language that enables computers on the internet (net work) to speak to one another.
Or
It is a set of rules governing the transmission of data from one computer to another. The Protocols include
the following;
TCP/IP(Communication Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
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This is the protocol on which the Internet is based . It is the collection of protocols governing the way
data travels from one machine to another across networks. It has two component i.e. TCP and IP
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
which are inseparable.
Two widely used protocols for Local Area Networks (LANs) are:-
 Ethernet, which is a LAN protocol that allows personal computers to contend (request) for access
to the network.
 Token Ring protocol
Functions
a) Internet Protocol
 It envelops and addresses data.
 It enables the network to read the envelop and forward the data to its destination.
 It defines how data can fit in a single “envelop” or packet.
b) Transmission Control Protocol
 It breaks data into packet that the network can handle efficiently.
 It verifies that all packets arrive at their destinations.
 Re assembles data.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This is part of TCP/IP protocol which is use to make files and folders publicly available for
transfer on the Internet.
It is a standard for Uploading or Downloading files to or from the Internet.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
This governs the transfer of hyper text (Web pages) between two or more computers. The WWW
(World Wide Web) gets all the information that is available through this.
TELNET
This is standard protocol for creating a connection with a remote system.

GOPHER
This is a protocol designed to retrieve and display documents from remote sites on the Internet.

WAIS (Wide Area Information Service)

This is an Internet search tool that is based on the Z39, 50 standard. The Z39,50 describes a protocol for
computer to computer information retrie
SEARCH ENGINES
A web Search engine is an interactive tool to help people locate information available via the World
Wide Web(WWW). They are actually databases containing references to thousands of resources.
FUNCTIONS OF SEARCHING
 It allows searching of phrases when available.
 It allows searching of different word endings or plurals with use of a shortening wild card
symbol.
 It allows searching of one term within words of another term.
 It performs keyword in context where by key words and words beginning with the same
character are returned near the key word to give the user the context in which they lie.
THE UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATORS (URL)FOR SEVERAL SEARCH ENGINES

SEARCH ENGINE UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR(URL)

Alta Vista WWW.altavista.com
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Excite WWW.excite.com
Google WWW.Google.com
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Hotbot WWW.Hotbot.com
Lycos WWW.Lycos.com
WebCrawler WWW.Webcrawler.com
Yahoo. WWW.Yahoo.com

NB: URL is the unique address of the Web page.

A Web Page may contain text, graphics, animations, audio and video. This is called multi media. The
web Page also has built – in connections called Hyperlinks, to other document.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (WWW) also called Web consists of a worldwide collection of electronic
documents.
Each of these documents on the Web is called a Web page .The WWW emerged in the early 1990s but
it has grown rapidly to become the most widely used service on the Internet.
A Web page can contain text, graphics, animations, audio and video. i.e. multimedia elements , as well
as built in connections called hyperlinks to other documents.
A Website is a collection of related web pages
A home page is the starting page or a table of contents for a web site and normally has a name
called index .html or index.html.
A web browser is a software program used to access and view web pages. The popular web browsers
are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
Today browsers also support push technology in which web based content is downloaded
automatically to the computer at regular intervals or whenever the site is uploaded.
Each web page has a unique address called a Uniform Resource Locater (URL) which tells the
browser where to locate the document.
A web server is computer that delivers web pages requested by the users. Multiple websites can be stored
on the same web server.
A web master is the individual responsible for developing web pages and maintaining a website.
Web Publishing: is the development and maintenance of a web page.
A search engine is a software program that can be used to find websites , web pages and files on the
Internet.
Web authorizing software is a program designed specifically to create web pages that can contain text
and other multi media elements. The examples of such software include;
Microsoft Front page,
Adobe page mill ,
Macromedia Dream weaver ,
Adobe GoLive.
Hyper link: It is a built-in connection to another related web page or part of a web page.
Search engine: It is a software program that can be used to find Web sites, Web pages and files on the
Internet.
Surfing: It is the activity of jumping from one Web page to another

ELECTRONIC MAIL ( E- MAIL)

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E- Mail or electronic mail is the transmission of messages via a computer network . e.g. Local Area
Network or the Internet.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
The message can be simple text or can include an attachment e.g. a word processing document , a
graphical image, an audio clip or video clip.
E- mail software creates , sends ,receives , forwards, stores. Prints and deletes email messages.
An e- mail system can be configured to any of these three major protocols.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)
IMAP (Internet message Access Protocols)
An e-mail system has three modes. These include the following;
i) Local Email System. This is designed to work with a LAN and normally uses SMTP.
ii) International E-mail System. This is designed for wide Area Network.
iii) The third combines both environments.
AN E-MAIL ADDRESS
Is a combination of a user name and domain name that identifies a user who sends
or receives e-mail . An e-mail consists of complicated phrases of words depending on the system
being used . The basic structure of an e-mail is [email protected], [email protected].
Joel is the name of the person sending or receiving the message .
Info com is the serve name, Co means company
Ug means that info com is in Uganda.
Example II
muwanguzi@nkpublishing house.com,
Muwanguzi is the user name, nkpublishing is domain and com means commercial.
Most e-mail programs allows users to create an address book which contains a list of names and
e-mail addresses.
Most ISPs provide users with a mail box which stores their e-mails on a special server called e-
mail server.
When an e-mail arrives at the recipient ‘s mail server, the e-mail transfers to a POP or POP3
server until the recipient retrieves it with his or her e-mail software.
Popular E- mail software includes. Microsoft Outlook, express, Endora. Some websites provide e-
mail services called Web mail which can be accessed by a web browser.
Advantages of E-mail
 One can send any size of message at just the cost of a local phone call.
 Messages can reach their destinations in less than a minute anywhere in the world.
 They save a lot of time.
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP).
This is an internet standard that allows users to upload and download files with other
computers.
AN FTP Server is the computer that allows users to upload and download files using FTP.
FTP SITE: This is the collection of files that reside on an FTP server. FTP sites allow transfer to
users who have authorized accounts.
Many FTP sites allow anonymous FTP so that anyone can transfer some or all available sites.
An operating system with FTP capabilities or separate FTP program is required to upload
files to an FTP site.

SENDING AND COMPOSING MAIL MESSAGES


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Go to the compose screen.

 In the TO Field: Type in the address of the person you are mailing.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Use the down arrow key to move to the subject and type the subject of your message.
 If you have another file you want to attach, move the cursor to the attachment field.
MAILING LISTS: This is a way to share information via mail with many people usually on a specific
topic.
BITNET BITNET: is a network that was created to connect Universities in the US and now
connects over a thousand institutions through out the world where mailing lists originated .
ELECTRONIC MAIL ETHICS
The mail ethics are the rules that govern the use of the mails. They include the following;
 Know your recipient.
 Avoid ill temper.
 Be concise and considerate of time and online charges.
 Use compression utility to compress large files.
 Do not just send copies to people unless they need to be copied .
 Briefly describe who you are.
 Do not use capital letter throughout.
 Check your mail regularly.

MULTIMEDIA.
A Web page can contain text, graphics, animations, audio and video. i.e. multi media elements , as well
as built in connections called hyperlinks to other documents.
A graphic is a digital representation of information such as a drawing, a chart, or a photograph. Two of
the more common graphical formats on the Web are JPEG and GIF.
Animation is the appearance of motion that is created by displaying a series of still images in a
rapid sequence.
Animated GIF is a popular type of animation format which combines several images into a single GIF
file.
JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, Which is a graphical image using compressing
techniques to reduce the file sizes.
GIF stands for Graphics Interchange Format, Which also uses the compression technique to reduce file
size.
Comparison of JPEG and GIF Format
Advantages Disadvantages
JPEG - supports millions of colors -Doesn’t support transparent
background.
GIF -One of the colors can be set - Supports only 256 colors
as transparent.

AUDIO can be music, speech, or any other sound. Common audio formats include WAV , MID and
MP3.
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface).
Is the electronic music industry’s standard that defines how sounds are represented electronically
by digital music devices.
MP3
This is a popular technology that may reduce an audio file to about one tenth of it original size ,
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while preserving the original quality of the sound.

Streaming is the process of transferring data in a continuous and even flow which allows users to
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
access and use a file before it has been transmitted completely.
Some Web sites use streaming audio ,which allows a user to listen to the sound as it downloads to
the computer.
Two accepted standards for streaming audio on the Web are Windows Media Player and Real Audio.
Video consists of full- motion image that are played back at various speed. Most Video is also
accompanied with audio.
MPEG is a popular video compression standard defined by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG).
Streaming video allows a user to view longer or live video images as they download to the
computer from the Web.
VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)
Is the use of computer to create an artificial environment that appears and feels like a real
environment.
A VR application normally displays a three dimensional view of a place or object and allows the user
to explorer the place or manipulate the object.
VR software users usually have to wear specialized headgear , body suits and gloves to enhance
the experience of the artificial environment.
A Web – based VR application may be developed by using a Virtual Reality Modeling
Language(VRML).
COMPUTER BASED TRAINING (CBT)
Computer Based Training (CBT) this allows students to learn and complete exercises with instruction
software.
CBT is also known as Computer – aided Instruction (CAI).
Related concepts include Computer –aided learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Assessment (CAA)
CBT that employs technologies of the internet and World Wide Web is called Web – Based
Training(WBT).
CBT and WBT are often involved in distance learning which is the delivery of education from one
location while the learning taking takes place at other locations.
Advantages of CBT include
 Students can learn at any time and anywhere, provide that the computer system is available.
 Students can receive instant feedback for their actions.
 Students can learn at their own pace.
Advantage of WBT over CBT
 Materials provided by WBT can always be up to date.
Advantages of distance learning include;
 Save time and money for traveling to school.
 Students can learn and complete their course works at home and at any time that fits their
schedules.
SOCIAL IMPACTS OF COMPUTERS
These include;
 Computer security risks.
 Computer and Healthy risks.
 Computer ethics.
COMPUTER SECURITY RISKS
A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computer
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hardware , software , data, or information.

Some breaches to computer security are accidental but some are planned.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Any illegal act involving a computer is generally referred to as a computer crime.
CYBER CRIME
This refers to online or Internet based illegal acts.
Some of the common computer risks
 Computer Viruses
 Un authorized access and use of computer systems
 Hardware theft and software theft
 Information theft and formation privacy.
 System failure
A BACK UP: Is a duplicate of a file , program or disk that can be used if the original is lost,
damaged or destroyed .
Files can be restored by copying the backup files to their original location on the computer.
COMPUTER BUGS
A bug refers to an error in the computer system that causes un necessary actions. There are two types of
bugs, namely;
- Software bugs
- Hardware bugs e.g. millennium bug, computer clock.
Types of the clocks in the computer include;
Hardware clock: Runs constantly even when the computer is off. When the computer is switched on,
it sets the system clock.
System Clock: Is a 24 hour clock which exists when the computer / machine is on.
UN AUTHORIZED ACCESS AND USE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Un Authorized access: Is the use of the computer or a network without permission.
Hacker or Cracker: Is someone who tries to access a computer or net work illegally , some hackers
steal computer resources / corrupt a computer’s data.
Un Authorized use: Is the use of a computer or its data for un approved or illegal activities . E.g. An
employee using a company computer to send e-mail, use of a Bank computer to perform un authorized
transfer.
MEASURERS TO CONTROL UN AUTHORIZED ACCESS AND USE
By using Access control: This is a security measure that defines who can access the computer , when
to access it, what actions users can take when accessing. There are two –phase process of access
control.
IDENTIFICATION: This verifies whether the user is a valid one.
AUTHENTICATION: This verifies that the user is really the one he/ she claims to be .
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION AND AUTHENTICATION
o User names and Passwords
o Possessed objects
o Biometric objects
o Call back system.
USER NAMES AND PASSWORD
Most multi –user operating systems require a user to enter the correct name and password before
accessing the data , information and programs stored on the computer or network.
Password : This is a combination of characters associated with a user name that allows a user to
access a computer or a network.
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Do use
- At least eight characters if supported by the system.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
- A combination of mixed case letters and digits.
- A password that can be typed easily.
Do not use
- Your name, birthday, Id number, telephone numbers or a password of digits with the same letters
throughout.
Tips for safeguarding your password
- » Change your password frequently
- » Do not share your password with others
- » Do not write down your password
POSSESSED OBJECTS
Is any item that a user must carry to gain access to the computer or computer facility. These include
badges, cards, and keys. They are often used with Personal Identification Numbers (PIN)
BIOMETRIC DEVICES
This verifies personal characteristics e.g. finger prints , it translates personal characteristics into a
digital code that is compared with a digital code in the computer. Such devices include; finger print
scanner, hand geometry system, system recognition, signature verification system, iris recognition
system.
Advantages of Biometric Devices
- Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or misplaced
Disadvantages.
- Most of the devices are expensive.
- A finger print scanner may reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his / her nerves.
- A signature may not match the one on file when the person is nervous.
- A voice recognition system might reject users with a sore throat.
CALL BACK SYSTEM
Is a system that connects a user to a computer only after the computer calls the user back at a
previously established telephone number.
To initiate a callback system;
a) The user calls the computer and then enters the correct user name and password.
b) The computer instructs the user to hang up and then calls the user back.
A callback system works best for users who regularly work at the same remote location.
6.2.1 HARDWARE THEFT

HARDWARE AND SOFT THEFT

HARDWARE THEFT : is the act of stealing computer equipment.
HARDWARE VADALISM: Is the act of destroying computer equipments.
PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT HARDWARE THEFT
1. Use physical access controls e.g. Locked doors and windows.
2. Use cables to lock the equipments to desks, cabinet or floor.
3. Install Alarm systems for additional security.
4. Never leave a note book computer or handheld computer un attended to in public place.
5. Use passwords, possessed objects, biometrics as am method of security.
6. Backup all files stored on the computer regularly.
Software theft : Is the act of stealing software of the computer.
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Forms of Software theft

1) Physical Stealing media . This involves stealing of devices where software is found. For example CD-
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
ROM, Floppy Disk.
2) Software Piracy, Refers to the un authorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software. It is the
most common cause of software theft.
Purchasing software only provides a consumer with a license agreement or the right to use the
software.
TYPES OF LICENSES
Single user license agreement
End – user license agreement
SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
A single user license agreement permits the user to install software only on one computer and make
one copy for backup but does not allow him to install software on a network give away copies.
A SOFTWARE SITE LICENSE
Gives a buyer a right to install the software on multiple computers at a single site.
A NETWORK SITE LICENSE
This allows network users to share a single copy of the software which resides on the network
server.

RISKS OF SOFTWARE PIRACY

- Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.
- No technical support can be received.
- Rise in the software cost for all the legal users.
INFORMATION THEFT AND INFORMATION PRIVACY AND ACCURACY
Information Theft: This refers to the stealing of personal or confidential information from others.
Reasons For Information Theft.
- A company wants to learn more about the competitor .
- An individual steals credit card numbers to make fraudulent purchase.
Prevention
- Using access control to computer networks
- Use encryption
-
INFORMATION PRIVACY
This refers to the right of individuals or organizations to deny or reject the collection and use of
information about them.
INFORMATION ACCURACY
This becomes important when it is necessary to access information maintained by other people or
companies e.g. on the Internet.
Inaccurate input can result in errors and incorrect decisions made based on such information . E.g.
Changing out put especially images.
SYSTEM FAILURE
This is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also cause hardware , software , data or
information loss.
Common Causes Of System Failure
- Aging Hardware
- Natural disaster (Fire, Fraud, Storms, or Earth quakes).
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- Electrical power variations.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipments against under voltage (the dropping of
electrical supply i.e. 220 volts) and over voltage.
Thus many users connect uninterruptible power supply (UPS) and stabilizers to the computer for additional
electrical protection.
ELECTRICAL VARIATIONS.
This can cause loss of data / equipment. A single Power disturbance can damage multiple systems in
a computer network.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTRICAL VARIATION
1. NOISE: This is any un wanted signal usually mixed with normal voltage entering the computer.
UNDER VOLTAGE: Occurs when electrical power supply drops. E.g. Below 220V in Uganda.
OVER VOLTAGE / POWER SURGE. Occurs when incoming electrical power increases
significantly above the normal voltage (220V).
CONTROL
- Using a surge protector to control over voltage and under voltage .
- Connecting Uninterrupted Power Supply to the computer for additional electrical protection.
- Files should be backed up regularly to prevent data loss caused by system failure.
Backup files should be kept in a fire proof , heat proof safe or offsite.
Restoring backed up files to their original locations on the computers.
BACK UP
This is a duplicate of a file program or disk that can be used if the original is lost or damaged .
TYPES OF BACK UP
Full back up: This copies all the files on the computer.
Differential back up: Copies only the files that have changed since the last full back up.
Incremental back up: Copies only the files that have changed since the last full or incremental
back up .
Some users implement a three – generation back up procedure to prevent three copies of
important files.
Advantages And Disadvantages of Types of Back up

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Full back up - All files are saved - Longest back up
- Fastest recovery. time
Differential - Fast back up method - Recovery time is
- Requires minimal consuming.
storage space to
back.

Incremental - Fastest - Recovery time is

- Requires minimal longest because the
storage space to back last full back up and
up. all incremental back
ups are needed.

NB.
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The grant parent is the oldest copy of a file , parent is the second oldest copy of the file child is
the most recent copy of the file.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
COMPUTER HEALTH RISKS
Prolonged computer usage can lead to health risks. E.g.
- Repetitive stress injury
- Eye strain
- Lower back pain
- Muscle fatigue
- Emotional fatigue
REPETITIVE STRESS INJURY
Is a kind of musculoskeletal disorder of muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments and joints.
Force full bending of the wrist can cause tendonitis of the wrist.
Tendonitis is the inflammation of the tendon due to some repeated motion or stress of that tendon.
Carpel Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) Is the inflammation of the nerves that connects the fore arm to the palm
of the wrist.

FACTORS CAUSING DISORDER

- Prolonged typing
- Prolonged mouse usage
- Continual shifting between the mouse and the keyboard.
PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT THESE INJURIES
- Take frequent break during the computer session to exercise hand and arms.
- Place a wrist rest between the key board and the edge of the desk.
- Place the mouse at least six inches from the edge of the desk.
PRECAUTIONS TOEVENT COMPUTER RISKS
- Pay attention to the sitting posture.
- Take a break , e.g. strand up , walk around e.t.c
- Adjust the lighting in the room.
- Place the display device (monitor) about an arm’s length away from the eye with the top of the
screen at eye level or below.
- Ensure that the work place is designed ergonomically.
COMPUTER ETHICS.
These are moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information system.
As already discussed above, frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are; Un authorized
Access and use of computer systems, Software piracy, information privacy and accuracy,
Intellectual property rights and codes of conduct.
Trade Mark Rights
Intellectual Property (IP)
This refers to the work created by the investors, authors and artists.
Intellectual Property Rights (IP): Are the rights to which creators are entitled to their work.
Copyright
This gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish and sell their materials.
Copyright law gives public fair use of copyrighted material e.g. for education purposes.
A Trade Mark:
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This protect the company’s logos and brand names.

CODES OF Conduct
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps to determine whether a specific action is ethical or un
ethical.
Information Technology Codes Of Conduct
- Computers may not be used to harm other people.
- Users may not interfere with other people’s work.
- Users may meddle with others’ computer files.
- Computers may not be used to steal.
- Computer s may not be used to bear false witness ( blackmail)
- Users may not copy or use or copy software illegally.
- Users may not use others’ computer resources.
- Users may not use others’ output.
- Users shall consider the social impact of the Program and systems they design.
- User should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration and respect of other
people
DATA ENCRYPTION.
Is the process of covering readable data into un readable characters to prevent un authorized
access
PROCESS OF DATA ENCRYPTION

Black Panther BlackPanther

Cipher
Black panther KCalB
rehtnpap
Plain Text Encryption Decryption Plain text
Key Key

Methods Of Data Encryption

TRANSPORTATION
This changes the order of characters.
SUBSTITUTION.
This replaces characters with other characters.
EXPANSION INSERT
This inserts characters between existing characters
COMPACTION
This removes characters and stores them elsewhere.
ENCRYPTION KEY
This is a formulae that the originator/initiator of data uses to d encrypt Plain text.
DECRYPTION KEY.
This is a formulae the recipient of data uses to d decrypt Cipher text
CIPHER TEXT
This is the encrypted data / information.
PLAIN TEXT
This is data that appears in a normal form before encryption or after decrypt
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET
1. The future generation of computers
2. The computers being researched
The Internet:
Possible future trends of the Internet
 Internet will be as universal as radio and television today
 The Internet will continue to expand and change in several ways: i.e. faster connections, more users,
new multimedia and virtual reality services.
 More interactive services such as multimedia newspapers
 Impact of information technology to the society, morally, unemployment, vision laxity and
entertainment.
 Learning will become any time and where.
INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSOR
The word processor is application software that helps in the production of documents or is a program
that helps the user to create, edit, format, save and print documents that contain texts and graphics.
The word processor can be used to form text (data) to produce letters, reports, memo or any other letter,
number or any other type of correspondence.
Terms used in Microsoft Word
 TEXT: A text is any t, letter, symbol that you sum numbers on the keyboard. The grouping of text or
result in the creation of documents through a word processor, you modify, store and retrieve and print
document.
 EDITING: It is the process of making changes to the existing content of the document.
 FORMATTING: It is the changing the appearance of a document.
 PRINTING: This is the processing of sending a file to a printer to generate output on a medium such
as paper.
COMMON EDITING FEATURES
 Inserting: It is when text is added to a document and the surrounding words automatically move to
make room for the inserted text.
 Deleting: When text is deleted or removed from a document, the surrounding words automatically
move to fill in the gaps left by the deleted text.
 Cutting: When text is cut, it is stored in a temporary location called the Clipboard; the original text is
removed from its place.
 Copying: When text is copied, it is duplicated and stored in the in the Clipboard. However, the original
text remains in place.
 Pasting: When text is pasted, it is placed from the Clipboard into the document.
POPULAR FEATURES (characteristics) OF WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE
 Word wrap: Allows a user to type continually without pressing the enter key at the end of each line.
 Spell checker: Allows a user to check the spelling of a whole document once at a time.
 Grammar checker: This reports grammatical errors and suggests ways to correct them.
 Mail merge: This creates form letters, mailing labels and envelopes.
 Macros: It allows a user to record or save frequently used key strokes and instructions, which can be
executed later by running the corresponding macros.
 Templates: Allows a user to create documents which are frequently used.
 Clip art gallery: This is a feature that allows a user to insert drawings, diagrams and photographs into
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a document.
 Thesaurus: It suggests alternative words with same meaning (i.e. synonyms) for use in the document.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Automatic page numbering: This numbers the pages automatically.
 Find and search: This allows the user to locate a particular character, word or phrase.
Examples of Word processing applications programs
 Microsoft word
 Lotus notes
 Perfect writer
 Word pad
 Word perfect
 Word star
 Office pro
Advantages of Word processor
 Word processor helps the users to read and revise documents on the screen.
 Documents can be previewed before being printed.
 It facilitates change by formatting to get the desired visual effect
 It enables the user to produce as many copies as needed.
 It allows the saving on document and thus makes work easy.
 A document can be stored in the computer for future reference in computer files
that do not occupy physical space like the one on paper.
 Typing using a word processor is easier and more efficient because some actions are automated. for
example word-wrap
 Most word processors have special editing tools such as spelling and grammar checkers and
thesaurus that help the user to easily correct grammar and spelling mistakes .
 With insert and type over modes available in most word processors , one can easily insert or
replace a word or a phrase without affecting the structure and neatness of the document.
 Word processors have superior document formatting features. such features include italicization,
boldfacing , applying different colours.
 While a typewriter may require that the entire document is retyped for many copies , with a word
processor , printing enables one produce as many copies per session as needed.
 Using the cut, copy and paste commands , one can incorporate text without having to retype.
Disadvantages
 Word application can only be operated by people who are computer literate.
 Word processing applications have so many commands that cannot be learnt with in a short period of
time.
 It can lead to unemployment since a single computer can do work for many people.
 Data can easily be lost in case of power failure.

MICROSOFT WORD
Is the most commonly used word processing software which can incorporate text, pictures, chart e.t.c.
in the same file and then the exact image is displayed on the screen of what will be printed out on a
paper.

LOADING / STARTING MS WORD

 Click the start menu
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 Select programs
 Select Ms word (office for Microsoft word)
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

CREATING A NEW DOCUMENT

 Click on the file menu
 Select new
 Click on ok

FORMATTING TEXT
 Select or highlight the text / paragraph to be formatted.
 Click on the formatting menu
 Select font (dialog box appears) and make desired choices.
Select okay.

CHANGE CASE
This is to change the word from either small to capital and vices verse.
 Select the text to be changed
 Click on the format menu
 Select change case (a dialog box opens)
 Click on the option button of the desired case style
 Click ok.

DROP CAPPING
This is the making of the first character of the paragraph bigger
than the rest.
 Select the character (the first character of a word)
 Click on the format menu
 Select Drop cap…..(Dialog box appears)
 Select Dropped
 Set lines to be dropped and then ok.

USING WORD ART

This is used for the styles of words.
 From the drawing toolbar
 Click on A word Art icon (Word Art gallery appears)
 Select a style (Text Box appears)
 Type in the Text (It can be formatted from there)
 Click ok
NB: It can be resized and repositioned using the mouse.

SAVING A NEW DOCUMENT

 Click on the file menu
 Select save as (dialog box opens)
 Type in the file name
 Locate the drive (Hard disk,31/2 floppy, Drive D,)
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 Click on save.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
SAVING CHANGES
 Click on the file menu.
 Select save
Or Click on the save icon on the standard toolbar.

PRINTING
Is to create a hard copy of information on papers.
 Click on the file menu.
 Select print (Print dialog box opens)
 Set the number of copies to be printed out.
 Click ok

CLOSING A DOCUMENT
 Click on file menu
 Select close or click on the X button on the document window.

EXITING / QUITING A PROGRAM

 Click on the file menu.
 Select Exit or click on the Title bar and choose X button.

RETRIEVING / OPENNING AN EXISTING DOCUMENT

Click on the file menu.
 Select open. (Open dialog box appears).
 Locate the drive
 Click on the file name, open

LINE SPACING
 Position the cursor where to change the line spacing
 Click on the format men
 Select paragraph (A dialog box appears)
 Under spacing drop down list, select the desired spacing.
 Click ok.

ALIGNMENT.
This is used to align text either left, right, center or justify.
 Click format.
 Choose paragraph from the formatting dialog box
 Choose alignment style on the indents and spacing.
 Choose the appropriate alignment style from the alignment look-in.
 Click ok.

USING SPELLING AND GRAMMER CHECKER

 Click on Tools menu.
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 Select spelling and grammar (Dialog Box opens)

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
The dialog box contains the following
a) Ignore - leaves the word unchanged.
b) Ignore all – leaves the word unchanged on all occurrences.
c) Change – Accepts spelling in the suggestion box.
d) Change all – Changes the first and all subsequent occurrences of the
mispelt word.
e) Add – Adds the word to the dictionary.

THESAURUS.
This provides the synonyms/ words of the same meaning as selected word. (Alternative words)
 Select the word
 Click on tools menu
 Select language
 Select the appropriate synonym from the list provided.
 Click on ok.

WORKING WITH COLUMNS

These are used to improve on the document quality e.g. News papers, Brochures, Catalogues, e.t.c.
Select the text to format / position the cursor where you want the columns to begin.
 Click on the format menu.
 Select columns from dialog box.
 Click on any desired column layout
 Select ok.

NB: If you want columns to be at a particular area in the document , click on the Apply to :
Button and select where you want them to be.
USING NUMBERS AND BULLETS
Numbering shows sequence while Bullets emphasize points.
 Select the text to number / bullet
 Click on format menu
 Select Bullets and numbering (from the dialog Box)
 Click on the numbered Tab for numbering / bulleted. Tab for bullets – Select the style of your
choice.
 Click ok

AUTOMATIC DATE INSERTION

 Position the cursor where you want the date to be inserted
 Select – Insert Menu
 Select the Date and Time .From the dialog Box
 A selection of available date formats is displayed.
 ‘Click on the date style you want.
 Click ok.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
PAGE FORMATTING
It involves designing the look of the page to be printed.

PAGE NUMBERING.
This is used to number the pages of a multi-page document so that readers can follow the sequence of the
pages more easily.
 Click on the Insert Menu
 Select page numbers (dialog Box)
 Select the position either Top of the page (Header) or Bottom of the page (Footer) from the
position drop down box.
 Select ok.
 NB: The preview displays the settings you make. You can modify the numbers by clicking on
format. In the dialog box.

MARGINS AND PAPER SIZE (ORIENTATION)

 Click on the file menu
 Select page setup (dialog box)
For (i) Margins – click margins tab
 Select appropriate margins required for the document(in the top, bottom, left and right boxes)
For (ii) Paper Size , Click on paper size Tab.
 Select portrait (Normal form)/ Landscape (Width form).
Click Ok.
HEADERS AND FOOTERS
Headers are the same set of words appearing at the top of every page.
Footers are the same set of words appearing at the bottom of every page.
Click on the view Menu,
Select Header and footer . (Text box appears on the screen and the tool bar for Header and Footer).
Type in the text required in the header textbox / footer text Box.
Click ok / Close the toolbar.
NB: Headers and footers show on the screen in page layout view and print preview only
PAGE BOARDERS
 To set a design on the page.
 Click on the format menu.
 Select boarder and shading …….(dialog box open)
 Click on the page boarder tab in the dialog box.
 Select a design from the Artist box. (The preview shows the appearance of each design).
 Click on ok.

ADDING CHARACTERS NOT AVAILABLE ON THE KEY BOARD

 Click on insert Menu
 Select symbol ….(dialog box opens)
 Select the font (e.g. wingdings, web dings e.t.c.)
 Click on the required symbol
 Click on insert
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 Click on close
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

USING PICTURES (Clip Art)

 Click on the insert menu
 Click on picture: select clip art
 Select a category of pictures
 Select a picture to use
 Click on insert.
NB: You can resize and reposition it using the mouse.

WORKING WITH TABLES

Data is often presented in columns and rows with in letters, memos ,reports and newspaper . Tables are
useful features to deal with such data.

A table is made up of columns (Vertical) and rows (horizontal) which intersect to form cells.
NB: A cell is an intersection of rows and columns.
Click on Table Menu.
 Click a table
 Use the given Pencil to come up with a table.

USING THE INSERT TABLE FACILITY

Insert the cursor where to put the table.
 Click on the table menu
 Select insert: Table from the cascading menu.
 Enter the required number of columns in the number columns spin box and rows.

SELECTING A ROW / COLUMN

 Click in any cell of the required row/ column.
 Click on the table menu.
 Select row /column, centre row / column will be selected.

INSERTING COLUMNS / ROWS

 Select the entire row / column next to where you wish to insert .
 Click on table menu
 Select insert Row / column.

MERGING CELLS
This is the joining of cells.
 Select the cells to join
 Click on the table menu.
 Select merge cells (The cells will merge into one cell).

SPLITTING CELLS:
This is to divide the cell into any number of cells).
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Select the entire cells

Click on the table menu
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
Select : Split Cells

USING INDEXES, TABLES OF CONTENT, FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

Indexes are used to explain or provide references for a particular point made in the document.

A footnote is a superscripted character.

INSERTING INDEXES
 Click on insert menu/ choose indexes and tables
 Click on index and tables
 Select the index tab
 Under type, choose indented.
 Under formats, choose classic.

APPLICATION OF WORD PROCESSING IN THE CLASS ROOM

 Creating formal and informal business letters.
 Commercial advertisements
 Poems
 Writing reports on trips.
 Events
 Travel guides
 Subject oriented report (laboratory reports)
 Historical research reports on individuals.

Mail Merge.
This is the process of generating personalized letters or document by combining the main document. E.g.
A letter, with an existing data source such as the address book. Therefore in mail merge, three files
created are
1. The primary file (main document)
2. The secondary file.
3. Merged file.

1. From the file menu, select New to create a new document. You also open or retrieve an existing
document.
2. On the tools menu, click Mail Merge to display.
3. Click create button, to select the type of document needed e.g. form letters.
4. Click data , To use an existing list of names and address , click open data source . To use existing
address form an electronic address book.
To create a new list of names and addresses , first choose the necessary fields from the create data
source box. Then save the record structure.
5. With the main document open, spot the mail merge toolbar on the screen. Position the text cursor’
where you want to insert merge field and insert them.
6. From the Merge toolbar, choose, ABC (Reveal merged fields).

INSERTING GRAPHICS.
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The term graphics refers to non- text images generated by a computer.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
This includes photographs, drawings and graphs.

 Position the cursor where you want your object.

 On the insert menu, point to picture, and then click Clip art. Click on the tabs to select the
category of objects.
 Double click on the object you want or click it once and then click insert button.
 Use the object place holders to resize your. If you place the mouse pointer on one of these
holders, it turns into a two header arrow, hold down the mouse button and drag to increase or
reduce the object size.
 Click anywhere outside the object to remove the holders.
 To move your object to another position , click inside the object, the pointer turns into an
arrowhead cross . Hold down the mouse and drag to a new location.

INSERTING AN IMAGE FROM A SCANNER

The computer must be connected to a scanner to complete this procedure. A scanner is a data capture
device that transforms a hand copy to a real graphical object into digital form.
To scan an object
 Position the insertion pointer where you want your picture to appear,
 From the insert menu, point to picture and then click from scanner or camera.
 To san, follow the instructions that come with your scanner.
 When the image appears on the screen, you can edit and format it as required the same way you
would with a clip art.

INSERTING A PICTURE FROM ANOTHER FILE

 Position the cursor where you want your picture to be placed,
 From the insert menu , point to Picture , then click
 Locate the file that contain the image you want to insert e.g. from your floppy diskette, or from a
computer disk.
 Select the object you want to insert.
 Then click insert button
 When the image appears on the screen, you can edit and format it as required the same way you
would with clip art.
ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
SPREADSHEETS
Spreadsheets refers to an electronic ledger sheets / worksheet of a grid of rows and columns in the
computer’s memory and displayed on the screen to let the user to enter , edit and manipulate
numeric data.
OR
It is the software used to organize data in rows and columns and perform calculations on the data.
Examples of Spreadsheet software
Examples of spreadsheet programs:
 Microsoft Excel
 Visual Calc
 Lotus 1-2-3
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 Office pen calc

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Quattro pro
 Office pro
 Tally programs
 Super Calc
 Microsoft works

CHARACTERISTICS OF SPREAD SHEET (Features’)
 A spread sheet is composed of grid structures rows and columns.
 A spread sheet has got a formula bar where functions are entered or inserted.
 Spread sheet are used for calculations only.
 It has built-in mathematical formulae and functions which manipulate numbers.
It is made up of cells, cell addresses and cell references.

Functions of Spreadsheets
1. It is a valuable tool for accounting , finance and business planning .
2. It is used to keep accurate financial records e.g. sales
3. It allows the use of what if analysis which helps to find out effects of company performance.
4. It helps school administrators to track expenses , income from fees payments e.t.c.
5. It helps teachers to keep record of classroom attendance and performance records, test scores and
grades .
6. It is used in preparation of budgets, cash-flow fore –casts in business and other organizations.
7. It helps accountants to track daily income and expenditure , prepare quarterly and yearly tax
returns or to analyze the value or worth of the business.
TERMINOLOGIES
CELL : Is the intersection of a row and a column. Each cell has a unique reference given by its column
letter and row number e.g. A1, c100 etcetera .
ROWS : This is the horizontal arrangement of cells. The run from left to right numbered from top to
the bottom along the left edge of the worksheet. There are 65536 rows on a worksheet.
COLUMNS: This is the vertical arrangement of many cells. They run from top to the bottom labeled by
letters A – IV from left to the right . There are 256 columns on a worksheet.
GRID : These are columns and rows of a worksheet.
LABELS: These are alphanumeric words used to name columns or rows or to identify / explain a formula
or numeric entry.
VALUES: These are numbers that are available for mathematical operations. E.g. 0 -9.
RANGE: Refers to a group of cells from a single cell , row, column. This is a rectangular block or entire
worksheet referred to by the top left and bottom right cell e.g. B2 – G17
FORMULA: These are mathematical expressions that create relationship among cells. They are
equations analyzing data on a worksheet by performing operations such as addition, multiplication,
subtraction etcetera.
FUNCTIONS: These are pre-defined formula that are in-built in the computer and perform calculations
by using specific values called arguments in a particular order.
ACTIVE CELL: Is a cell in which data is entered as you type. Or is a cell that is ready to receive data.
Only one cell in a worksheet is bounded by a heavy boarder.
CELL REFERENCE: This is a set of coordinates That show the location data on the worksheet. E.g. The
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cell reference that of a cell that appears at the intersection of Column B and Row 3 is B3.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
CELL ADDRESS: Is the identification of cells e.g. A1, B1 e.t.c.
WORKSHEET: Is a spreadsheet document.
WORKBOOK : Is the file for worksheets which is made up to 16 worksheets. Workbooks contain
three sheets but more can be added.

POPULAR FEATURES OF SPREADSHEET PROGRAMS

RECALCULATIONS: Spreadsheets recalculate the rest of a worksheet whenever data in a worksheet
changes.
BUILT IN FUCTIONS
These are in built formula in the computer that perform operations such as addition, multiplications,
counting and basic statistical functions.
ADJUSTING COLUMNS
Allows the user the ability to adjust columns.
DATA SORTING
Allows the users to sort accordingly. This is the arrangement data in alphabetical or numerical order.
DATA VALIDATION
Allows the user to ensure that correct data is entered in the spreadsheet.
PRINTING
Allows to print entire worksheets / portions of a worksheet and several worksheets.
TEMPLATES AND WIZARDS
Allows the user to use the basis of similar workbooks.
SUMMARIZING DATA
This allows the user to summarize data using consolidation and pivot tables . Consolidation allows
the merging of several workbooks into a summary sheet.
ABILITY TO PERFORM WHAT IF ANALYSIS
Allows the user to perform what if analysis which can be used to find out effects of performances
of companies.
CHARTING
Allows the user to display data in a graphical form rather than numeric form.

LOADING A SPREADSHEET PROGRAM EG Ms Excel

Microsoft excel is an advanced worksheet supporting databases , graphics ,presentations and allows
one to do financial calculations and plans.
STEPS

 Switch on the computer

 Click on start menu
 Choose program
 Click on Ms Excel

ELEMENTS OF EXCEL WINDOWS

TITLE BAR
This is located at the top showing the running application e.g Ms Excel
MENU BAR
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This contains names of menus which contains commands e.g. file

TOOLBARS
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
(Standard and Formatting ). These contain icons. These include formatting icons and Standard icons.
BUTTONS
These include; Close, Maximize and Minimize buttons

COLUMN AND ROW HEADERS

These identify rows and columns.
FORMULAR BAR
Normally appears as one types in the active cell and is used for editing data entered in a worksheet.
WORKSHEET FRAME
This is where data is entered.
WORKSHEET TABS
These are used to switch from one worksheet to another .
STATUS BAR
Used to show the action taking place.
WORKBOOK NAME
This is used to name the file e.g. students file.
TAB SCROLL BUTTON:
These are used to move from one worksheet to another.
THE OPERATIONS OF SPREADSHEETS
A. Moving around the worksheet
There are different methods of moving (navigating) around the worksheet . They include the following
below;
1. Click call 5 , notice that the cell pointer immediately moves to the cell and name box reads
D5
2. Click letter A that heads the first column, notice that the whole column is highlighted.
3. Double click cell 10, notice that the text cursor forms in the cell and now you cant type
characters inside the cell.
4. Click the down arrow on the vertical scroll bar, the worksheet moves upwards on the screen.
The opposite happens when one clicks the upward arrow on the vertical scroll bar.
5. Click the right button on the horizontal scroll bar. The worksheet moves to the left. The opposite
happens when one clicks the left button on the horizontal scroll bar.
6. Press the right arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one column to the
right on the same row. This can also be done by pressing the tab key once.
7. Press the left arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one column to the left
on the same row. This can also be done by pressing the Shift+tab .
8. Press the up arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row up on the
column.
9. Press the down arrow key on the keyboard. Notice that the cell pointer moves one row down on
the column.
10. Pressing Ctrl + Home moves the cell pointer to the first cell of the worksheet.
B. Types of data entries (Data Types)
There are mainly four types of data used with spreadsheets
1. Labels
2. Values
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3. Formulae
4. Functions
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
LABELS
These refer to text or alphanumeric characters/ words entered in a cell and viewed as a label by the
spreadsheet program. Labels are used as row or column headings usually to describe the contents of the
row or column.
VALUES
These are numbers that can be manipulated mathematically. They may include currency, date, numbers (0
-9), special symbols or text that can be manipulated mathematically by the spreadsheet.
FORMULAE
These are user designed mathematical expressions that create relationship between / among cells and
return a value in a chosen cell .
In Ms Excel a formula starts with an equal sign . For example , the formula =B3+D4 adds the content
of B3 and D4 and returns the value in the current cell.
FUNCTIONS
These are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to create a new
one each time a calculation has to be carried out . Ms Excel has many of these formulae that cover
most of the calculations preformed by spreadsheets.
To add the contents of cell B3 and D4 the sum function can be used as shown below
=SUM(B3:D4)

CREATING A DOCUMENT
 Click on the file menu
 Select new
 Select workbook
 Click ok, Or
 Select new from the standard toolbar

ENTERING DATA
Data is entered in the current active cell but you can also move to the required cell address by
clicking on it using the mouse or the arrow keys.
 Click in the cell in which data is to be entered
 Type the required data (data also appears in the formula bar).
 Press Enter
NB: Auto complete
This is a feature which detects the text if its is already present on the worksheet and completes it
after the first letters are typed.
SAVING A DOCUMENT
 Click on the file menu
 Select save as (a dialog box appears)
 Type the file name
 Locate the drive by clicking on the arrowhead, on the save in bx. E.g. 31/2 floppy(A)
 Click on save (ok) or press enter

MAKING CORRECTIONS AND EDITING DATA

I. Editing
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 Position the cursor in the cell you want to edit

 Press f2/ click and release the mouse button , the cell is highlighted .
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Make the required changes
 Press enter when through

II. Replacing Cell data

 Position the cursor to the cell you want to change
 Click on it to make it active
 Type in the text and press enter

III. Removing Cell contents

 Move to the cell to rub the content
 Press delete key / backspace key

SAVING CHANGES
 Click on the file menu
 Select save or use the save tool on the standard toolbar

SIMPLE FORMATTING
(a) To change font size , bold facing , italicing and underlining
 Highlight the range of data to format
 Click on format menu select cells .(A dialog box opens)
 Click on font tab and select the appropriate font , font size e.t.c
 Click ok or use icons on the formatting toolbar.

(b) Formatting cells

This involves the display of numeric data. e.g. how many decimal places to be displayed .
 Select the cells containing data
 Click format and select cells
 Click on the number tab, under category , select number.
 Use the down arrow head in the decimal places box to set.
 Click

NB: This #### symbol indicates that the cell is too small to display the data in the chosen format .
Therefore you need to increase the cell width to display the data.

(c) Changing the cell Width

 Select the cells to change.
 Click on the format menu / column /width
 Type the appropriate width of characters in the dialog e.g. 20
 Click ok
Column width can be from 1 -255 and the numbers of character that can be displayed are indicated using
standard font.

(d ) Changing rows height

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 Select cells to change

 Click format/ rows/height from the dialog box which appears.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Type the appropriate height of characters e.g. 12
 Click ok

(e) Inserting columns / rows

Columns are inserted before the highlighted column and rows are inserted above the current row.
 Highlight the column next to where you want to insert a column.
 Click on insert menu
 Click on columns (A blank column is inserted before the selected column)
Rows- Position the cursor in any cell below where you want to insert a row .
- Click insert / row (a row is inserted above the selected row)
(f) Deleting Columns and rows .
This application removes the column / row.
 Highlight the column / row containing data to delete / remove
 Press delete
COPYING AND MOVING CELL RANGES OR BLOCK WITH
FORMULA
To copy cells or cell ranges
 Select the data to copy
 Click on the edit menu and select copy
 Position the cursor where to copy
 Click on the edit menu and select paste

NUMBER FORMATS / TYPES

There are twelve number types in spreadsheets . Namely;
 General format: These have no specific number formats.
 Number formats: are used for general display of numbers e.g. decimal places, using a
separator, numbers , e.t.c.
 Currency Format: Are used for general monetary values
 Accounting Format: Lineup the currency symbols and decimal points in a column.
 Date Format: Display time and dates, serial numbers as date values.
 Time format: Display time and dates, serial numbers as time values.
 Percentage Format: Multiplies the cell values by 100 and display the result with a percent (%)
symbol.
 Fraction Format: This is used to enter values of fractions from one digit, two digit , halves and
quarters etcetera.
 Scientific Format: this is used to display values with decimal places.
 Text: Cells are treated as text even when the number is in the cell. It is displayed exactly as
entered .
 Special formats: These a\re used for tracing lists and database values . These include Postal
codes , Phone numbers, Social security numbers ,etcetera.
 Custom Type: Type the number format code in one of the existing codes as a starting point.

NB: Number formatting buttons include; Currency style ($), percentage style (%), Coma style (,). Top
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apply any style , select the cell containing data and click on the appropriate style on the formatting
toolbar.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical

WORKING WITH FORMULAE

A formula is an equation that performs mathematical operations such as additions, multiplication,
subtraction and division on worksheet data.
Formulae always begin with an equal sign (=) which tells that the following characters comprise a
formula.
Following the equal sign, are the elements to be calculated (the cell references) separated by calculation
operators , e.g. *, - , / , + as below
= (A3 + C3 ) * D3
Equal sign Cell reference Multiplication operator
They are calculated from the left to the right according to a specific order for each formula . The
order of the operation can be changed by using parenthesis.

CALCULATION OPERATOR
There are four types of calculation operators
1. Arithmetic operators: These perform basic mathematical operations e.g. addition,
multiplication, combines numbers and produce numeric results.

E. g.
Arithmetic operator Meaning Example
+ (plus sign) Addition 10+10

-(Minus sign) Subtraction/Negation 30-10/-12

*(Asterisk) Multiplication 9*9

/(Forward slash) Division 9/3

%( Percent sign) Percent 87%

^(Caret) Exponentiation 9^2(same as 9*9)

2. Compulsion operators: Compare two values with the following operators. When two values are
compared by using the operators, the result is a logical value, either true or false, yes or no.

Comparison Operator Meaning Example

=(Equal) Equal to A1=B1
>(Greater than sign) Greater than A1>B1
<(Less than sign) Less than A1<B1
>=(greater than or equal to) Greater than or equal to A1>=B1
<=(Less than or equal to) Less than or equal to A1<=B1
<>(Not equal to sign) Not equal to A1<>B1
3. Text Connecting Operators: These use ampersand to join one or more text strings to produce a single
piece of text. E.g.
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Text Operator Meaning Example

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
&(ampersand) Connects two values to “East “and”Wind
one continuous text value Eastwind
Produce
4. Reference operators: These combine ranges of cells for calculations with the following operators
Operator Meaning Example
: (Colon) Range operator which produces B5: B15
one reference to all the cells
between two references, including
two references.

,(Comma) Union operator which combines =Sum(B5,B6,B7,B8)

multiple references into one reference

FUNCTIONS
These are pre-defined formulae that perform calculations by using values called argument in a
particular order or structure. The most commonly used functions are;

Name Syntax Description

Sum = Sum (Range ) Enter Adds all values in the specified
range

Average = Average(Range) Enter Computes the average of data in

a specified range

Maximum =Max(Range) Enter Generates Maximum / largest

value from a specified range

Minimum =Min(Range) Enter Generates Minimum / Smallest

value from a specified range

Count = Count (Range) Enter Counts the non blank cells in a

range of cells

Round = Round (value decimal This rounds the value of a

number to a specific number
of places two numbers.
Arguments.
These can be numbers, text logical values such as true or false cell references. The argument must
produce a valid value for that argument.
The structure of a function begins with the equal sign (=) followed by a function name followed by
an opening parenthesis ( the argument for the separated by colons and closing parenthesis [)]
Entering a Formula that contains a formula
- Click the cell in which to enter the formula
- Type the equal (=) sign followed by the function name
- Open brackets
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- Enter the range (argument)

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
- Press enter
CELL REFERENCE
This refers to a set of coordinates that the location of data on the worksheet. One use cell references
instead of values in formula e.g.C4, A1, D5 etcetera.
TYPES OF CELL REFERENCE
1. Relative Cell reference.
These are references to cells relative to the position of a formula. E.g. = sum (A1:B1) that can be
adjusted when copied to other cells.
2. Absolute Cell reference
Are references to cells in a specific location and therefore cannot be adjusted even when a
formula is copied to other cells. E.g. organizations decide to store the vat rate in price. The
column letters and row numbers are preceded by a dollar sign e.g. $A$1
3. Mixed Cell reference.
This is the combination of absolute and relative cell referencing together. One can add a dollar
sign on one character and leave the other. E.g. $A1,B$2

NB: Relative cell referencing automatically adjust when one copy them and absolute reference do not.

ENTERING AND COPYING A FORMULA USING RELATIVE AND

ABSOLUTE ADDRESING
If in spreadsheet , the total price e.g. (C3) is the net price plus vat and the current rate is 17.5% in
(A9) which is expressed as a decimal , the formula would be = B3 + (B3*A9)

Now to copy the formula from C3 to any other cell using absolute addressing , click on C3 and
Edit the formula = B3+($B$3*$A$9).

DATA MANAGEMENT
At times , it becomes necessary to use advanced data management tools to manage large data stored
on worksheet. For example , If the work sheet has many records , it may it may become necessary
to arrange them in a particular order using a method called sorting for easier access to data items .
Other methods of data management include use of filters, totals/ sub totals function and forms.
SORTING
This is the arrangement of data in either numerical or alphabetical order / descending or ascending .
To carry out sorting proceed as follows.
 Highlight the range that you wish to sort by clicking its column headers letter.
 Click data then sort display the dialog box. Notice that the sort by field is already reading the
field selected this field is called the criteria field .
select the field to be used as the key for sorting and the sort order as either descending or
ascending then click ok button to apply.
FILTERING DATA
This is a quick and efficient method of finding and work with a sub set of data in a list . a filter list
will only display the rows that meet the condition or criteria you specify. Micro soft excel has two
commands for filtering lists.
 The auto filter: It uses simple criteria and includes filter by selection.
 Advanced filter uses more complex criteria.
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 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
AUTO FILTER
Filter can be applied to only one list on a worksheet at a time
 Click a cell in list that is to be filtered usually the list in a column.
 On the data menu, point to filter and then click auto filter
 To display only the rows that contain a specific value , click the arrow in the column that
contains the data one wants to filter(display)
 Click on the value that is to be displayed by the filter form the drop down list.

SUB TOTALS
Consider the following scenario, a company that has many sales persons will need to know how
much each of them should be paid at the end of a period by looking at individual sales volume.
Also the grand total for all the payments has to be calculated.
Therefore , if the salespersons are held in a list there would be needed to calculate the amount due
to each of them. This can be called a subtotal in the list. All subtotals can then be added together to make
the grand total. Consider the following list.
 Click a cell in the list that will have subtotals e.g. Cell A3
 On the data menu, click subtotals to see the dialog box.
 In the change in box, Select name from the drop down list because we want sub totals for
each of the names.
 In the use function box, select the sum function .

TOTAL FUNCTION
Use the auto calculate feature in Microsoft excel to automatically show the total of a selected
range. When cells are selected , Microsoft excel displays the sum of the range on the status bar. Right
clicking this function , it displays other functions like min, max and average that can also be used . to
find the total of the range, highlight it then click the auto sum icon on the standard toolbar.
FORMS
A form is specially prepared template that the user can use to enter data in a worksheet. It is specifically
formatted to enable users to enter data in a format that is more convenient to them. If data is
collected on paper before entering in the computer , then a form can be created to have the layout of
the data on the paper to quicken data entry procedures . To display a form, click on data, then form

WORKING WITH CHART AND GRAPHS

a chart is created on its own sheet or as an embedded object on the worksheet. It can also be published on
the Web page.

Embedded Chart: Is a chart considered as a graphic object and saved as part on which it is created.
Chart Sheet: is a separate sheet within a workbook that has its own sheet name. It is used to view or
edit large complex charts separated from the worksheet to preserve screen space as one works on
the worksheet.

In charts , data appears in form of axis values, Category names ,chart data series names, data markers
and data sheets.
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CREATING CHARTS
One can create either an embedded chart or a chart sheet.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Enter data in the worksheet
 Select the cells that contain data one wants to appear in the chart . If one wants the column
and row label in the chart, include the cells that contain them in the selection.
 Click on the insert menu, click chart or click on the chart wizard from the standard toolbar.
 Follow the instructions in each step of the wizard

SIZING GRAPHS AND CHARTS

 Click on the chart
 Selection squares at each corner and midway along each side of the chart appear to show
that the chart is selected
 Click on the midpoint markers of each side one by one hold down the left mouse button
and drag to the appropriate width then release the mouse.

DELETING CHARTS
 Select the chart to have the selection squares
 Press delete key

ADDING TEXT TO A CHART

 Click on the text box icon on the drawing toolbar
 Draw the text box inside the chart area
 Click inside the text box and type in the text.
TYPES OF CHARTS
 Bar chart: Illustrates comparison among individual items categorized vertically values and
horizontally.
 A Pie chart: Shows the proportional size of items that make up data series to the sum of all
the items .
 Column chart: Shows data changes over a period of time . Categories are organized
horizontally and vertically.
 Stacked column Chart: Shows the relationship individual items to the whole.
 Area chart: emphasizes magnitude of change over a time.
 Stacked bar chart: shows the relationship of individual items to the whole.
 A line bar Chart: shows trends in data at equal intervals.
 A doughnut Chart: Shows relationship of parts to whole but it can contain more than one data
series.
 High low close charts: Is often used to illustrate stock prices. This can also be for scientific data.
E.g. To indicate temperature change.
 Radar Chart: Compare aggregate values of a number of data series .
 Stock chart: Measures the volume and has two value axis , one for column that measures
volume and other for the stock prices.

HIDING COLUMNS / ROWS

This is suitable for large volumes of data which can fit on the screen . If you are preparing a payroll
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you can decide to hide the net pay

 Select / click on the columns to hide.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Click on the format menu.
 Select Column/row
 Click on hide (the column disappears).
DISPLAYING HIDDEN COLUMNS/ROWS
 Select the adjacent column/rows before and after the hidden columns/rows.
 Click on the format menu / select column rows/click on un hide

ADDING HEADERS AND FOOTERS

A header is the set of word appearing at the top of every worksheet.
A footer is a set of words appearing at the bottom of every worksheet.
 Click on format / select page setup…(dialog box appears)
 Click on header / footer tab in the dialog box
 Click custom header or custom footer(depending on what one wants to set)
 Enter the text to the header or footer
 Click ok.
PRINTING AND LAY OUT
Print Preview
This feature displays a page how it will look when printed out , in this the width of the margins and
the columns can be changed by dragging the sizing handles.
 Click on the file menu and select print preview
 Click on zoom to magnify the worksheet
 Click on the margins tab to get the sizing handles.
 Press page down to move through the worksheet if it is more than one page long.
 Click close to return to the master document.
ORIENTATION
Orientation refers to the mode of printout on paper. Worksheet are often wider than their length. It is
advisable to always print them side ways
 To select land landscape mode , click on the file menu
 Select page setup……(Dialog box opens)
 Click on landscape button under orientation
 Click ok
CHANGING PAPER SIZE
The most common paper size is A4 but margins can be adjusted to appropriate sizes in the page
setup dialogue box by clicking on the paper size box.
APPLICATION OF SPREADSEETS IN THE CLASSROOM
 Preparing class lists
 Preparing performance lists
 Grade books
 Creating charts and graphs for performance trends

Qn: Explain the advantages of using electronic spreadsheet over manual spreadsheets.
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
This is an application software enabling the users to create computer based slide shows using
sophisticated graphic s and animations to enhance images .
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These applications are also able to create slide reprints and notes. They are normally employed during
meetings or seminars to enhance speakers’ ideas graphically.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A PRESENTATION
This is a collection of slides , handouts, speakers’ notes and outlines in a single file.
A SLIDE
This is an individual page in ones’ presentations.
A HANDOUT
Is a printed material for ones’ audience that consists of two- six slide images printed on a single page.
It helps to support ones’ presentation by keeping the audience focused on what one is saying and by
not requiring them to write down everything they see on the projection screen.
OUTLINES
Theses are used for brainstorming and organizing one’s thoughts.
SLIDE MASTER
Is the master page of each of the output options , slides, handouts and notes pages that is part of every
presentation created.
TITLE MASTER
This is a title area for auto layout . It is formatted place holder for slide titles on the slide master.
TRANSITION
This is a way how characters in a slides move on and off the screen. For example Dissolve in.
ANIMATIONS.
These are special visual or sound effects that can be added to text or objects in a presentation.
COLOUR SCHEMES
Is a set of colours that one can apply for individual slides, notes, pages and audience handouts

FEATURES OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

 Auto Features. This makes it easier for one to perform his or her work. E.g. Auto correct for
correcting errors , Auto clip art – provide clip art suggestions, Auto correct wizard.
 Style checker. Allows the user to scan his presentation for design problems e.g. spelling
errors.
 Pack and Go wizard. Leads one step by step through preparing one’s presentation for delivery on
another computer.
 Ability to present on screen presentation in colour . Audience handouts are often printed in
Black and White.
 Using animation effects toolbar which add motion and sound effects to objects.
 Allows the user to deliver a presentation or run a meeting form one’s computer onto a
network of computers.
 They contain templates which define what your presentation will look like , where text and
other objects will appear and which foreground and background colours will be used.
EXAMPLES OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Corel presentations
 Lotus freelance
 Macromedia director
 Harvard Graphics
FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
 It is used to organize and present information to an audience.
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 Is used to create overhead transparencies. 35 mm slides, audience handouts and speakers notes.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 It provides tools that help one to organize his / her thoughts, build a presentation quickly using
quickly using professionally designed templates.
 Is used to enhance the users’ presentation with pictures, sound, transitions, charts and videos.
ADVANTAGES OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
 It provides a variety of presentations layouts for the slides.
 Multimedia elements such as clip art images, video clips and audio clips can be turned into the
slides.
 Timing of the slides can be set so that the presentation automatically displays the next slide
after a predefined period of time.
 The presentation can be viewed and printed in different formats e.g. Outline format, audiences
handout format and notes page format.
MICTROSOFT POWER POINIT
This is the most common presentation software used , which enables the user to produce high quality
output e.g. overhead transparencies 35mm slides and computer based displays for presentation to an
audience.

STARTING POWER POINT

 Click start/Start menu
 Go to programs/ All programs
 Select Power Point from a list of Programs(in Microsoft office)
In Power Point, the document window is referred to as the presentation window which provides the
viewing and editing area for a presentation.
OPERATIONS OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
Elements of a presentation.
Slide structure . This contains text titles / Headings , Body texts e.g. Lists / phrases , Tables ,
Charts/graphs , Illustrations ,Shapes etcetera.

CREATING A PRESENTATION USING POWER POINT WIZARDS

Guidelines
 Do not use too much graphics and background colour.
 Make a presentation design that can attract or impress the audience – keep it simple.
 Use the layout that doesn’t distract from the content of the presentation.
 Don not overuse animated effects and Transitions.
 Minimize Text by use of Bullet points
 Choose graphics that communicate the message in a clear way.
 Select a starting point for your presentation.

AUTO CONTENT WIZARD

This provides several different approaches to standard presentation formats although it does not
contain all inclusive lists.
 proceed through the next four dialog boxes , replying to questions and clicking next button.
 On step Four out of Four , click finish.
AUTO LAYOUT
 Select template / Blank presentation.
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 Choose an auto layout from the dialog box

 Click ok, Click title text place holder and type in the desired text content.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
To add slides to a presentation
 Click new slide hot button.
 Pick a layout
 Click the text placeholder and type in the desired text.
 Press enter.
USING SLIDE MASTER AND TITLE MASTER
Any text, background, graphic or other object that is placed on the master page appears on every page
of that type of presentation.
Editing the slide master
 Open the desired presentation and switch to slide view.
 Choose view menu / Master /Slide master.
 Edit the title and text place holders on the slide master.
 Add textboxes, insert graphics e.t.c as desired.
 Click view/slides to return to slide view.
 To view the next slide, click next slide button.
NB. Text that is typed into the text placeholder on the slide master does not show up on the slides .
Placeholders are for formatting the text style.

EDITING A PRESENTATION
Changing slide layout
 Make the slide that you that to modify active by displaying it in the presentation window.
 Click format/slide layout and select a new layout from the slide layout dialog box.
 Click apply / Press enter.
Changing indent levels of bulleted items.
 Click promote (Indent less</button to indent to the left)
 Click Demote (indent more)>/ button to indent text to the right.
Inserting clipart//pictures
 Select an auto layout option with a clipart placeholder.
 Double click the clipart placeholder.
 Select any picture from the clipart gallery.
 Press enter / Click insert
Resizing and moving clipart
 Select clipart object by clicking the mouse pointer once over the object. ( Handles appear around
the picture when properly selected )
Drag the handle on the object to size the picture or drag the centre of the object to move to any
other location.
VIEWING A PRESENTATION
SLIDE VIEW:
This shows how the slide will appear when printed /displayed . Is the most common to use for building
/ finalizing a presentation.
OUTLINE VIEW:
This is to organize your presentation thoughts and quickly develop textual content for a presentation.
- From the view menu, choose outline.
SLIDE SORTER VIEW:
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It helps one to see how his presentation flows. In this, one cane re order slides, add transition effects and
set timing for electronic presentation. It provides a small-scale of each slide complete with graphics and
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
text.
- From View menu, Click Slide sorter.
NOTES PAGE VIEW:
This helps to create speakers’ notes for any or all of the slides in his or her presentation. Each notes
page corresponds to a slide.
Just as in slide view , the following can be performed in the notes page view.
 Insert, edit and delete text.
 Draw line, squares, ovals e.t.c.
 Add clipart, charts, and scanned photographs.
 Add graphs, charts/data from other applications.
 Change the appearance of text and object.
 Change a template’s style or colour scheme.
- From view menu, Click notes pages.
SLIDE SHOW VIEW:
This is also called an on screen presentation which displays slides as an electronic presentation on the
computer.
It helps the user see the effect of the transition and the timing that you set in the slide show.
-From the view menu, choose slide show.

SAVING AND PRINTING A PRESENTATION

Saving
 Click file / Save as (Dialog Box opens for save as ).
 Type in the file name , select the directory , folder /disk drive.
 Click ok/ Save.
Printing
 Click file/ Print (Dialog box opens for Print).
 Set the number of copies / pages to print and the printer name.
 Click on Print or ok/Press enter.
CLOSING A PRESENTATION
Choose close from the file menu.
OPENNING AN EXISTING A PRESENTATION FILE
 From the file menu , choose open…(A dialog /box for open is displayed).
 Switch to the folder, disk drive as needed to find the presentation.
 Choose the presentation file you want to open and choose ok/open.
OR

From the file menu , choose the file you want to open from the list of recently used files.

CREATING NEW SLIDE

From the insert menu, choose new slide
Or
 Click the new slide button on the standard bar.
 Select he layout you want to use and then ok.
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ADDING TEXT TO THE SLIDE

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Click the placeholder labeled ”click to add title” (The placeholder title disappears and an
insertion point takes its place).
 Type in your text.
 Click the placeholder labeled ”click to add text” and type in your text.
CHANGING SLIDE LAYOUT.
 Click the slide layout button on the standard bar.
 Click the new slide layout you want and then choose apply.
INSERTING SPECIAL CHARACTERS
 Choose bullet from the format menu.
 Try different fonts until when you find the symbol you want and then select it by clicking it,
ok.
GRAPHICAL OBJECTS
Adding visual effects
 Click insert menu
 Clipart
 Select object/picture
 Choose insert
CREATING GRAPHS
 Click on the insert chart on the standard toolbar
Or
 From the insert menu, choose new slide.
 Pick an auto layout that includes the graph placeholder.
ORGANIZATION CHARTS
Is an establishment structure which shows powers and responsibilities in an organization.
Creating organization chart.
 On the insert menu, point to object an then click Ms Organization chart.
 Use the organization chart tools and menus to design your chart.
 Click exit on the organization chart file menu to return to presentation.
NB: Power Point also comes with a slide layout that includes a place holder for an organization chart.
To use this layout
 Click on the standard tool bar/ common tasks tool bar.
 Click the organization chart layout and click apply.
It displays four boxes with a space where you type the chart title and the top most being
selected
Editing an organization chart
 Double click the organization chart.
 Use the organization chart tools and menus to modify the chart.
 Click exit on the organization chart file menu to return to the presentation.
BULLET LISTS ,
A bullet is a graphic that comes before / precedes an item to emphasize points.
CHANGING THE BULLET CHARACTERS AND INDENTS
 Select the bulleted items you want to change.
 From the formats menu, select bullets (Dialog Box opens).
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 Choose the bullet style by selecting from among the following options.
-In the “Bullets from Box” select a font to use with your bullets as you change for bullets in
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
the grid below change.
-In special colour box , select colour.
 Click a bullet in the grid to see an enlarged view of it and choose ok.
To increase the indents.
 Click on Demote or promote button on the formatting
SHADOWING AND EMBOSSING TEXT
Shadowing adds a drop shadow behind a text for emphasis.
Embossing text brings a highlight effect.

PROCEDURE
 Select the character or text that you want to shadow / emphasize.
 From the format menu, click font ………..Dialog box appears.
 In the effects box, select emboss/shadow.
 Choose ok.
SUPERSCRIPTING AND SUBSCRIPTING
To superscript is to select text / character and raise it while to subscript is to lower the word in relation
to the texts base.
NB. Same procedure as embossing and shadowing.

RUNNING THE SLIDE SHOWS.

This is to the taking control of the electronic presentation by setting timing , adding transitions and
creating build slides.
Slide show timing
This refers to the amount of time the slide stays on the screen during the slide view.
Transition effects
This refers to special effects that you can see when you go from one slide to another in an electronic
slide show.
Build slide (Progressive disclosure slide).
Is where each bullet point in the main text appears independently of others . It is used to rehearsed
bullet points one at a time.

RUNNING MANUAL SLIDE SHOW.

This is to watch a presentation without setting timings and transitions by using the power point default
settings.
 From the view menu, choose slide show. (Dialog box appears).
 Choose the slide that you want to watch under slides. (The default setting is all).
 Under advance, choose how you want to advance the slides (The default setting is manual).
 Advance where you want to click the mouse button to advance one slide to another.
RUNNING AN AUTOMATIC SLIDE SHOW
This happens when timings have been set.
Setting timings.
 Click on the slide sorter button on the lower left side of the document window.
 From the slide show menu , choose slide transition.
 Under Advance , select automatically after seconds before advancing to the next slide.
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The time should not exceed 3 seconds.

 Click on the “on mouse Click” Box to remove the check mark.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Click the “apply to all “ button.
Setting timings while rehearsing.
This is to adjust the timing for your slides during a slide show by:
- From the slide show menu, choose rehearse timings.
-The clock advances to show you how long the slide has appeared on the screen.
 Click anywhere on the slide /clock when you want to go to the next slide. (Repeat the same to
all).
CREATING ANIMATED SLIDES
To animate is to add special visual or sound effect to the text or slide.
You can use custom animation command on the slide show menu to set all the animation effects
you want for a slide.
The quick way to create basic animation is to;
 Select the object you want to animate (in slide view).
 Click the slide show menu to preview animation in slide view.
 Click animation preview on the slide show menu.
 The animation plays in the slide that appears.
 To replay the animation , click the slide miniature.
ADDING TRANSITION EFFECTS
A transition is the way characters on the slide move on and off the screen during the slide show.
Or
it is the special effect used to introduce a slide during a slide show.
Procedures
 Click the slide sorter button on the lower left side of the document widow or choose slide
sorter from the view menu.
 From the slide show menu, choose slide transition.
 In the effects box, choose the transition want.
 Choose how fast you want the transition to take place by searching the slow, medium or fast
option button.
 Clicks apply to all.
ADDING SOUND EFFECTS
Sound can be added to a slide for use in the slide – show but it is optional.
Power Point comes with music, sound and videos you can play during your slide shows. Some sounds
e.g. typewriter or applause are available on the animations effect toolbar,
Other sounds , music and videos are available in the clipart gallery.
To use clip gallery.
 Point to the movies and sounds on the insert menu.
 Click either movie from gallery or sound from gallery.
SLIDE SHOWS DESIGN GUIDELINES.
 If your audience reads from the left to the right, you might design your animated slides
so that your points fly in from the left.
 Then to emphasize a particular point, try bringing it in from the right. The change will grab
the audience’s attention and re-enforce your point.
 An occasional burst of music or sound during a transition or animation will focus the
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audience on the slide show . However frequent use of sound effects can draw attention
away from your main points.
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 The pace of your presentation also affects audience response e.g. going too fast exhausts
audience members and going too slow puts them to sleep.
 You can use Power Point features to rehearse your pace before you give a presentation.
 While you rehearse, you can also check your slides’ visual impact . Too many words or
pictures can distract the audience. If you find yourself using too much text , try turning
one slide into two or three , then increase the font size.

ADDING BACKGROUND DESIGN OF DESIGN TEMPLATES

Background.
This is the underlying colour of the Power Point slide.
A Template
This is a presentation in which the master and the colours have been especially designed for a
particular look.
They define what your text will look like , where it will appear and they offer a complete colour
scheme
Procedures
 From format menu , choose presentation template. Or click the template button on the
standard toolbar. (Dialog box appears).
 Click template name to preview the template in the preview box.
 Double click a template name to open the file and apply it to all slides in your
presentation.
Colour scheme.
This is a set of eight colours that you can apply to individual slides, notes pages and audiences handouts.
Colours are important because they bring emotions to a presentation and also communicate its
formality.
Colours include: Background colour, Title text colour, text and line colour, fill colour, Shadows colour
and three colours of accents.
 From the format menu, select colour scheme.
 Click a colour box .
 Click change tool command button.
 Select a colour to appear in the colour box.
 Click apply to change the colour on the current slide or “Apply to All” to change the colour for
all slides using the slides master.
ADDING LOGO OR TEXT TO EVERY SLIDE
This can be done by adding it to the slides master.
 From the view menu , Select master > slide master.
 Create or paste a logo on the slide master.
 From the view menu, choose slides. (The logo will appear on every slide).
ADDING DATE, TIME OR PAGE NUMBERS.
To insert a header or footer
 Click view, select header and footer.
 In the text box, add information and click the slide tab.
To add Notes pages and Handouts.
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 Click the Notes and Handout tab

 Select the option you want.
To Add date, time or page number:
 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
 Click where you want to place the item.
 From insert menu, choose date / time or page number.
NB: Power Point inserts”//” to represent date.

CREATING AND PRINTING SPEAKER’S NOTES

public speaking can be on presenting an opinion, addressing people, training, teaching or giving a speech.
Notes page are used to store reminders .relevant facts and stories for the speaker because they
provide a smaller printed version of a slide at the top of the page with an area for notes appearing
below.
 From the view menu, select notes pages.
 Click maximize button of the presentation window and select 50% zoom.
 Click anywhere in the notes box to position the cursor.
 Type in the title and press enter.
 Type in the body text and press enter.
To print
 Choose file.
 Click print.
 From the print what drop-down list box, select notes pages.
 Press enter or Click ok.
AUDIENCE HANDOUT MASTER.
This is a print out of all slides in a presentation. Text, art e.g. company logos can also be added to the
handout pages.
 From the view menu , choose master
 Select handout from the master cascading menu.
 Select the text tool on the drawing toolbar and click anywhere you want to add text.
NB: Whatever you type on the handout master outside the outlined image boxes is reproduced on every
handout.
PRINT OPTIONS FOR SLIDES
Printing involves opening the presentation you want to print , identifying what to print and
specifying the range of slides to print.
SETTING SLIDE FORMAT
 From the file menu, choose setup.
 Revise the orientation in word processing.
35 MM SLIDES
 From the file menu, choose slide setup.
 Select 35mm slides in the “slides sized for” drop down list box.
 Click ok or press enter.
DATABASE SOFTWARE / DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(DBMS)
This is a software program that facilitates creating and maintaining a collection of information
(Database) and producing reports from it .
A database : is a collection of data organized in a way that allows access , retrieval and use of data
Or
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Is a collection of data / records related to a particular subject or purpose.

 Computer Notes 840/1 Theory and Some Notes of 840/2 Pratical
A database Management System (DBMS): This is software that allows the users to create, access and
manage a database.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICROSOFT ACCESS & DATABASE?
A Database is a collection of data organized in a way that allows access, retrieval and use of the data.
Where as
Microsoft Access is a database software program used to manage files and records
Examples of Paper database
 Telephone books .  Company Assets
 Dictionaries  Library catalog/ inventory
 Televisions  Address book
 Customer orders  Mailing lists
 Students records  School grade book
 Employee information

EXAMPLES OF DATABASE SOFTWARE

 Microsoft Access
 Microsoft Visual fox pro
 Borland Database
 Lotus approach
 Corel approach
 Dbase I,II, II, IV, V
 Oracle
 File maker pro.
 My SQL
 File Makeup Pro.

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 Computer Notes

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS

- Each column has similar data entries (data type).
- Each row also contains information on a particular item
- Data is organized in columns and rows
- It contains tools known as database objects such as tables, forms, queries and reports.
STEPS TO CREATE A DATABASE:
 Plan your Access program
 Design layout
 File structure creation
Defining the fields
TERM ASSOCIATED WITH DATABASES
File:
This is the entire collection of related data or record e.g. an address book.
Records :
This a column in a table that contains the information about a given product or event. . An individual
entry in the tables.
Field:
This is a column in a table that contains a specific piece of information with in a record . (Is a piece of
information in a record).
An illustration showing a file , record and field.
Students file
Students No Name Status Class Reporting Date
0111 Namayanja Jackie Boarder S.6 Blue 12/ 08/2014
0112 Kasozi Jackie Boarder s.6 Green 15/08/2014
0113 Nambatya Sarah Day S.6 Blue 18/08/2014
0114 Yiga Dennis Day S.6 Green 15/08/2014

Fields
Key field:
This is a field in the file that uniquely identifies a record.
Importance of a key field (Primary key)
 Is used to ensure that there are no duplicate fields in the table .
 It avoids redundancy in tables since it can be represented as a foreign key in other tables.
NB: the ISBN number of a book should be used as the key field in an electronic library system

Field Names / Field Labels

These are titles given to particular columns. Each field of data must have a unique (different) name.
Sorting
Is the organization of a set of records in a particular order.
Layout
This refers to database structure defining exactly what you want each field in the database record to
look like or the way information is displayed.

Field Type/ Data Type: This specifies the type of data a field can contain . Common data types include.
i. Text/ Character type – This holds letters, numbers or special characters.
ii. Numeric Type – This holds numbers only.
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iii. Currency Type – This may hold dollars and cents amount.
iv. Date/Time Type – This may hold month , day , time and year information.
Computer Notes
v. Memo type - This contain text of any type or length .
vi. Boolean type – This holds values that are either true / false/yes or no.
vii. Ole Object (Object Linking and embedding) . This holds objects, graphs (Pictures and photographs)
sound or other binary data.
viii. Auto number – This holds a number that is assigned randomly to a particular record and never
changes again.
ix. Look up - This holds values that are from external table, query or a list of specified values.
x. Hyperlink – This refers to data types that are internet addresses.
Field properties
These are specific characteristics of particular fields.
a) Field width/ size. Refers to the maximum length of characters including spaces that any data
items in a field should have.
b) Caption – specifies a different name to be used as a filed label instead of a specified name.E.g.
Stu Name could be Student Name
c) Format – Specifies the appearance of any data item in that particular field.
d) Decimal places – Specifies the number of decimal places the figure should have.
e) Indexed - Specifies whether to allow duplicate data items in a field.
f) Input Mask – Specifies a specific pattern of entering data items in a particular field
automatically.
g) Required - if set to yes, this field cannot be left blank during data entry.
h) Default - specifies the data entry value to be entered automatically for each field unless changed.
i) Allow zero length – If set yes , even an empty string will be accepted as a valid entry in
that field .
Validation :
This is the process of comparing the data entered with a set of pre-defined rules or values to check if
the data is acceptable.

Browsing
Is the scanning for information of general interest.

Data validation
Is the process of checking of input data for errors before processing.
Common data validation techniques include;
i. Presence check- is to make sure that data is present.
ii. Range Check - is to make sure that data lies within a certain range.
iii. Data type check – (Character check / alphanumeric check): is to make sure that the data entered is
of correct data type.
iv. Consistency check – is to compare new data with previous data.
v. Control total check – Is to compare the computer calculated total with a manually calculated total.
NB: Check digit.
Is an extra digit appended to a code consisting of a series of numbers or characters to detect errors arising
from a transcription?
MANUPULATION OF DATA IN DATABASE
TABLES
These are database structures that act as collections of data about a specific topics and they are arrange in
columns (field) and rows (records).
Queries
These are tools used to locate for specific records within a table or ask questions to your database.
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Querying refers to the use of a set of rules (criteria) for retrieving data from the database.
Forms.
Computer Notes
Theses provide alternatives to the tables . They are similar to receipts , registration forms , order invoices
etcetera.
Or
A form is pictorial presentation of data in a graphical natures.

Reports
These are used to produce various printed output e.g. summaries in your database. They can be constructed
form data tables or queries which include lists, form letters, envelops , mailing lists etcetera.

Macros and Modules.

These are used to auto mate the way you use your database and can be used to build some sophisticated
applications.

FLAT FILE DATABASE AND RELATION DATABASES

A flat file database.
This is made up of only one table . This kind of database hold one set of data and is not different from
the manual files such as Teacher’s assessment report may consist of performance cards for every student
in class.
A relational database.
This take information from two or more database tables and combine them into a table or report. The
combined data items form different tables in to one structure (table ) have to be related .
NB: Other database models are. Hierarchical model and Network model.
Relationship
This determines the way in which the details in one table is related to the details in another table.
The advantage of flat file database is that it is easy to setup and use but can only fulfill simple
requirements and information contained in one database table cannot be used in another database table.

Updating a database
 Adding new records
 Deleting records
 Modifying (Amending a record)
Advantages of a database system
i. Reduction in redundancy- Storing of data in one place lessens duplication and the required space.
ii. Enhancement of data integrity – Centralization of data reduces updating errors hence greater
accuracy can be maintained.
iii. Ensured data independence – Data is entered , stored ,modified and accessed by methods that are
not affected by other application program.
iv. Facilitates data sharing and integration – It offers users ability to combine or cross reference data
in many different ways.
v. Improvement of access to data – Data systems allows users to query the data base directly without
necessarily using an application program.
vi. Centralization of security. It is easier to limit access of the information if it is grouped together
instead of being kept in several scattered files.
vii. Reduction of costs. By eliminating duplication of data, many organizations can realize substantial
savings.
Disadvantages of Database software.
i. Complexity . Database systems are difficult and time consuming to develop.
ii. Initial expenses. Database systems are expensive to set up .
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iii. Need for substantial conversion effort. Change from a traditional file oriented system to a database
system can often involve large – scale reorganization of data and program. This need can create user
resistance.
Computer Notes
iv. Vulnerability. Data in a database may be liable to theft, sabotage or destruction.

MICROSOFT ACCESS (MS-ACCESS)

This is an application used for creating and manipulating databases
It is a Microsoft office application which is stated as Ms Access 2000, Ms Access 97, Ms Access 2003,
Ms Access 2007 ,etcetera.
Loading / starting Micro soft Access( Ms Access).
i. Click on the start menu.
ii. Click on programs
iii. Select Ms- Access
Creating A Database Structure (Data table).
To create a data table , the following should be considered;
 The number of fields in the table .
 The field names.
 Data/field type
 The size of each field.
Procedure
i. Click on blank database . (A window for you to type in the name of the database is displayed . In
Microsoft Access, a person first give the name of the database he or she is creating(first save)).
ii. Type in the name and click on the create button.(an application window containing panels like
tables, queries , reports etcetera appears).
iii. Click on the tables tab and select new.
iv. Select design view and click on ok. (You are presented with a table where you enter the field
name and data type . To specify the data type , click on the arrow head besides “Text” and select
the required data type from the dropdown list box.
v. The field size and other format specifications are entered automatically on the general tab located
below the table structure.
vi. Click on file and select save as > Type in the name and click ok.
vii. In the no new Primary key dialog box , click on yes button to automatically create one.
viii. On the view menu, click datasheet to see the results of the structure .
ix. Click on the file menu and select close to complete the table structure design.
To Set A primary key
 Open the table in design view
 Select the field you want to use as the primary key by clicking in the row header to the left of the
field name.
 Click Set primary key button on the tools bar.
Table 1 : A data table showing defined fields

No Field name Data type Description

1 Type of cosmetics/ Brand Text
2 Manufacturer Text
3 Qty sold Number
4 Cost price Number
5 Total cost Number
6 Manufacturer’s address Text

ADDING DATA TO A DATABASE

After defining database structure, you can add data to it and it appears as below.
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Computer Notes
No Brand Manufacturer Qty sold Cost price Total cost Manufactures’
address

1 Fair and lovely Beauty ltd 20 6,000 Kampala Road

2 Go gay Aromas ltd 600 5,000 Industrial Area
3 Rose Adore ltd 60 7,000 Martin Road

Defining Relationship between tables

This is done on two or more tables and it on the related items that may appear in both tables. These include;
Index numbers, order numbers, Registration numbers , etcetera.
Procedure:
 Make sure that your database is open .
 From the tools menu , choose Relationships. The relationship dialog box appears.
 Select the tables to add then click the add button.
 To create relationship, click on the common field and drag it to the second table . The fields used
to create relationship must be of the same type and properties.
 To enforce referential integrity , right click the line joining the two tables, then click edit.
 Make sure Enforce Referential integrity is checked to ensure that all records entered in the
related table exists in the related table exist in the primary table.
 Click ok to close the edit relationship dialog box.

Creating Queries.
After entering data into a table , you can create a simple select query with a wizard.
The simple select query wizard creates queries that retrieve data from the fields you can specify in one or
more tables or queries. It can sum, Count and average values for groups of records or all records and it
can calculate the minimum or maximum value in the field.
Procedure
 In the data base window , click the queries tab and then click new.
 In the new query dialog box , click simple query wizard.
 Click ok
 Click the name of the table or query you want to base your query on and then select the fields
whose fields whose data you want to retrieve.
 Follow the direction in the wizard dialog boxes.
 In the last dialog box, you can choose either to run the query or to see the query’s structure in design
view.

SETTING CRETERIA IN A QUERY

Criteria are restrictions you [place on a query or advanced filter to identify specific records you want
to work with.
For example Instead of viewing all the products that your company has and select them by their sales .
You can view just those whose sales are higher than 400. To do this, you specify criteria that limit the
results whose sales field is >400.

To create a criteria for a field.

 In the design grid, enter an expression in the criteria cell for that field. The expression in the
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preceding example would be >”400”. You can use more complicated expressions such as “industrial
area” in the address field and >”400” in the quantity sold field.
Computer Notes
ADDING RECORDS USING FORMS
Forms consist of four basic elements namely;
 Fields that relate to a database.
 Calculated fields that are not in the database.
 Illustrative / descriptive text
 Boxes and lines.
CREATING FORMS USING WIZARD
 Click on the form tab new (Forms dialog box appears). Select form wizard from the options and
click ok.(A new form wizard starts).
 Under tables/ queries dropdown list, select cosmetics table.
 Click on next button to continue (forms wizard asks you to continue). The form wizard displays a
list of various styles for you to make a choice.
 Select the standard style and click the next button to continue. The form wizard finally requests you
for an appropriate title of your form.
For the title type in customers form, click finish button. A new standard form is displayed with
details of the first record if there was any entered.
FORMATTING FORMS
1. Click the design button to open the form design view from the standard toolbar.
2. Select format from the menu bar.
3. Click auto format command .(You are presented with a blank design screen where you enter data.

CREATING AND INSERTING A BOUND OBJECT

NB: A bound object is an object stored in the table. Un bound object is stored in the design of the form or
report.
 Switch to form view / data sheet view.
 Move to the record in which you want to insert the object and click on the OLE object field.
 On the insert menu , click object
 In the insert object dialog box , click create new if it is not already selected and then click kind
of object you want to create in the object type box
 Click ok
After you have created the object, click exit on the file menu of the OLE server application to return to
Ms Access.
 If you in form view , Ms Access displays the object . If you are in datasheet view, Ms Access
displays the names of the object e.g. “Bitmap image”.
 If you need to edit the object , double click it.
 You can adjust the size and proportion of the object after you paste it.
 You can also insert a bound object in a bound object in a table or query datasheet . Just select
the field that you want to insert the object into (It can be an OLE object field) and the n follow
steps through. To see the object , you must create abo8und object frame on a form or report.
PERFORMING ARITHMETIC OPERATION
Formulae begin with an equal sign (=) followed by the field names with mathematical operators contained
within the parenthesis [()]. E.g. =(Quantity *Cost price) and include the results within the total cost
column.
You can also add up to 10 calculated fields in a view. A calculated field is added horizontally to the end of
the view skeleton. Suppose you want to include a field foe Tax in a table to show data of VAT (17%) of total
cost.
Using total functions.
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With a query, you can analyze all records fields using the inbuilt functions such as Sum, Average,
Minimum, and Maximum etcetera. To use the total functions:
 Open your query in design view.
Computer Notes
 Click the totals button on the query toolbar.
 Select the field you want to analyze
 For each field to be analyzed , click its cell in the total row , and then select any of the
functions that you may see or find in the dialog that appears.
 Select the criteria and other options the n click run to preview the results .
 Save the query.

SORTING
Is to arrange or change the order of records / Items.
Change sorting and grouping order in a report.
1. Open the report in design view.
2. Click sorting and grouping tool on the toolbar to display the sorting and grouping box.
3. In the grouping box, click the expression you want to move.
4. Click the expression again and drag the row to a new location in the list.
NB: If the groups you are re-arranging have headers or footers, Ms Access moves the headers and footers
and all the control in them to their position.

CREATING REPORTS.
With wizard
i. In the database window, click the reports tab and select New.
ii. In the new report dialog box, click the wizard that you want to use. A description of the wizard
appears in the left side of the dialog box.
iii. Click the table / query that contain the data you want to base your report on.
iv. Click ok
NB: if you clicked Report wizard, char wizard or label wizard in step 3, follow the directions in the wizard
dialog boxes. If you click Auto Report: Tabular or Auto report: Columnar,
Ms Access automatically create your report.

If the resulting report does not look the way you want, you can change it in design view.

WORLD WIDE WEB.

WEB PUBLISHING AUTHORING SOFTWARE
It is the process of creating web pages that contain texts and multimedia elements.
Examples include:
 Microsoft FrontPage  Adobe Go Live
 Macromedia Dream weaver  Adobe Page Mill
Advantages of Web Publishing.
i) It has the capabilities of organizing, managing and maintaining websites
ii) It is specially designed to create more sophisticated web pages that contain texts and multimedia
elements.
iii) It enables the development and maintenance of web pages
iv) It saves paper and money for printing
v) It enables contents to be updated whenever changes have bee
The World Wide Web
Is also called the web. This is the most popular service available on the internet
World Wide Web
Is a collection of electronic documents? Each of these documents on the web is called a web page
A web page
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Is an electronic document on the web? A web page contains text, graphics, animations, audio and video
(multimedia elements) as well as in built connections called hyperlinks
Hyperlinks
Computer Notes
Is a built in connection to a page or part of a web. This is a method of instant cross referencing. In most
websites, words/phrases appear in certain text of different co lour often this text is underlined. It has an icon
of a palm.
A web site
Is a collection of similar web pages (related web pages).
Home page
This is a starting page on a table of contents for a web site and normally it has a name called index html in
index html.
A web browser
Is a software program used to view or access web pages.
The most popular web browsers include:
1. Mozilla 4. Comet bird
2. Netscape internet explore 5. Fire fox
3. Microsoft internet explore 6. Torrent

U.R.L-(uniform resource locator)

This is a unique address of a web page. This is used to locate a document on the web by the browser .e.g.
http//www.mwanguzi.com/internet.
HTTP (Hyper text transfer protocol)
This is a communication standard that enables web pages to transfer on the web.
Web server
This is a computer that delivers web pages requested by users.
A search engine
This is a software program used to find websites and internet files. They include Google search.com, Alta
ulsta.com, yahoo search.com, MSN search .com e.t.c.
Portal web page
This is a web page that offers a variety of internet services from a single location.e.g. Internet services used
by networks on the phones.
A web master
This is an individual responsible for developing web pages and maintaining them.
Web publishing
This is the developing and maintainace of web pages.
Web page authorizing software.
This is programs designed to create web pages that contain text and multimedia elements.
Popular web pages authorizing software includes Microsoft font page, notepad, macro media dream weaver,
adobe go live, and adobe page mill.

Qualities of a good Web page

 It should load quickly.
 It should have feedbacks.
 Should have a web title and a brief summary about the page.
 It should have links (references) to other resources (Web pages).
 It should have date of last up date.
 Should have good navigation buttons.

Importance of web publishing

 There is easy access to information.
 It encourages trade (Electronic commerce).
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How the web page act as source of information

 It is a source of information in terms of research and getting on the Internet.
 Education, (On line connectivity).
Computer Notes
 Advertisement
 Entertainment.

HTML
Html which stands for hyper text mark up language is the predominant mark language for web pages. it is
written in form of HTML elements consisting of “tags” surrounded by angle brackets within the web pages
content.
It allows images and objects to be embedded and can be used to create interactive forms. It provides a mean
to create interactive forms. It provides a mean to crate structured documents by denoting structured
semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes, and other items.

What really is HTML

Hyper text mark up language, basically a set of tags that you add to your text.HTML tells browsers how to
display and format your text for example:

<font color = “blue”>hello</font>

<B>this would be bold </B>

< > - these are HTML tags which are even enclosed in for almost all tags this is a start and ending tag
HTML TAGS.
- <Html> and It shows the beginning and the end of the heading.
- <Head>
- <Title> My home page </Head>
- <H> This is my first Html lesson</H>
- <Body>
- <p> This is a paragraph </p>
- </Html>

<html>

<head>
<title>My Own Webpage!</title>
</head>
<body>

<h2>Welcome to my webpage</h2>

<p>Coming soon will be my completed webpage that will wow and impress you!</p>

</body>
</html>

HTML is based on using tags

>>are enclosed in < >for example
< Font>, <b>, <img>
The tags usually have a start and end tag (e.g.<b>hello</b> world. this makes hello bold but world is not.
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5.0 Making a Web Page Public

Computer Notes
Before making your web page available for others to see, you should test that all links work correctly. In
addition, because all browsers do not display the HTML tags the same way, it is indeed a good idea to preview
your page using different browsers. Many of the differences in how browsers display a page are appearance
differences, not structural.

The steps you take to make your pages public depend on how you want to share them. There are two (2) main
avenues: -
i. On your local network or Intranet for limited access by people with in an organization.
ii. By using the Internet for access by anyone using the WWW.
To make Web Pages available to other people on your network,
 Save your Web Pages and related files, such as pictures to a network location.
To make your Web Pages available on the WWW, you need to;
 Either Install Web Server Software on your computer.
 Or locate an Internet Provider that allocates space for Web Pages.
WEB HOSTING
Definition of World Wide Web:
The Web is a network of computers all over the world.
All the computers on the Web can communicate with each other. Al the computers use a communication
standard called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Examples of some popular browsers and these are: -
 Internet explorer  Opera
 Mozilla fire fox  Netscape navigato
 Google chrome

2. “Computers have destroyed our culture”. What are your arguments for and against this
statement?
Arguments:
- Computers have destroyed our traditional moral and sexual values. E.g. use of e-mails.
- Change of work schedules, e.g. use of time tables
- Erosion of traditional religious norms. E.g. pornography
- Have destroyed craftsmanship. E.g. computers have taken over man’s ability to execute tasks.
- Access to uncensored materials as opposed to the well guarded traditional norms.
Against:
- Improved communication
- Enhanced scientific research
- Computers have improved on ways of doing business by use E-commerce
- Education has been boosted. E.g. online learning
- It has improved the process of data storage and manipulation
- Provision of up to date information at the quickest time possible.
3. Discuss what you expect the role of computers in the future.
 In communication: We expect very fast and reliable systems and improved networks.
 In education: We expect very fast access to research topics, electronic publications etc.
 Security: We expect high technological systems by providing efficient & effective protection,
computer guided warfare etc.
 In manufacturing industries: We expect increased use of robots, Computer Aided Designs (CADs) in
manufacturing & high technological manufacturing systems.
 Creation of a virtual world. That is to say, where seven continents are connected together.
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 In business industry: We expect high E-business systems & business transactions.

 In research: We expect high storage facilities and data manipulation
Computer Notes
4. "Total data security is not possible today". Outline the areas where this has been achieved &
challenged.
Total data security is not possible because of the following reasons:
- Theft of computer hardware equipments like network cards.
- Software theft, e.g. copying documents by using flash disks. Software theft is in 2 forms i.e.
 Stealing of physical media like a hard disk
 Software piracy which is the most common form of software theft.
- Hackers, i.e. accessing a network illegally
- Crackers: These are people who carryout malicious damages to the computer systems
- Outside users
- Employers of the organizations

How this has been achieved:

- Physical access controls such as locked doors and windows to avoid hardware theft.
- Use of chains and padlocks to lock the equipments to desks and on the floors.
- Access controls to define who can access a computer, when a user can access it and what actions a
user can take.
Access controls has 2 phases namely:-
 Identification that verifies whether the user is a valid one.
 Authentication verifies that the user is really the one he or she claims to be.

- Use of passwords & PIN Numbers to enable the users log onto the systems. The passwords should not
be shared with other people, never write on a paper and it should be changed f
- Data encryption
- Audit controls
- Applying possessed objects like IDs and badges.
- Use biometric devices. For example the finger prints, iris recognition systems, thumb prints, face
recognition systems and voice recognition equipments.
- Use of call back systems. That is to say, a computer calls a user back at a previously established
telephone number.
- Installing alarm systems for additional security. For example surveillance cameras should be fitted in
the rooms.
- Never leave a notebook computer or a laptop unattended to in a public place.
- Backing up all important files stored on the computer regularly.

5. "Computers have changed today's ways of life". Discuss.

POSITIVE EFFECT
a. Increase of employment opportunities
b. There is large data storage & thus improved file management
c. Improved research work
d. Has eased trade across continents through E-business
e. For recreation purposes. E.g. In entertainment industry
f. Improved communication facilities
g. Improved speed in execution of operation of data
h. Stronger & more reliable defense systems have been built

NEGATIVE EFFECTS
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o Computers have led to unemployment

o Moral degradation
o High rate of forgery (conmen)
Computer Notes
o Loss of critical information due to breakdown of computer systems
o Hackers are a threat
o Maintenance costs are hi
6. "Computers are required both as a tool and as an occupation" Discuss
COMPUTERS AS A TOOL
- In fields of communication, we sue computers to get information
- In health care, there is improved surgery using laser like in brain surgery & even heart surgery
- Computers are used for research purposes
- Improved computer networks
- In entertainment, we use computers to play games, music, watch movies etc.
- In transport industry, computers are used in different modes of transport like air, water, road and
railway transport.
- There is automated production: This involves computerization of production in factories.
COMPUTERS AS AN OCCUPATION
This includes career opportunities in ICT and it has created new titles like: -
i. Computer operators: These are responsible for entering in data, keep up to date records etc.
ii. Computer Technician: He troubleshoots both hardware and software related problems, assembles
and upgrades computers and their components.
iii. Systems analyst: He has business knowledge & also designs business systems, co-ordinates
training for users of the new system. He also works with programmers to construct & test the
system.
iv. Computer programmer: He/she writes in-house applications, he customizes commercial
application package to suit the organization needs. He also tests, debugs, install and maintains
programs developed for the organization.
v. Computer Engineers:
 He designs & develops computer components such as storage devices
 Determines the electrical power requirement of each computer component.
 Re-engineers computer components to enhance it functionality
vi. Database Administrators: These design database applications. He sets up security measures
needed to control access to data & information. He keeps the data up-to-date by adding new
records, modifying or deleting unnecessary records. He installs new computers to the network.
vii. Information Systems managers: These control & plan system activities.
viii. Software Engineers: He develops system and application software. He maintains & upgrades
new software. He develops user & technical documentations for the new software
ix. Network administrators: These operate network resources.
x. Web administrators/Webmaster:
 He develops & tests websites
 Maintains updates and modifies information on the Websites to meet new demands by
the users.
 Monitors the access & use of Internet connection by enforcing security measures.
 Downloads information needed by an organization from Internet Website
xi. Computer trainer: He trains people on how to use a computer & various applications programs.
 He develops training reference materials.
 He guides learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
 He advises the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field of ICT.
 He prepares learners for ICT examinations (Computers exams).
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