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Home / AC Circuits / Impedance and Complex Impedance

Impedance and
Complex Impedance
Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of
alternating electrical current in an AC circuit and is
expressed in Ohms

In an Alternating Current, known commonly as an “AC circuit”, impedance is the opposition to

current flowing around the circuit. Impedance is a value given in Ohms that is the combined
effect of the circuits current limiting components within it, such as Resistance (R), Inductance (L),
and Capacitance (C).

In a Direct Current, or DC circuit, the opposition to current flow is called Resistance, but in an AC
circuit, impedance is the result of both the circuits resistive (R), and reactive (X) components.
While the amount of electrical resistance present in a DC circuit is denoted by the letter “R“, for
an alternating AC circuit, the letter or symbol “Z” is used to represent the opposition to current
flow.

Also, just like DC resistance, impedance is expressed in Ohms, and where applicable, multiples
and submultiples of the Ohm value are used.

For example microhms (uΩ or 10-6), milliohms (mΩ or 10-3), kilohms (kΩ or 103), and megohms
(MΩ or 106), etc. In each case, impedance can be described by using Ohm’s law which is:

Z = V ÷ I, or I = V ÷ Z, or V = I × Z
Where: Z is the impedance given in Ohms, V is in Volts, and I is in Amperes.

Impedance Form
We said previously that impedance (Z) is the combined effect of the total values of the resistance
(R) and the reactance (X) present within an AC circuit. But impedance is also frequency
dependant and therefore has a phase angle associated with it.

The phase angle of reactance, either inductive or capacitive, is always 90o out-of-phase with the
resistive component, so the circuits resitive and reactive values cannot be simply added together
arithmetically to give the circuits total impedance value. That is R + X does not equal Z.

It is worth noting here that resistors do not change their value with frequency and therefore
have no reactance (wirewounds not included), so their resistance is directly equal to their
impedance, (R = Z). As a result resistors have no phase angle, so the voltage across them and
current flowing through them will always be “in-phase”.

However, reactance in the form of inductive reactance, (XL) or capacitive reactance, (XC) does
change with frequency, causing a circuits impedance value to vary as the supply frequency
varies. It is for this reason that the expressions of “resistive impedance” (for resistors) and
“reactive impedance” (for inductors and capacitors) are sometimes used in AC circuit analysis.

As the circuits resistive and reactive values cannot be added together to find the total impedance
(Z), because the two values differ from each other by 90o, that is they are at right-angles to each
other, we can therefore plot the values on a two-dimensional graph with the x-axis being the
resistive or “real axis”, and the y-axis being the reactive or “imaginary axis”. This is the same
method used in the construction of a right-angle triangle.

The following right-angled graphs show how resistance and reactance are combined together
with the hypotenuse (longest side) of the triangle representing the complex impedance of the
circuit.

Resistance and Inductive Reactance

As we are dealing with what is effectively a three-sided right-angled triangle, we can use
Pythagoras’s theorem and associated equations to relate the two sides of the right-angled
triangle representing resistance and inductive reactance to the length of the third side being the
hypotenuse. Pythagoras’s theorem is defined in terms of impedance, resistance and reactance as
being:

Z2 = R2 + X2
That is:

(Impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

In this way we can show that “Z” is the resulting vector sum of the resistance vector (R) and the
reactance vector (XL) and is a positive slope as shown.

Impedance of an RL Circuit

The phase angle (φ) defines the angle in degrees between the two vectors as shown below.

Phase Angle of an RL Circuit

As with the previous circuit containing an inductor and inductive reactance, we can also show
the complex impedance of an AC circuit containing capacitors and capacitive reactance.

The same right-angled graph can be used to show how resistance and capacitive reactance are
combined with the hypotenuse (longest side) of the triangle representing the complex
impedance of the circuit.

Remember that for a capacitor “Z” is the vector sum of the resistance vector (R) and the
reactance vector (XC). It is drawn in the opposite direction of the previous XL vector as a negative
slope. This shows that the effect of capacitive reactance on an AC circuit is opposite to that of
inductive reactance.

Resistance and Capacitive Reactance

Again using Pythagoras’s theorem and equations we can relate the two sides of the right-angled
triangle representing resistance and capacitive reactance to the hypotenuse which is the
complex impedance. Pythagoras’s theorem is defined in terms of impedance, resistance and
reactance as being:

Impedance of an RC Circuit

The tangent of the phase angle (φ) defines the angle in degrees between the impedance vector
and the resistance vector. The phase angle is equal to the reactance divided by the resistance as
shown:

Phase Angle of an RC Circuit

Thus vector diagrams can be used to show how resistance and reactance (inductive and
capacitive) are combined together to form impedance. We can also note that we can use the
ohmic values of the circuit, either using Z, R or X, to find the phase angle, Φ between the supply
voltage, VS and the circuit current, I.

Impedance Example No1

A 53mH inductor and a 15Ω resistor are connected in series. Calculate the total impedance and
phase angle at 60Hz.

1. Total Circuit Impedance, Z:

2. Phase Angle, Φ:

Impedance Example No2

A solenoid coil was found to have a static resistance of 12Ω when measured with a multimeter. If
the solenoid coil draws a current of 5 Amperes when connected to a 100 Volt, 1000 Hz supply.
Calculate the inductance of the coil and the power factor.

1. The Coil’s Inductance, XL:

2. Power Factor:

We have seen that Impedance, (Z) is the combined effect of resistance, (R) and reactance, (X)
within an AC circuit and that the purely reactive component, X is 90o out-of-phase with the
resistive component, being positive (+90o) for inductance and negative (-90o) for capacitance.

But what if a series AC circuit contained both inductive reactance, XL and capacitive reactance,
XC. How would this affect the complex impedance of the circuit.

Impedance of an RLC Circuit

Reactance is Reactance! while the impedance triangle of an inductor will have a positive slope
and the impedance triangle of a capacitor will have a negative slope, the mathematical sum of the
two impedances will produce the circuits overall impedance value.

The combined reactance of the series circuit will be the sum of the inductive reactance, XL and
the capacitive reactance, XC as shown.

X = XL + (-X C) = XL – XC
Which gives:

As a general rule of thumb, we would subtract the smaller reactance value from the larger value,
whether it is XL or XC, it makes no difference. This is because squaring a negative value will
always produce a positive result in mathematics. For example -22 is the same result as 22, which
is +4.

So it is correct to use either (XL – XC) or (XC – XL) to find a circuits combined reactance value
before adding it to the resistance value.

The resulting impedance triangle would look like:

RLC Impedance Triangle

With the slope of the impedance being either positive or negative in direction depending on
which reactance is greater, Inductive (XL – XC) or Capacitive (XC – XL). Then the circuits
impedance in complex form is therefore defined as: Z = R ±jΧ

Clearly then, if an AC circuit contains only Inductance and Capacitance in series, impedance, Z =
XL – XC, or vice versa. If the circuit is at resonance, the net reactance becomes zero so Z = 0 as
the inductive reactance is equal and opposite in value to the capacitive reactance because
XL = XC. This is why circuit current flow is only limited by the dynamic resistance (R) in a series
circuit at resonance.

Impedance Example No3

A non-inductive resistor of 10Ω, a capacitor of 100uF, and an inductor of 0.15H are connected in
series to a 240V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the inductive reactance, the capacitive reactance, the
circuits complex impedance and the power factor.

R = R = 10Ω
1. Inductive Reactance, XL

2. Capacitive Reactance, XC

3. Complex Impedance, Z

4. Power Factor

We have seen in this tutorial that impedance, symbol Z, is the opposition to current flowing
around an AC circuit, and is the combined effect of resistance and reactance. We have also seen
that impedance is not equal to the mathematical sum but the vector sum of the resistive and
reactive components within the circuit as the reactive component is 90o “out-of-phase” with the
resistive component.

Complex impedance in series obey the same Ohms Law rules as for purely resistive circuits.

That is: ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z4 + …etc.

But what of parallel connected circuits. How is it calculated for them.

Parallel Impedances
If a single resistance and a single reactance are connected together in parallel, the impedance of
each parallel branch must be found. But as there are only two components in parallel, R and X, we
can use the standard equation for two resistances in parallel.

It is given as: RT = (R1*R2)/(R1 + R2).

Where: Z, R and X are all given in Ohms.

Notice also that as we are dealing with AC supplies and frequencies, and so the resistive
component is 90o out-of-phase with the reactive component, the product is divided by the vector
sum of R and X.

Thus if “n” branches containing complex impedances are connected together in parallel, the total
impedance is the vector addition of all the parallel branches. Thus the reciprocal of the total
impedance of the circuit is given as:

and this is

Resistance and Inductance in Parallel

Resistance and Capacitance in Parallel

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Parallel

Note here for this RLC parallel circuit that at the resonant frequency, XL = XC which becomes
zero, so only resistance (R) is present in the circuit. Therefore at resonance only, the dynamic
impedance is defined as being: Z = R.

Previous
Power Factor Correction

14 Comments

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Muhammad Nadeem
Thanks for a detailed article on circuit impedance

Posted on September 08th 2022 | 9:24 am  Reply

Agus Salim
systematic writing and very good explanation.

Posted on August 25th 2022 | 10:15 pm  Reply

Dennis fowler
I’m just a learning to become a electrician…I’m curious as to wat causes impedance in a circuit…as ur article suggest…it’s
AC measurements…but is it because there appliances that are plugged in…that contains all those components…or
would we get the same result if everything was plugged out

Posted on June 26th 2022 | 10:44 am  Reply

Wayne Storr
As stated in the tutorial. Impedance (Z) is the oppostion offered to the flow of current around an AC circuit
and is expressed in Ohms (or multiples of Ohms). Impedance is the combined effect of Resistanace (R) and
Reacatance (X). Electrical appliancies consist of resistance, coils and capacitors, and as such have reactance
and therefore impedance. If there is no appliance connected to an AC supply, then there is no current flow as
there is no impedance

Posted on June 27th 2022 | 5:41 am  Reply

Ian
Nice work

Posted on June 21st 2022 | 6:36 am  Reply

Tewodiros
I need to know how to design electronics

Posted on June 20th 2022 | 4:03 pm  Reply

TESHOME GALANO
Excellent explanation. It gives basic understanding of AC fundamentals.

Posted on June 16th 2022 | 8:58 am  Reply

dennis
fabulous content

Posted on March 20th 2022 | 6:42 am  Reply

Cassian Perera
Your explanation is super.

Posted on December 15th 2021 | 4:33 am  Reply

Stanislau Labada
I guess there is a mistake in a formula of Z in “Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Parallel” (see the last picture of
the tutorial).

Posted on November 24th 2021 | 8:57 pm  Reply

 Wayne Storr
Thanks

Posted on November 25th 2021 | 5:28 am  Reply

s
VEry NiCe!

Posted on October 18th 2021 | 7:44 pm  Reply

Physics Hsu
excellence !!

Posted on September 01st 2021 | 7:26 am  Reply

Ainomugisha graceous
So nice

Posted on August 14th 2021 | 3:37 pm  Reply

Read more Tutorials inAC Circuits

1. AC Waveform and AC Circuit Theory

2. Sinusoidal Waveforms
3. Phase Difference and Phase Shift
4. Phasor Diagrams and Phasor Algebra
5. Complex Numbers and Phasors
6. AC Resistance and Impedance
7. AC Inductance and Inductive Reactance
8. AC Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance
9. Series RLC Circuit Analysis
10. Parallel RLC Circuit Analysis
11. Series Resonance Circuit
12. Parallel Resonance Circuit
13. RMS Voltage Tutorial
14. Average Voltage Tutorial
15. Reactive Power
16. Harmonics
17. Passive Components in AC Circuits
18. Power in AC Circuits
19. Power Triangle and Power Factor
20. Power Factor Correction
21. Impedance and Complex Impedance

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