ETN3096:

Digital Signal Processing

Chapter 2:
z-Transform

1
 z-Transform
•The z-Transform
•The Inverse z-Transform
•System Analysis in the z-domain

2
z-Transform
 The z-transform is a useful tool in the analysis of discrete-time signals
and systems and is the discrete-time counterpart of the Laplace
transform for continuous-time signals.
 The z-transform may be used to solve LCCDE, evaluate the response of
an LTI system to a given input, and design linear filters.
 The DTFT of a sequence x[n] was defined in Chapter 1 as:
∞
X e ( )=
jΩ
 x[n]e − jnΩ
n = −∞
 The z-transform of a sequence x[n] is defined as:
∞
z{x[n]} = X ( z ) =  x[n]z
n = −∞
−n

where z is a complex variable whose polar form is

∞
z = re jΩ (
X re jΩ
)=  x[ n ]( re jΩ − n
)
n = −∞

3
 Note that the DTFT is simply X(z) with z = ejΩ.
 Thus by restricting z to have unit magnitude, i.e., for |z| = 1, the
z-transform corresponds to the DTFT.
 Since the z-transform is a function of a complex variable, it is convenient
to describe and interpret it using the complex z-plane.

z = ejΩ

Ω The unit circle in the

complex z-plane.

 In the z-plane, the contour corresponding to |z| = 1 is a circle of unit

radius known as the unit circle.

4
 z = ejΩ

Ω The unit circle in the

complex z-plane.

 If we evaluate X(z) at points on the unit circle in the z-plane beginning at

z = 1 (i.e., Ω = 0) through z = j (i.e., Ω = π/2) to z = -1 (i.e., Ω = π), we
obtain the DTFT for 0 ≤ Ω ≤ π.
 Continuing around the unit circle would correspond to examining the
DTFT from Ω = π (or Ω = - π) to Ω = 2π (or Ω = 0).
 Interpreting the DTFT as the z-transform on the unit circle in the z-plane
corresponds conceptually to wrapping the linear frequency around the
unit circle with Ω = 0 at z =1 and Ω = π at z = -1.

5
Region of Convergence (ROC)
 The z-transform does not converge for all sequences or for all values of
z.
 For any given sequence, the set of values of z for which the z-transform
converges is called the region of convergence (ROC).
 The condition for convergence of the z-transform is
∞
 x[ n ] r −n
<∞
n = −∞

6
 Because of the multiplication of the sequence by the real exponential
r - n , it is possible for the z-transform to converge even if the DTFT does
not.
 For example, the sequence x[n] = u[n] is not absolutely summable and
therefore the DTFT does not converge; however, u [ n ] r - n is absolutely
summable if r > 1.

7
 Equivalently, convergence of the z-transform depends only on |z|, since
|X(z)| < ∞ if
∞


−n
x[n] z <∞
n = −∞

 Thus, if some value of z, say, z = z1 is in the ROC, then all values of z

on the circle defined by |z| = |z1| will also be in the ROC.
 Consequently, the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-plane centered
about the origin.
 Its outer boundary will be a circle (or the ROC may extend outward to
infinity), and its inner boundary will be a circle (or it may extend inward
to the origin).

8
 The ROC as a ring in the z-
plane. For specific cases, the
inner boundary can extend
inward to the origin, and the
ROC becomes a disc. For other
cases, the outer boundary can
extend outward to infinity.

 If the ROC includes the unit circle, this implies convergence of the
z-transform for |z| = 1, or equivalently, the DTFT of the sequence
converges.
 Conversely, if the ROC does not include the unit circle, the DTFT does
not converge absolutely.

9
Pole-Zero Plot
 The z-transform is most useful when the infinite sum can be expressed
in closed form, i.e., when it can be summed and expressed as a simple
mathematical formula.
 Among the most important and useful z-transforms are those for which
X(z) is a rational function inside the ROC:
M

B( z ) b z
k =0
k
−k

X ( z) = = N
A( z )
a z
k =0
k
−k

 Factoring the numerator and denominator polynomials,

M M
−1
∏ (1 − β k z ) ∏ (z − βk ) βk = zeros of X(z)
X ( z) = C k =1
= Cz N − M k =1
N N αk = poles of X(z)
∏ (1 − α k z −1) ∏ (z −αk )
k =1 k =1

 There are N-M zeros at the origin if N > M.

 There are M-N poles at the origin if M > N.
10
 The poles and zeros uniquely define the functional form of a rational z-
transform to within a constant.
 They provide a concise representation of X(z) that is often represented
pictorially in terms of a pole-zero plot.
 With a pole-zero plot, the location of each pole is indicated by an “x”
and the location of each zero is indicated by an “o”, with the ROC
indicated by shading the appropriate region of the z-plane.
 For a rational X(z), the ROC will contain no poles!
 Example of pole-zero plot:

Im

0 1 Re

11
Properties of the ROC

 The properties of the ROC depend on the nature of the signal.

 Assume that the algebraic expression for the z-transform is a rational
function and that x[n] has finite amplitude, except possibly at n = ∞ and
n = -∞.
 The properties are summarized below:

 Property 1: The ROC is a ring or disk in the z-plane centered at

the origin.
 Property 2: The DTFT of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if
its ROC includes the unit circle.
 Property 3: The ROC cannot contain any poles.
 Property 4: The ROC must be a connected region.

12
 Property 5: If x[n] is a finite-length, then the ROC is the entire z-
plane, except possibly z = 0 or z = ∞. The point z = ∞ will be
included if x[n] = 0 for n < 0, and the point z = 0 will be included if
x[n] = 0 for n > 0.
 Property 6: If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, the ROC extends
outward from the outermost (largest magnitude) finite pole in X(z)
to (and possibly including) z = ∞.
 Property 7: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, the ROC extends
inward from the innermost (smallest magnitude) nonzero pole in
X(z) to (and possibly including) z = 0.
 Property 8: If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC will consist
of a ring in the z-plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a
pole and not containing any poles.

13
Example 1: Right-Sided Sequence
 Consider the right-sided sequence x[n] = anu[n], the z-transform is
∞ ∞ ∞
X (z ) =  x[n]z −n
= a z n −n
=  )
( az −1 n

n = −∞ n =0 n =0

 For convergence of X(z), we require that

∞ ∞
X ( z) =  (az −1 n
) ≤  | az −1 |n < ∞
n =0 n =0
 Thus, the ROC is the range of values of z for which |az-1| < 1 or,
equivalently, |z| > |a|. Inside the ROC, the infinite series converges to
∞
1 z
X ( z ) =  (az −1 ) n = −1
= , | z |>| a |
n=0 1 − az z−a
 Recall this…
∞
1
 =
α k
1−α
k =0

14
 Pole–zero plot and
ROC for Example 1.

A right-sided sequence has as ROC the exterior of a circle.

 For |a| >1, the ROC does not include the unit circle, and thus the DTFT
of x[n] does not converge.

15
Example 2: Left-Sided Sequence
 Now consider the left-sided sequence x[n] = -anu[-n-1], the z-transform
is:
∞ ∞ −1
X (z ) =  x[n]z
n = −∞
−n
= −  a u[−n − 1]z
n = −∞
n −n
= −  a n z −n
n = −∞
∞ ∞
= − a z = 1 −  (a −1 z ) n
−n n

n =1 n =0

 If |a -1z| < 1 or, equivalently, |z| < |a|, the infinite series converges and

1
X (z ) = 1 −
1 − a −1 z
1 z
= −1
= , | z |<| a |
1 − az z−a

Same as Example 1!
16
 Pole–zero plot and
ROC for Example 2.

A left-sided sequence has as ROC the interior of a circle.

 For |a| <1, the ROC does not include the unit circle, and thus the DTFT of
x[n] does not exist.
 Note that the algebraic expressions for X(z) and the corresponding pole-
zero plots are identical in Examples 1&2, although the sequences are
different!
Different sequences can have the same z-transform but different ROC.
A sequence should be defined by its z-transform and ROC!
17
Example 3: Sum of Two Sequences

 Consider a signal defined by

n n
1  1
x[n] =   u[n] +  −  u[n]
2  3

 The z-transform is then

∞  1  n  1
n
 − n
X ( z ) =    u[n] +  −  u[n] z
n = −∞  2   3 
n n
∞
 1 −1  ∞
 1 
=   z  +   − z −1 
n =0  2  n =0  3 
 1
2 z z − 
=
1
+
1
=  12 
1 1
1 − z −1 1 + z −1  1  1
 z −  z + 
2 3  2  3

18
 The ROC will be the intersection of the individual regions of
convergence, i.e., the values of z for which both individual sums
converge.
 This requires that both | ½ z - 1 | < 1 and |(-1/3) z - 1 | < 1 or, equivalently,
|z| > ½ and |z| > 1/3.
 Thus, the ROC is the region of overlap, |z| > ½.

19
Summary

The relationship between the

ROC and the time extent of a
signal. (a) A right-sided signal
has an ROC of the form |z| > r+.
(b) A left-sided signal has an
ROC of the form |z| < r–. (c) A
two-sided signal has an ROC of
the form r+ < |z| < r–.

20
z-Transform Properties
Table 1

21
z-Transform Pairs

Table 2

22
 z-Transform
•The z-Transform
•The Inverse z-Transform
•System Analysis in the z-domain

23
The Inverse z-Transform

 One of the important roles of the z-transform is in the analysis of

discrete-time linear systems.
 Often, this analysis involves finding the z-transform of sequences and,
after some manipulation of the algebraic expressions, finding the
inverse z-transform.
 Possible methods for determining the inverse z-transform are:

 Contour Integration (formal method, difficult to use)




Inspection Method
Partial Fraction Expansion
Power Series
} (informal methods,
sufficient and
preferable)

24
Inspection Method
 The inspection method relies on using known transform pairs.

Example 4 Example 5
Find the inverse for Find the inverse for
1 1 1 1
X ( z) = , | z |>| | X ( z) = , | z |<| |
1 2 1 2
1 − z −1 1 − z −1
2 2
From table: From table:
1 1
a nu[n] ↔ −1
, | z|>|a | − a nu[ − n − 1] ↔ −1
, | z |<|a |
1 − az 1 − az
Answer: Answer:
n n
1 1
x[n] =   u[n] x[ n] = −  u[− n − 1]
2 2

 Tables of z-transforms are invaluable in applying the inspection

method.
25
Example 6 : Shifted Exponential Sequence
Consider the z-transform
1 1
X (z ) = , z >
z − 14 4
We can express X(z) as follows:
z −1 −1  1  1
X (z ) = 1 −1
= z  1 −1 , z >
1− 4 z 1 − 4 z  4
From the z-transform properties:
n
1 1
[ ]
  un ↔
4 1 − 14 z −1
Applying the time-shifting property we get:
n −1
1
x[n] =   u[n − 1]
 4

26
Partial Fraction Expansion
 For z-transform that is rational function of z,
M M
 bk z −k
∏ (1 − β k z −1 )
k =0 k =1
X ( z) = N
=C N
 k
a z −k
∏ (1 − α k z −1 )
k =0 k =1

a simple and straightforward approach to find the inverse z-transform

is to perform a partial fraction expansion of X(z).

 Assuming that M < N and the poles are all first order, then X(z) can be
expressed as:
N
Ak
X ( z) =  −1
k =1 1 − α k z

for some constants Ak for k = 1, 2, …, N.

27
 The coefficients Ak may be found by multiplying both sides of X(z) and
evaluating for z = αk :
Ak = [(1 − α k z −1 ) X ( z )]z =α k

Example 7

Find the inverse z-transform for

1 1
X ( z) = , | z |>| |
 1 −1  1 −1  2
1 − z 1 − z 
 4  2 

From the ROC, we see that x[n] is

a right-sided sequence: Largest
pole = ½

28
 Since the poles are both first order, X(z) can be expressed as:
A1 A2
X ( z) = +
 1 −1   1 −1 
1 − z  1 − z 
 4   2 
 The constants A1 and A2 can be found as follows:
1 −1 1 −1
A1 = [(1 − z ) X ( z )]z =1/ 4 = −1 A2 = [(1 − z ) X ( z )]z =1/ 2 = 2
4 2

 Therefore, −1 2
X ( z) = +
 1 −1   1 −1 
 1 − z  1 − z 
 4   2 
 Since x[n] is right-sided, the ROC for each term extends outward
from the outermost pole. From the z-transform table:
n n
1 1
x(n) = 2  u[n] −   u[n]
2 4

29
Example 8
−1
Find the inverse for 1 − z
X ( z) =
1 + z −1 − 6 z − 2
 X(z) can be expressed as:
1 − z −1 A1 A2
X ( z) = = +
(1 − 2 z −1 )(1 + 3z −1 ) (1 − 2 z −1 ) (1 + 3 z −1 )

 The constants A1 and A2 can be found as follows:

−1
(1 − z ) ( z − 1) 1
( )
A1 = X ( z )(1 − 2 z −1 ) | z = 2 =
(1 + 3z −1 )
| z =2 =
( z + 3)
| z =2 =
5
(1 − z −1 ) ( z − 1) −4 4
( −1
)
A2 = X ( z )(1 + 3z ) | z = −3 = −1
(1 − 2 z )
| z = −3 =
( z − 2)
| z = −3 = =
−5 5

 Therefore,
15 45
X ( z) = +
(1 − 2 z −1 ) (1 + 3 z −1 )

30
 1 n
X ( z) = −1
, |z| > |a| ↔ x [ n ] = a u[n ]
 From the table: 1 − az
1 n
X ( z) = −1
, |z| < |a| ↔ x[ n ] = − a u[ −n − 1]
1 − az
 Since the ROC is not specified explicitly, x[n] can be:
1 4
| z |> 3  x[n ] = 2n u[n ] + ( −3) n u[n ]
5 5
1 n 4
| z |< 2  x[n ] = − 2 u[ −n − 1] − ( −3)n u[ − n − 1]
5 5
1 4
2 <| z |< 3  x[n ] = 2n u[n ] − ( −3) n u[ −n − 1]
5 5

NB: To decide whether the term Ak

1 − α k z −1
corresponds to (αk)nu[n] or -(αk)nu[-n-1], we must know the ROC!

31
Example 9

Find the inverse for

1
X ( z) =
1 − 10 z −1 + 35z − 2 − 50 z −3 + 24 z − 4
where the ROC is 2 <| z |< 3 .
A1 A2 A3 A4
X ( z) = −1
+ −1
+ −1
+
1− z 1 − 2z 1 − 3z 1 − 4 z −1
1 1 1
A1 = | z =1 = = −
(1 − 2 z −1 )(1 − 3z −1 )(1 − 4 z −1 ) (−1)( −2)( −3) 6
1 1
A2 = −1 −1 −1
| z =2 = =4
(1 − z )(1 − 3z )(1 − 4 z ) 1 1
( )( − )( −1)
2 2
1 1 27
A3 = | z =3 = = −
(1 − z −1 )(1 − 2 z −1 )(1 − 4 z −1 ) 2 1 1
( )( )( − ) 2
3 3 3
1 1 32
A4 = | z =4 = =
(1 − z −1 )(1 − 2 z −1 )(1 − 3z −1 ) 3 2 1
( )( )( ) 3
4 4 4 32
 Therefore,
−1/ 6 4 − 27 / 2 32 / 3
X ( z) = −1
+ −1
+ −1
+ ROC : 2 <| z |< 3
1− z 1− 2z 1 − 3z 1 − 4 z −1
 From the table:
1 n
X ( z) = −1
, |z| > |a| ↔ x [ n ] = a u[n ]
1 − az
1 n
X ( z) = −1
, |z| < |a| ↔ x[ n ] = − a u[−n − 1]
1 − az

 The sequence x[n] that satisfies the ROC is

1 n 27 n 32 n
x[n ] = ( − )u[n ] + (4)2 u[n ] + ( )3 u[−n − 1] − ( )4 u[−n − 1]
6 2 3

33
 For the case of M ≥ N , the partial fraction expansion is in the form:

M −N N
Ak
X (z ) =  Br z −r
+
1 − d z −1
r =0 k =1 k

where Br’s can be determined by long division of the numerator by the

denominator, with the division process terminating when the remainder
is of lower degree than the denominator.

34
Example 10
Given the z-transform of x[n] as follows:

X (z ) =
1 + 2 z −1 + z − 2
=
(1 + z −1 )
2

, z >1
3 −1
1− 2 z + 2 z1 −2
(1 − 2 z )(1 − z )
1 −1 −1

Im

Pole-zero and z-plane

ROC plot
1/2 1
Re

Since M = N = 2 and the poles are all first order, X(z) can be
represented as:
A1 A2
X ( z ) = B0 + +
(1 − 2 z ) (1 − z −1 )
1 −1

35
B0 can be determined as follows:
2
1 z −2 − 23 z −1 + 1 z − 2 + 2 z −1 + 1
2
z − 2 − 3z −1 + 2
5 z -1 − 1
Thus X(z) can be expressed as:
− 1 + 5 z −1
X (z ) = 2 +
(1 − 12 z −1 )(1 − z −1 )
A1 and A2 can be determined as follows:

 − 1 + 5z −1 
A1 =  −1 
= −9
 1− z  z = 12
 
−1
 − 1 + 5z 
A2 =  =8
1 −1 
 1− z 
 2  z =1 36
Therefore,
9 8
X (z ) = 2 − +
(1 − 1
2 z −1 ) (1 − z −1 )
Since ROC is |z| > 1, and from Table 1, we get:

2 ↔ 2δ [n ]
n
1 1
−1
↔   u[n ]
1
1− 2 z 2

1
−1
↔ u[n ]
1− z

Applying linearity property, we get:

x[n] = 2δ [n] − 9( 12 ) u[n] + 8u[n]

n

37
Power Series

 The z-transform is a power series expansion:

∞
X (z ) =  x[n]z −n = ... + x[−2]z 2 + x[−1]z1 + x[0] + x[1]z −1 + x[2]z −2 ...
n = −∞

where the sequence values x[n] are the coefficients of z - n in the

expansion.

 Therefore, if we can find the power series expansion for X(z), the
sequence values x[n] may be found by simply picking off the
coefficients of z - n .
 This approach is very useful for finite-length sequences where X(z)
may have no simpler form than a polynomial in z - 1 .

38
Example 11
1 −1
Find the inverse z-transform for X (z ) = z 2 (1 − z )(1 + z −1 )(1 − z −1 )
2
 Although X(z) is a rational function, its only pole is at z = 0, so a
partial fraction expansion is not appropriate.
 By multiplying the factors, we can express X(z) as:
1 1
X (z ) = z 2 − z − 1 + z −1
2 2
 By inspection,  1, n = −2
− 1 / 2, n = −1

x[n] =  − 1, n=0
 1 / 2, n =1

 0, otherwise
1 1
 Equivalently, x[n] = δ[n + 2] − δ[n + 1] − δ[n] + δ[n − 1]
2 2

39
 z-Transform
•The z-Transform
•The Inverse z-Transform
•System Analysis in the z-domain

40
Transfer Function

y[n] = h[n] * x[n] ↔ Y (e jΩ ) = H (e jΩ ) X (e jΩ ) ↔ Y ( z ) = H ( z ) X ( z )

 Considered the class of systems whose input and output satisfy a

LCCDE of the form:
N M

a
k =0
k y[n − k ] =  bk x[n − k ]
k =0

 The z-transform can also be used to study the properties and

characteristics of LTI systems described by LCCDE.
 Applying the z-transform to both sides of the above equation and
using the linearity property and time-shifting property, we obtain:
N M

 k
a
k =0
z Y ( z )
−k
=  k X ( z)
b z −k

k =0

41
 Or equivalently,

 N −k  M −k 
  ak z Y ( z ) =   bk z  X ( z )
 k =0   k =0 

 Transfer function: Or in factored form:

M M

Y (z )  bz
k =0
k
−k
∏ (1 − β k z −1
)
k =1
H ( z) = = N H ( z) = C N
X ( z)
a z
k =0
k
−k
∏ (1 − α k z −1
)
k =1

 Thus given either the transfer function H(z) in the above form or the
difference equation, it is straightforward to obtain the other.

42
Example 12

Find the LCCDE describing the following LTI system:

H (z ) =
(1 + z )
−1 2

 1 −1  3 −1 
1 − z 1 + z 
 2  4 

 To find the LCCDE, we express H(z) as the ratio of polynomials,

1 + 2 z −1 + z −2 Y ( z)
( )
H z = =
1 −1 3 − 2 X ( z )
1+ z − z
4 8
 Thus the LCCDE is
1 3
y[ n] + y[n − 1] − y[ n − 2] = x[n] + 2 x[n − 1] + x[ n − 2]
4 8

43
Causality
 The impulse response of a causal LTI system is zero for n < 0.
 Therefore, the impulse response of a causal LTI system is determined
from the transfer function by using right-sided inverse transforms.
 A pole inside the unit circle contributes an exponentially decaying term
to the impulse response.
 A pole outside the unit circle contributes an exponentially increasing
term to the impulse response.

causal ⇔ h[n] = 0 for n < 0 ⇔ h[n] right - handed

⇔ ROC is exterior of a circle : | z |>| a |

44
 causal +
stable
e.g., (− 0.6 )n u[n]

causal +
unstable

e.g., (2 ) u[ n]
n

The relationship between the location of a pole and the impulse response characteristics for
a causal system. (a) A pole inside the unit circle contributes an exponentially decaying term
to the impulse response. (b) A pole outside the unit circle contributes an exponentially
increasing term to the impulse response. 45
 Stability

 If a system is stable, then the impulse response is absolutely summable

and the DTFT of the impulse response exists.
∞
stable ⇔ | h[k ] |< ∞ ⇔ H (e jω ) converges ⇔ | z |= 1 is in ROC
k =−∞

 It follows that the ROC must include the unit circle in the z-plane.
 Note that a stable impulse response cannot contain any increasing
terms, since then the impulse response is not absolutely summable.

non-causal
+ stable
e.g., (2 )n u[− n]
46
Causal Non-causal
& stable & unstable

Causal Non-causal
& unstable & stable

47
 Causality and stability are not necessarily compatible requirements.
 For a LTI system to be both stable and causal, the ROC must be
outside the outermost pole and include the unit circle.
 Clearly, a realizable LTI system that is both stable and causal must
have all their poles inside the unit circle.

Non-
Realizable realizable

48
Example 13

An LTI system has the transfer function:

2 2 3
H (z ) = π
+ π
+
j −j 1 − 2 z −1
1 − 0. 9e 4 z −1 1 − 0.9e 4 z −1

Can this system be both stable and causal?

Find the impulse response if the system is (a) stable or (b) causal.

Solution: The poles are z = 0.9e jπ/4, z = 0.9e-jπ/4, and z = 2

The system cannot be both stable and causal, since there is a pole
outside the unit circle.

49
(a) If the system is stable, then the ROC includes the unit circle.

n n
 j
π  −j 
π
h[ n] = 2 0.9e 4  u[n] + 2 0.9e 4  u[ n] + 3(2 )n u[− n − 1]
   
   
π 
= 4(0.9 )n cos n u[n] − 3(2 )n u[− n − 1]
4 

(b) If the system is causal, then all poles contribute right-sided terms to
the impulse response.

n n
 j
π   −j
π 
h[n] = 2 0.9e 4  u[n] + 2 0.9e 4  u[n] + 3(2)n u[n]
   
   
π 
= 4(0.9 )n cos n u[n] + 3(2 )n u[n]
4 

50
Inverse Systems

 For any LTI system with transfer function H(z), the inverse system is
one with the transfer function Hi(z) such that the cascaded system
H(z)Hi(z) is the identity system.

 The identity system is an all-pass system, i.e., what goes in is what

comes out.
 The time-domain counterpart of the above is

51
 Suppose H(z) is a rational function of the form
M
−1
∏ (1
k =1
− β k z )
H ( z) = C N
−1
∏ (1
k =1
− α k z )

 Then, the inverse transfer function Hi(z) is the inverse of H(z), or

N
−1
∏ (1 − α k z )
H i ( z ) = H −1 ( z ) = C −1 k =1
M
−1
∏ (1 − β k z )
k =1

 The poles of H(z) become the zeros of Hi(z) and, likewise, the zeros
of H(z) are the poles of Hi(z).
 The ROC of H(z) and Hi(z) must overlap, otherwise the ROC of the
cascaded system H(z)Hi(z) would be empty.
52
Example 14

53
Im

0 0.5 0.8 1 Re

54
Example 15

55
56
 A causal and stable LTI system with a rational transfer function
has all the poles inside the unit circle; the zeros, however, may lie
anywhere in the z-plane.
 In some cases, it is necessary to constrain a system so that the
inverse is also causal and stable; this requires the zeros of H(z)
to lie inside the unit circle since these become the poles of the
inverse system Hi(z).
 A rational transfer function with all the poles and zeros inside the
unit circle is referred to as a minimum-phase system.
 The minimum-phase system is hence causal and stable, and also
has a causal and stable inverse.

57