Superconductors

Superconductivity
When a substance loses its electrical resistance, i.e. a current can continue through it
without changing its value, this phenomenon is called Superconductivity.
OR, when the electrical resistance of a substance drops suddenly to zero when it is cooled
below a certain temperature then it is called Superconductivity.
The substance having this property are known as superconductors.
Ex: Mercury, Silver, Lead etc.

Temperature dependence of Resistivity (ρ) in Super-

conducting Materials

The resistance of superconductors in non-superconducting state decreases with decrease

in temperature as in case of normal conductors.
But at a particular temperature (T ), the resistivity OR resistance suddenly drops to zero.
c

The temperature at which any normal conductor converts into superconductor is called
Critical Temperature or Transition Temperature.
The critical temperature is different for different superconductors.
For mercury it is 4.15K.
Temperature dependence of Critical field or Effect of
Magnetic field on Superconductors

When superconductors are placed in a sufficiently strong magnetic field, they remove their
superconductivity, i.e. the superconducting material restore their normal resistance when
placed in a strong magnetic field.
The minimum value of applied magnetic field when the superconductors remove their
superconductivity is called Critical Magnetic Field (H ).
c

Thus, the normal conducting state of a superconducting material is restored if the

magnetic field exceeds the critical magnetic field value (H ) or if its temperature rises
c

above the critical temperature (T ).

c

Hence there must be a suitable combination of temperature and magnetic field for
superconductivity to exist. This is given by:
2
T
H c (T ) = H c (0)(1 − )
2
Tc

Critical Current
The magnetic field which destroy the superconductivity is not necessary to be an
externally applied field but it maybe the magnetic field due to the current flowing in the
superconducting wire.
The maximum current that can be passed in a superconductor without destroying its
superconductivity is called Critical Current.
If a superconducting wire of radius r carrying a current I then from Ampere's Law:
- ∮ H.dl = I => H(2πr) = I
- at H=H , I=I
c c
 - I = 2πrH
c c

Persistent current
Steady current flowing through a superconducting ring without decrease in its value even
in the absence of power supply.
It can flow for many years.

Meissner Effect or Flux Exclusion

The exclusion of magnetic lines of force from a superconducting material when it's
temperature less than or equal to transition temperature in a magnetic field is called
Meissner Effect.
It is reversible, i.e. when T > T the flux suddenly penetrates through the material.
c

At T<=T c

B=0
μ0 (H+I) = 0
H = -I
I
Thus, ψ = B = -1
H
 Here, ψ is Magnetic Susceptibility, H is Intensity of applied Magnetic field and I is Induced
B

Magnetization.
Thus, magnetic susceptibility of a super conducting material is negative so they are
diamagnetic in nature.

Types of Superconductors
Based on magnetic behavior, superconductors are classified into 2 categories:

1. Type-I or Soft Superconductors

2. Type-II or Hard Superconductors

Type-I Superconductors

In this type, the magnetization of the superconductor grow in proportion to the external
field upto H .
c

As soon as the applied field exceeds from H , the magnetization suddenly drops to zero,
c

i.e. in presence of an external magnetic field H < H , type-I superconductor in

c

superconducting state are perfectly diamagnetic. But when H > H , the superconductors
c

enter in normal state.

Ex: Al, Hg, Zn, Pb, Ga etc.

Type-II Superconductors
 These are characterized by 2 critical magnetic fields: H c1
and H c2

For the field strength below H the superconductor expels the magnetic field from its body
c1

completely and behave as perfectly diamagnetic. H is called lower critical field.

c1

As the magnetic field increases from H , the magnetic field lines begin to penetrate the
c1

material. The penetration increases till H . H is called upper critical field.

c2 c2

In the region from H to H , the specimen assumes a complicated mixed structure of

c1 c2

normal and superconducting state. This state is also known as Vortex State.
Ex: NbTi, Nb Sn 3

High temperature Superconductors

Those materials which have superconducting transition temperature greater than 30K.
These are Type-II superconductors.
Example:
Bi 2 Sr 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 10 (BSCCO), T = 110K
c

Y Ba 2 Cu 3 O 7 (YBCO), T = 92K c

Properties and Applications of Superconductors

Properties
1. It is a low temperature phenomenon.
2. Critical temperature is different for different materials.
 3. They are diamagnetic.
4. Below the transition temperature the magnetic flux lines are rejected out from
superconductor.

Applications
1. Superconducting magnets are essential components in MRI machines.
2. Superconducting magnets are used in particle accelerators, such as the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC), to steer and focus particle beams.
3. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in the magnetic
field of a superconducting coil.
4. Superconducting magnets are used in NMR spectrometers to study the structure and
properties of molecules in chemistry.