UNIT5: GROUT TECHNIQUES

Types of grouts - Grouting equipment and machinery - Injection methods - Grout

monitoring– Stabilization with cement, lime and chemicals - Stabilization of expansive
soils.
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1. State the principle of Grouting?
The principle of grouting is to introduce a substance into rock fissures or into a soil by
pumping fluid (called a grout) down a small diameter tube in the required location. It
is essential that a particular grout should penetrate satisfactorily into the permeable
materials or rock fissures and seal all voids.

2. State the purpose of pressure grouting.

The primary purposes of pressure grouting a soil or rock mass are to improve the
strength and durability of the mass and/or to reduce the permeability of the mass.

3. What are the types of grout?

 cement,
 cement and sand,
 clay-cement,
 slag-cement,
 resin gypsum-cement,
 clays,
 asphalt,
 pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and
 a large number of colloidal and low viscosity chemicals.
4. What are the limitations of cement grouting? What can we do, when the
limitation is exceeded?
Although cement has been and is widely used in grouting, it has the disadvantage that
it cannot penetrate soils of low permeability. In such situations injection of chemicals
has been in use.

5. What are the typical problems involving strength properties of a soil or rock
mass?
 Insufficient bearing capacity for structural elements such as footings, slabs, or
mats;
 Insufficient strength to preclude sliding failures of embankments or cut
 slopes;
 Inherent mass instability of fractured rock formations;
 Sloughing or complete closure of vertical or horizontal tunnels;
 General structural weaknesses due to underground caverns or solution
channels or due to voids that develop during or following construction.
6. Write the Problems related to permeability of a soil or rock mass.
 Reduction in strength of foundation materials due to high seepage forces;
 Loss of impounded water from a reservoir or storage area;
 High uplift forces at the base of a water- retaining structure;
 Piping erosion through or under an earth dam;
 Inability to complete excavations, shafts, or tunnels extending below the
groundwater table due to caving and sloughing.

7. What are the information’s are required to do the drilling and grouting
operations in rock? What can be used to obtaining this information?

 Orientation
 attitude and spacing of joints,
 joint openings including type of filler if any,
 boundaries of rock types,
 location of faults,
 location of broken zones,
 depth to sound rock, and
 Position of water table should be available.
The borehole camera or television camera can be of particular assistance in obtaining
this information.

8. What are the information’s are required to do grouting operations in soil?

• Stratification of soil
• Density,
• Grain size, and
• Permeability will be required.

If these data, as pertinent to the project, cannot be obtained from the design
investigations or from rock exposed by the first excavation at the site, additional
explorations (borings, trenches, etc.) should be made to supply the missing data.
9. What is soil stabilization?
Soil stabilization is referred to as a procedure in which a special soil is propor-
tioned/added/or removed, or a cementing material, or other chemical material is added
to a natural soil material to improve one or more of its properties.

10. Mention the more common method of soil stabilization.

One of the more common methods of stabilization includes the mixing of natural
coarse-grained soil and fine-grained soil to obtain a mixture that develops adequate
internal friction and cohesion and thereby provides a material that is workable during
placement but will remain stable further.

11. How to stabilize the soil when the soil is cohesionless.

In the case of cohesionless soils the strength could be improved by providing
confinement or by adding cohesion with a cementing or binding agent.

12. How to stabilize the soil when the soil is cohesive.

In the case of a cohesive soil, the strength could be increased by drying, making the
soil moisture-resistant, altering the clay-electrolyte concentration, increasing cohesion
with a cementing agent, and adding frictional properties.

13. What is chemical Stabilization?

Chemical stabilization consists of bonding the Soil particles with a cementing agent
(the primary additive is a chemical) that is produced by a chemical reaction within the
soil.
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PART B- QUESTIONS
1. Mention few applications of grouting. (4 Marks)
 Densification of granular soils
 Raising settled structures
 Settlement control
 Underpinning of existing foundations
 Excavation support
 Protection of existing structures during tunnelling
  Liquefaction mitigation
 Water control
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2. Classify grouting according to the mode of entry of grout in to the ground. (12
Marks)
(i) Penetration grouting
This describes the process of filling joints or fractures in rocks or pore spaces
in soil with a grout without disturbing the formation. More specifically, permeation
grouting refers to the replacement of water in the voids between soil particles with a
grout fluid at low injection pressure so as to prevent fracturing.

(ii) Compaction or controlled displacement.

In this case a very stiff (say 25-mm slump) morter is injected into loose soils,
forming grout bulbs which displace and densify the surrounding ground without
penetrating the soil pores. With slightly more fluid grout, thick fissures rather than
 bulbs may form; this is sometimes referred to as “squeeze grouting”
A technique similar to compaction grouting may be employed for the lifting
and leveling of heavy structures.

(iii) Jet grouting.

It is a technique where high speed water jets emanating from a drill bit cut into
alluvial soils; as the drill bit is withdrawn, grout is pumped through horizontal nozzles
and mixes with or displaces the soil. The original foundation material is thus replaced
with a stronger and /or more impermeable grout-soil mixture. Jet grouting may be
used to form cutoff walls, do underpinning, or form deep foundations similar to
grouted auger piles.

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3. Explain the two basic types of grout materials. ( 4 Marks)
Grouting materials may be grouped under two basic types, which are
(i) Suspension grouts.
(ii) Solution grouts
Suspension grouts.
These are multi-phase systems capable of forming subsystems after being subjected to
natural sieving processes, with chemical properties which must be carefully
scrutinised so as to ensure that they do not militate against controlled properties of
setting and strength. Water in association with cement, lime, soil, etc., constitue
suspensions. Emulsion (asphalt or bitumen) with water is a two-phase system which is
also,included under suspension. Suspension grouts are also referred to as particulate
grouts
Solution grouts. These are intimate one-phase system retaining an originally
designed chemical balance until completion of the relevant reactions. Solution in
which the solute is present in the colloidal state are known as colloidal solutions.
Chemical grouts fall into this category.
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4. (i) Based on the function or effect on soil classify the Stabilization method and also
write the criteria to be fulfilled for a satisfactory stabilization process. (4 Marks)

Classification of the Stabilization method

 Mechanical stabilization: improving soil gradation or arrangement.
 Cementing: binding the particles together without their alteration.
 MECHANICAL, CEMENTING AND CHEMICAL STABILIZATION

 Physico-chemical alteration: changing the clay minerals or the clay-water system.

 Aggregants and Dispersants: alteration of electrical forces between soil particles
in a modest way.
 Void filling: plugging in voids.
 Consolidation.

The criteria to be fulfilled for a satisfactory stabilization process

 be compatible with the soil, material,
 be permanent,
 be easily handled and processed, and
 Cheap and safe.
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5. How soil is stabilized by addition or removal of soil-particles. (8 marks)
The engineering behavior of a soil also depends on the particle size
distribution and the composition of the particles. It is possible to significantly change
the property of a given soil by adding some selected soil or by removing seine
selected fraction of the soil: Generally, the cost of addition-removal technique of
stabilization can be very low. The construction procedure, cost, and results obtained
from the addition-removal stabilization depend mostly on the type of problem and
nature of soil at the field condition. Thus it is not practically feasible to set certain
principles and procedures for this method. In order to enlighten this method of
approach three types of addition-removal technique are discussed (Lambe, 1962).
Addition of Binder to Gravel for Road Construction: The gradation for
soil- aggregate materials have to be selected to give the densest mixture by supplying
just the assortment of particles to minimise the amount of voids. The binder, a fine
Material, is, intended to give cohesion to the mixture. The addition of fines, many a
times, improves even an unacceptable material as a useful material. Addition of fines
to road bases and sub grades should be done in a cautious way, Because by adding
fines one should not change a free-draining, non-frost-susceptible material- into a
poor-draining, frost susceptible soil, Soil stabilization by the addition of fines has
proved a very cheap and powerful technique.
Addition of Material to Reduce Permeability: The properties of Clay size
materials may vary widely with the composition of the material and with the nature of
the exchangeable ion on the material. In general, as discussed earlier, the properties,
of a soil can be altered by adding fines.
In order to reduce the permeability of a given soil, it is the common practice to
add sodium montmorillonite - (bentonite), For example, it is stated (Lambe, 1962)
 that the permeability of silty sand was reduced, from a value of 10-4 cm per sec to less
than 10-9 cm per sec by addition of 10% of bentonite.
It is also possible to reduce the permeability of a given soil by addition of a
suitable locally available fine-grained soil. In general being less sensitive and better
graded, natural clays can be blended with pervious soils to result in a more nearly
permanent blanket than can bentonite.
Removal of Fines from Gravel: Two of the most important uses of gravel are
for pavement base courses and for filter courses. In order to use gravel for these
purposes, the presence of fines should be less. An approximate upper limit of particle
sizes finer than 0.02 mm for non-frost-susceptible gravel is 3%. For a filter material,
the maximum permissible amount of fines depends on the gradation of the
neighbouring soil. The easiest way of removal of fines from gravel is by washing.
Although the method appears to be simple it needs a large quantity of water. This
technique is adopted more often for base-course materials.
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6. Write about portland cement (cementing) stabilization. (4 marks)
Binding of soil particles together without their alteration is referred to as soil
stabilization by cementing. Portland cement and bitumen addition cause stabilization
of soil by cementing.
Portland cement is one of the most successfully used soil stabilization. Cement
and soil blended material is referred to as soil-cement. The mechanism involved in the
process of stabilization of soil by cement is not fully known. It is generally accepted
that cement reacts with the siliceous soil to cement the particles together. In a soil-
cement more of coarse-grained particles are cemented and the proportion of fine-
grained soil cementation is small. The physical properties of soil-cement depend on
the nature of soil treated, the type and amount of cement utilised, the placement and
cure conditions adopted. Soil-cement has been employed for many applications and in
particular for the bases of roads and airfields.
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7. State the nature of soil to obtain the best result in cement Stabilization.
(8 marks)

 All inorganic soils which can be pulverised can be stabilized using cement. Soils
should be low in organic matter for successful stabilization since this constituent
tends to reduce the strength of soil-cement. About 2% of organic matter is
considered to be the safe upper limit.
 Soils with higher specific surface require more cement for stabilization. Presence
of clay in soil causes problems in pulverisation, mixing and compacting the
mixture. Further it is difficult to stabilize soils with clays of expanding type.
 Exchangeable ions in a soil influence the response of soil treatment, Calcium is
the most desirable ion for ease of cement stabilization. Lime or calcium chloride
is sometimes added to clays being stabilized with cement,
 Apart from organic matter, the chemical composition of the soil is of importance
only if appreciable quantities of deleterious salts, such as a sulphates, are present.
The harmful effect of these compounds is thought to be due not to a reaction
affecting the setting of the cement, but to a subsequent disruption of the soil-
cement structure caused by crystallization of highly hydrated salts in the pores.

 Soils with the following limits can be economically stabilized (HRB, 1943):
Particle size distribution limits Plasticity limits
Maximum size 75 mm Liquid limits < 40%
Passing 4.6 mm I.S. sieve > 50%
Passing No. 40 I.S. sieve, > 15%
Passing 75 micron IS. sieve < 50% Plasticity index < 18%.
In general the best results are obtained with well-graded soils having less than
50% of its particle finer than 0.074 mm and a plasticity index less than 20%.

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8. How Lime has been used as a soil stabilizer- explain. (12 Marks)
Lime has been used as a soil stabilizer for roads from olden days. Lime is
produced from natural limestone. The type of lime formed is based upon the parent
material and production process. There are five basic types of lime:
High-calcium quicklime…………………….CaO
Dolomite quicklime……………………….. CaO + MgO
Hydrated high-calcium lime……………. Ca (OH) 2
Normal hydrated dolomite lime……… Ca(OH)2 + MgO
190 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES MECHANICAL, CEMENTING AND CHEMICAL STABILIZATION

Pressure-hydrated dolomite lime ... Ca(OH)2 + Mg(OH)2

Hydrated lime (also called slaked lime) is the most commonly used lime for
soil stabilization. Lime is also used in combination with other admixtures, viz., fly
ash, cement, bitumen for soil stabilization.

Two types of chemical reactions take place when lime is added to wet soil:
(a) The first one occurring almost immediately is a colloidal type of reaction
involving any of the following:
(i) ion exchange of calcium for the ion naturally carried by the soil,
(ii) a depression- of the double layer on the soil colloids because of the
increase in cation concentration in the pore water, and
(iii) an expansion of the double layer of the soil colloids from the high pH
of the lime.
(b) The second reaction takes considerable time in a cementing action. The
cementing action, also called pozzolanic action, is not completely understood,
but is thought to be a reaction between the calcium from the lime with the
available reactive, alumina or silica from-the soil (Lambe, 1962).

Soil plasticity, density and strength are changed by the addition of lime to soil.
Lime, generally increases the plasticity index of low plasticity soils and decreases the
plasticity index of highly plastic soils. Because of reduction in the plasticity of plastic
soils, due to addition of lime, the soil becomes more friable and easy for handling in
the field.
Addition of lime causes a reduction in the maximum compacted density and an
increase in the optimum moulding water content. In general, lime increases the
strength of almost all types of soil.
Construction procedure of lime-stabilized soil bases are similar to those
employed for soil-cement with a difference that more time is allowed for placement
operations for lime. This relaxation is possible as the lime-soil cementation reaction is
a relatively slow one. Adequate care should be taken to prevent carbonation of the
lime.
The normal construction sequence for lime-stabilized bases is as follows:
a. Scarify the base,
b. Pulverise the soil,
c. Spread the lime,
d. Mix the lime and soil,
 e. Add. Water if necessary to bring to optimum moisture content,
f. Compact the mixture,
g. Shape the stabilized base,
h. Cure-keep moist and traffic-free for at least 6 days, and
i. Add wearing surface.

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9. Discuss about the following as a soil stabilizer: (16 Marks)
(a) calcium and sodium chlorides
(b) Lignin
(c) Water proofers
CALCIUM AND SODIUM CHLORIDES:
Both calcium and sodium chlorides as soil stabilizers react in somewhat
similarly. Salt has been used in recent years as additive in the construction of granular
stabilized road wearing and base courses.
The effect of salt on soils is from
(i) causing colloidal reactions, and
(ii) Altering the characteristics of soil water.
Although calcium and sodium chlorides act as soil flocculants, they are not as
effective as other chemicals such as ferric chloride.
Most of the beneficial actions of salt in soil are mainly due to the changes salt
makes in the characteristics of the water in the soil pores. These changes reduce the
loss of moisture from the soil and are explained by the fact that the salts (especially
calcium chloride) are deliquescent and hydroscopic and lower the vapor pressure of
water.
Frost heave in soil is reduced due to addition of salt by lowering the freezing
point of water. As most of the benefits of salt are due to the presence of the-salt in the
soil pore fluid, any loss of salt concentration may reduce the strength of the stabilized
soil. Thus the performance of salt-stabilized soil depends on the amount of ground-
water movement.
Salt addition shows a slight increase of maximum compacted density and a
slight reduction in the optimum moulding water content.

LIGNIN
Lignin is available both in the powder form and in the form of sulphite liquid.
Lignin in both the forms has been in use as an additive to the soil for many years.
 Lignin is water-soluble; hence its stabilizing effects are not permanent.

In an attempt to improve the action of lignin, the chrome-lignin process was

developed and studied by Smith (1952). An insoluble gel is formed when sodium
bichromate or potassiurn bichromate is added to the sulphate waste.

The effect of lignin on the soil properties is based on the form of lignin and
the, type of soil treated. Lignin acts as an acid if not neutralised.

It is also reported that lignin also reduces from heave.

WATERPROOFERS
Fine-grained soils show considerable strength when they are dry and -lose the
strength when consumes more water, Waterproofers, i.e., chemicals which prevent or
reduce the deleterious attack of water on soils, have proved-to be highly useful in
stabilization techniques.

Waterproofers function as follows.(Lambe, 1962) : one end of the water

proofer molecule becomes preferentially adsorbed to, and then reacts with the soil
surface ;
The other end of the molecule, being hydrophobic, repels water and thus
Makes the soil mineral non wettable by water. Waterproofers which are recognised-as
soil-stabilizers are alkyl chlorosilanes, siliconates, amines, and quaternary ammonium
salts. Water proofers do not increase the strength of soils but rather help them to retain
the natural strength in the presence of water.

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10. Explain the component, Setup and working of grouting plant and equipment.
(16 marks)
Both suspension and solution grouts use the same mixing plants and delivery
system and they differ mainly in their storage and mixing configuration. A grouting
plant includes a mixer, an agitator, a pump, and piping connected to the grout holes. A
typical cement suspension grouting plant is shown in Fig. below (Houlsby, 1983).
Two systems, viz., single-line type and circulating type, for piping are shown
in the Fig. below, in the circulation type, the unused grout is returned to the agitator
and in the single line type the grout refused is wasted:
 For solution grouts, separate ingredients are stored in stationary tanks or tank
trucks and metered out on a flow volume basis. They are mixed at junction points and
delivered to the intended grout pipe. The grout pipes are connected in a manifold-
system, but each is separately valved so that complete control is obtained over their
flow:
The basic items required for a grouting plant and their functions are:
(i) Measuring tank—to control the volume of grout injected.
(ii) Mixer—to mix the grout ingredients,
(iii) Agitator—to keep the solid particles in suspension until pumped (not required
for chemical grouts).
(iv) Pump—to draw the grout from the agitator to deliver to the pumping line.
Control fittings—to control the injection rate and pressure so that the hole can
be regularly blend with water and thin grout.
It is always necessary that a thoroughly-mixed mixing is done in three stages
(Houlsby, 1982):
(i) formation of a vortex which acts as a centrifugal separator-thicken
grouts and unmixed cement are pushed to the periphery of the
 vortex and passed to a mixing rotor,
(ii) treatment of thicker fraction and unmixed cement from the vortex -
these are subjected to a violent shearing action in a mixer rotor,
which breakes up thicker 'fraction and lumps of cement and wets
and produces a grout resembling like a colloidal solution rather than
a mechanical suspension,
(iii) Circulation of the treated fraction back into the vortex-vortex continues
to spin till all the thicken fraction of cement lumps are broken and
the entire grout reaches an uniform consistency.
Houlsby (1983) advocates the following precautions while mixing a grout :

a. Water is placed first in the mixer.

b. Mixer is run at the maximum speed before adding the cement.
c. Grout is mixed in batches.
d. Ingredients have to be measured by volume.
e. Enough water should be maintained to cover the rotor while it is functioning.
f. Mixer should not be allowed to run for more than a few minutes between
batches.
g. Mixers should be cleaned thoroughly after the day's work.
A barrel type grout mixer (Fig. below) consists of a cylindrical drum placed
either horizontal or vertical with an axial shaft fitted with paddles or blades. The axial
shaft is rotated normally or by power. Cement and water are thoroughly mixed with
the help of paddles. Vertical type of mixer is used to handle small quantity of grout.
 A grout mix should be continuously agitated to prevent setting. This is
achieved by an agitator sump between the mixer and the grout pump. An agitator
sump is a tank which has an agitating mechanism consisting of a vertical shaft to
which horizontal blades are connected which is revolved at 30 to 100 rpm. (Fig
below). The grout mix frorn the mixer. is passed through a wire screen to remove
pieces of sack, strings, and other foreign matters. Also another screen is fixed to the
agitator near the delivery pipe, to prevent entering of lumps to the pump. A graduated
(in litres) dipstick is used to measure the quantity of grout in the agitator.

For most situations, pumps should be able to provide pressures of 2800 kN/m2
or under, and rates of displacement around 0.007m3. Pumps may be of piston or
diaphragm type. The best all-purpose pump should be able to displace the wide
variety of grout consistencies actually employed in practice including very low slump
mixtures.
Other accessories needed to the grouting plant are grout pipes hoses,
valves;nipples, pressure gauges, packers, casing tubes, flow metres, etc.

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11. State the Advantages and Limitations Grouting. (8 Marks)

Advantages as compared with alternate technologies:

• No need for removal and replacement
• Effective for underpinning and protecting existing structures
• Easy to access and operate within constrained space
• Low mobilization cost

The limitations associated with grouting are:

• Quantity of grout is hard to estimate.
• Effectiveness of some applications cannot be predicted.
• Area of improvement is sometimes uncertain.
• Grouting may cause ground movement and distresses to existing structures.
• Certain chemical grouts may contain toxicity and have adverse impact to
groundwater and underground environment.
• Specialty contractors are required for the operation.

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12. Explain the construction procedure of compaction grouting and Jet grouting. (16
marks)

Procedure for Compaction Grouting:

Compaction grouting is always done in stages, which can start from the top
down (downstage) or from the bottom up (upstage) as shown in Figure below.

(a) The upstage grouting includes :

• Drilling a hole to a desired depth.

• Placing a casing to the bottom of the hole.
 Figure Compaction grouting procedure
• Injecting the grout until a refusal is reached. The refusal can be the limited ground
heave, the preset maximum pumping pressure, or the predetermined amount of
grout.
• Raising the casing at a preset interval for each stage.
• Resuming injection of grout until reaching the refusal.
• Repeating the above steps until reaching the top zone.

(b) The downstage grouting includes:

• Drill a large hole (typically 75mm in diameter) to the top of the zone to be densified
(at least 1.2m below the ground surface).
• Insert a casing (typically 50mm in inner diameter) into the hole and fill the annular
space outside the casing with rapid setting grout.
• Drill through the casing and deepen the hole in order of approximately 1–2m as the
stage length for the first stage.
• Inject grout until reaching the refusal pressure.
• After the previously injected grout is set, repeat the above steps until reaching the
bottom of the zone to be injected.
To achieve better densification of soils, grouting is preferred to start from the perimeter
to the center of an area to be improved.

Procedure for Jet Grouting:

The procedure for jet grouting operation typically includes the following steps (Figure
below):

Figure: Jet grouting procedure: (a) positioning, (b) drilling, (c) jet grouting
while withdrawing, and (d) complete.
1. Position the drilling machine at a desired location for injection.
2. Drill into the ground to the desired depth. The tolerance of the drilling location
should be less than 50 mm.
3. Insert the jet grouting pipe to the predrilled grout hole. Some machine installs the
jet grouting pipe directly with an auger at the tip.
4. Once the pipe reaches the desired depth, start the jet grouting process by
withdrawing the pipe and injecting grout until reaching a desired elevation. The
operation should follow the specifications for injection pressure, injection rate,
injection time, pipe withdrawal rate, and pipe rotation rate.
5. Clean up the injection pipe and other associated tools.
6. Move to the next jet grouting location.

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13. Discuss about the following: (16 marks)
(a) Stabilization with Bitumen.
(b) Important factors to be considered to Quality control during construction with
bituminous stabilization

Stabilization with Bitumen.

 Stabilization of soils and aggregates with asphalt differs greatly from cement
and lime stabilization.
 The basic mechanism involved in asphalt stabilization of fine-grained soils is a
waterproofing phenomenon.
 Soil particles or soil agglomerates are coated with asphalt that prevents or
slows the penetration of water which could normally result in a decrease in
soil strength.
 In addition, asphalt stabilization can improve durability characteristics by
making the soil resistant to the detrimental effects of water such as volume.
 In non cohesive materials, such as sands and gravel, crushed gravel, and
crushed stone, two basic mechanisms are active: water-proofing and
adhesion.
 The asphalt coating on the cohesion less materials provides a membrane
which prevents or hinders the penetration of water and thereby reduces the
tendency of the material to lose strength in the presence of water.
 The second mechanism has been identified as adhesion. The aggregate
particles adhere to the asphalt and the asphalt acts as a binder or cement. The
cementing effect thus increases shear strength by increasing cohesion. Criteria
for design of bituminous stabilized soils and aggregates are based almost
entirely on stability and gradation requirements.

Types of bituminous stabilized soils.

(1) Sand bitumen.

A mixture of sand and bitumen in which the sand particles are cemented
together to provide a material of increased stability.

(2) Gravel or crushed aggregate bitumen.

A mixture of bitumen and a well-graded gravel or crushed aggregate that
after compaction provides a highly stable waterproof mass of sub base or
 base course quality.

3) Bitumen lime. A mixture of soil, lime, and bitumen that, after compaction,
may exhibit the characteristics of any of the bitumen-treated materials
indicated above. Lime is used with material that has a high PI, i.e. above 10.
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The factors that seem most important to control during construction with
bituminous stabilization are surface moisture content, viscosity of the asphalt,
asphalt content, uniformity of mixing, aeration and compaction

a. Surface moisture content.

The surface moisture of the soil to be stabilized is of concern. Surface moisture can be
determined by conventional methods, such as oven-drying, or by nuclear methods. The
Asphalt Institute recommends surface moisture of up to three percent or more for use
with emulsified asphalt and a moisture content of less than three percent for cutback
asphalt. The gradation of the aggregate has proved to be of significance as regards
moisture content. With densely graded mixes, more water is needed for mixing than
compaction. Generally, a surface moisture content that is too high will delay
compaction of the mixture. Higher plasticity index soils require higher moisture
contents.
b. Viscosity of the asphalt.
The Asphalt Institute recommends that cold-mix construction should not be
performed at temperatures below 50 degrees F. The asphalt will rapidly reach the
temperature of the aggregate to which it is applied and at lower temperature difficulty
in mixing will be encountered. On occasion, some heating is necessary with cutback
asphalts to assure that the soil aggregate particles are thoroughly coated.
c. Asphalt content. Information can be provided to field personnel which will
enable them to determine a satisfactory application rate. The asphalt content should be
maintained at optimum or slightly below for the specified mix. Excessive quantities of
asphalt may cause difficulty in compaction and result in plastic deformation in service
during hot weather.
d. Uniformity of mixing.
Visual inspection can be used to determine the uniformity of the mixture. With
emulsified asphalts, a color change from brown to black indicates that the emulsion
has broken. The Asphalt Institute recommends control of three variables to assure
uniformity for mixed-in-place construction: travel speed of application equipment;
volume of aggregate being treated; and flow rate (volume per unit time) of emulsified
asphalt being applied. In many cases, an asphalt content above design is necessary to
 assure uniform mixing.
e. Aeration. Prior to compaction, the diluents that facilitated the cold-mix
operation must be allowed to evaporate. If the mix is not sufficiently aerated, it cannot
be compacted to acceptable limits. The Asphalt Institute has deter-mined that the
mixture has sufficiently aerated when it becomes tacky and appears to “crawl.”Most
aerating occurs during the mixing and spreading stage, but occasionally additional
working on the roadbed is necessary. The Asphalt Institute has reported that over
mixing in central plant mixes can cause emulsified asphalts to break early, resulting in
a mix that is difficult to work in the field.
f. Compaction.
Compaction should begin when the aeration of the mix is completed. The
Asphalt Institute recommends that rolling begin when an emulsified asphalt mixture
begins to break (color change from brown to black). Early compaction can cause
undue rutting or shoving of the mixture due to overstressing under the roller. The
density of emulsion stabilized bases has often been found to be higher than that
obtained on unstabilized bases for the same compaction effort.
g. Curing. Curing presents the greatest problemin asphalt soil stabilization.
The Asphalt Institutehas determined that the rate of curing is depen-dent upon many
variables: quantity of asphaltapplied, prevailing humidity and wind, theamount of
rain, and the ambient temperature.Initial curing must be allowed in order to
supportcompaction equipment. This initial curing, theevaporation of diluents, occurs
during the aerationstage. If compaction is started too early, thepavement will be
sealed, delaying dehydration,which lengthens the time before design strength
isreached. The heat of the day may cause themixture to soften, which prohibits
equipment fromplacing successive lifts until the following day.This emphasizes the
need to allow sufficient cur-ing time when lift construction is employed. TheAsphalt
Institute recommends a 2- to 5-day cur-ing period under good conditions when
emulsifiedbases are being constructed. Cement has been usedto accelerate curing.

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